Tim
4 JION'JHLr
JOMKAL OF INDIAN AGllICIfLTURE, MINEEALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. IV.
PRINTED AT THE “STATESMAN" OFFICE.
1879.
INDEX
TO THE
INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
OORRBSPONDSNCB.
PAGK.
AOBIGULTITEAL College, Madras
1
Agriculture in Goa . .
... 186
Aloe Fibre
... 367
Arboriculture and manure
...
... 37
Ashes as manure ...
219, 404
„ as a fertiliser
... 267
Asparagus ... ...
... ’ ... 329
Ausirslisn Eucalyptus Globulus "
...
... 406
B»mbooai Paper Stock ... ... 40. 77, 113, 220, 292, 306
,1 Ce n’est pas leprtmiar pat qui coute ... 150
„ 0 /euUivatipti ... ... 184
Bamboo—lie enltivation for Paper Stock ... .. ... 402
M Oullivation, /n fAc ... ... 256
BbolaWood ... ... ... ... ... 183
Biastiog treestumpa ... ... ... 327
Boue manure ... ... ... 219
Caabmir, Soareity ... ... ... . 257
Cbarooal at N;&ee Tal ... ... ... ... 402
Clajey anbaoita ... ... ... ... .. 405
Colliaa and Co.'apiougha ... ... ... 291, 365
Ooitou adulteralioa'" ... ... ... ... 162
CoHgulatlng milk ... ... ... ... ... 183
Cure for Borer, SUm wathing ... ... ... ... 404
Dtiepeniug of silted tai ke, lieoofamended ... ... ... 38
De Omnibus, By W. H. L. ... ... .. 327, S66
Diptero Carpus Quijun vt, Oopaifcra OflSoiualfa ... ... 866
Double SI bote*' Water L'ft ... ... ... ... 149
Errata ... ... ••• ••• -l^O
Eurasian Farms, Suggt^stion for the Ewatxan AatooiUwa «.« 184
Etpenmeuial Farms ... ... ... 219
Pamine foods ... ... .■• ... ... 14^
Flaa inanufaejpe ... ... ... ... ... 265
„ in India ... .. ... ... 404
f Hotot \n tho Pothanur Valley ... ... i9B
Flowers and Sbruba, A few new ... ... ... 114
Foreat ConserTaooy, Fitful nuaturtt ... •». 402
Qold in Wynaad ... ... ... ... 365
Oovernmeot w. Agriculture, Tbe, Il^^ 0 rmt needed . . ... 220
Qradation of plants ou Indian Hilla, The ... ... ... 404
Green dowari, At fodder for eattle ... ... I, 77
Guano, Indian ... ... ... ... ... 267
Uouey in India ,query ... ... 330
„ Iheantmr ... .k, ... ... 366
„ , the beet from Cherra Punjeo .... ... 103
Improved breeds of oat tie ... .... .•» ... 2d3
Indian dyes, TAC Indmtry needt puthing ... ... ... 37
Agtioulturs, teach the ryot t ... •«. ..220
Irrigation wells, Boring apparatut ... ... ... 76
Irrigutiug ooflee, i# dons7 ... ... ... 868
Irrigation and PisoioaHure ... ... ... ... 405
Land Settlmeut, 7As i and Tenures s//ndia ... ... 185
Liberian eoflsC, Application for eeedtt anAaddi^ eu to growth ... 140
Local irrigation, ^opined attooiation *as^ ' 291
Long stemmed rice, Tha ... ... 292
Loottst poisentog, Corf or all fearei ^ ... ... 294
Maiaa 6tafks,itf *.« «.» ... ... S
Mangold Wnresi, hepi T ... I
Msw Flantidn, A, App^tl 0 %for hkb$ »*• ..1 149
„ „ l^rsteoWdinAifMtt .M ... ... 113
,, „ The, TAdnaiivfr... 164
„ Tree for India, Tbs, rie pe^mm U en^ ... 298
SottreeoffieseoiiefQrlndia, A. 268, 406
KUrldtmiton ntiliaed, ZeaeV nitd ualsd^ 828
Notes from Oashttitr^, ... ... ^ 78
Opium866
pAon.
Oppression of Ryots in Tirboot, Who thall prewnt the Maharofoh
thootuig huptgtl ... ... 152
Panicum Miliaceum or Sawa, A usrAuf/bed fTrafn ... «•. U6
Paritffiu Oil for Sfods, Soaking recommended ... •*. 31T
Plan to Utillaaa Desert, 7he Date Palm ... ... ... 18S
Poverty of the Agricultural Olasses; f'/trenie, 7Ae Hunatn 115
I, Natives of India, IfAsA^ iVby^^re vvfrinp *•. 266
Preservation of Forests, The denudation %n Jiomah ... ... 293
Prickly Comfrey, rse/r«/rv/udder ... 2
I, 3he toltd item variety ... ... ... 329
„ I'ntiiecfstful experiment ... ... 368
Properties of Trees, At rain cautert and mittnre dittrihutort ... 2
“ Prototypes *' or Garden Vegetables ... ... .** ^13
Railway Charges, Too high on tea ... ... ... 40$
Reana Luzurfaus ... ... . . • ... ... 292
Regressive metamorphosis in the coooaaut tree ... ... 185
Bolting of coffee trees ... ... ... ... 219
Boutledge's reply to Anglo’Darman, Mr. ... ... 184
Ryot in Behar, The, Exhaustion of the toU ... lt6
Sugar^'aoe cleaning in filaurHius, TheperU>4t and tyttem ... 898
Trees and Rainfall, Jn the Guterat mb-divieion <*• 256
UnUaore Farming, A Utopian teheme ... ... ••• I
Use of OactI as lightning Qonduotora ... ... 293
Wages in Northern India ... ... ... ... 183
Woste of manure, in India ... ... ««. 88
Weeds on coffee estates, A cheap manure ... ... ... 328
Well-sinking in tbe Poona Distriota ... ... ... 829
Wheat in the Hiutalayos, Yields Infold ... ... 408
While Ants and Sugar-cane, /or a/facA ... ... il8
Why do we Manure 7 lieatont indicated .. ... ... 39
♦ EDITORIALS,
AgricuUurai Statistios, Increase of Exports ... 47
Condition of Coimbatore, Deoenue eyttem dtfeetive ... 80
Agri-Horticultural Society of Indin. ExhtbUiont and Prieet ... 120
Agriculture in Behar, At it u, and at it ought to be ... ... 154
„ „ il/r. IteuTs Reply . . ... ... 22L
Agricultural Esperiments in the Oeutral Provinces ... 226
„ Colleges, Seientido SettlemeHt O^cere ... 262
Agriculture in India, by Dr. Forbes Watson, Eothiug to teach
uatioe cultimtvrt, bat general ideas ... ... ... 297
Agricultural aud ITorest SoUool, An, und^ Capt. F. Bailey, R^. S7i
Amerioan Entomological Oummission. *^Eature*t*' analytit of the
report ... ... ... ... 190
Apricot coliiTation ... ... ... ... 829
Arboriculture In tbe N.-W. Provinces, By the roadside 2^
Automatic Wiadmitl Pump, 7he Hartford patent ... ... 197
Bamboo as Paper Stock, Will not pay ... ... ... 19
„ „ Indian samplet disapproved ... S3
Bangalore Experimental Farm, The morbid craving for results ... 260
„ „ „ Strange retidts ... ... 492
Bengal Zemindars, OUrer athinj for mars ... ... 368
„ Land Question, TAs ryot's inssias ... ... ... 251
Blight in the Madras Presidency, Ifutriet Reports ... ... gl
Buck's Indian Agriculture, Glee baeh to the ml mhat ii taken from ft f 6
Campbell's (Bic G.) ** Model" Farms, A bwUtque ... 258
Canals and wells to tbe Punlab, Onmparison of benefits ... 43
Coffee Leaf Disease and Bed Spider, Remedy ^jnlieioas manuring 373
... 150
... 167
... 8
... 71
Condition of the masses in Bebar, Refortnt needed
Cotton enitiTaidOft In tbe Punjab, 30tb June iB77
Deep eultlvailm^ Indians first want
Do. dOf - Difiieuttiesinthiway ...
DeTelopmeiit of oar resoarges, Efforts to inoreaie produstire
power of tbe soil
45
INDEX TO THE INDtAN AGRICUtTITRIST.
PaQI.
Snglatid’t food Mpplj ... ... .«. 231
Bnglltb Plough io Myiore,The, 4 ft A^ricuUvrAl Jfi#iion .«» 873
Sxbftuttion of tboioil ... ... ... .m 224
CommWoOf Direction e/finquiriM ... 46
PlAJi bbre, Watti fn India ... ... ... ... 41
Harfeit in fb«,N-W.^ ffard timei in ... ... 160
Improvement of AgricuUnre, <7ener4l .Uoi^rf on Mian Pamina 79
„ of Ngtire Agrioulrure, tAs ffovurnment ff'aipetimtintal
J>krmt
Isdottedneia of Ibe Indian PeoMUtry, j0*>lrie4 Bankt, Tka partial
remedy
InBuenoe of cbemfatry on AgrIcnUare, The, Afr, Puiey'i eld dietum 406
lirlgatlon, O'deft method of, 7%# rref/
„ in Bengal
I) In $ariiD, f^anal from the ffwnduk
Konnon Iron Worbe, The, A larye sum thrmn <may ..
Inbor in tea dietriots, ... ... ...
lAod Tenure In India, Zhetert dtsayreeiny
„ Dtnmnyn, Its advantayes
Lime in AgrioaLinre, The uge of, Boed retnlis
lioctutl in Sontbcrn India ... «.
l4^co«i Peet, Tbe, 7fn*/erfn4f w/rf’
Uadrae Agtioultural College, Asaount of the InHitutton
‘Kngpere Mode) Farm,
Kow fodder tre^r A ... ... ... «*•
TK4'rtb-W«*Bt, Drought In the, Wttimade of damage rawed
“ Oodh Gaaetteer*' The, Mfoete of suhjngation np'n t rade
'Our CovernmeiU and oor Agrloulture, Cunah and /taiffoaytno
primary assittanee
Ballwey through'Acu>sin, Prt^poaed ... ...
HOhertcon’e Report of Madras Agriculture, Inerrase o^ art a unfer
ouHttathn without increase of hoe stock
'Vrpar#te Adroinkilration of Aeoam, Tlie ...
Btatiattes of AgrieuIrural Produce, Modma
#ngaF cane mPlA in Bfbeen, Bylno's Improved Midi
BuxtQoffer, (Ueliantbus Annuu'))
Tta-plantiiig and manuring, Abandonment of sahausted land, vs
CetitiniioUi manui ing ... ...
Tenant^tlght in Rvugal. Sir ‘AnhUy Rdens ag oriaa poiiey
Tobaoco caMurOf Bee mmsnded to indigo pfanirrt
,, cuUivatieu in Ftaocc
Tirenty year's Progrew in lodia, O^oiat aceount of fke pf ducts .
Valley of the River Sutlej^ The, Ijand available for toa planta 'icn
W taring 8e)d«, Indian and french methods ...
Welisand Wa^ei Lifts, Cure for famine ... ... •*>
Well Irrigation, in the Af.- IP. P. ... ^ -
Wynaad and its wanis, Prevention of eoffm stealing ...
Yield of cotton per plant ... ... **• •«>
EDITORIAL NOTK9.
Dr. Hatton's Handbook on common salt; Mr. Blanford’s work on
jicteorology ...
Bflect of canal iirigation ; Mode of pr^paiing Rhoea Fit»rej
Agritultutal classes wantird at Lahore; At the Qovetnmeot
farm*, Madras and Mysori ; H'ce barvesta—dastreyed In Cath-
inlre, poor in Bi»m, damngiHi la Obiilagoisg
Bnterprise^ AiTakan ; drain cfcublighteit in Mysore; Gooaoentcr*
prise In QeyUm ; F ewer show la the Nerbudda; Beaeuroeiof
Arrekan; Doatb of 0 A. Cruweli; The new alkaloid; The
einobniiA tree in Jamaica ; Tobacco seed from America j Cigars
at the Cape; The tobacco crop in Madras; Failure o| the
potatoes at Qotaoazu md ; Value of oil plants for mauaring ...
’^Ciofs in My aorO'diSsppoijt ing, 3<?ooed crops in Madras; Loeests
in Ouddapah ...
Favorable crops In Bengal; No rain in Hissar; Anticipated
soartity in Cashmir; Failure of cotton iu the B«rars ;
Cotton flourishing at Madras; Itnptovf^d cultiva'ion in Siam j
Quod crops in Japan; Hops in Oasluuir a nop’succcss;
Increase of irrigation in the Punjab; Tow Aajnooan-i*Panjab's
ptoposal; Expeumeuts at the Oawopore Mcitel Farm .m
C innamon in Britlah Burqiab ; Burmese Cardamoms j Phosphatee
in a^^icuU^J^e; liord Napier on Faminoa .**
•bea as manuie; results of deep oullivaiion; Distreat i%f
Kattywar ... • ... •** ^
Scarcity of gra'is at Rnyoot; Qloomy reports from I^^^draij
Deluge In the Punjab; Matlera bad at ^^3'^***
damaged by insects iu Behar; High prices at Agra j
of kliarlf at Robiicand ; Better prospects in Ohsl ‘,a-t I Locusts
and blight iu Madras: Fodder e 'arcs la the N,-.W. F.
187
158
224
227
872
no
22.3
330
369
228
263
832
161
263
7
295
163
193
8
222
83
409
230
116
237
42
193
81
296
333
43
408
294
226
n
12
13
46
49
50
.84
Paflt*
Fair prospects in Nepal; B^parted abolition of the Bat^alora
Farm; Bombay Op<ton Frauds Bill; Be^renent bf Mr.
Andrew Wedderburn; Mills at Broach ftopped work-
log ; Punjab Sugar Coy., hopes of the enteiptiee ; Increase of
Indigo export; Failure of potatoes in Ootaoamnnd ; Medras
Agri Horiionltural Society ... . gg
Bangalore Experimental Farm, Egyptian ootton in Texas; Irri¬
gation iu Sootbero India ; Sir Richard Templets suggestion ;
Analysis of toils in Oeytoo } Manilla hamp in Madras;
Clachona plantations, Report for 1875-76 ... ... 87
Distress iu Guaerat .. ... ... ... 121
Satisfactory winter crops ; Locusts in Soul barn India; Mr.
Boutledge's representations; GuSarat ootton crops; exports
of oil seeds; Blighted obolum from Beflary ; Borticallural
Show at Agra ; Vnoltla onsuftable to Bengal; ludigo plant-
I log reforms iu Tirboot ; Diminisbjitvg growth of iodlgo ... 122
Rumples of Indian tobacco; The tobacco farm of Arrakan ;
Blight of potato crop in Southern India ; The opium
ylsld ... ... ... . 123
the Famine CotnmiKsioa, list of members; Government farms,
monthly reports wanted ; Lucusteiti Southern India; Blight
of ibe cholum in Madras ; Mistaken view Of deep ploughing 162
Agricultural improvement fa Goa; Adulteration of Seeds Act
Damage to cotton harvest of the Borers; Distress in Cash,
mir; Adulteration of rice iu Bangoon; Indigo reports
faiorable ... ... ... ... .. 163
Gatue protection in the Nllgtris; Sericulture experiments fa
Debra Duon ... .. ...' ... ... 164
Lime as sugar-cane manure; Agricultural college at Madras ;
Grass-hoppers in Silem; Blighted obolum at Ouddapah;
Orleans cotton soi'd ; Short harvetit at Hagpore ... ... 193
Jowari outturn at Eh in leish ; High prices at Ohitfagong ;
Indigo Planters' Assooiatiou ; The bhoota crop at DHrjeeling ;
Deep ploughing at Bangalore; The Ludiana settlement;
Thv {iombay Ooilon Department; Experiments In tobacco
planting ... ^ ... ... ... ... 194
T«ntiut right ; GoocIh conveyed per B. 6. Riy.; Botanioai Gardens
N.-W. P., New Forest Act; Rt'duction of salt duty ; Mysore
AgiMforticuliurol S icicty ... ... ... ... 23t
Land tenure in the Doon, Mr. Oaird upon India ; Collins k Co's
oBer; The Agri Hurtl uKural Society of Nugpore ; Lease
of the Coco Island ; Manilla hemp in Madras ... ... 232
School of agriculture at Bangalore ; Cure of leprosy ... ... 263
Ash mAUure in America; Large crops ip Virginia ; Os^ri^ farming
in Southern Afnoa ; Mr. Robert Elliot on Indian agriculture ;
The Hill breweries ... ... ... 264
Value of irers In towns; Medicinal plantl^t Ootacamund; Preoau-
tiona against seed blight; The transfer of land tenure ; The
sugar crop of Jamaica; The wheat yield of California ... 265
Corn at fuel; The rain tree at Madras ; The excreta of towns;
Opinm in Eastern Africa; Silver in Colorado; Professor
Milner on &sU batching; Beetroot sugar; Division of estitoi
JO France ... *.* .. .* 266
Prop ised Qovernmrnt tannery in Southern ln<iia ; WiM elepbanta
n Britith B irmab; A^rfeuitnral Oongfre*^ at Batavia; Indian
1 urea for pa^er manafactore; The Small Btrda Act; The
Ctuger plant in China; Wiicat farming In Oaltfornia ; Sire
a the Nagpur Model Farm .. ... ... 267
Oooly emif;ratkon to French Guiana; Hop at6ms for papers maun-
faoture; The vine leaf disease; Gotrerdmeb'i fArm wanted fn
the Western D >oars; Blue eolorlag mattikfct^ anthracene ;
The Japanese bee Discovery of Gaeno i Tbe ootton
crop in America; BambotM at tbe Parle BxhiMtlbil 299
Bmigrants from Madras to the Artmkab''HMlS; Itreraaesd puppy
growth at Tunifasi; Apple growth iw Urn' 'F,; Tbe
GaaUo Islands klorla and MonUoi Agriculturai colleges in
Amerioa; Town sewage ai ntandve | TbOdHou and Mylne'f
Sugar Mill 800
Tbe anUirpdc properties of creosote} SaggeaMob te tbe Freii Ck4n<
. miiaioDer; A foot for tbeadvoeates of'ifri^etfod; Tbe Coewe
tree! lb Meuado; .Machine lor the ptodoelioh ^ ol'heOQe; A
new food for eatflo; Proposed ExperimAatal Fartt4t Hysoia;
Incratee of oattle in the Nicobsiri; Pap^ragk
^Tba Midfas museum ; Ooeoa at fbU^ Wlutat
deetmylog male of Boumanlb ' 4.1 ' i./ ' ' ...801
Tbe Hessian By ; Tbe deer forects of Scotland se % Sosfte
of planting enterprise; The 0|iittaB4j(^ ‘ " ^ ««« 402
INDEX TO THE INDIAN AGRIGULTDRIST.
Btf ArH)ttr trldeDD^ on Trrfgadon «.» «••
dnttM« foeoftnou o| tb« BeyDheilei; Agyioaltor«i doHagt tt
Bomtmy; MoMtnbique 0|>ittm Ooy.; Oaltivi^tlott of the
pUnteia ; Death af Mr. F. Haleey} Mamboo la Goa had
Jantioa • M *•*
Bii^orti of aeed ; .Obemioal laboratory at Madraa; Hr, Ba^rtaon
on Ml'ioil drainago; Raoea of boat root ( Brot*aufar
Oompany of Mabio) Oorso an a Mder plant; An’Wote to
daatmetfve ifi|H»ots; tbo earth oat ta ^athern .fliuropo s
Ooosul General Playfair on Algien ,»• -«* 38€
Rape OTOps of Bohemia; A'oe ftbre o( Hamrltiaa } Dhemioal
oompoaliioii of plante ; Mussel at the soaroa of induttry }
Tabaeoo tax in Germany ; Failare of silk crop in Beiht ; The
caterpillar and the poppy >»• *»* 837
Uamures at the Farit Bshibltios; Sea ooee as a fertilianr;
Practical tti the Uneeam, Ma<iraa 373
Prise for tho beet mcihod of sugarcane growth ; Guano at
Texas;Munltnydoth as paper stock; Experimental farm
at Bttjnpurami Mndra') ; The trade of Ohilan; Cattle entrails
at belting ; Colorado wheat; Tall; pot palms at Peradenya ;
Qteat ooooannt crop in Ceylon ... 374
Tfie Eucalyptus in Algeria; The effect of electricity on *the nntri-
tion of plants; Extraordinary graftiug experiments ; Outturn
of American cotton ; Substances not yet utilised for
agriculture; Cheap wny of obtaining ammonia; South
Australia carryipg off the dipUm- i'hoivmtr for wheat ; Tho
Tussnr at the Paris Exhibition ; A natural ink ; No sheep
in jMpau ... ... ... ... 37C
The inlllc tree" of Central America; Maaiooa planting in
Mauritius «. ... ». ... ... 876
New agricultural ooHeges; Ttte old Ca<tle Show at Mysore ;
Bepoiti on Indian ttibacco ... ... 410
Madras tobacco; More dealTa<tixo iaaects; Potatoes in tho
Punjab ; Growth of hop^ in Oashmir ; S ioflowers in British
Guiana ; American rubber plants ; A Postal couoeseion ;
Artesian wells aboct Chicago; Cusco mnlae ; The unona
tree; yin<».growing at Madras ; Green make in Belgium ... 411
Sugar from lodian-eo^n "Ulka; Tiie Montclar system ; Cotton
cultivation lu Uyoore ; American competition in wheat ;
Bngar«beet; New forms of funsi; The " brown diseaMs" of
cereals; The Island of St. Vioceot; H rr F. Bilck on
cabbages ... »• ••
Locusts in Central Amerloa, Btigliah experience ot make ; Mr.
Barnard and the Liwrenoe Asylum Farm ... 413
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES,
Corn, foreign imports; Coir and caefas as paper stock; Glass mak¬
ing at Jlve'um ; Reward for extrsotiug the juice sngarcans ;
Condensed horse fodder In Germany and BuMln;
liidigo imported into England; Unsaooessfnl attempt lo
enltiuate Bheea In Assam ; Sugar Company at Peoang ... 14
The Brnoe dredger; Thomson and Myine’e Sugareane Mill ; Nr-wly
discovered Guano lelands; Mr, Wallaee’s ploughs at
Bhagulpere; Agctoultoral Show at Bdngpore; Same at Dacca;
^ Indian Netberland oontributiona to the Paris ExhibUion ... 50
Opium, tn the Moeambltjue { The sell Ing prices in Bengal ... 02
Bedned sugar In Upper Buemsh ; Bengal opium, China export;
float in Madias ... ... 87->
Wild hexhs in the Keladgl Dietriot; Jute seed exported to
Beogoont Nbn-ntiUsation of flbre plants in Burmah;
Peanut ooptribuliooi to the Parts Exhibition ; Rhinoceros
frbsa. ^galqre; Large fishes in the Gsuges; Beclaimiug
land iU'Egypt; Di^th. of.Dr. Sutpis Kuen; 8ki>ite Sugar
> ' Qoy,^; Large' opimn yield; Steam tbreshiug tnaohioes lor
iUdiah wheat; Atrlkal of Herr h, Locay. , ... ... 38
India at the Paris Exhlbitioq ; Influenoe of forests on the climate. 123 |
Biqe trade'of viegspatam; The prloWy-pear as paper stook ... 124 |
The Aihtegreoi tugac wet^t; PrdhlMtiou of i^ppy OhW'fatfpn
id Chiuqi Increase of dbttctiland in Hhirds; Oensns bf the ^
Fatpiue Dlsti^ts; Leonata as <h«faouroo of gain; l’h'4 L4ke'of
BxpOrti to EnglautS; dcfflie plsuGe^is Borheo ... ^ 134^
Datbehiaaiu Bef^ij
ImpreT^ appifitui for oinchi>tta,teai add coffro eultlyilloiMi j FHih
oin^Hiif^lbQgidiMid Hatlrii ' ' i** ^84
The “ BoBeittment;
Lpeni^ in Indiai The Seeha(4 ironnM Vimi the
the fiehfs dt Ooeoa .OuVlaatloe^^ jMtahdIdr;' Lehd^
‘ ' reT^buo.tff the ’I^Qtril
eiijnv ieelSe; Hdteerologfoal ieportdr I the
‘ Fauaineeitlhlesi IJMd^kihtSbowdarl^h^ ; ... 233^
OOMMUNfOATED AND SELECTED. Pa««.
Actfua of lime on soils ... ... 235
-55«bynomene Asprrs, w, the Sbola or eoU pith of India ... ?7 a
A ff>.h«n agriculture and indnetry ... ... 417
Agricultural eduostton for oivil servants, AdviiMUd . 15
Agriculture ip Braail, Advsnoiag rspidiy ... ... 23
„ in the Fernkhabod diatriot, f^, 180
Agricaltural Chemistry, J. B. Larfei ^4. ... 56
„ Contrastfl ir^ndis, Bagt and Wait ComU ... 60
Agrioultorai condition of the Coimbatore dietriot, Bepoit of Mr.
Robertson ... ... 90^ JOO
Agriculture In India, by F. 0. Daorers ... ... 270
Agiicultural Department, N.-W.-P., Improtemni oj cattlg and
gh^ep heeding ... ... ... goR
Agricttllarai progroHS m the United States... .t. ... 306
„ Eiiucatlon in Mynore, Tke t'hUdigk mtJi/rd in force 806
Agriculture In North Bebar, Statistics of area under oaUlvatlon, Ao. 418
Ascent of sap in trees, M Jeteph B9}m'g theory 311
A*be»as manure, Tmt/xand 6'w<i«n ... ... 68
„ manure, CAcwfcoil eom/jflnsuH ... ... ... 128
B’lluoieh cotton plant,/a Bgypt ... 185
Bangalore Experimental farm, Report for February 1878 ... 166
Beet sugar indusiry of Ftance, The, Itg wide dittrthution »84l
BelUry cotton crop, Ttia, A mwel easprriment ... « 846
Blue Gum Tree, The, J ... ^ ... 310
Botanical Gardens, Nt'iisherry, (7/t/oUfirdfrk Ma«(ru ... 62
Burmah Btoe Markets. Underprgggttre of fatnim U 1874 ... 60
Cocoa Coltivutiod In Ceylon, Huecegg m the Hfumbora V.tllgy ... 276
Ctiwnpore Government Farm ... ... 386
Ceylon products ... ... ... ... ... 885
China gras^ nr Klieoa ... ... ... ... 241
Ciimale and resources of U|>p*‘r India, Note hy R C, Bmk ... 16
Coimba^rrc District, The, Dfmnrrriert e/yvdiM frrrad ,,, ... 007
Composition and qualities of Bats’ guano, Vanet m va^w ... 337
Coni pvoduouon, Ihrongheut JBurope ... ... ... 23
Cixton m the Rludras Piesiiiency ... ... ... 419
Cropping and rotation ... ... 235
Cultivation of waste laud, Nemetnf of trerg neoeggary ... 60
„ of Sorghum, Bmodient reguHi ... .r. 414
„ of the onion . . ... ... ... 416
DMiiifiiee, A new, TAo *'CAert).)tiek” o/JamiisA ... ... 278
Earth-oil, A llowiug well of, lu Arrakan,/is/turf e/fAr CommU*
'w> or ... ... ... V.. 186
E 'Ooomio garden at Salaru, The , , ... 350
Eritjliah fanning and Indian wheat ... ... ... 61
Experimental coltiration of cuMO make in India ... ... 808
,, Farming tu Madras^ Nexulfs o/c«/ripirftea ... 338
Fence posts, top etid down ... rt, ... ... 278,^
Fiax culture, ... ... 124
Floral clock, A ... ... ... ... ... 386
Fudder-prodnoing tress ... ... ... 268
Giant bamboo of India and Obina, The, By Mong, Q, Belcke^
Valerie ' ... ... ... ... 309
Government Experimental Farms, Th^ KhandeuK Farm, ... 283
„ „ ,1 Beporti of the BMgfion^
the Bagpore, antlthe bafaru farmg ... ... .4. 267
Grawes for pasturage, Afsi5owrN«r m> ... 416
Green Manuring. An efieient method ... ... 384
^ How to grow potatoes of thu most profitable size 'y ... ... 196
Hybridising, At /•mstey ... ... 307
India rubber in British Burmah, the CommUiioner of AtraUnfg
report ... ... ... 275
Indian fibras, TAstr««(«fw Fay land .4* ... 312
Indian oom, Kgohamtiete pnpere*hy fAe Anmtes Coneul at
Stmgapore ... , ... 376
[ndian fibres as a source of Revenue ... ... ... 420
International Exhibit ion at Sydney, To bg held in 1879 ... 842
Irrigation plw improved AgrJeuUare, lerig itien ahne 133
late and tig onltare ... ... ... ... 419
Edns.grAM U tbe Baoda Distriei, Fvpsrisimifx tfaHay fAe^Asf
year ... ... .. .... 314
Madras Ifxigatfmi Oompany, lUmrhing duHng the yg<gr t$77-8.r. 884 ,
Making the best ol had land, Band rgohomtim H Hmin and
franee ... ... ... ' ... ... 346
ManufaoturesaBd Athiss iovQholsa Nagpore ... 846
Manttre^itiGvahidklUiTijThe manafactitve of ... —
v„ , , and the production bf Green fodder crops ... —
MaaHH^p^ Kkely ta he ouftimted ... * '
Mebtingi of Agrl-HorUcullnral aoeiefiss of Indk 74, 109, I4L 25S,
.. ... 280, 314, 348, 887, 42i
. atmihA . 76, 146, 216, 816, 351. 421.
s
IV
INDEX TO THS vlNijJM AGRICDLtllWn
PaoMi
Ifd«Hi}« of tb«>fi^rf«MortIrulttirBt Sociof^ intbeCeti(i«} Ptovfft^t 24^
Mtcbi Jf On {irnflrAbfeittookft'eftiaK ... M2^
Uotlfil Fartnt, I(afpiiw*r{>ft*g 0r8( 08 t*btitibm«nt ot ... 61
*' MO(}«4 Farm** At fijjrdnfwH .« ... ... ... iS66
Uugaripfie or Plantwin ordcr^ Tbn, Bji* John Short, M,D., F. Ii» B., fto. 422
Myaom BAoerimniTiai Fnrrti, 4fr. Barman*t P^ffH ... ... 64
Nagoore Rxper{lb^aral Faring, Report of the OtUoUtlng Qomaiii*
sfoner ... ... , ... * ... ... 380
New materfal for paper, A, Buf^fiViry in Stmtk Antrrha ... 338
NiiriOoatiou uttlixeit, Variom manures ... ... ... 269
Oil Mannfaotoring Company, A new, Taking oter the Napier
J^ndry stevk ... ... ... ... 311
Onagrtcoltoraleaperlmente, Mr. J. B. Lawea, ... ... 312
,1 the para and oeara rubbers, and bnleam of oopuiba treea ... 312
„ tho eaieteuoe of phyeiologioal raoea ainong plaote fa a state
of nature, Ny Jf, Alpkauee De ('andiUle ... ... 417
Opium Report, Bengal Opium in Cntna ... ... ... 166
,, Cultivation, esporimental, ('nltivatim in Mozambique ... 276
Oiif Agriealtoral Depaitment, Beform needed ... 14
„ Model Farms, Mr, Andrew f'atzeVs riply to Mr, Cotton's
bwleegue ... ... ... ... ... 276
Paddy oufftvafion on the Bangalore R^pertmontal Farm during
18n ... ... ... . . ... 129
Paper at the Parii Kxpoi>iUon, De Naeyer A ^o's exhibit ... 386
Paris BxhitiUion, The, Ike BritUk Agrienltural Implement Hall, 277
Pepper cultivation, Should be eultirated on low Jirm gnnmd ... 314
Plant log in the Tropios, Qovernuwnt can a'one ajft'rd to plant
trees ... ... ... ... ... 306
Ploughing In of faimyard manure, Bast htthion disaimicn ... 69
„ match, A, At Sydapett ... ... ... 416
Poisonoufi grasses and preventives, Professor James ItO'tms'notes, 276
Potatoes iu the Nilgiris, ... ... ... 386
Progress aod ecieutifio development of AKiionlturc, Ou the 239
Properties of Indian soil, Too little eansidcr< d ... . '384
Kagi, Suooessfal cultivation of, ... ... 19
Rational farming, A/r. feefurn ... ... ... 20
Reports on the working of Ooverument Farms, for April 1878 ... 196
Report upon eample of jalap root grown in Government Botanical
Gardens, Ootacarnuud ... ... ... ... 315
Royal Bngiisb Agricultural Society's 6eid experiments 313
Sewage inigalion, A/r. Afi VUmorins'report ... ... 3R2
Sexual changes in plants ... .. ... ... 311
Snake plant, The, Same speem as aeonite ... 345
borghuiD Saccharatum, Jmvar as ferage, ... ... 96, 204
Storing of green food in pits, A practice d> serving atteotiim
Stingiug-usttle as a fibre producer ... ... .. 3u5
Substitute for indigo, A, 7riumph of Ihemioal Science ... 342
Vegetable gaideumg in India ... ... ... 167, 207
'Well irrigation and famine, The voluntary and compulsory
methods of construction ... ... ... ... 306
Wheat "oduotiou ... ... ... ... 239
Wheat cultlvaliun in Madras and in Aastralia, An example for
India ... ... ... ... ... 341
Wild plants as famine food ... ... ... ... 236
THE CARDEN.
Bangalore Ploweir Show ... 814
Botanical Gardens of the N.-W, Provinces... ... ... 247
Gardening in Madras ... •«. 330
Hints to amateur gardeuert^, 1 good fence beyond all things ... 386
Horticulture in Coorg . ... ... 216
Hybridisation of plants .. ... ... ... 244
Lucknow Horticultural Gardena ... ... 279
Notes on Horticulture ... ... * ... ... , 184
Indian Gardening ... ... ... 245
Where to obiam seeds When to sow in the N.-W. P. .«• 63
Boses at Simla; Flowering stephauotia ... ... 207
Amateur gardrners in the plains; Syringe for tbe red spider;
The ^'Indian Flower Garden ; Modern perfumery ... 278
Failure of fruit in tlie Kaugra Valley . . .. ... $14
On the EFccta of Hybridisation Drs. Hooker and Thompson ... 246
Beana Lwaurlans, Notes by the Secretary of the Agti^vrtwulturtd
Soeuty ... ..f — ... ... .689
Royal Boianical Gardeu, Oalomia, Qovemment reselution on the
report for 1877-78 .»» ».» ... .*• 846
Snbaiaiipore Botanical Gardens ••• ... ... 879
Simla Spring Flower Show, iVrsf wtfMirr# ... 244
FOR« 6 TBt,
Avenues in Mj sore ... , ... . ., 1 , > -- 869
Blackwood and sandalveod in Mysei 8 .t^ .«« 889
Blasting tree stomps ... » ••• 816
Boxwood in the Himalayas ... ... ... ... 889
Oaltl?atioD of tbs Buealyptua Giohuliis” imt other Auitraliau
Gums in India by •/. NO'ConnfiT ... ... ... 100
Deccan Forests; The, destruction of hipest trees ... 833
Devastation of forests, Vrm the ^ntl^ to the Beat 170
Fores! Reports, from various districts .** ... 770
BVests and their climatio influenoes ... ... 171
ForestOouservancy in the Deecau ... ... ... 849
„ iJcUoo!, A, lu the N.-VV. P. ... ... ... 288
„ „ A QC'ntrat .. ... ... ... 316
Forests in Indore, The fuel supply ceasing ... ... ... 388
„ planting ill Franca, ... ... 889
Impottarioe of the catalpa tree for economic planting, By C, 8,
Sargent, of Jlorua^d ... ... ... ... 861
Indian Forest Stjrvioe, Tbe, Wanted Jive young men duly qualified 281
„ Vormta, Thr^ Evils of denudation ... ... ... 362
„ Woods at tbe Paris Exhibition ... ... ... 282
Lao in Indore, Experience nettded ... «... ... 170
Madras Forests ... ... ... ... 248
Ditto Breaches of Bitrest rules ... 389
Nepaul Timber Trade, The, Sale of sdl wood 136
Notes .,
Addition to the Forest Department; Forestry, In Oaohar, Burmah
Southern India: Resources of the Archipelago ; Tbe
Magnolia at Bangalure; The Spanish Ohetuufe in tbe
Niigiria ... ... ... ...
The Blue Gum in Travancore; Forests on tbe Ooutinent ; Timber
operations m tbe N-W.-P.
Teak in Tbarrawaddy , Bansomee’tree telling machine j Walnut
tree in the NiJgbtrries,* Pougay troo at Bxugalore; Oarob
cultivation iu British Burmah; GaDiiuta to Austria ; New
Forest Circle of Pegu ; Qurob in the Touiigboo Hills
Chesuuts from Yunnau; 'The Blue Gum as a Lightning oonductor
Notes DU mahwa tree; Eucalyptus seedlings
Haw machinery iu the Canara Forests, Coorg uasuitable for
cocoa ... ...
Tbe Auamallj Forest, Madras ; The Caoutchouo tree in Ai^sam ;
The Forest Department ; The ** Indian Forester" ...
The re*woodiug of this country ; The denudaiion of forests'; The
petrified forest of OalifoTiiia ; Large pme tree ; Candidates
for the Forest Sjr vice ; The forest tracts; Surgeou-Gcueial
Balfour's paper...
Pittances allowed for arboiicultnre ; Forests in the Bhore
territory ; Discoveries of the Scottish Arboricnltural Society ;
Proieotion of wood from " borers " ...
The vegetation of Sholapore; Charcoal at Nyuee Tal ; The
American prosopis in Ceylon ; A proposed method of
arboriculture; African Baisa or float wood ; A ** tree In
a tranee;" A French firm in Cashmere ...
Dr, Schlich's rapurl for 3877-78 ; oiango-ptanting; Fuel plantatiooi
at Cuddapafa ; Bark scarab at Eonisberg ; Forest consarvanoy
iu Mauritius; The organ tree at Mogadoro ... ... 42 s
24
63
100
135
168
208
243
283
316
351
Poona Forest School, The
Propost 1 Forest Qaidenv, Oovernment Besolution
Rain Tr«o, The, Grows freely tn Madr.is ...
Sandalw kkI iu Mysore, r arefully conserved
,, Orders of the Government
Timber mea«uii igy Improved mtthod
Timber trees r. the Hrychellea Islands
426
428
362
888
428
888
390
Want of Forest, The, Memo of LUufenant Colonel Xames Virtue, 426
MINERALOGY.
BarongaOoal, VicwsofMr.S, B. Medlfoott ... 317
Bengal Iron Works, Report to December 1877 ... 171
Ceylon peart l atiks ... v ... ... 209
Close of Niool Co'a Wjtiaad negooiatione ... ... 209
Coal and iron fields of India, Ahifearitw survey ... ... 27
Diamonds, Gold and lead ores of the Sambulpore district , 28
Gold in Wynaad, By W, Xing, B, A, of the Geelegieal Survty ... 363
Iron and coal joificc of Warora^ Central Proviooci, JBxpermgnts
of Mr, Ness ... ... ' ... „ 108
„ Ore in the Kotnaoi Hills; Government and the Xwkaen Zrem ^
Coy,,, ... ... ... ... 136
„ in the Punjab, Fhihtims/Fctifkfvy afiVaAim ... ... 429
Mioerai wealth of Atghauistau, The, Copper An thl GhiUai
country ... ... 429
ASEI(jl?mBlSt. •
' Jf^l^nondni lUrtiitoi) la Ooldjiit ud Uib,
CNoJagioKl Bartbi oi luAl%; ttr, mvE xtpoili
laiaiaf ia ^aatyltaoia; Fall 04 in Ibe
litbographfo itoa« ... .,. 2d
Coal ia CeaM iodja, Fho Waroia flelito; doocois of tliiB Alpha
OoUl htliM f Frooions Uetala aboaHbe lAi»«oori river ... 27
Large yield of Gold la OotacamVikd; Besources la the
Wyoaad; Ktcol Co. proepeetisg the diitriot; Fetioleoia
eprioge in the Nise^’e territory 1 Coal in the Anrakao BLrl-
aion ; Marble mine in Kofrannggor; Oil wells in FoeoboWf
Gold in Siam; Coal and iron beds of the Warora ...
The Alpha and Prlooe of Wales Gold Mining Companies, Frospeots
waking np : Discovery of Gold in Kew Goinea; Finding of
fresh Silver veins in Peraia ... ... ... 103
Marble qoarry in Qondnlf Discovery of allver at Zingan in
Persia ... ... ... ... ... 135
The Wnrora eolltery; Ceylon pearl fisheriei; Mineral resoorces
of KttU'h i Nie(d Co. in the Wynaad ; Coal in Jara ... 171
Gold at Nnnjanad ... ... ... ... ... 817
Coal seaiosin the Thayetmyo Distrlot ... ... 363, 690
Oi]> wcflis of BouUifeiu Enseia, The, Jmeriean Mmpattti&n may §e
^htancti^ ... ... ... ... ... 429
Wynaail Gold Companies, Tbs, Jlfiningi eanwstimt ta Nieel Co, ... 350
Ditto Fields, Tbe, Ground for hope ... ... 429
AGBICULTCBAL LIVE STOOB,
CarUlieaeidat aeure ... ... ... 13.3
„ and Horse Fairs, At Dora Ohazi £han and Nundridreoy ... 133
Hi sear cattle farm ... ... ... ... ... 208
Mnoipoie disease, among the ponies in Caohar ... ... 26
Effect of fattening cattle ; How to manage ponltry ... 24
Import of Engllih rams; Sheep-farming in Iiovedale; Scarcity
of ponies in Bnrmah ... ... ... ... 63
Import of cattle to Madras; Projected breeding of mules; Cotton
seed as food; Cattle disease in Wynaad ... ... 99
Tbe Prome sheep-farm for sale ; Ponies cheap In Monlmein;
Breeding farm at Eakine ... ... ... 100
Australian hoxaei; Cow keeping ... ... ... 208
TEA.
AHeredstatesof the tea (ride, ... ... IOC
Bwktn tew. One 0 /the eauio *.. ... ... 284
Chinese and Indian tea, Mespeetivepetition* in the market ... '33
Oaring in Baltimore ... ... ... ... 284
Durjeeling teas, SelUny well in Calcutta ... ... ... 392
'* Fermentation’'of tea. What it tt? ... ... ... 318
Chemical analytit ... 368
Fnture of tea in India, Tbe, /Speculator* in the South.,, ... 284
Geogrepbical Dutribnilon of the plant, At the JBntith Attoeiaticn,
Jhihlin ... ... ... ... 357
Holta Co., Th^, AfannresivpsMtiw ... ... 31
How London tea sales are managed, Inigiuitouecueteme ... 67
^^ Indian toe, prsyadioe ifimsAirAiny ... 68
„ and ludluQ gtalo^ Iaoreaie of wheat export ... 104
„ ooUttro, Alsriy/(iiftfry ... ... ... 105
„ in Central Asia ... ... ... ... 137
Indian vt, China tea, The Grocer^*** controvert^ ... ... 210
in Ceylon,Tbaonfheiferrnerfcfs ... ... ... 285
In tbe North-west, P/wsiiiay rsnroa ... ... .368
„ Nilgiris, A'ifyirf m AsiAm foa ... ... ... 392
Japanese teat, Beport of 1877-78 ... ...' ... 212
Hangra Valley, Tea sorting in (he ... ... 81
Eangra Valley, Oiose of tbe tea season ... ... ... 391
fHnmond’s tea drying machine ... ... ... 261
Last season’s ottUtorn. tV. JHoran Co*t report ... ... 172
On mate or Paraguay tea ... ... ... 286
JVbfes.—•
Competition of local labor in Assam { Growths in Ceylon, Japan,
and Sotttbern Indian Aspinwall and Co.’s tender accepted;
X High prioei of Darjeeling tea ... ... ... 80
^^^, 9 p«ols In Ceylon; Baker’s rain wet dryer ... ... 65
^Ifew Gat dens In Assam j Indian tea' in the Home market; Tbe Holta
Company’s ont-torn ; Lloyd and Cbesblre's Indian tea report;
Tea acreage inDatjesllog teas; good prices for Nepaalaad
Darjeeling teas; Tea in the Naga HlUs; Indian tea at the
Agricnttnral Hall; Supply of local labor in Sylhct; Tea In
Java and Japan *»•. •** -M 66
Estimate of tea for export; Incrtaie 6f Jhabliry exerts; Beturn
for 1877; New Companies started; Himalayan teas handi¬
capped by conveyance chargm; Bain wanted In Assam;
Early season at Darjeeling; Bed Spider In Kangra; Good news
from iCnmaon; Tbe mixing of China and Indian teas
London deliveries of Indian tea ; Weather damage to Caobar tea
shoots; Bed spider at Darjeeling ; Pleutifol crop in Kamaoo,
and the Eangra Valley ; Tbg wheelhoe for tea oaltivation ...
New tea Gardens in Chittagong; the Dacca dlstriot, and
Darjeeling; Tea exhibit at Paris
Hail storms in Darjeeling; Tea weighing at Shanghai ; Indian
exports; Tea in Ceylon
Weather at Darjeeling; The season at Kutnaon ; Tea sales,at
the Agri-Hortioaltnral Society ; The Eangra Valley
Bed Spider and prospects at Darjeeling; Harvesting at Nepal;
Good out-turn at Eolu ; The Kaugra Valley ...
Tea in California; Ceylon samples approved ; The red spider at
Darjeeling
New Garden at Eotagherry ; Indian tea In Perthshire; Locosts
in Eumaon ... ... ...
Land under oultivatlou In the Nllgiris, The Salween Hill Tracts
aud the Wynaad; Tea ahrnb at Trsbisond ; Old growth of
China tea in Ceylon ... ... ... ...
ObstacloB to planting enterprise in Assam, Over Zepittation
Past tea season, Qitahty under mark ... ... ...
Poor season aud low prioes, Balmer Lawrie*i Report v..
Prospocts of the ludnstry, The brohert the agent, and the tnode of
telling in JSngland ... ... ... ...
Bed Spider, What wo know about it ... ...
Do. Its cause and effects. Heavy vt, light pruning
Tea Plauting, A/anuring ... ... ... ...
„ culture in the Nilgliis, General protpeefe ...
„ oonferenoe in liondon Adulterated import ...
„ cultivation in Ceylon, Rapidprogrett ... ...
„ WMAorXi Balmer LawrU Co't Report ••• 107^
I, pruning, 23y Chllda HumM
and ooiloo planting in the Straits ... ...
„ in Debra Don, Sketch of %u origin and progrett ...
„ season 1878-9 ... ... ... ...
,, ohests for samples, Aoeutation ef Calcutta brokert
„ drying by Solar Heat, Air, Adamt* tubttitute for charcoal ...
„ from Ceylon, A great reality ...
„ in Darjeeling, *' One can almt*st hear the Jluth growing"
and coffee substitutes, PVom the report on Km garden*
„ trade, i» JTadia ... ... ... ...
„ trade in Japan, RiminUhed Export ... ... ...
„ ditto Imitatim Congou
,, UBefttl Hints on tea, manufacture, AVom George WUliamum
Jf (Jo, ... ... ... .M
COFFEE.
A novel product, The Runya»Dunya cree
Botanical Gardens, Ceylon, Lthe*ian coffee approved ...
Cape Coast casllo coffee, i/iiflnaaBfwpidify
Oemloatoma oaudelillu and borers, Bad, worsct wont ... ...
Coffee planting, Belorms in, Mittahe of burning the toil
,, prospects in Java, Akvt’rt’dJ'fiayA-i ... ... •••
„ Suggetted improvement ...
„ in Wynaad, JJefcetice system, of euUivatitm ...
j, planting in Southern India, Wondrtnis tpread
„ leaf diseaso, in Mysore ...
II stealing Bill, Of the JTov/blo Wr, Hudleeton «** ...
,1 inthe Wynaad, it e/ideas
„ loaf tree in Mumalra
,, in America, Rottibility of eultimtion
,1 trade in 1877 •••
„ enterprise in 1877
i, and tea cultivation in ibe Madras Presidency...
„ districts In Mysore, The detUny qfihc I^ovinoc
„ in Travanooro in 1876-77, iuoftfasiwyoutfant...
^1 planting in Perak, HotulU of iurvey,
„ freight, Combination of planters adeooated ... ...
„ machinery at the Paris Exhibition, Atmrst Gordon'tt peelers
Commission on coffee diseases, Xn Ceylon
Oons^ption and production of the world ...
Coorg season report for the second semester, 1877 ,...
Oars lor bug, A, Sait on the fail
Effects of eleclrloity on plants, Reeearehet of Si. Grondeau
HybridixatJon of ooflee plants *0 ... -•» ***
la Urn WjhtAdf Crop ptospoot •»* M*
104
186
137
178
230
88 $
817
1467
68
104
31
429
173
391
81
67
67
69
174
138
139
176
210
2 U
319
319
319
858
SO
82
284
173
438
35
213
360
35
71
71
71
72
106
108
140
141
178
178
251
320
861
397
397
431
433
213
323
179
361
431
140
Vi
M4
820
^ ^ mgee
m
^ dnpfnlnv*i Abrtp yem Aga 4«.
tt*.
436
Jnvi epfle^
179
14001 diiSM 0 on opffo* trwt In lodi* wd Ceylon
236
„ Meeiiag of, the ChamW of Ommfrga,
M*
394
,, la Brasil 4 «a
«#
206
„ ( the Nliglrif, ^fsodiny
481
Llberiim ooffes. ^
• i*
3i
ff and its enemies, By Sir Joseph Uoohtr
84
,1 Home report
«**
73
tf Sneeoee in Oeylon ...
«e«
IPS
^ Growth oUwation
•»n
*•1
178
„ Ceylon reporU
2X4,
253
Lfherinn seed from Kew
...
861
plant m Ceylon, Tbe, Care in ouring atid packing
...
395
J'he, liw in Blossom
...
431
ICanurlng coffee estates ~
...
822
Jm, fftllora ol tMm; Oolombo^ Manure OomiAny forming ;
OoUoamand, crops good ; Ooorg, ooflee-stsaiing commoni
onmvatlco a failure ... ••• 31
Demand of land in Oejloa $ Yield of Ooylon ooffoo { Prices of
• same; Donald Bfcswart'e eetatos for sals in Ooorg : Non-
enooesB of Oalllomta gcowfclii Prospeots bad in Java; Imporfc
tntoCioAoa; ••• »** 70
Liberian coifoo oa the Maaiawa aatate, inOeyloa. and in
Onatemalas Hlnta as to lie growth,* Bspoct of oofles to
Arabia; Ceylon crop promising well; Tho IJravanoore oofloc
enltivatlon Coy. ... ... ... ... WO
I iberian Ci>ffoo,needs a porous sabioU ; Offer of M. J. Lapeyrere; !
Good coffee prospeots fu Ceylon ; Bamboo the antidote of the
*'borer*' plaguo ... ... ... ... 177
Coffi’o in Braajilf Liberian coffee at Gaile; Bnterpeiss in
Ooorg ... **• 313
A inarrellousooffoe tree; Green Java ooffee .. 251
Libenan coffee at MaunnuB, Ceylon j Tljf effect of
shade ; Pfoducts of the Nilgiri Hills ... ... ... S20
plSIcttlty of growing Liberian coffeo , Objection to Ceylon coffee
in lUo NilgUis . ... . . ... 358
Leaf disease in theNilgiris; Salphur as the remedy ; Spreading
in the Obevaroya*, Sacoessfai growth of Liberian ooffee m
Ceylon; Ceylon pcospoots enooutaging; Sale of Liberian
coffee at Bttiteusorg ... •• ... ... 32.3
Planting letter from S.-B. Wynaad ... ... ... 322
piautiog notes from Ceylon ... ... ... ... 323
,, Leaf dmafe m tke deoreatc ... 179 131
Rales for working a ooffoe estate. ... ... ... l^,)
5 eof(ar<ojiLoaf Uowasc, The... ... ... ;i52
Setting coffee blossom by irrigation ... ... 177, 2U
Seed packed tu Sphagnum moss ... ... 322
Shade for coffee, ... ... ... 107
Variefciae of cyfiEoo, Tho, Ay irvwe<» ... ... 432
Hrideiui Uaf Amane ... ... ... 397
Weeds on ooffee estatus, Will repaid the planter to rmm them 431 1
’ ' ; 'CWOEONA,' ’ , V ’ ' '
; CiMbOB*«ittii«itilJafa,c !
M in London 78
piantatioa on tho HUglriis Sttmtieni Hfipert 109
„ oaltivatfam In tha Ijrtdtod l8tMna s »*« ... 180
„ in Ceylon ... ... lef
,1 pantations. Vadras .me M* 209
„ „ Th», A eompiaini ... .o 438
Government cinchona plantation In Byi|lah Sihhim# ^epegt for
1870.77 ... ... *4* 149
OovernmeotGinobooaenterprise in Java ••• m. 802
Ooveroment and oineboua, iVorsaSton ... «m 862
Indian cioebona and its alkaloids ... •». 142
In Ceylon, iit/*, JTiap’r rs/ioni ... ,*• ««t Ht 825
la thb Vfyuukd^ Oultimtien progretiioff ... ... ... 862
Aloes for the Government cinchona plantations .*• ISO
Kilgiri cinchona plantations, The ..i ... ... ISO
NiJgiri bark sales ... ... ... ... 210
Nvteg^
Planting fa Touogboo; Distribution of seeds in the Wynaad i
Proposed cultivation in Ceylon 78
Seignorage on growth at Ootaoamnnd; Gorarnmsttt plantations
on the Niigirls; Hr. Cross oolleotiqg plants ... ... 141
Shipments from Hadras; Growth iu Ceylon *00 815
The Touoghoo plantations; TheNUgiri plantations | OuUura in
Ceylon ... ... ... ... 252
.Olncbooa in Java; Iu the Kllgiris; Damage by insects ; Com¬
plaint against last season’s bark .•* ... ... 289
Slow growth of moss; Tbe oultl ration cannot be left to private
enterprise; Forest settlement at Coimbatore ,* Mr. B|liott’s
proposal ... ... ». ... ... 325
Sale u£ Ceylon cinohona, AiMr/;risa ... ... 397
TOBACCO.
Kew report on tobacco in tho West Indies ::3 ... 393
Tobacco oropa in the Arakan Hill Traois; In tbe Sangra Valley;
The company at Dindigut; Tbe Burmah cheroot j Govern*
ment monopoly of tobacco; Outtlvation In Germany ... 288
Tobacco in the N.«W. l^. fifMcmso/raj/wimeafs ... - 275
„ in TiavanCote, A comjtlvU suoecM ... 345
„ Q\i\ii^9>t\OQialadi&, JUaniUa preparing for oompetition, 310
SBlHClTLTCaBb
Bghibltion of allkooooons, Gwrdaepere 288
„ At Nnrpore m the Kangra Dutriei ... 434
Esperimenta in the Doon; Importation at maohhiery Into Japan ;
Solentiflc enquiry in France ... ... gS
Bilk crop at Besht; New discovery in regi^ to silk worms:
BeriQUlture in New South Wales ... ... ... 323
Itaw silk in tbe sUk trade ... ... ... ... gg
Serloultare in the Doon ... ... ... ... 200
Silk worms egg cards, FUilum at Yokohama *«• 95
IPtitttsd ak Ui# ** StAtesman*^ Office^
I
A IIQ2^XQI«7
JOVmAL OF WDUN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. IV .3 CALCUTTA: WEDNESDAY, 1st JANUARY, 1879. [No. 1.
NOTICE.
The IStilAN Agbiodltueist will he to all Schools md
MUsiomrks in India at half price'.
LEXIEES TO TIE IMTOR
BAMBOO: ITS OOLIIVATXOX FO^ PAPBB SIOOK,
I,
Calootta, Ut Feb. 1870.
n. KNIGHT.
. ... . .. I .
CONTENTS:
Page.
t4F.TtBft8—
Bamboo : Its Cnltivation for
Paper Stock *. ^
Bamboo Paper . 2
Neglected Porest) . 2
Mammy Wheat. 2
Degrees m Agnculturo ... 2
Pem-Culture . ••• 3
Eucalypti in India . 3
AaBICULTVBlS IM EURQFB ... 3
Lvadijng Ahtiolks—
Tea Production in Asia ... 4
Advaniogca oflieducird Acreage G
Agricultural Education luiho
BomUey Pretndeucy ... 6
EDiTonUL Notiss ... ... 7
Communicated & Sblectisd—
Agricultural Eduoalion lU tlie
Bumbay Preeideucy ... 3
Bones and Superphospbatos ... U
Cultivation of Caioliua Faddy 12
Miacellaneous Notes ... ... 13
Agriculture in Nortli Behar ... 13
The Management of Clay Soils 16
The Cutta.Produoing Plants of
iho Malay Peumsala ... 16
Indian Sugar at the Paiis
Exhibition... ... ... 17
Cardamom CultiTation..18
^ The Xnflnenoe of Trees on
y B^infall .. 18
' Culture and usaa of the Cassava 16
Nitrogenous Principles in Boots 16
Fiel4 Ifixperimenta yritl^ Pota>
toes. ... 20
Improvement in Native Agri-
caltaw .20
Ploughing Competition at
Sydapet . 21
I ThoAitcfiian Wells of Pondi-
cberry .2l
[ The Wheat Crop in Prance ... 22
i TU£ Gabdkn—
Hints to Gardeners for January 22
Potting and Transplaulmg ... 21
Agricultural and llorticultuial
Buciety of ludia .21
Agricultural Show in KUan-
doish.25
PonPSl’KY—
Subiucrg^^d Forest on Bombay
Jslaiul ... . . 26
&IlNEnA1.0G\* —
The Wynaad Gold Fields—
Mr. Smyth’s Ueporl ... 27
This Plantrus' GAZKTris—
Tisa .28
A New enemv to th.^ Tea Plant 26
Tea in Ceylon ... ... 26
Indian Tea Making dr(*., ...30
The Induu Tea Industry ... .t i
CoKimB—
Notes .31
Sulphur as a Komody for Leaf
Disease .31
Liberian Cefloe ... ... ... 32
Coflfoo Prospects m Travancorc 32
Sulphur aud Burnt Lmiu as
Beruedios foi Loaf Ftiiigus 33
KxperimcnkH in Coffee Cultuto 33
Tho Xusect Itoiutidy for Leuf
Disooso . ... 33
Porter as a euro for Leaf
Discaso .31
ClNCElONA—
Notes .31
Cinchona and Hybridisation ... 80
ADVEUTlSEMENTti.86
NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS.
Our Correspondents and Contributors will greatly oblige us
if they will take the timble, where the returns of cnltivation arc
stated hy thm in Indian weights and measures, to give iluir
MngUsh equivalents, either in the text, in parenthesis, or in u
/oot-noU* The higuh in particular varies so much in the df-
fe/teni Proviness, that it is absolutely necessary to give tho
JSnjglish value of ii in alt cases* It would be a great refom
if the Governmni itself fdlpwed the tamt .ewiu in all the
ofioMrtpaUpuUkktdt^ih '
' ' ' 'l
Sib.—M y last letter to you of the 7ih Ootober, wa 8 based npou ah
ostraot from tho Reyal Dolanioal Garden lleport 1877-T8i Having the
Boport now boforo me iit published in your Ootober jotuDAli
1 trust you will aliovv me space for n few additional remarks iberooUi
especially as. examined dispassionately, 1 submit (bat the oonoluslona
drawn by Dr. King fiom bis exporimenls “f/iut titeproposed new industry
doee notifreiivnt a hoppiid fiiiiiimal are not only not Jvptifted,
but must be regarded as being veiy far from conclusive, and that
If a little more careful consideration had boon given to the habit
of the pleut, a very different result would have been arrived
at.
In February 1876, Dr. Brandis, the Inspector General of Forests, In
India, issued a printed Memoraodum direotlug attention to the mafu
points to bo dotcriuiued by Iho eKperimeutal plantations Of bamboo,
then ordered to be cstabltshol by th^i Quverumenfc of India. I aisttfliO
therefore Dr. King's e^periuicutf^ had their initiativo from this Older*
Why, thnujbo should not have at least tested the rtinoun ;tyi'temit otoattlog
or cropping the bamboo therein suggested, aud not condned his experi¬
ments to the <fne siAUary nyUtun bo pruphisietl would not answer, nnlesa^
it was to prove a *• forugon ^ cmiclusum,” 1 must confess myself utterly ‘
uuablo to understand. I should have thought that on the contrary a
scicnlihc investigator would have tested every system that offered a
prospect of a successful result,
I extract tho following from Dr. Draudis* Memorandum abovo alluded
to.—
" A method of treatment must, if possible, be discovetod by which a
planlAtiou, or imturai forest oi bamboo, may be made to yield a
succession of complete ciops of young shoots throughout the year*
Our present experience is that a large proportion of old stems iu
“ required iu a clump to produce fulLsized shoots.
" Duder ordinaiy oircumslauoes, if bamboo clumps are out over in the
‘^forest, all luutiuu stems being cut down at one time, tbo result Is
a crop of slender stems. It requires uo experiments to esiablieh thii
*' result . , , . Entire clumps of different species and of different ages
" growing under the most favourable oondiilona ahoald bo operated on,
" and these cxperuueuts should os much as possible be comparltive:
** of a number of clumps of the same ago aud species, and growing
** under the same conditions some abuald be thinned lightly, others
heavily, and tho third group should be out over oompletely, leaving
only a few old stems on the grouud,*’
As yon have published (in your March journal) Mr, Tbomsona’ letters
to (Sir Joseph Hooker, on the cropping aud cultivation of bamboo, I
bog to add the opinions of saveral other acknowledged soientifio
botanists bearing on these points at issue*
The most exhanstivo work aud generally accepted text book on the
■uhjoot Sa tho Monograph hy Geuerai Muoro, C. B.. poblished in the
transootious of the LiueSn Society, of which, like Dr. King, 1 have the
honor of being a Follow, General Munro did mo the favor In
September 187G, to reply to certain queries 1 had transmitted to him as
follows •—
“ I hove never heard of the bamboo being cultivated for guecfiBive
** cropping, but 1 see no reason why a regular systematto cropping could
** not bo carried oat, Bambma Vutyarit would In my opinion be the
" best Bpecies to onltivate, as it grows very readily from cuttings; so does
**J)endroeal(i»oa OganierU, which thrived remarkably well and grows fast
in Trinidad, W. I,, and wpuld I think produce the best fibre. MamSusa
** Teidn Would be a good apeoies In India % Jkndroealafftus Strietui also
** growa fatt and Ig ^ily propagated : tho ordinary bamboo very tntelf
** seada la tko Wert Xadiel 1 1 onl/ iaw It once fa Jamaica, it Is atmye
THE INDIAN AaRICULTUJHST.
Jafinary 1 , 167 A
** inoreftsed by oiUtIngSi X don't think ibeoo ehonM be pnt in ftt a lets
'< diatftnoB than lire feet apart; a fair eiaed bamboo vrill prodooe frota
*’ 30 to SO ibootB a year In tuoltii eotintrles. With reference to cutting
*' and cropping, I abould think that G or 7 out of 10 abooli might be cut !
yearly, without causing any serione harm to the parent etool; the
** older aleme might be cut down in their scoond year to serve asfael t
I should think that the stools would continue to produce fresh stems
for about 30 years, [|hoat when the plauta would he likely to come
** into flower and then die." <'
7be late Mr. Bulpis Eurz, well known as an authority on bamboo, and
whose most interesting papers thereon were published iu the Indian
JFhmfs/', in a long eorrespoudence with me, replied to some queries as
follows
** If all the shoots be out down, the stock will be impoverished and ultb
** jnatety die o£E, honoo a cortoiu percontago, say, one^fourth ol the whole of
** the stool, would have to be spared, Xho most comoion way of planting
♦* bamboo by natives is by taking Bboots, or the lower piece of the halm
** with a part of the rlile^ime and plant dining the tains, the intervals
between the cuttings being regulated by the size ol the bamboo ; 12 to
" 16 feet would be dense growth ; for the larger kinds SO feet and upwards,
** which throw up from 16 to 20 shoots, while 8 to 10 feet is the
** minimum for the smollor kinds above 30 feet; smaller kinds arc not
recommendable,”
Dr. Parish, a botanist well acquainted with Burmah and tho
Xenaiscrim Provinces, communicated with mo as follows
** The sbools should not be all cut every year, for it this were done, Iho
*' root stock would die; only about half the clump should bo cut yearly.
" The bamboo once established us a strong root stock, you can go ou
** catling annually ; as to tho calcnlatlou of 7,438 stems per acre (vUld
** my pamphlet p, 8) 1 should tUmk that If ouly half were cut a muoU
** greater number could be got off an uoro.*'
Dr. Betbo^J Bihbonthrop, Conservator of Forests, Northern Division,
British Bunnah, to whom 1 had sent Mr. Thomson's letters requesting
bis opiuioo of the views as to cropping and cultivation, expressed (herein,
replied : " There is no doubt that iu flre-protected ijlautations a much
** larger crop can be obtained than m the open forest expu.-*to
constantly recurring jungle flres. Tho bamboo jungles near viiiages
** ou the Pegu obouug, prove that coustuut cutting docs not materially
*' affect the reproduction, and cutting them down within a r ouple of
** feet from the ground, maiutaiuh a puifoel unimpaired actiou of the
*' roots, as may be observed on the bamboo UodgvH lu Ktingoou. At the
same time 1 onmiot agree with Mr. Thoiusou that a t^uiuboo
plantation may be kept up ludcUuitoIy in regard to time, at Icdst not
** without re>stoclciiig; this has betn the case with the artitiuia] plauta-
•' lions of Dendrvcaiatniis JJrandtsa hero in Uurmah, or/gmai storks of
which die after about oo to 70 years, others would doubtless be
shorter lived.
** The wMrplantaliona iu Burmah, are kept up
by inter-planting with new stocks. Mr, Tbomson’s syelom is
*' doubtless tho correct one ; to grow bamboos hko sugar-cane, and to
replant after cutting the crop botms to me impraciicahle, Iho
*' maturation of small bamboos taking ui least 2 ycars^ that of the
" larger kmda 6, C or 10 years,"
In anol er loiter Dr, Ilibbenlhiop addieseed u,o, he f)aid : " A ! my
" obsorvulioDB rogatdiug the growth of many species of bamboo tend
** to prove that ynu ore perfectly coirect in your mows, and that by
*'ariifiotally irrigated planUiioDB we cu*. <orce Itie pioiiuetivo power
‘‘of bamboo slocks to u very gi‘“it on the Pegu choniig ami
tho Beuingdat, the most laxunoui^ I’lovvlh is found close to the wiam
** courses, whero they are most Fe\erely cut fir tho bamboo trade ,
“ iho banka of the Attarau him arc fur upwards of 50 miles fringed
*' by a broad bolt of large dense growing, but foi gouei^il purposes,
“ UQelesi bamboo,”
Thcro are yet other in i>i, King's Report 1 ?b lold like io
discuss, but having already uc ipiod so much space, 1 must leave these
for another letter.
ClazheugU, Sunderland, ) THOS. RDtTLKDOE.
30th October 1S78, )
BAMBOO l-APEH.
Thla U largely manufaciiTod in OLilua. Fortune, at page 270
of hia Ik'o I'tsitt ifl the Tea Coun/rirs tif t'hina^ feays
“ While these tbooghia were passing through my mind, my people
arrived, and, getting into my cUuir, 1 proceeded a<'4’oas iUo valley.
About a mile below the tomplo (of Bhante-Maon) I observed it
a maimfantory for makiug i^pc t out of the bamboo, U'tge ^ ' r fatt^
were constructed in iliefmidti fur the purpose of steeping bMuboo
aterns. They appeared to be sicepi'd for a length of time in some
fioiaUen vl iim9* They were ihon UkeaoaUAd jhefttes
tmtil they became quite eoft, or uolil all flinty mattev whlok abonndi
in their stems was removed.”
This note occurs on hie jou^ey from the Woo^-ihan district to
Bhanghai, m Cb|ing«hoo, ' \
1 send this to you to suggest the advisahllliy of opening obm-
munieatioD with the ADglo-Ohineie authorltSes, for Infoimatloii
regarding the cultivation of the bamboo and Its manafaotcrOi into
NEGLECTED FOEE8TS.
Sin,—As s&l wood is now selling at such high prloes, and as Oofem-
ment is preserving forests where practicable, it may not be out of place
for me to call the attention of the proper authorities to the fact that
there exist io North Bhaugulpore 70,000 to 80,000 or more biggabs of
sill jungle, which is being annually cUt for firewood and stolen by the
jangle reoidonts for oouvorting into charcoal and ploughing implements.
The zemindars, who are a needy set, frequently sell It at Bs. 30 to
Be. 15 per biggab, and do not seem to appreciate the value of their
possessloiiA. The trees vary from 10 to 40 feet iu height, and If the
brushwood were cut down and proper conservative measures adopted,
it can be well imagined how the value of the forests would
increase, Undey tho present system of annual demolition it seems
probable that 30 years will see the last of these promising
forests,
PBAOOOK.
MUMMY WHEAT.
StB,— 1 b*id a discussion with a friend who maintains that there is a
species ol wheat called “mummy wheat" grown extensively in England,
nod tho eceu of which was originally found in theswathings of mummies
in Egypt, I said that this was a popular delusioD, that it was impossiblo
for any seed to retain its germinatiug power for 3,000 years or more,
and that 1 had the authority of Lludley in his work on bortioultare for
my belief. My friend does not care for Bindley, He would be satisfied
by your decision lu the matter, whether wheat or any other seed could
retain its germinating power for so long.
MUMMY WHEAT.
Note —The whr>at roferred to is tho Triticam compositam or maoy-
iipikoO wheal, a dinLiuot Hi>ecies, comniji' from Efcypt aud cultiVAted in a
fow vbu'<)H 1T1 EuglanJ, hut u<>b ortpubivnly. wheat that was obtained
from the HWAthmgn of Tumnnitoi over yeara old, was foaud to
germinate, and yielded plauti of identically the aame spcoiea. Ileuce the
tiamo *' Mummy WhOiit.'* But it ih by n<> means proved that this species
hast been extinct in Jfljjypt and loviveJ only by seed found os mentioned
abow. 8ull Iho fact lu which our ourrespoudeut would seem to be specially
iiitete I'd, IS bn>oiid doubt, vts., that corn haa lU modern limes been ratsod
frjUL seed found m a mummy case.—E j>., 2. A,
THE SAME.
Siih— k our note to my letter ot the 3rd instant; does not clear up the
point lu dispute between my frieud and myself; in fact the only
additional information your note gives is, that the wheat called mummy
wheat iu the Triticuth omnposUuin, aud that ft is not grown
nt.U'nsn'cLy in Eugland. Voudonot decide the main point, whether
thu seed obLuiued from the swaihings of mummies is the identioal seed
put lu ueie whoa the mummies were embalmed. Bupposing any seed
wcie re t y put iu with them, my friend and myself are quite agreed on
all point' except as io the identity uf the seed. I have the aulhorltj
of Liudlc for my belief that it is not Ihe same seed that was put along
with the lummlos. Will you kindly tell us if botanists believe that
the seed rom the mammies, from which the Ih^iiicum ompotitun
has been propagated iu England, is ot the same age as the
mummies 1
MUMMY WHEAT.
Note.—T here is no reason to doubt that the wheat found in the swathings
rf Egyptian muuinuesis ot the samo age as the mummies themselves.•«j&o,|
DEGllEES IN AGRIOULTUJBE.
Siu,—We have beard good deallftiely of the Governor of Bombay V
wish aud inletiiicu tp develop the C. E, OoUege at Poonah' into «
Ouilege of General Boienoo and Agriculture $ on which subjeot, Mr.
RobiM tsoD, the Head of the Agricultural Department of this Presidenoy^ (
luiely pioocedod to Bombay in order to oonsolt and advise Sir B. Temple. ^
You have often iu your oolomns urged the advisability of the looal
University iusGtqtiug something of a similhr nature, and have pointed
out how muob more benefloial it would be to the country at large, if we ,
tuxned out a number of Bachelors in Husbandry, instead Of A A’s. In
the Civil Bugiueering Ooiiege at Obepauk; and the Agrionlinfel OoUegl
et twoesoelient ittititotiooi uitti irhiobi UI ooMlUaetli wettlA
AGRICULTURIST. *
U «U* (9 seoanw otiUidf, m wsvid «Md>t«a tbitiioagb
trAifiipg to 1^0 gtvi^o in Oi?ll Kdginoert&g, G[«a«ral Soleoeo, aod
4 ^grt(mlti9r«,aa4iHtt< otiablo thd Uulvanitj to grant d«gr«a« tn Soloaco,
ftt^d Hofbandrji aa wall aa In Civil Soglnaejing, as tbey do at
prasaui.' , That the Civil Bngiaaerltig OoUage would benefit by
rotnoval, trom Chepaolc to Sydapet, there can be lUUa donbt, and
mncb griater opportnaitiee must exist at the latter place than at the
formei*i tot teaching the praotloal poction o( the Civil Hoginoer’e
protessioo, The building at Ohepank, now oocnpied by the 0, ffi.
CollegOt would aflord room tor eome of the offioes at present over-
bardenfog the ForU
The University, however, would require to modify Its Faculty of
€ivH Aogineerlng, In order to inolude General Soieuoe, and Agrl-
onlturo. The future oonatitntlon of the Faculty might be something as
follows
Chief Bnglfieer.
Chief Engineer for Irrigation.
OonsaUing Aroblteot.
Principal of the 0. E. College,
The Head of the Agricultural Department,
One of the Piofessors of the Agriouliural College, either Obemistryi
natural History, or Veterinary Mcdicino,
A Second Sclentiflo Agrloultui ist. * *
The Government Astronomer,
TheCbemfoal Examiner.
The Diieotox of Fublio Instrnotion,
The Conservator of Forests.
EUOAI.VPTI INDIA.
Sift,—The gum trees of AustraHa have in some looaUtiea been
introduced into this oountry for above a deeado, I write to inquire,
whether they have been known to bear ferttlo fruit anywhere as yet f
lucre is a plantatiou near the bunds of the Ohenab, la which there
are at least fifty trees of the or i?, pepem
planted from teed import'd by a Hallway Eaglneef; tbOy are about
SIX years old, have grown very rapidly, and they have bornq carpels,
but as yot do not seem to be fecund, they probably are fbe first
fruits of trees which are not yet adolescent. However some information
on this intereatlag family of trees would be nseful. Much iguoranee of
them prevails; for lustanoo a friend used to go about splitting the
bark up with a stock-knife to prevent them from being hlde-bountj, as
be termed it. The frees on the bank of the Ohenab appear to have
an healthy influence on the malarious character of their immediate
locality; the pleasant odour from them can be snuffed In the air*
It may bo as well to point out, that Lahore has recently baeome
very unhealthy owing to the extensive plantations of sheshnm ”
trees. The forest department ought to know, that these are
an unwholesome kind of tree to plant in marshy grpand, the
stench from their leaves rotting is very offensive. I would suggest
that these plantations bo cleared away, and the Mealypttts
palanted, which thrive amasingly in suoU moist soils and are so
salutary.
W. J. D.
Sttoh a body would be fairly representative of the three snbjects with
which It would have to deal; its only fault, perhaps, would be in being
too weahly represented In the agricultural division ; agrienlturc being
it is now acknowledged of at least as great importance in this Oonutry
as Civil Engineering.
If Government would insist that all its subordinate revenue oflicials
should obtain a degree in hnibandry, the advantage to the country
would be enormous ; and with a view to such a oontlngonoy arising tho
University should not he unprepared.
Sugobstion.
December 13.
PERN-OULTUEE.
2b t/i 0 Mitor of the Matlra* Mail,
Sift,—WiU some one of tho many readers of the Mini, versed in
plants, inform me how the fern besl known as tho Cifoa.- and Zamim
may be re^producod. The trunk Is mostly under-ground, and is about
two feet long by two feet m circumferonoo. Tho leaf is about four
or five feet long with ainall narrow leaves on each side of a long
stem. 1 have made many attempts at transplanting slips and roots,
but all have failed. As many friends arc anxious to have It, I
would feel obliged if some one will favor me wltb the Informa¬
tion.
FERN.
Kellofe, December 4*
THE SAME.
2b the Xditor of the Madras Mail,
Sib,—I n reply to your oorrospondont " Fern " 1 beg to state that
Oyoae and Zama are not ferns, but they comprise a genus of plants
allied to palms and ferns. They are produced readily from seed ; but
are alow growers. They abound in the Malabar district, Many of
these plants may be seen in the gardens on tho aide of the high road
leading from Beypur to Oaliout. They are also met with in the 8 aIom
ditfxiot; some two or three years ago. 1 colleoted a lot of seed for
distribution at the foot of some hilts about five miles from Sunkerydroog
on the high road to Trlohengode ; as also from some plants found
growing on'* Morison'e Farm " at Palmanair,
The male and female plants are dliUnot, the seeds form nuts about
the else of a common hen's egg, but quite round, hanging down from
the plant from a spadix resembling somewhat a mlutatnro form of the
fridt of a eoooanht tree. 1 have two plants now from seeds put down
nearly three years ago, and they are only abont a foot in height aud
have two fronds each. They may bo grown from cuttings of the fronds,
OooasiopnUir leme plants throw out suckers, these when separated will
thrive. 1 should say the outs or seeds are the best means of propagating
the plants 1 they are eaten by the poor, grohnd into a floor and cooked
in a sort of kunjee. The oyoads with age, attain from five to
eight feet In height, when mnoh Of theic beauty Is lost by their lanky
Itfiini. '
AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE.
(From our OoBiifisrojSJDBNT.)
PARIS, N07JB1IBBB 7.
T is up'hlll work to bo an innovatoi, M. Fanoon for several years
has saved bis vineyard from the phylloxera by Inundating the vines
I Ill autumn for two months, end liberally manuring them In spring,
People disbelieve him, although ho invites the inoredulons to come and
see. M. Goffart, of Burlln, is another case In point; be has introduoe^
tho plan ol feeding and fattening stock on chopped green forage, ptesorved
xn trouohes, during every spaaon of the year—winter and spring
especially; he aUo is despised and rejected. He lately invited tho
agriculturists from all parts of the world, brought together by the
Exhibition, to witness his system at work. Some JOO oosmopolitaua
accepted ilia princely hospitality, extending to even plaolog a special
train at their disposal. The carls laden with tho freshly out Kicaragua
maiac-stalks of giant proportions, discharge their loads ; the stuff is
raised by machinery, driven by a tnrbine which also works a
saw-mill, aud passing from the feeding board to the knives,
it is chopped into rings one-third of an inch thicks thus shaved
the stuff is again lifted, and slides down into the trench, where a man
and woman spread and tread it; when full, the trench is covered with
boards, on which large Mtones arc piled at the rate of Sowts., tothe
square yard, lu this condition the forage will keep admirably, and
without fermentation, tilt required for use; It will remain for month!
without beooming heated or deteriorated. The trenches are 40 feet
long, by Iti wide in coment, and tho roof is 6 feet above the well, to
allow room for working the planks and the stones. Beside the building
IS tho old trenob, sunk in the soil, and filled with ont green rye, sinoe
May last perfectly preserved. The trenches, or reservoirs, areelUptioal,
because corners interfere wltb safe pressing down* M. Goffart has 6 $
head of cattle, and has sufilcient fodder thus conserved, to feed or
fatten 90 more. The stnff when taken from the pit, is at once served to
tho animals, who devour It with a gusto.
In the Boath-west of France, oottou-sced cako is entering largely
into the dietary of farm stock ; the preferenoe Is given to that prepared
from Egyptian seeds, at it contains fewer filamenfs of cotton, is
moro nutritive, and less liable to become musty. It is In Marseilles
this kind of oako is obtained, where each manataotnrer is obliged to
stamp on each cake the trade mark of bis establishment—a guard
against fraud. Cattle and sheep eat the ootton-cake with avidity
when simply crushed, and without any mixture; it takes the plaoe ol
meal and potatoes, when joined to beet, for the feeding of pigs, and
homes accept It with their outs, chopped hay, or bruised maise. Jt
resists best humidity, as compared with Unseed, oolxa, or hemp cakes,
aud Is cheaper—5 francs per 112 lbs,, taken ai the factory. Cattle may be
given 6 Ibt. daily of oOtton-oako, pigs 2 , sheep | of a Ih. and horses
sou^ewhat less. The chief objeutiou aga^jfist hemp-oake lies In tho
diffloulty of preserving H in large qnantities for soy length of time; It
is best Whan obtained daily from the mill; it is nufriUve oud
cheap, though some siiego that it fa hosting; §spS 9 ia]Jy for young
animals, like colss.
lathDooember, 1810.
JoBB* 6 aoaTT.
4
THE INDIAH AGRIOtJtTIJ^tST. • Jattuaiy 1,
'- ■ ■ .' 'f, .. ■ '■■ 'i •JBjiL ' maT"'...mil „
7bir« It but ouer^ret to regietar la ocmaectioa with the tgrioolturul
■eoUon ot tho Babtbitton, v«t., that aM the fmplemears tad ttitohfnery,
initead of beipg leattered over the palace fa atineteiy bad not beea
oonoeoimted in a tingle bailding. Olase 51 eompriee) agfxooltuml
irat^ementi, bealdes proceReea employed in the onlttvatioo of fields.
Iberg were 486 eahibltore ; Franco bad 207 ; Bogland and her colonies
63 *t Trailed Stales 41; Belgian 18 ; and Buasia24« iThere were shown a
total of 243 ptoagH 137 threshing maohlnet, 23 scarifiers, 62 mowers,
tliupld and oombined; 63 reapers, 104 towels, and 20 maohines for
tilliiig land by steam, the jnry consisted of 13 members; 5 for France,
2 ,for England, 1 for the United Statea and the remainder for other
natiobg. The Jnry ^etoied 86 days, of three honrs each, to the actual
OXhmtoaltoa of the oahibita and 12 more to deliberations. Eight
nailoiiSt thoogb oompotltora, obtained no prieoa China, Japan, Central
and Sonih America, Portngal 4co. There were awarded, 6 Diplomas
of Honor, 32 gold medals, 79 silrer, and 80 bronae ditto, pliif 78 honor-
abjie menftons, or a total of 284 recompenses, being at the rate «£ 58 per
cent, of wlnnere, on the entries. In the Order of Merit, based on the
honors woo, for the nnmber of exhibitors from each nation, the
loKowlng Is the position, taking 100 os a standard : the United States
soore 88, Belgium 82, Austria 77, England and Hungary 72, Denmark,
Horvray, and Bugsia 67, France and Holland 50. But of the 32 gold
medals, England bai obtained 10, the United States 4, and France 15.
The thregbing machines shown by Engtand, France, the United States
and Bnesia, were very superior the American ploughs were magni¬
ficent, and were distinguished by careful workmanship, solidity and
form, anited to cheapness ; in addition many of the implements were
Yery ingenious. The general display of reapers and mowers was most
eioelleot, and the day cannot be distant when the ** perfect harreater
mnit appear.
What may be called the Dairy Congress held at the Trocadero
was ioterestiiig, and treated cblefiy on the preparation of butter; tho
feelingMmod to ioolian towards the SoandauaTinn plan of churning at
low temperatures, which economises time, ensures the butter keeping
better, and secures its aroma; if iho process has failed, bo. u is the
oonie^uenco of not following correctly the system. An ohservatum was
made, that much of the difference existing as to the rlohDoaa of milk
in tatty matters resulted from bad iustrumentB made to measure the
(luallty and that laotometers were very defective, A pri^e is to he
oflCered to the inventor of an instrument for tesllug tiie presanoe of
margarine, and other matters employed tor adnlteratiug n and
which it seems enter largely into the butters exported or soM in large
towns. Margarine sells for one-third the price of average butter, hence
the profits must be enormous. In Paris, there are estoblishmetits
specially devoted to the sale of margarine, and have the air of model
daicloa, or of enoh as Marie Antoinette conducted, personally, at the
Trianon.
A farmer has noted that when he covered a strip of loamy soil with
a alight layer of river sand, the soil beneath was markedly fresh and
molat, and patronised by worms, while at the sides, the eoU uncovered
was nearly ag hard as a rock. The reason is simply owing to the sand
aoUng as a screen, preventing the sun’s rays from evaporating the
motstam, the surface being thus kept humid, no water asopuda
from tbeanbsoil by meaua of capillary action, The same eHeot is pro-
daoed^ and often lieneficially, despite the loss in ammonia, when farm¬
yard manore is applied on Che BQtfaoe of iho soil and never turned in*
There are a few annexes of the Exhibition devoted to commercial
mannees—to what may be called the soientifio results of agriculture,
TberY an oompaules and privalo fabrioants who have seemingly an
ondlais ootleotion of fortUisers. It is the practical triumph of chemistry
Whieh, discovering the storets, more or less complete, of the fecundity
of leila and the necessities of vegetation, has acted accordingly,
fioienee, as Liebig has vr^U said, either approves or invalidates
the coaolusiofis of practice, rbore are exhibited even spooial fertilisers
forfciteben and fioirer gardeof. What progress since the seventeenth
eeotoiy tor France^ when a royal decree directed that the mud of Paris,
its night soil, and the offal of the slaughter houses, were not to be
employed as manures till they had rested three years in a common pit 1
It was Lavoisier who may be said to have found agricultural chemistry,
or what ismmmarlly known now as agronomical stations,'* wbere.tbo
laboratory is in oonnection with field experiments. The Bevolation
swept away Lavoisier and bis iaborotory. Bourslngauit took up his
Idea, and effected some valuable experiments, though in a private
capacity { Germany followed up hts discoverius, and at once took the
leadtn establishing agronomical stathms, above all« ooutrolliog the
sales of oommerofal manures, as the chemist has the right to ont»i^ the
factory when ha pleaees, ani^selcot samples for analysis, nsy the
farmerhYan after purchasing has the right to select his sample and Imivc
it gratl^ooualy analysed. Frauoe quickly followed la ,4|he
Hertiltaoy, and has now no leis than 89 atationi^" the okM being at
noted scientists be executes ailatyfeafor the ttuiveiee at large** Thb
station at Anas Is famed for its Sti^y of 4he cttitivatkm of beet, In
couneetfon with the production of sugar and olaloohbl. Jtls akthis
farm that M. Pagnoul has beCu able to formulate laws as to the aotlou
of nitrates on beet. The root is best suited for the sugar fabrioent when
the plant grows rapidly lathe first three months of Ha vegetatlou i the
nitrates then pass into the leeves and stimulate detelopmeut^, now, if
(he latter takes placed markedly only in a warm and humid antumn.
fresh rootlets are thrown out, the nitrates and ammonlaoal sulphatofi
instead of being gradually worked up, rapidly concentrate in the bklb^
and produce diFastrous results on the yield of Sagar^
The distilling apparatus of|M. Champounois has received a grand
medal, and tho inventor himself has been decorated. It is euSted to
ordinary farms, and enables the sugar of the beet to be extracted and
converted into alcohol, the residual matteri being left for feeding pur«
poses. The alcohol is exported, and the pulp remains for conversion into
moat, milk, and manore.
The yield of beet In France this year, and tbo same remark applies to
Germany, is now known to be inferior to that of 1877. - Germany had
260 sugar factories in full work daring September, The selling of the
beet according to the relative density of the juice is making way in
France, and promises to becomo general; it will protect both the
farmer and the maoufaoturer, and will above all, give the death-blow
of the employment of nitrates late in the season.
®Iie Jn^iaii
CALCUTTA, JANUARY 1, 1879.
TEA PHOBUOTION IN ASIA.
TT is scarcely more than a decade since China had tho
monopoly of providing the world with the “cup that
cheers but not inebriates ; tho change that has since
taken place with regard to the sources from which the world
now draws its supply of this important article of commerce,
has been so great, and has been so vital in devoloping the
rosources of India, that a review of the present state of tea
pruduotion in Asia, will have a more than passing interest
to our readers. China has lost its monopoly and India and
Japan have now entered into the field as considerable factors,
increasuig the world’s supply of tea. Their teas are now
infiaenoing greatly the European and American tea marts,
and it aeems as if the China tea trade had reached its maximum
in 1875, and is beginning to give way gradually to its younger
and more vigorous rivals. As in India so in Japan, tea is now
one of tho staple products, and as tho area of tea cultivation
in those two countries is yearly increasing, the interests
vestc I in the China tea trade are seriously threatened.
Th< ofiicial returns show the export of China tea from the
treaty ports to have been
In 1874.
noals*
Value,
H.Taekt
i^.ack Tea
... 1,444,249
31,193,858
Green Tea
... 212,88.3
4,724,464
Brick Tea
74,791
891.181
Tea
3,504
16,508
Total ... 1,735.377
36,826,0X1
Black Tea
In 1875,
... ... 1,488.811
29,789,793
Green T«;a'
... 210.281
4,965,480
V Brick Tea
... ... 166.900
1.976,448
Dutt Tea
2,594
15,791
Total ... 1.818,386
86.697,512
-
^ About I20ibs.
llj’lSfS,
THB IKBIAN A6BIC0LT0RIST.
Xu 1876,
Valna.
FM. '
H. Taels.
gtaokTaa ...
... 1,4»A49
30a59,988
Or«<m Tea
... 189,714
4,641,691
Brick Tea
... 163,951
1,819,488
^lloitTea
...
3,799
26,769
Total
... 1,7«2,»13
36,647,926
Paring the lost six years
the
exports from
China amt
in quantity and yalue to
A
1871 ...
208‘O million lbs., value 12
mlllloai.
1872
214*4
t)
l> M I3t
n
1878
196‘a
i>
w 11 2
II
1874
2100
i»
.. 11 111
II
1875 ...
2200
ii
II ,1 11 1/5 •!
1876 ...
2|3‘3
II
„ 11
*1
To tbia mast be added the exports by caravans to Eastern
Enrope, to Siberia and to the districts north of the Himalayas,
which amonnted in 1876 to 152,000 pionis. The yearly
home consnmption of tea in China has been ^estimated at
two-ihirds of the total prodnotiou, the exports at one-third,
so that China must have produced in 1876 more than 600
million Ihs. of tea.
Europe absorbs now nearly the whole of the tea exported
from China, Chinese tea having, in the American markets,
been almost entirely superseded by Japanese tea. The trade
is chiefly in the hands of English merchants and is likely
to remain so, as the United Kingdom alone consumes more
than half the exports—daring the year 1876, 125 million
lbs. Wo stated that the year 1875 has probably seen the
height of the OUinose tea trade. In 1870, for the first time
in the annals of the trade, did the quantity of tea exported
from China remain stationary, thougii the consumption,
in Great Britain alone, increased by 5,000,0001b8,, the oxccbb
being entirely drawn from India. During 1877-78 the exports
from China to Great Britain and the Continent were twelve
million lbs. less than during 1876-77. Indian and Japanese
tea, the former in England, the latter in America, are coming
into greater favonr day by day among the consuming classes
and it is thereforo only reasonablo to expect a coosiderablo
decline in the Chinese tea trade, and a corresponding increase
of that of its competitors. Ceylon is also entering the
list, and will, in loss than a decudo, figure probably as a not
unimportant expor^r of high class teas, large areas of availablo
and suitable land being now taken up in that island for its oulti^
vation. The inferiority of the bulk of Chinese teas is of course
the chief reason of their being supplanted by the superior
Indian and Japanese teas, whose superiority hes not so
much in their innate qualities, as iu the more skilful manufac¬
ture, The great competition among European merchants
in China has a great deal to do with this doterioratiou.
Every firm endeavours to obtain the first shipment and
pressure is brought to bear upon middlemeu and by them upou
the growers, who pluck the leaf often before it is fit for
plucking, and all the ensuing processes of manufacture are
condnClCd with such corelessness, that it is surprising the
result is aot worse. The firing of the leaf, for instance,
takes place several days, generally one or two weeks,
and often a month or so, after the leaf is plucked; the
meiNnit tyro iu tea manufacture knows how necessary
it is, to fire the leaf as soon as passible after the plucking,
Consal SCedhurat's report on the Chinese tea trade deals with
this subjeot iu detail, and he is of opinion that nothing but the
iatrodnotina pf European capital and eutorprise cau save the
tea trade from dooay^
We have on more thin pno occasion dxan'n atienUon to the
eadnordmary gtoulhof thoTndk^ tea industry, u^hiuh we may
Bay, has surprised the whole wodd, and is a striking and oredit'
able example of what Anglo-Saxon capital and energy
is capable of. In 1851 the meporM of Indian tea from
Calcutta, amounted to 262,8ftlWbar, in 1877 we exported
61,784,00aiba.
The area of cultivation in Assam, Bengal, North-West
Provinces and Madras is still (tiiongh now more gradually)
increasing, and the quality of ten, diough itjost oonsiderably
iu repute during the Ihst year, has during the present >ear
fully recovered its high character. Fifteen years ^ tea
cultivation in India was looked upon as a doubtful oxpdr(meiit;
it is now an important industry, in which vast oapital and
European energy is engaged. The following statistics sh o w
what enormous strides the industry has made.
Exports of Indian Tea to England,
tlio year 1860
...
... Vi mtliion
,, 1865 ...
»•
... 2*7
.. 1870
...
... 18*2 „
M 1871
... 16‘4
II 1872 ...
..p
... 170 „
„ 187.1 ...
...
... 19-7 „
.. 1874 ...
25'3 •
.. 1875 ...
...
...261
I, 3876 ...
...
... 29*4 „
I, 1877 ...
... 81 T „
The consumption of Indian tea In Great Britain compares
with that of Chiaoso tea in the ratio of the relative quantity
imported. The ratio of the imports of Indian tea to that of
Chinese tea stands
Iu
1872
as
1
to
9*7
II
1873
II
1
1.
7*4
II
1874
I)
1
II
7*5
11
1876
II
1
II
6'7
)>
1870
I,
1
II
6*6
s»
1877
It
1
M
5'5
The tea industry in Japan has likewise increased in im¬
portance, though its growth has been slow, compared to the
Indian tea industry. After a standstill during the seasons
1871-73, followed a rapid extension during the season 1878-74
until 1875-76. Previous to 1873, the total exports fro n Japan
amounted on an average to 12-5 million lbs., rising even under
the most favourable circumstances never higher than 18
millions, while the quantity manufactured for export during
the ousaiug years was
Beasou 187M+.19,8l«,000 Iba,
” ■■■ "• - »
” Jgjg';?.. „
" .. „
'Ibo demand for this tea in the American market., ths
improvement of communications in the interior of Japan
the development of its export trade and the opening of its
chief ports, have done much to develop this industry in Japan,
There was a seiious falliug off in quality in 1876-77, which
we noticed at the time, said to bo due chiefly to the careless¬
ness of the growers and manufacturers ; the losses which
wore incurred during that season, owing to the groat fall in
l)rices mnst have been a severe lesson, and we hear the tea
oi season 1877-78 better spoken of. llio actual exports from
the chief ports in Japan wore•
1874.75 1875.76 1876-77.
From Yokahama ... 10.517.875 18.886,748 16,177,2751 lbs.
»* ». 4,292.162 6,080,036 6,520,527,.
.) Nagseako ... 1,043,704 1.060,000 287,817,,
Total ... 21.888,238 26,027,779 28.685.616
Nearly Uie whole of this went to the Amerioan markets^
only small parcels aggregating 400,000 to 600,0001bs.
being pipped to Londom The (umsumption of tea in the
island ia laid to amount to nearly 4 inilikn lbs., whiob has
e TflE DrjDUH AGBlCCMtrBIST. Jaoaaiy I,
to b« 9iiMU> Mport in otder t& get the totel prodnetion
of
Ohine^ r Jiidin and Japan are the principal tea producing
Qouittriea In Aala^ though Ceylon and Java are aUo llhely
to htoome of importance oa such during the next decade,
About 3,000 acred being now under tea in Ceylon and this area
ia being rapidly added to. From Java the exports of tea
were in 1873 valued at 2,400,000 florins, in 1874 at 2,700,000
florins,-—quantity not ascertainable.
The total production of tea in Asia for export, may
thercTora be estimated as amounting now to 280 million
lbs, __
ADVANTAGES OF EEDUCED ACREAGE.
O N page 428 of this year’s Affnculfumft Colonel Vortuo
makes a suggestion which seoms to u« worthy of being
followed up. Colonel Vertuo advocates that ryots should bo
encouraged to plant a smaller area, but to spend as much labour
and manure on that smaller area ns they did on the larger.
This seems to ua a valuable and practicable suggestion and
is within the reach of all.
This would not lead to an extensive risk on the part of
estate, and would give the experimentalists, eonfldeueer
Steps would have to be taken of course to see that extra
labour and manure were aotually expended, and we (eel
convinced that the second year would shew highly satisfactory
resnlts. Grunting this the ryot might then be left to
himself to follow it up, and this he would do, ai self-
interest is the spur that will push him on if anything
will.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE BOMBAY
PRESIDENCY.
A DVERTING, in our issue of October 1877, to the great
success that has attended the establishment of agrioaU
tiiral schools and colleges in Europe and America, and the great
national boneflt that is now derived from the spread, of
agricultural education in these countries, we urged Govern*
ment to initiate throughout the country a similar movement,
adapted to tb.e peculiar circumstances in which the Indian
agriculturist is situated. Wo wanted to see, we said on that
Lei us suppose a ryot, who usually cultivates r)() acres aud
who spends Rs. 24 per acre, this represents Rs. 1,200, in¬
cluding of course value of his own and his bullocks’ labour,
woU let him spend this Rs. 1,200 still, but let him only
cultivate SO acres. There will be a saving in seed, namely
the seed that would have been used on the abandoned 20 acres.
The 20 acres not being required for cultivation, will bo
left fallow, and may be profitably used for cattle grazing
purposes, grazing land being much wanted, as tlie brf>cd of
cattle is rapidly deteriorating all over the land, on acco ,at of,
among other causes, want of proper grazing. There will bo
likewise a saving in irrigating expenses and in fencing and in
having to watch a smaller extent of country as ciops ripen.
Each acre will under this Byslcm cost, f.ay Rs. 40
to cultivate instead of Rs. 21, the difference Rs, Id
being expended on the land in deeper cuUivatiou and
in manuring, and doubtless the result will he a larger
amount of grain from the 30 acres, than was iormerly
obtained from the 50 acres, with less trouble in many
ways.
The only difficulties in the way of this reform arc prejudice
and indilTerenoo ; naturally the ryot prefers to follow in his
forefather’s foot steps, but this will be thu only real difficulty.
He is stabborn, but somehow ho looks oarnestly to his own
interest } if we can only penetrate his prejudice and show
him where that interest lies. The question is then, how is he
to be led to see, that this change vrill be for his advantage,
without at the same time interfering too much with lus
time honored habits—call them prejudices if yon will. Model
farms will not do it, for they have proved to bo an
unsuitable medium of insiruotiug the ryot. Their career has
not boon of such a nature as to induce him to follow
the bent of their teaching or rather leading. True,
they have raised larger crops as one result of their ox-
pwiments, and the crops produced have been superior in
point of grain aud straw, but the cost has been out of all
proportion to the result. It must bo acknowledged that
the ryots look upon these forms as decided failures, and wo
confess they are amply justified in many instances, in so
regarding them.
But Government has otherwise ample means at its disposal
to try this experiment. The estates under the Court of Wards
will bo found most suitable for this purpose. Lei the manager
of these estates select four intelligent ryots—and ihem
to try the experiment on *fimall plots of about four acres each,
at the same time guaranteeing them against aojipd loss^
occasion, agricultural eolloges, one in each Presidency, agri¬
cultural .schools in the districts ; wo desired, we said, the
science and practice of modern agriculture taught, not only
loamtoiyin Colleges and High Schools, but also modestly
in every village.
Wo rejoice therefore, to be able to record to-day the resoln*
tion of the Bombay Government, published elsewhere, to
make ii beginning at once in the direction we pointed out.
Often as the claims of Indian agriculinre for improvement
have been acknowledged by the Government of India, they
have never as yet been met by such a practical scheme as that
which has been matured by His Excellency Sir Richard
Temple, and if this scheme is carried out in the form proposed
in the resolution—aud in that case we are certain of its
success aud of the great benotit it will confer upon the
agricultural classes—then 6ir Richard Temple will have
cause to bo proud of having been the mover in establishing a
bim,*le, and yet complete system of agricultural education
suiit d to our peculiar ciroamstanccs. There is no greater
benefit that can be conferred upon the vast rnral population
of India than an improved system of agriculture j and there
are no better moans by which this great goal can sooner be
reached than a system of agricultural eduq^tion that reaches
flown to the village school. Sir Richard Temple’s proposals
embrace the establishment of an Agricultural College in
connection with the Civil Engineering College at Poonawith
the uilimaie view of establishing another College in Guzerat»
the garden of Western India. A study of throe years will
prepare' the studout to go up to the Bombay University for an
Agriauiiural Degree, and what is most important, native
appointi lents iu the Revenue Departments, as Mamlatdars,
Mahalklaries Karkoons, &o., will*preferably be given to those
who have thu'i graduated, if It oauuot bo arranged that all these
oflicials shall in future be drawn from graduates in agricnitare.
To feed the College class, six agricultural classes will be
established in connection with High Schools ; three of these
are to be iu Guzerat, one in Khandeish and the others
in the Deccan. The teachers are to be drawn from the agri¬
cultural students who will pass successfully and will
have completed a three years* curriculum, in Juuc next,
at the agricultural institution at Sydapet. The Poona
College is to supply in future the teachers for the High
Schools, and when a sufficient numbci^ is available, they
will be utilised as teachers of elementary agdeulture in
vemacnlar and village schools. It will be seen ther^ore that
the sebAme is well matured and eomplete and t|te only deobt
i:» VMft.
Ifcs Mujr mmmkmsT!,
^ iti ^ mind wkelhe? it oaa bo put iiuloro^ no groater
yolrly oxpondituro than ^X, 600 ^. a jri(iioq|lbual|', amoll sum
aitivoly ftu^ auob an important braach of oducaiion. However
wo wiah Sir Eicbard Temple every sttMesOj thank him for
having moved out of the accustomed groove. The resolution,
if ei^ed into effect with the same spirit that ponned it,
will mark an era in the history of our administration of
India.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
A s an instance of what improved cultivation can do, wo
give prominence to the following results obtained in the
district of Dehra Poon, whore tea has not yet had fair play,
except in very rare instances, we may say, iu one instance
only^and that case shows results that may fairly be con-
eidered most satisfactory and conclusive. The general rule
of working there has been and still is, to have the cultiva¬
tion carried on at the least possible cosf. One would
almost think the object in view was not to develop the
plant, but simply to prevent the laud from lapsing back to
primitive jungle. But one company has gone out of the beaten
track, and has for some years boon encouraging a liberal
expenditure on its gardens, with the result of obtaining 44:Ulbs.
of Tea per acre in 1877, and over SOOlbs. during the season
just closed, whereas the run of outturn in the Poou is from
ISOlbs. to SOOlbs, 240ibs, or 3 mannds per aero being a liberal
average. Allowing the excess yield in this case to liavo been
2401bs. per acre, this would represent an additional relurn
of Rs. 150 per acre, which pays thrice over for the extra
cultivation.
\Vk regret to hear that it has been decided io abolish the
Bangalore Experimental Farm. This move appears to bo tho
result of an unreasoning lit of economy. Besides tho 8npciiijtendont
himself, thoie are only a few coolies, and sevoru) convicts on the
estoblisluucut, yot, iuspito of all these drawbacks iHid didictibies,
Mr. Harman has rendered the I’arm quite huccoss, ah the last
annual report shows. Now, after the lapse of fully Uuuo
years, and an cxpendituio of Ks. 80,000 upon it, tho Fanri
is to bo abolished. It is stated on good authoiity that tho
abandonment of ngricuUural refoun operations did not emauato
from Mr. Gordon, tho Chief CoiiimisHiorioi. Ilis proposal vvas
to abandon the B|pgalore Farm, and start a nioio ccniial one
in Mysore. Tho Viceroy and his advisers, liowever, ilo not hihmu
to believe in iniprorenient in agriculture as a preventive of
Indian famines. So the Farm is doomed. There is yet, possibly,
soma hope that tho ryots’ thiist for agiicultiiral knowlodgo
will be satisflod. Mr. Caird, C. of Iho Famine Gomiuisuxon, is
now on a tour through the northern distiicls of India, and may
probably visit Madras aud Mysore. It is bolievod that Mr. Caird
is strongly in support of agricultural reform as a means of
prsvouting the recurrence of famines.
A coKTSMPORi-Itv tolls us that the Ohoinicat Laboratory attached
to the AgHcuUural Oolloge at Sydapet, is now completed. It is a
substantial building, including verandah, about 80 foot by 40, an<l
about 20 feet in height. It is well ventUatod and affords accom¬
modation for thirty students working at oiio time, oxid private
aocommodation for tho ohemioal lecturer is being fitted up. Tho
chemical apparatus, fittings, Ac., have just been received from the
^Ctotary of State for IndLa, The College building, which has long
basnia^turgently needed, has, at length, been sanctioned ir
commencement. It Is to bo a two-stoiiod building with
R tower at one end. The ground floor, however, is only to bo
taken in Wd at prossni This consists of a lecture theatio 30
feet wide and 60 feet long, wl^ terraced seating; aiooture room,
25 feet widdnnd^O feet long 20 feet
by^iwt lofty and woU ventilated. Tho
Vtfbols of the huUding it to bn surrounded by a wide vwaudiOi.
The upper floor will provide skanar accommodatiou to the groflnd
floor. Them are now two clasps at work iu the College, each
cousislSng of about thirty members, or about sixty in all* In
addition, a course of lectures on Agiioulturo ia being delivered by
Mr. Benson at the Normal School to a class of about twonty-livo
students. So Madras has a good start ahead of Bombay, and should
make strenuous efforts to maintaia her supremacy in this respect.
Ah AgilcuUural ExhibiUou is to bo hold at Burdwan bu tho
27tb of January next, and four following days ; aud to judge from
the handsome prixos offored and the liberal treatment which the
committee extend to oxlubitprs, the Exhibition will deserve, if it
does not command, buccosb. Tho priKos are divided into three
classes—'thoBO for residents of iho Burdwan district, those for
residents in the Biirdwau division, and those for all-comers.
Department 1 includes oattJe, horses, and donkeys, sheep and goattif
pouitiy, wild auliiiuls, and dairy produce. Department il inoludos
impleiueuts. Department Ilf agriouUural produce aud raw
matoiials ; and Depailincnt IV brass and kansa work. In the first,
piixes will be given umuimtiug to lU. 1,100, iu tho second to
Its. 1,000, in the third to Bh. 1 ,000, and in the fourth to Re. 1,000.
But in addition to the money priaes, every winner ofra first prise
will receive a silver medal, aud instead of money, winneis of more
than Rs. 20 iu value can have a cup, with a suitable inscription on
it, should they prefer il. Ail necessary airangements for the
convenience of oxhibiloia will be made by tho oommittoo, if
communicated with, and all iuteiidiug exhibitors should oommuni-
cate with the SocrotarioH before tho 5th of January, The Exhibi¬
tion ought to bo a success.
Wh have received tho prospectus of a now banking institution
to be called the ‘Ulohilkuud and Kumaou Bank” which it is
intcmled to start early tbi^ year, wilh a capital of Rs. 1,00,(XIQ with
power to increu.se. Thu head office is to bo at Naiiii Tal or Bareilly,
Tho Bank Las good prospects we think, and from our knowledge
of Mr. Lancaster iu particular, w« can honestly commend the project
to tho public. Olio must havo been in the Noith-West, to uiider-
Btaud liow great a public convouionco thewo small local Banks really
are. Tho groat crying want of tho Mofuasil moreover, is capita)
to frot the HpiingH oi industry in motion. A iiot-work of such
banks ispread all over tiie MofiissiJ, might wc think if wisely
lissjstod by tlio tState, bo made an iaipoitant step towards irnprovinj^
the agriculture of tho people, Ity assisting thoiii with email loans
after the fashion of the old Scotch banliw. Tho cucumetancea of tho
country demand original statosmaushit/, but wiujro to look for it,
wo do not know. Tho flnauoo dopartmont and its Minister arc
absorbed ^\llh the task of making botli endb irifcot, and with the
mere loutinu ot book-keeping estirnatPS, aud audita. Never surely
was theic a timctit which, nor a people for which, so much required
to ho done l»y piivate entoipiise to assist the State. It would be
true wisdom wo think, and statcsimiuship for tho Govorumeiit itself
to show an interest in these email local hanks, assisting tliein, if
ueceaflary, with the mcanH to make tlie iuc^'aree advauccs to the
cultivators that weio so common under native lulo.
It is must dithoult for tho Stale to make those advances directly,
but wo cannot but think that wherever one of these suiall local
banks exists, it ehould bo made a sort of centre, or heart, for
circulating money amongst the cultivators, undieducing the rates
of inteiost that now strangle the life out of the people? We wish
twenty such bank.s were etniling inelead of one only ; but'then
we should look to make Bomethmg more of them, than a mere
coiivouionoe to JDogJish reeidents iu ilw MofutuH, aud tile teu-
plauters of the Iliinalaytm valleys. Gsuoial Strachey will tel) us,
and ti nth Lully, that /»c has no time to attoud to euch suggestions.
It is none tho less our duty and vocation to make them. We havo
made a good many suggcstioiiB at intervals that lime has shown to
bo valuable, and wo cast this “ bioad upun tho waWa” onoo more
to bo found perhapa after luauy days.
Dib J. KdHiQi, ha,3 recently published tho results of his investi¬
gation into the composition of ground rico-hubks, which appear
to have been strongly rocomuicnded lx somo quarters os a valuabie
food for cattle. He fiuds tho meal to coutaiu d-fil por cent, of
water, 2*7^ of protein, ITd of fat, 20T4 of non-nltrogenous
extraotird matter, 4515 of woody fibre, and 15 85 per cent, of ash
OThd nnttitiire of ^ woody moss m tilkis» Ito lopoffii
htrdlj'tikofe of olrow or cIiflflE,
Tao 'fs 9 Qasmu in U0 llraMaaueof I>eo6mb0r has a moat
OXtrOOirdioAry lo&dwg arUclo on Mineral Matiiirea/* Wi
000 «tt}f>bato of Iruo or copperas, advooatod aa a manore, a
Obetnkal that is poiaon to vegetable life. The Tta OatteUe
apeaka Airtber of it ls a» iosoluble compound, while it m eaeiiy
epluble la water; it speaks of salts of pftQsphorus and aalts
of ijkitrog^n, wliioU wo Imvo not as yet beard of^ and olasaes
nitrogen an a mineral aubatanob* How arc wo to account for
auoli blundering lu tUe leading cotuinue of a professedly Bcientido
jpui^ld ?
naUt and aartiiy admixtui^^ tl tdSO pdf eent* tn preparbig ^0^
aort, the dung that has been oolleoM oyer Winter is Sitiead 6^ Id
thin layers on the grottud^ sprinklsd plentifully w^h waler« Add
trodden dowpby horses. 3^e.pusts{t)^'ti| ntaditis ]^M»edioto
wooden forme, like brick moulds, an4tii6^ p^ned.in»iASu<>^^
to dry. Occasionally the kneading pr^ooess by .boraea.
but the bricks are then apt to crumble to, pieces.
It is stated that a piesent to the Maharajah of Cashmere of some
samples of the Cusco maize soed, sent out from'Hnglimd by the
Secretary of State, was forwarded, some time ago, by tho India
Government to His irigUnesa for experimental oultivation in
Cashmere.
Tnu Neilgberry nowepapor reports that a small consignment Wn noticed in our last issue tho inferiority of the potato
pl^Cesi^a rubber plants (ifamhot Glazwvii Muelt) have just boen produced iu the Punjab hills to that once grown there. The tuber
receired from Kow. Of these />3 were sent to the Nelambur seems to have detorloratod throughout India. The Neilgberry pap^
teak plantations to be reared under tbe care of Mr. Fergusou, and says : The glory of our Kulhutty potato has also departed* But
34 are in thoLot-bouao of the Government Gardens at Ootaca- the cultivatiou of this popular tuber is very general now in the
mund, under tho personal supervision of the Suporiuteudent. villages of this district. The authorities cannot do better than
Tho ultimate homo for these lattor is a ravine at the foot of the distribute fresh seed among growers, A year ago* a quantity of
KotagUerry..'jUaut, originaUy proparod for tho growth of Mtiho- potatoes growL in tho Optacarnund Goveipment gardens waa
gauy, and perhaps a couple wilt be trii'd at Barliar. Itoferriug to distributed among a few Burghers and Conarese vegetable
this spociei, Colonel Boddome observes: “This Coaia has a gardeners—but the tubers failed to germinate freely ; whether from
Bucculent, wenk-looking stem, rather suggestive of a soft wooded oilmatic influences or from other causes they rotted in the ground,
ahrub or orjpepor ilian a troo. It is apparently a new species ^I’h® potatoes now brought to market are better, but still much
of Manihot, and not fueiitioued in the lalesi books on the oider diaeas*^ m prevalent.'*
to which it belongs (Kuphorbiaoejc), and .as if it would
grow re«aili from ontliug».” A few plauU mo «Uo to be suppUed ^ ooBK,iBrosu)t!iT of tho Brtuien' Qaardiaa b»j» t?i»t (aoize has
to tho Piiporiuteodont Qovojuiocnt Form, oud lo the Soeretmy of sttcoosofully inaltod, and that boor or porter breryed from opo-
the Asri-HorWonltural Soeioty, Madras. »“'! ‘wo-thirds harley-malt is equal io a.or, respect
_ if properly brewed, to that made from barley malt alone, and is
more full to the taste.
Fob sometime past, as our readers arc aware, the Maharaj.tj of ___
Cashmere has giten cousidorahlo attention to tho dovolopmout of ^^itabiIity of the soil of Perak for planting enterprise seems
an industry in the growing and loeliug of silk, to cover to some to bo oxcitini^ moro and more nttonlion every day. Wo road that
extent tho losses occasioned by the depression in the shawl trade. live or six uioio planters from Ceylon arenow in the State examining
Tho oftorls made have boon faiily sucoftaafnl so far, Humples of ita soil. Juhoie also is following suit. Tho Maharajah has off 01 od
raw fiilk sent lo England foi valuaiion having l)o"u loported Mi. Buchan, Private Socrolary of the Governor of Ceylon, and
superior lo Bengal, and approaching Itiiliari wlU in fjnality Tlio formoily a planter, £1,000 a year to become a sort of Minister of
piogrcss of tho hiJuetiy has, howoror, wo are Hoiiy lo hoar, rocciv y J Lands for Johoro, and he is expected there iu the beginning of this
a fiovero clieoli,—an epidoinio disease haviug kilifid off most of tho voar, acoompaiued by four or five mure planters, to explore tho
worms, and thin season there aio im eggs to bieed liom. Tho tciir, >ry.
wliole thing must hero-comujoiict’d. The climato is well adapted --
to the cultivation of eilk; inuoh perseverance and public spirit Gua Ootacamund coutcinporary lately suggested that as ba^vley
had been shown by the Maharajah's oIBciala iu creating and does so well on the Neilgherrios, a c|uautity of fresh seed should bo
fostering u new industry. procured and distributed among the Burghers ; this wa aro now
.. told ha» been done. The present proprietor of the Castle Bre^very
many of the southern govorimiouls of the Uussian gratuitously diatributod 1,000 bushels of seed barley among the
Empire, where tho nccuuinlated droppingn of the countless Burghers of tho Arvangliat valley, in the early port of the year,
horde upo» the steppes ami plains cannoi be leinuueiatively The only condition imposed was that the produce should be sojd to
I'Uiplojed ns manure for lUo laud, th<> aie put lo pioUtahlo the biewcry at a rate agreed upon. The Burghers, however,
use in tho preparation of a form of fiioi, known as kizjuk,” consumed the produce of their fields, and excused their breach pf
which is largely cousumyd iu tlu winter moiUhs by tho contiau ou the score of tho prevailing scarcity. It is, however,
peasantry and Hiualley furmers. Thoj kizjuk occurs in the loim not unli'.oly that some poition of the grain has been preserved lor
of bneks, biimlai to IhoBoof pout, mid BO met with us lui 01 dinary future f >wiug, aud that at a future tiix^ejjhs proptietor of the
firiicle of couunerco iu at leu«t sevontcou goveintnonta of the bicwery ^vill be rewarded for hie liberality.
Empire. Ha manufncluro dutos from tho yoai 1814 only, whoii --
the system of employing the waste manuio, now no geiicra)^ mow ukabi«k Instauoo of sponlaiieous combusiiou is afforded
was iatroiineed iulo the C.''v‘mimenfc of Oieuburg by a Cossa‘k by a corroipf»'>f'ent of n Boiontifto contemporary, in which a house
Major nuinod Fodurew, To price of ki/jak mip*« 'u tiic ift <7aracas narrowly escaped being sot on fire through the sudden
different proviiicoa where i used, uocoiding quahty outbuist of flame from a Ittigo wasps’nosl in a closet under^the
nud the local doinand lor it, fi-tj Ij rouble to as'iimtdi-ttS wO intenBely hot, the position of .the
louhles por 1,000 bricks. As rogaide iU heating power, it naturally noet, under a roof composed of tiles aud thick layers of earth, Was
occupies a low place in tho ncale a.s cutupai'e<l with many other tiuch us to preclude tho possibility of tlie*fl.rehaving odgli^tsd
tiabalancos, and it ifl generally oalcniatod that for lUe p.’oductioti through soUr heat. Suddenly thick smoko was observed to ,issue
of a ccrUiti amount of caloric abuiil, lino'* times as much oX from the closet; and, had not immediaW steps been taken tp 0*^00^
good kisjuk iH icquirod as of ordinary coal. Two chief the spread of the fire, a serious oonffagration might have resulted
varieties of kirjak am met within commerce, icspectively from the combustible nature of tho waxHselJs of the nept.
prepared from horse duug (Loscbaihji ki^juiv) aud shoop dung occurrences are described as being very frequently observe,iff
(Owetscbiji kizjak;. The lelativo valno of iheso as fuel doponds, Venezuela. The temperature of bees' nests or hives is known to be
of course, on their ohomicnl composition. That of no aversije, very high, freiluently reaching 38 dogs. Centigrade or 1(W jjegi.
sample of each land may ho, laUon as foKows .. ] 4 k^ 3 ?j^hr,,b<^ugpo«ridwably more than the normal ttoo^pe^atjljpa
caihoD, 4l*33t> j hydrogen, 4-1*33; oxygen, .3b*30U, nmogen human body.' The Variety of honey-coUeoUug insect Ij^j^iwaas
1-073 j salts mid earthy admixtures, 18‘63U per osui. BUeepkisjQ^; melipone, Whose nest resembles that of the, w^, if
Carbon, 23*000 i hydi9gen|3'733; oxygen, 27’390 } 1-907; OenUal America and the oorthern pafta of Soatb Ameri^,' ftffd it
aeiti hm tM«n' W»to fcitt*
-tHiift '"*«« piiih(»m«a«ttf'A
t^o borifttUiii&ti o£ iiflaetiw
ol teSip^»iti«s aaa it tUi ' tttme danger
Wbntd, awa!^ Uw neat of the ordinary, liiva^bee n^er jPavourablo
ctmin^aneea Tho point ia worth farther investfRation in
tbmp^aie «a ii^ell ae torrid oUmatea ; dnd beeikoepawi may both
draw aa priwrtloal a lesaon from the' fabfi rblatbd in oonueotiou
WHh^o regulation of the tetOperature of thelt hiveei
A NiW proceHs o£ obtathing the aaccharine jtitoo frdm the
atfj^foimo has •lately bean inVonlod by a Mr, A Bonnefin, of
MtoftipJ, who endeayoured, without auooeaa, to get hia inven¬
tion taken up in the inland* He then went to England, and
has' auooeeded in selling his prooeae to a Company for £32,000,
prtnoipal feature • of the invention appeara to be that the
oMhea,' ihetead of being paaaed entire through the crushing
tOlIetay ‘ are first sawn np by vertical and horizontal aaws into
very small pieces, the result of which is said to bo that not
only is the power required to make a given quantity of sugar
reduced by three-foucths, but, moreover, there is hardly any
jnioe left in the cane trash. It is well known that the loss of
juioe in the “bagaseo,” or cane trash, has hithpfto been very
large ; and it aeoms, by the now process, to be reduced to a
mfhltntim. _
Tab value of English drills in this country has been .abundantly
proved at the Mysore Experimental Farm. Seed can bo sown in
TOWS at any depth, and at any required distance apart. The
quantity sown can, also, be regulated. And a raphl effective
surface oulttvaiion can easily be given after tho crop is abovo
ground by means of hoes and sonffleB drawn by bulFock-power and
by hand-hoeing. Tho Japanese have adopted all tho English im¬
plements of agriculture, but an English plough is a novelty in
India and an English drill a curiosity.
A BUBSTANOB having tho properties of India-rubber and gutta
peroba has been derived of late from the bully tree, on the banks
of the Amazon and Orinoco. It is oiUled balata. It is tasicleBS,
gives Out an aglt^ablo odour on being warmed, may be cut like
gUtU percha, is tough and leathery, is remarkably flexible, and
far more elastio than its rivals. It becomes strongly oleotrifiod by
friction, and is abetter insulator of heat and eloctiicity than gutta
poroha. ..
Mti. PlSRlSIkA, Sur Ameeiiof Bangalore, in a letter to tho Prosi-
deht of the Municipality, points out that poisoning by datura is
alarmingly on tho increase, tlieio having been no less than
seven oases detected in November, and, judging by tho apatliy of
tbe'PoUoe, this number must represent but a fraction of the actual
number of cases. Datura grows wild all over the cnntoiiinout of
Bangalore. Mr. Pereira observes that there aie two species,^tho
hktd and tho green datura. The apple of the datura ooutaius up¬
wards of 300 seeds, one of which is enough to stupefy a grown up
person. A person who has been drugged with fZa^«ra remaius
iiiten^ble for several days, which of course lossens.the chances of
detecting the poisoner. Mr. Pereira suggests thereforo that tho
MaUiUipality^Shbuld Undertake tlie destruction of the datura plant in
Bangalore, and make it penal for any one to grow, or sell, or be
found in possession of datura.
ot«r the eoline^usnily the leaves ftxtmle
cavbbnfU ‘ iutsrmpU^^ As^ ibe
leaves inbfegse In sti^ ;^the diminishes, the chloioijljjy’lt
augments, consequarilly ,^^ os^ismiyoi endMang carbonic acid
during the day npldly diininishs% and soon ,thsy give off noHiiog *
but oxygen. From this timS ?forth It is Only by placing Uio
plants in darkness, or by inors or less «ns|ieiiding the action of
tho cttlorophyll, that it is possihls to demonstrate the effect of
respiration. There is, then, for living beings^ animals,
only one kind of rospiration—the lamo for all. Tho office of the
chlorophyll is different, its work is one of assimilstipA Suoh
are the conclusions to which M, Oorenwiudor arrives in a veSent
uumbor of the Amales AgronomigWf after detailing some nsw
experiments made by him, and Bummarising old onbs; The views
advocated by M. Corenwinder, based indeed to a very large extent
on M. Ooren winder's own experiments, aie now adopted in all
our standard text-books ; and if the contrary is still taught jn 89-
called popular books ond by ill-taught popular lecturers, it is only
becauso tho filtration of new ideas takes time. M* Ooredwinder
may rest assurod that views aro accepted by the gmat idaiority
of those whose opinion would ho appreciated by hhU.
From the annual report ou tho Nicobar Islands for 18Y6'77, wo
learn that some intoreeting agiiouHural experiraouta* woro made
during tho year. Airowroot was ouUivated and manufactured, but
owing to tho want of clear water for washing tlio produce, it was
not cousidored fit for the Calcutta market. > Three hundred and
sixty-two bighas were planted with coffee, which promised well.
A few plants of vanilla were reroived from Calcutta, Ihroo of which
survivod and grew well, and twenty cuttings taken from them
struck root and were thriving. Indigo was tried, but the eoed,
owing probably to accidental causes, did not germinate.
The last exotic spice winch has been aoclimatod in California
is tho ginger plant. At Baiita Clara tho plant is growing tlidftily,
It rosomblos the com stalk in size and appearance but uUUke corn,
yields a blossom. From the root is made tho valuablo product,
Jamaica Ginger. _
An Alsace-Lorraine agncuUural Journal gives the follow
ing doBoriptiou of a method of preparing potatoes for
long keeping, which is largely practised in many parts
of Franco. A large kettle or boiler of water being placed
over the fire, nud its contents ralswl to boiling point,
tho potatoes, previously well washed, are plaoed, a few
iimo, ill small babkcls or nets, which aro then rapidly thrust
under water and Iboro rctainoil for about four aeconds. Of
course, tbe introduclioti of bo considerable a bulk of cold matter
lowers the temperature of tho water somewhat, and caro must bo
taken that it rises to tho boiling point again after each immersion
before a fresh netful of potatoes is introduced. As each batch is
withdrawn it tiiust bo shaken, nud spread out ou the fiooriog to dry
in some woll-airod place. When all the stock has thus been treated,
and is thoroughly dry, it should be stored away in some dark room,
of course free fiorn damp, Tlie pototoes will be found to have
lost all tendency to germination, and will remain sound and weU-
flavoured till the next yoRr's crop comes iu.
COMMUNICATED AND SELECTED.
Ma. T. Smith (Newry, England) writes oonoerniug tho Elymus
Glaaous:^“Allow mo to speak a word of praise for this reayy dis¬
tinct and usefnl grass. In colour it is quite unlike any other, being
bluish green, and it extends iteelf freely in every direction. It suc-
oeedu both in wet and dry places; in fact, it seems to grow any where .
and ultimately it becomes a densely matted mass from two feet to
th^ feet higL I may add, too, that, in addition to its value from
adMOmtive point of view, it makes a first-rato oorner plant."
Thu leaves of plants, considered in reference to their aefim
on gases, fuiffl two distinct functions. By their protoplasm or
nitrogenous oontsnts they absorb oxygen, and they give out
constantly oarboniO^ dioxide (oarbonio acid). By their green
colouring .substanoe or chlorophyll they inspire, during the day
only, oarbonio dioxide gas, and expire oxygen. In tblb young state
the the ohloixiphyll is relatively scanty ;
bsnm dhrfOg tJii period the respiratory funolion prodominates
AGRICULTUHAL EDUCATION IN TfiB BOMBAY
PitESlUENCir,
npHE Governor of Bombay in Couucil directs the pubhcation of the follow.
-1- iug papers regardinj; Agrionltural Education, tor the Infoirmafcion of aU
corcofned. His Ejccelleuf y in Council earnestly requests the oo-opcratloa of
all offioers end of the Native community in the furtheranoe of this Important
cause.
^»»ues by the Clevernir 0 / Bombay, daUd 29lk October 1878.
I.—Tho need of agricultural aoienecintliia countiy, the bookwardness of
the people in the superior methods of coUure, the slow deterioration of iho
soil in many places from oxhauslivc processes, the waut of reatorativto
means and applii^nces, the probability that by improved hnsbandry tho yie*d
of the soil could be a^n>*^oted, —me ocusiderationa so matufestly important
that no apolt^y U needed, when J ask iny honourable coUosgeoff to jom
mo in pressing them upon the attention of all, ooncoiued, Nor need 1 at all
dilate upon them, as they are so well known to, and so folly appreoiated oyi
my lioiuiurablc colleagues.
io
THE INDW MBimTHfilST.
3tm^ ii ljS||f|«
2, BftfenriiJg to 6 of JMinuto of the ®th SopUmbiM^rdlimf
the formation of a olaes at Poooa for trainifti? natiiree iyi sotOatiAo atrtenl*
tore,—in which my honeurablo coUeaguos concurrod,—»I have now to
taeULiou that Wjr. W. iKohertaon (Superiateadent of the AgricaUnrwl
Ihettiiale at Sydapet near Uadras) has arrived at Poona and conferred vrith
me ihd with Dr. Cooke, Principal of the Civil Engineering College at Poona
m the r^hole eahjeot of oduoation in ecieutido agrioultare, 1 have aooor-
dhigly lo state for the cousideratLon of iny honoorable eolleeguee the
coaolneions to wliioh wo have come prorieionatly.
8. Deepile ihe ^up^ior local adrantagea, respecting the prcductivouose
of agticultaro and the enterprising obaraoter of the people, wbieh Quxerat
posseasoi as ootnparcd with the Pecoan, I Hod that Pooua is clearly tho beet
place for the estabiishinent of an Agricattural College, X bear in mind that
tho people of Ahmedabad are anxious that such a OolleKo should be
established at that city. We do not, however, at present poasose the means
ieOnaorat, whereas we do poasees them in Pootin. Hereafter if tho
developaeut of agriouUutal education shall cuablo u<i to establish a 0<jllege
Ib Hnzeraty'tbat will be well; meanwhile wo must be content with xnakiug
a commencement at Poona where the necessary facilities exiaU At Poona
alone have wo at hand the sciontidc appliances and the teaching power for
high ednOation in agi'icultare. As already proposed in my iMiauto of the
8lh Septeittber, the Civil Engineering OoUego at Poona (winch is fast
developing into a College oi Science) can make scieutific agriculture one of
its brandies. The Committee, which my hononrable colleagues concurred
with me in appointing, have submitted their proposals, which will be found
worthy of cut approval, whereby only malrioulatod students will bo
admitted io the agricultural class. 'Ibis class, then, will be stnotly a
College olasi, and its under-gtaduatos will bo qualifying thomsolves for tho
degrees which, we hope, the Bombay XJulversity will confer ui scientifio
BgricuUute. In that case tho Uuiversity would fix tho standard of exmma.
tioo. At this College will be prsservod tho high standard of agricultural
ednoaliOn which students from tiio interior of the country may be expected
to reach. Here will be placed tho centre and the head of the systoro. From
hero will emanate ibo supervision which will bo needed for wb.iUver
agrieultural schools maybe established in the various districts. The auuual
oost of the arrangement is estimated by the Commltteo ut Its. 6,000.
i, 1 may add that at Foods, veterinary instruction of the best kind can
be adbrded—'indeed an excollont school of this kind already exists in the
Cantonment.
6, In oottuection with the College at Poona, I propose, (if my hono mMo
oollesgnes shall conour) to establish agricultural classes in some of the
high schools in the several districts of the Presidency. This rnebhod will
be compavaiivoly cheap and easy ; can bo almost luitucdlately cauied out,
and oan be adapted to a ver^ small number ot Hludonts.nl the outsi^t *, whereas
the stttUug o£separate agdoultanxl flchooU would be costly uivl diflieul^
would be beyond our moans at proseut, and would bo uasuitablo a 'it Lho
outset only a few sludentdi were to coma forward. At a high school the
Biudents arc taught Kuglish and the voinauulir, aiso the ordiuaiy kinds of
elementary knowledge. Those among them who might be willing to attend
an agricultural class could dn so, Ur. Jtobertson ihxnks that one hour u-day
fur in'door agricultural inalraotion and oiio hour oxtia out of doo;^ overy
other day would suffice. To that oxtoat the students would have to be
exonsed some of the ordinary subjects of stuily, tho Etiglish and vuraaoulac
studies ouly being obligatory. Afeor a two years course they might, in Urn
opinion of Mr. llobertson and Dr, Cooko, receive “school certiheatos” of
protioicnoy iu ngriculiurc on passing a moderate oxamiuation, which would
bo conducted by tho Poona Oullcgo. Such a cerlilioatc would per ss bo of
use io a yottug man even if he wont.no further, but more patuculnrly it
would adtn him to the agricultural class <>1 the Poon.i Oollego.
G. It will be xemembetod that to this ma'v«'tcalatod students will 'ilso
bo admitted and will bo eligible for a Uiuvcreitx' degree in agticulture, A
osriidoated stndoni ot an agricultural echo'd, os above debcnbed, will be
admitted to the Oolloge class, indeed, Imi vtiil n.tt bo oligibla for a degree
nuleis he passes the Matiiculaliou EKummntvou also If ho does not become
eligible for a degree, ho may, after a two years* ooiir^o in the C illogc,
obtainaOoUegeoartilioate, which will have some considerable value; but
will never be so valuable as a degree. U would be bettor, of course, that
after having obtained his school certiOcatc in agricuUate, I.*' should also
pass the Mairionlabion Examination. But he may nol bo able lo do so, and
in that ease he should not bod. vrod from the OoUego instraciion eveu
though he may not be eligible for i degree.
7, The course for a degree will. . >bably bedoiermineJ by tho University
at throe years. But Mr, Xtobertsen .mti Hr. Uooke think that for a CoUego
cortifloate, as above described, a two years* coarse will suffice, us the students
must nocoBsarity have undergone a two years’ aguoultural course at the
school.
8, Tho College then would have two sets of studeuts—fiirst, r.nd*>»-,
giaduales K<>ing through a three jcais* coursefor a ; se-oii 1, stud'jnts
having school certificates and going through a tu ^ year’s course for n
College certificate. Young moa belonging to either set will be most useful
persons to the country in vari.)us capacities, official and non-offi imi.
p. Hr. Ottobo desiM 4 to open this class from the commencemont of nort
session, that is, iu Novemboi, Mo time, therefore, should be lost m sendtag
round tho requisite notices to the savoral high schools to iuCoru. u'Cidiug
sbadents. The curnculum has beftn Mroady proposed by the v mttee
above alluded to The chomioal course trould be partly devoted to
pgricuUural chemistry ; the bjtaalcal oettwe to itgrfoawifAl botai^ ty
the geologic course to inrfaee geology, Jfor the egricidiurat ooi^
Hr. OoOke agrees with me ioth^kiiig wemy aw^the appeerenoe
ot Mr. Bobertson’s tesxt-book o£ agrfou^re to he isined vijry e^ou,
which is baaed on the best English tex^ooks, with special refqre^ io t^e
expeiieuce gained during Boverol years In Bontbefaludlk. if'
18. I revert to the organisation of the agidonlturht classes' in the high
schools. It would be very deeirable to at least six eoeh olasses at
various places i three of which classes might be in Ha«ecat| whq^ the
syatom is more likely to be immediately popular than anywhere else; oge
io Khandeish and the remainder in the Heocan. We know thotmagy
studeuis in Guzorat aie williug to come forward*
XI. Tho first quesiion is, whence are the teachers to be obtained P Ifovr,
fortunately, for eomo time past, many youths from the Bombay l^resideTH)y
—chiefly Parsecs—have been studying under Mr. Bobertsoh at 0y4ia]p<g,
where they have nearly completed a throe years’ course. Hr. BobertsOn
thiuks that the best of them will, on completion of their course, be qualifled
to give elementary iustractioii in agcioiilture to school olssseS. For the
six classes which wo propose, then, six men .would be required. After
consulting Mr. Ilobartsou, I pioposo that we offer each of the^six yonog men
I whom he may select a salary of sixiy rupees per mensem. And this would
coiiatitute the sole charge of establishmeut tor the olHsses. Here, then, we
have our teachers at hand. Iu future the Poona College will produce
teachers,
12, Tho next qnosbiQii is, what shall be the earriculum ? There agaiir,
fortunately, Mr, Itoberteou has a little bonk, almost quite ready, in
English, un this subject of elementary agncultui’o, oalled the agrioul-
turul clas^-book, Cased on the books published in Eiigl and and adapted for
the use of iiidtiui schools alter an expHnonce of ssvural years in Southern
India. This book comprises otemcubary iustruoilon in—
I. Soils.—Origin, formation, distribution, tillage.
II. Mauute.—Varieties, action, uses.
HI. Cr^ps.—Varieties, culture, uses.
IV. kituuk.—Bacos, breeediug, feeding, general management.
V. lmplem<'uts.—Machines, tools, watcr-lifts.
As already seen tUcBe students must know Euglish, bUerefore this book
will suit them exactly. So much for tho in door curnculum.
13. Tiiere remains tho mattor of the out.door onrrioulum, which is of
primary lunporlance with respect to agriculture. It is la the field that the
studeuta must practice the principles of whioh they have read in the
agriculbinal class-book. For this purpose, Mr. Robertsou thinks that at
least SIX aci'ea would bo needed for each class ; Una area is a minimum j ten
acres would be bet ter • bates economy is essential, we must be ooutant
witli a minimutn to begin witli. The six acres aie ma.de up thus—one acre
woiiUl be wanted lor ploughing deep and ehnllow ; two aotee (or rotation of
crops; one aero lor exhilntion of manure ; ono acre for irrigation ; one acre
for porennial ciops as distinguished fioui annual crops. As near to the
3 .<houl as possible, llicu, SIX acres of land would have to be rented, for at
least iou yearsj in order to give tho experiments fair play ; lliough a twenty
yoar’i lease would be bolter. Irrigablo laud would bo preferable : but as
jti .i m il would not bo absolutely necessary that more than one acre out
of Liui f.x should be IIrignU'd ; therefore tho SIX acres may be unirrigated
land if irngablu laud be not available lu tho locality. Tho reut of six acres
of land theu at, say, teu rupeos nu acre, or sixty rupees in all, would be an
annual charge against the clans ; which is moderate. Theto would be some
initial outUy wiuch, after consulting Mr. Bobertson, 1 find would bo
wise ; one iron ploogh Hi. 25, one pair ut bullocks Bs. 80 to 100, one
cart Us. 811, implements and tools Us. &i), but for one field labourer, and
shed for a pair of bullocks, say Bs* bO ; ienclug Us, 2vl—in all Bs. d26j bo
whioh add Bs. 100 for se^da, manure, and mieccllaueous—total 426. ’Fhe
ttp>ke 0 p of the bullocks aud the wagoa of the labourer would together
amount to Us. 30 per mousem. or ifo. 330 per annum. There would be
auuually i '^curriug oontingencies, but these would be defrayed from the
produce o' the aix acres. ,
li. It ^ >^nld not be practicable at present in these school olas^eg tp
afford out foor veterinary lusbrucUon—though the pnuciples of it would bs
taught in tL t class-book.
16. Tuo iinual charges tUea of a High Eohool agricultural class would
be thus ?—
Teaolier fat U;. GO per month.) ... Rs, 720'
Bent of SI acres ... ... ••• „ 00
^ Wages of one Jaboarer aud up-keep of one pair of bullocks ^ 600
Bs. 1,U3.
The initial outlaywonld be Bs. 426. These %urei hays been carefnUy
verified by Mr. Uobertsou* For six each sshools the aumial outlay wquld
bo Bs. 0,810, and tho ittitial onllay would be Bs. 1,660- Those expense
seem modotaU. If the whole of them caandt iu these times of flnanoinl
prossare be afforded, still a portion ef them cerUiftly can be afforded
that is, if six classes oauttot bo afforded, we may begin with four otosses,
aud so nu.
IG, The annual ekpeams of ao agricdtural class at the Poona College iA
as already tieen, set down at Bs, 6,00), Tims the annual cost would be
li^ohools *M •« Bs* 6*610
CoHago ' *** »» ?»640> ;
’ Bs. .h;
11
III IPUN AGBXOPLfTOST.
Md. iiilkU ottUiiy Rt* 2,^59, «l»y viili extfAi lt «4 d*aO0. With these
tmtuikhmW bnt ifumdeyftteffl df «gii«iiliiiiTftl edaeatloni^ht be
0 ^ m fiiofc in ^feeidenoy* A lMf^nab|iAigltt&«tlmt mide, l£it
idicnim luboevdi Ihe outlay might be aa^ented bamfta? ao^rdms as
the hdght gpoir ot as oar aaaueial uims i&eteaw.
]]?, my honborable colleagues shall approve, the Plpeotor of Public
.luftruotioa might be reqaestod to atraoge to opeu the bu( high soUo^,!
dasisee from the oommeaoament of the neat oilteial year, that is, ia April
1872* should be explaiaed, hovevei:i that the teaohera from the Sydapot
iostit|tloii eanuot foiii till Jaaoi os they wfll not have completed their oopfso
and obtained their oertificalea until that time* Kotverer, it will sofaoo
for them to Join by the 1 st or oven the 16th June, when the agricultural year
remember that ei^ery aftadhnt Who loaves such a school may bo loohed on a«
a pioneer to instruct hie fellow villager^ and bo render hie own knowledge
leu*folil more valuable to the oomewn weal.
Our thnuks, a« eaggeMl by His iQxdellenoy, arc due to His Qiaoe the
Uovenior in Oodnoii, Hadras, for so himRy placing Hr. KoberUon'e service
temporsniy at our disposal ; and Z ventsuteto think that not only to khn for
the infymtiUon he has given* but also to Vook, the Principal of the Civil
KuKiaecriag College* for the ready tfiSpooao he has given to His
Hiceilenoj*B wishes, our tiianks are due.
J. GIBBS*
by the ifonourabio Air, Aikbumer^ dated M JVbusmhsr 1878.
bSiginf.
18* Xhe foregSing remarks apply to what may be termed supeilur
jnstraotioii io agricaltore in the upper schools in BogUth. Our object should
farther be to scatter brosdoaetas it were the elements of saeh insti action
among the middle scboole in the vernacular. Kow* althc'ngli sin acres re¬
present the miuimnm area on whioh superior iustrnotioiioau be adbrded, Mr.
liobertson thinks that some elementary instruction, which would bo much
better than nothing, could be afforded to a verntioutar class oven on one acre,
U there were didlcnlty in exhibiting ploughing, sull tho rotation of crops,
some of tho methods of cu lure, and the use of artilicial piaourc, could be
exhibited even on this small space. One teacher, trained in iho superior
olasses above described, might lu some localities serve aevt!r<il eclioois, say
three i then if his salary were} as before, Bs. 60, tho charge to each school
would be HSk 2U, or its. 240 per annum, to wliioh would be added Uj. 10 for
tent of cue acre and some small iniliul outlay, say from^is. lOo tu iis. 200.
It IS impossible to estimate exiiotly the cost,, but ii mani£i>sLly will bo but
small { and if these classes became at uli popular, the village headmen and
other peasant pxopriotors wiU be sme to londer help lu defraying iho chaises*
If teachers shall be obUinabla, uuch classes wouid soou inuttifily aud men
will be qaalihed (natives of this Prusidonoy) at the Bydapei instiLUtiou by
the middle of next year, in after years they will beoumo qualified in our
own superior olasses. As regards the curriculam the agricultural ciass*book
in Buglish alluded to will be soon translated iuto the vernacular ; or rather
a vernacular class-book of a aiuular scope will bo prepared.
10. Besides the agricultural insbruc Lion given, together with oxporlments
on the ground, some rudimentary luBlruotion can be given in all primary
schools by means of a piimer of agricultuie in the vornauular. Mi. Robert¬
son will, as 1 learn, bo good enough to assist lu preparing such a primer
suited to the cireumataucea of this country, and then we can soon have it
translated into the vernaculai*. When the toachmg of the pamer shall bo
established m the primary schools, some amagements might bo uiiuio foi
having itiueiant instructors going about and lecturing fiom school to school,
shewing some simple expenmeuts, jllustcatiug tho things taught in the
primer and so on. Avrangements ot this sort has, I believe, been uJopLed
with success m some countries.
20. One effected melAod of diffusing a knowledge of agricultare among
the land-holding classes is to eusure that onr native Reven le offllocrs and
of&oials shall graduate in this science, the Mamlatdars, tho Mahalkharis,
and these Karkans who hope for promotion to the higher grades. Wc are
already endeavoariug to arrange that all those odicials shall be grodiutee
of the University. If a degree in agnoalturo shall be established by tho
University, then a preference might bo given to that degroo over other
degrees for this particular class of appoliitmeuts. Or else it might bo ordutod
that all ofi&oers and officials m the land revenuo department most go
through an agrioottaral course, the higher grades through the college course,
tho other grades thmUgh tlie SoUool course, as above describod. ITurtlier,
as the system takes root, it will not be difficult to arrange that all he.ulmcn
(FatUs) and village accouatants (iCnlkarnis), who^e hci'cditury appoiTitinonls
reqniro the oonffrmation of Iho audio nlies, shall pabs some elimciitary
examination in agrieulturc.
2U My honorablo eolloagues will doubtless agree with mo'in ackowlodging
OUT obligaUonB to Mr. Bobottsnu for the interesihig lurormation and
valuable advice whioh he has afforded us, pud to the Madias Govorument
Zoi so kindly lending ns his Rorvi cea for a short time.
IIICUARU TEMPLK.
A/xmte by the Honoyahie Afv. Oibbe on AgneuUural EUacoUton,
dated let November 1878.
I entirely oonour in the exhaustive Minute of His Excellency the Fiesi-
dei^i, anjl shall be very glad to And that fxmds can be provided to carry out
all hio fuggesUona,
It is quite time we instituted srimols for this purpose. In Guserab the want
‘hat been so much felt by the enterprising land-holders in Kaira that they
have availed themselves of tdie institution at Syda|iet in Madras ; and from
what was said at the Oonferancehold at Gunish Khiud about two monihs ago
it would ai^pear that a desire very generally exists to improve tho cultivation
by rotation ot otQpBt manuring* and other plans whioh can only be oomsDuni-
oated by those tmined in Europe j and although experience has taught th
natiTbs of this ooenUy to utilise many of the rosonroei which ualure hag
provided fot them, itUl the spread of ^rioultural sclenoo will donbtlcss l&vl
them to make greater use of'those reeoutees, as well as tu Bud out others
which* alfhough jiow md^tlug, are uukaown to them.
The measure Js one whioh e^g to me likely so increase t)ie wealth of
the l^ople In a mosten^t^dt way ; and though doubtless any very great
to this at once, stUl we must
1 eppovo of the scheme foe the esiablishment ot an AgricnlturM aud
Veterinary Class attached to the Poona Engineering College,
L, R. ABHBURKEE.
KKaoLutiow.—In reference to the foregoing Minntos in Counril the Qover-
i3or in Council decider that a Cullege class for instruction itt Agriculture
should be attached to llie Civil Eiigiooering College, Poona, and declared
open for students who have passed the Univoriiity HatriouJaUon
Exnniinatiou.
Thieo years should be tired for the present as the period for tho course
ot study. The Finance Department will bo asked to sanction eeholatibipa
tuuabbi for one year, acourditig to the list uiven in the next para, to be com*
t>eiod {or(l) by tho studentH euiorlng the olass, and (2) by those who have
completed their lirfit year. As care is necessary to prevent studenti joining
the class for the sake merely of the scholarriups, and with no ievtous inten¬
tion of itiRkiug any practical use of agricultural ktiewledge, thwsoholarships
shuuld not, as a lulo, be awarded at a gioater propcrtlon than oUo to every
candidate in the class, luid tho Principal of the College should have the
powtiL at his dihcretioa to withhold them altogothur should he oensidtjir the
ciiiididates undeserving ef them. At the same time, within the maxiuinm
umnher below stated, the Principal should be given diioretiooary power to
increase iho j^oporlion of scholaiships tu the stiengtli of the olass,
in tho case of deserving onndid.itoK whose poverty is undeniable, or who
belong to the fignciiltiirul classes.
It IS possible that hereafter it may be proper to reduce the ordinary pro¬
portion of one Buhohirship to two students, but it is importaub lu offer to
sludeuls a lair ludocemeub to start the class.
2. The scale of scholarships pMpo^ed as a maximam is as follows—
To be competed £oi
at Knttanoo Exami¬
nation.
!
Per meiuMm*
2 at R 1 . 10 each ...
Bs*
.20
2 at 8 „
.16
4 at ,, 7
.28
1 6
. 0
1 at >, 6
... 6
1 at He. 12.
75
.12
3 at „ 10 each ...
... 30
1 at „ 9.
. ff
4 at „ 8 each
.02
Total per mensem ... Bs, 169
Per annum ... Hs, 1,808
U. I'ho scholarships according to this scale, even if all awarded. Will Cansa
an expenditure Ich'tt than that proposed by the Oominittse by Bs. 744 por
unnum ; and (ho (iovetnor m Council being of opinion that It is of great im-
portaurc to add a course of Veterinary Lectures to the InstruoLiou to be irivsQ
in tho clans, would allot Ka 6b0 for this purpose—Ks. 800 being assigUed
for 25 lectures to students of the hrsl your, and Bs. 380 to 80 lectures to
students Iu tho rcjond^ear,
4. In rcipecl t<i tho eslablishmont of agiioultural English classoi at six
of the High Hchopls in tho PreHidcuoy, the Director of Public lustruotiou is
requested to take steps in accordance with the piinoiptes laid down in the
Minute by Ilia Excellency the Governor and to snbmit proposals in detail
after local enquiry. Tho soveral Commissioners and Collectors are requested
to aid the Director m this important matter to the utmost of their ability.
5. A similar instruction is applicable respecting the establisUmeat of
Vornacolar ClaHses according to tho principlos laid down in the Minute*
By order of Uis Excellency the Honourable the Governor iu Goancil.
a OONNJS,
Becretary to Qovejmment.
BONES AND SUPERPHOSPHATES,
T3 LEASE answer the following querios :
L—What cUoraical ohauEOB take plooo whan 100 pounds of
raw ground boun aio dissolved with sulphuric aoid ? Is sulphate
of iimo (qypenna) formed, and what proportion ?
*2.—Is bouamade more avaiiahle for plant food by tho uso of
acid, aiid if so* why is Rover used u^tlissolved?
B.'—What ia the diftarauoe hotwean, and relative vaiuo of di8*
$ol79d Mtd dissolved South Carolina rook ?
12
THE INmXN MftlCtltTHBlST*
Jaatuwy 1, tW®*
it adviiablo to mix eiiperphosphata before
using, OP is there e sufficient quantity already present ?
5.«^Xs it proper to mix wood-ashea with hen-manure, and H not,
vbet we the cbemioal ohangee that make it iropropor ?
tiio strength of the odour from a superphosphate a good
test of its agricultural value ?
7 ,-^In an analysis like the following, where only from 13| to
IB} per cent, of awlable chemicals is given, what is the probable
value of the balance of the lOO parts for agricultural purposes?
Available p1to«phoric acid .» ••• II to 12 per cent.
Ammonia (potential) ••• <♦. ••• 2 to 2t m
JPotwih(K.O,) . .8ito4 „
You will oblige m© and probably many others, by giving full
and practloal answers to the above.
O. X<> li.,
Berr^ville Va,
[Annoer hy Prof. S. W. Johnson, Scientijk SchooL'l
ground bone is somewhat variable in oomposition, but
contains about as follows
Fer cent
Water
... 10
Organic inatt€r« geUtioe tod fat
... 30
Boad and impurities m*
... 4
Phosphates of lime and magnesia
... to
Carbonate of lime...
... 0
With nitrogen ... *..
... 3
With phosphorio acid
... 24
When finely ground raw bones are treated with somowhet
diluted snlphurio acid, they are not dissolv(id, in the stiict senso,
but they aro disiutegraiod, and iboir phospates aro eo changod
chemically as to be dissolved upon adding a large quantity of sul-
phurio acid that is used. For agricultural purposes, the point is to
render a good share of the phospimrio acid soluble in water as
cheaply as possible. To accomplish this, the bones must lie mixed
with diluted sulphuric acid, enough to take away fiom i - ^ bone-
oarth (tricaloic phosphate) two-thirds of its lime, uiaknig tliere-
with sulphate of lime (gypsum), and leaving suporpliosphato u£
lime (monocalcic phosphate). Before the sulphuric acid will touch
phosphate It must decompose the carbonate presont, con verting
Us lime into sulphate. Six pounds of carbonate of li*no require,
iu round numbers, 6 pounds of oil of vitriol loi Ibis pm pose,
and the product will be 8 pounds of gypsum. To convert the 50
pounds of phosphates into eiiporphosphates will require 26 pounds of
oil of vitriol, and tho result of this conversion will bo 40 pounds of
monocalcic phosphates and 48^ pounds of gypsum. The ha pounds
of phosphatos and carbonates will thus yield, with 26 pounds of
oil of vitriol, SBJ pounds of gypHum and 40 pounds of raonociilcic
phosphate. Tho excess of tho latter 96} pounds over the former 82
pounds is duo to 18} pounds of watei, which the gypsum and tho
monocalcic phosphate take into cbemioal combiuuliou, and which
Is provided for by diluting ihu sulphuric acid with twice its hulk
of water before mixing witli the bone. ‘JLUe above resuh is never
quite reached, because, owing to the coareenosa of ilie botic and tho
bulk of the gypsum formod perfect admixture aud contact between
the phosphates and tho sulphuric acid is not altainablo. Moro
eulphuric acid will effect complete solution of tho phosphoric acid,
but in practice that is not advisable.
2. ‘^Bone is certainly mado more available as plant food beoauso
it is made nioro soluble, and thus admits of immediate distiibutioii
to the soil. Tho effect is not to make the phosphoric acid any bettor
for the plant, but to make a given quantity of it to fed inoi'e plai Ls in
less time than would happen with bones not sulpliated. The nitro¬
gen of tho bones is also rt uden^d more rapidly accSHsible to plants
by this treatment. Tiie uiMu'ete effect of acting cm bones witii
sulphuric acid is the same as that of extreme pulveujsatioii, Bono
fiour is as actual and effectual a fertilizer as tho sulphatod bone.
The reason why bones are ever used undissolvod is simply because
uuder many uroiimstanoes It costft less to do so. In other words, a
given amount of money and labour expended in raw bcmoqften
goes further and does boiler than when put iiite eulphated bones.
3. —The difference ip, that dissolved bone., contain 2 to 4 per cent,
of nitrogen ol which South Carolina lock is destitute. The relative
money value depends of course upon how they aro made, or what
a uantitieii. of nitrogeu and soluble phospljorio acid they contain.
itrogon in sulphatod bone is worth 20 ceute. per pound in our
commercial centres, while soluble pho^plionc acid U w<i|rt)> about
32} ornts. The relative fertilizing value ifopondB upOM vb)* wW and
crops they are applied to. When nitrogen alone is noediid to make
a crop, the South Carolina rock would, of course, have he ferUlhsmg
value. v'V' ^
i—There is no occasion to add gypatim, ftnlass wore is wanted
than the aeoail^ small dose of dissolved bOoe would supply.
5.-^The white portions of bird ^ng consist,of ant
If mixed with quick Jiwo* ammooia, will he ooplottsly set free, and
go off as gas, urate of lime remaQing ; bat If the mixture be mixed
and covered with abundauoe of moist lOam, toe ammonia will be
retaiimd in the latter. ; ,
6~^.No ; uone whatever. The richest superphosphates ntay be
quite free from strong odour. , , ,
7.—Eiglit to twelve per cent, of available phosphoric‘s ,acid
usually implies 40 to 23 per cent, of gypsum ; 2 to 2} of potential
ammonia impircs 30 to 40 of animal matter, aad 3}, to 4 of
“ potash ” implies 8 to 12 of sulphate or muriate of potash. ' Then
20 per cent, of nioislure, and 1 to 5 of sand ur sofl, are practically
insepaiablo from most commercial fertiHzors,"-if(:mjreaI Bwald,
CULTIVATION OF CAROLINA PADDY,
TN the latest published report on the working of the fiydapet
Farm, Mr. Bobortson devotea a whole chapter to toe subject
of CaioJina paddy and too experimeute made iu the presidency to
introduce it. Since tho past ten years, the Government have dona
much to encourage the growth of the paddy, and with that View
imported supplies of the best or “gold seed” from America,*
About four liuf.Ired bushels of Iho Oarolina paddy seed were sent
to Madras and distributed gratuitously over all parts of tho
presidency. Fiom tho roporls submitted by tho Tehsildars and
Oollcoture^of tho districts under whoso observations, experiments
were carried on, it appears that ut some cases good crops were
ob.'.K'd. The opinion advanood that the climate of Madras is
iiu^f.ittid to the cultivation of Carolina paddy, is considered
uutenab^o. Mr. Kobertsoii holds that by tho Indian cultivator
adopting an intelligent system he may ” secure to the plant those
good agricultuial couditiuns which in America is invariably met
with.” In tlie experiments carried out in this presidency, the land
was not propel ly manured except by tho silt deposited by irrigation
watei , some plots wore puddled and worked according to the
native system which is highly objoctionablo. It obstructs iho
passage of the irrigation water through the soil. The system
adopted ot preparing nursery beds was also objectionable, and
hence a ” ditllcully was exporionced iu pulling up the Oarolina
paddy plants for transplanting.'’ The iirigation of the crop was
conducted in tho ryot’s own fashion. No care was taken of the
plants during growth besides a little weeding ; the practice of
hoeing is almost unknown to the cultivators—the entire absence
ot tillage opeiiitions is one reason, why the results in certain cases
were misatisfaclory. The ears of the paddy were ono-thii'd to
O'e-lialf heavier than those grown in tho country under similar
conditions—tho .avoroge number of grains in an our .^varied from
l.Oi) to 2o<', M’biie many plants had from 10 to 12 fertile oars.
Q''ho lyots oomplaiiidd that there was difficulty in separating the
giani iti thiCHhing. More labor has to bo expended in threshing
Crtrohna, than country paddy ; but tho system adopted in this
coouliy is such as to produce a great deal of waste. No benefit
is bkoly to result ludcHs labor and pains are bestowed on any
uiuloi taking. In the threshing of Carolina paddy, it is necessary
loBp' nd some labor, especially as the results are most encouraging,
and Jie yeild largely in excess of the country prodaoo. All the
expet mentors weie agreed upon the fine size of the grain ; they
were igieed as to the yield being larger than country paddy, and
they f und that the straw produced was stronger than any of the
iiidigeooiis varieties, and valuable as fodder for cattle : other ryots
howev T reported that their cattle refused to eat the straw as it
was ocnibf. The fact was lost sight of that the Carolina paddy
plant wa<» able to withstand rough weather better than the country
.caddy, storms that would prostrate crops of country paddy,
would pass over mops of Uarolina paddy harinlessly.” A tabulated
return was prepared of the yield of tho paddy : in some caara it,
was very much larger than any descriplioii grown in the oountiy
and in others, it was higher than tho average yield in South
Carolina, Supplies grown in Madras and in t)ie Sydapet farm,
were forwarded to England to be sold in the market there as an
experiment. The price realised wus not high, bat the Brokers
reported that if it is to ho sucoessfiilly introduced into the London
market, it must be of better quality and be properly cleaned. The
ooncluidons drawn by Mr. Robertson from the reports of experi¬
ments carried out arc, that Carolina paddy can be grown suocess-
fully in the Madras prt.sidency Witli ca« e and proper management ;
past experiments wore unwillingly andortaken, and consequently
many unsatisfactory results were obtained. That the yield varies
according to the oare bostowo^^ on a crop is amply borne oat by
toetet tuat, in one district^ the yield on a certain field was dlMold
and in an adjoining district 120-fold* Theto ate of ootttse
TM IHDIAN AQKICULTXrttlST.
13
dittcoltiitt in t3ia Woy m giowij^ a new tooripUoa of gram In
iba ooiiiitr 7 *^that dlffiooUy aaya Mr. Bobertoon wiM fott wUoti the
Hoo crop failed In Italy in 3i82d» and wlien aeed paddy waa intro*
dnOed ibere frotn OaroHna. The paddy which grdwa ao Inxnnanily
in Booth Carolina, was introduced there from Madagascar, and
It is sOggested that instead of sending to Amerida for seed for
further etperiments. supplies should bo had from Madagascar. In
any Aftse, a great deal will depend upon the manner in which the
g rain is prepared for the market, as the high price obtained for
le Carolina rice in London, is attributed to the way in which it in
prepared and sold. It was intended to publish Mr. Eobortson’s
report on paddy onltivation in the shape of a Manu&l or Guidet for
distribution in dilEerent parts of,the presidency, especially iu those
districts where Experiments wore properly made. Bui that inlen-
tion has not been carried oat as yeb : a concise. Tamil translation
of this interesting paper will ue very useful in disseminating
among the ryot classes yaluable information as to cultivating
Carolina paddy.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
THB PLANTING OF EVBB'afiKENH.
T hese may be planted at all soanons of the year with rqual
success. One of the principal things to attend to is to lix on
a dull day for winter planting, and on a moist da^for spring and
autumn planting. Prevent thoir roots from becoming dry when
out of the earth. Poor land, strange to say, which has been trenched
and ploughed and proved unable to yield a crop of grain, if
planted with over-greons for a few years, becomes fit for agricnl*
taro.
Nionx-SOIL AS MAHUBE.
T 0 IS as most planters are awam, is a very powerful raannro,
liable to decompose, and abounds iu carbon, hydrogen, azote, and
oxygon, and iu whatever state it is used supplies abundant food to
plants. Of course the smell is disagreeable, but this can bo
cured with quicklime. Many people do not know, however, that
if sprinkled with quicklime iu fine weather it dries and is easily
pnlverised. The Ohiuese have much practical knowledge of manures,
and they mix one-third of fat with it, make it into cakes and dry
it in the Biin. In Ihis stale, it is pulverized and dcUverod in
the furrow with the seed. This is in eiloct dosiocated night-
soil, and is sold in French commerce as pov^heitt. This vuluablo
manure is disfciibuted over the hop-grounds of Kent. For etimu-
lating tea plants the Chinose usoifc generally mixed with “ ox-horn”
grindings, to prevoni the too rapid decomposition of the animal
matter.
CHICORY AS A SALAD.
One of the easiest grown salad compounds in India is chicory
and iu the opinion of Dutchmen iu Suiuatra and in Java it is
superior to lettuoe. Garden cress is also easily grown, hut
one seldom can get a gardener to aliond to it. At a lime when
eight annas is asked for a moderate sized cabbage iu the Madras
market, wo think it is about lime, that, Europeans got Homollntig
out of their compounds, other than the by no means succulent grass
and weeds usually luxuriating in thorn.
ANALYSIS OF TOE TOBAWO STALK.
Pbofessob Davy of Dublin, wont into this matter, and found
that tiie presence of iho tannin principle could not bo detected
and the alkali afforded was not very considerable. One thousand
parts of the stalk yielded iifty-cight of ashen, which atfordud three
parts and a quarter of alkali, mostly potash. The stalks contain
nearly one-tenth of this weight of tobacco : and where tobacco is
employed either in fumigating or in making decoctions for the 1
destrttotion of insects, ton parts of the stalks will produce efi!octs
eqnal to one part of the leaves.
AaRICULTUBE IN EGYPT.
The state of agriculture iu Egypt may bo compressed into a
** hlrds*ey«*view ” by any traveller versed iu the slightest degree
In, agrlonltore, Bioe is sown from March to May, and is,
6 months in coming to maturity. The plants are spread iu thick
lay^ (as no Bails are used) on floors of earth and pigeon's
dung, and are welt beaten. When the rise of the Nile causes
a great ticpantUm; of the waters the jprq/?« of the proprietorf*
inoroases .60 per cent.^ as the land produces 80 bushels to
mn. There Is no s^lng hhw in « expansion ’»of irrigation might
omioh India*
OOKCEBNlNa limiGATION.
The art of Irrigation cbnslats In Boating not in soaking or
drowning, as itnost peopU appear in think in India. A constani
discharge or succession of water such as would be produced by
u downpour of rain is as good an example of irrigation as
wo can give, but this is not sufBcient; neither will it do to
dam up water and make a field like a pond, such as we often see
in India. Wherever the natives of India in the matter of water
ore taught the diifdreuce between wilful waste and woeful want,
the better. It must be borne in mind, that well irrigated fields
should enjoy the eWhient of air as well as water. To get this,
water most be passed over tlie land with a brisk current. To
see a lot of buif^oos wallowing up to their knees and riba in
a so-called etagnant irrigated field is one of those peonlfar
features iu Xiidtan native fanning economy, which would strike
a Chinaman as tantamount to insanity.
No wonder that m India the iucomo of the native peasantry
aveittges only ,-£2 per year. According to a recent Qovorn-
raent repott, they admit themselves, that, tho most an ordinary
rj'ot makes is l(iV, per month. It is all very well to cling to
the notion, as most ryots do, like the Persians, that, the earth
is moliouioss and the sun, moon, and stars revolve round it. But
for Iiulian Government officials to go on colleoting^^coUeotlug—•
collecting from people so grossly ignorant of agriculture au
tho Indian lyots, without improving their condition, is to
emulate Turkish rnlo. Tho Holy Land, once the richest country
in tho world, is now the woist cultivated and pays only a
quarter of a miilioa sierliug. Viewing the state ot agriculture
m India, wo fail to see how the average Indian omcial can be
supposed to be iu possession by experience of knowledge to enable
him to teach the Turkish peasant how to impravo his condition.
C. W.
Madras.
AGRICULTUBE IN NORTH BEHAR.
(Concluded from the Agriculturist ttr I>oembm)
Tl Til. BRID gives the following account of slepa that have been
XfX tuAen from time to time to Improve (he agrlouUare at Bebar
A few eoers of American cotton, Carolina padily, and xnafse ioods
I he states, were circulated some years ago by Government amongst the
j planters ; and a ram, eupposK'd to have some English blood in his veins,
found bis way to Hutwah whon tVie esiate was under the mauagoment
of the Court of 'SVatda, I lei a uud there some teak tress, and near
Mozuilerpore the (allow tree, may be seon by the road side ; and at
Poofiub is to be found the tobacco farm. This Is all that has been done
by the Goverument to improve agriculture and arboriculture fn North
Btfhar. The iiidigo planters have introduced English plorgbs, steam
cuUivators, thrasliiijg maohiaos, Thomson’s augar mills, and portable
engiues whb improved pumping machinery into the province.
Many years ago the sugar industry was started by Europeans In this
province on a large scale, and most expensive machinery was Imported ;
superior kinds of cane 100 were uitroduoed, but the whole butiness
collapsed In a few years, and rumod those who had embarked m it. Bo
far iudigo is the only agricultural mdustry which has benefited the
European settler.
I find that sub-soil ploughing has a most remarkable effect on (ha few
crops 1 have grown m fields so treated. To show my ryoU what can be
done by deep cultivation and green manuring. I sowed three baegaba of
light sandy laud with common country maize, having previously
mauured it with 16 tone of refuse indigo plant per acre, and sab-soiled
it. Fortunately for me there is a shepherd’s field adjoining mine, and
he folded hta sheep thereon for three months before sowing it with
maize. Tho two fields wore sown on tho same day, the 26tb of Jone, at
the same time with several other fields belonging to native oaUivators,
whioh had not been manured. It did not take long for the manured
fields to pick themselves out from the ruck, and the crops in them are
rearing their heads several feet above thoir neighbonrs. Bat ray field is
coospIcuouBabcvatijo shepherd’s for tho more healthy appearanoe of
the crop and the deeper shade of its foliage^ I shall invite the attention
of the Collector of the District to this field to show what can be done by
improved culture, ever with native seed. In 1876 I produced from a
plot of laud an average of 36 maunds 6 seers of grain per beegah of
32,400 square feet; the piodaoe consisted of 16 maonds 13 seers ot wheat
per beegah from the and 10 maunde 33 seers per beegah of Indian
corn from the hhttre^f. The plot of ground selected was an old Indigo
ticld. It is not nnoeual for a planter in these districts to get 2,1001bs.
of wheat per acre from his land, and it mast be remembered that he only
sows a few acres for home consumption, generally selecting the poorest
soil that requires a rest and change from Indigo. And yet we know
that IflOOlbe. Is a very good average for tho ryot to gat in a favourablo
season from his hhvroef end ruddeo crops pot together. 1 shall now
endeavour to place plainly before yon (he reasons why (he soil has
14
THE
IjikcULTHEliST.
Jaotiaiy 1,-
deterloriiad imte^ a»tiv» of oultiTfttlott. To begin wUhi the
esMablilge eil la large tHleges ie otoo of the ireateat bora to
la|»raira4^gtWWr«. in olden ttmea when tbe oouHtr; trie iafetted
wUb dim ihhI 4 * 00 ]ia U waksebaolatelj oeofsser^ thetryota ahould olob
to^etherlo vUlagce lor lopuiual proteotioiu Bat oow that life and
are aeoure, any etepa that are taken towarda makiiig the
enUikdtori lire more In the fielda with their cattle, inatead of tethering
Ihejat np in rlllagec, will confer a laatiog benefit on the agrical tare of
tbeoonatry. Atprea^nttba dang and aihea arop oolleoted in espoaed
heape Oppoeite the hutai or very often near ceea^pools, rlrera, and
ditcbea. and a» the attrlaoe drainage of the rilUgea alwajs leada into
the oeaa-popla from which the earth waa taken for the walla of the
houata, every ahower of rain aweopathe eaaeuce of the manure into theae
hollowa and waterooaraea. Dealdea,by teiberiug the cattle and other
f|rnf ttbUnaliM tbe villages, thoir nrine la completely loat to the Helds
aa4 igoea towarda making the saltpetre for which poor wretched Behar
tsiamottt. Dt, d* Forbea Wataou, in a report prepared for the rhilndel-
pbia fiahibitiOD of lS7Gt montiona saltpetre as ''another oharaoteriatio
Indian produce/* He might have added that it is oharaoteristic only
of wast<^at extravagance, and the most slovenly system of farming
praoUsed in the world. The saltpetre of Behar is mado fiom the
surface sattb of the village sites, which are impregnated with decayed
organic matter. In North Behar there are 16,917 saltpetre works and
1,304 refineri^i which produce annually 600,000 owis, of material for
exportation. Besides this amount of saltpetre about 100,000 cwt'*. of
asallnc composition named khari is also produced yearly m these
dislrlctA It is madeTrora the earth known as nA, which cfiloroscos m
cxbaoated lands deficient in organic matter, and this is how it la
prepared for market. S traw Is placed ou ihe(i;«'ound and covered with
■aline earth to the thickness of about four tnohew. The straw is th«u
burosd, and the burned matU'i is again covered with a foot of straw,
wbiob is also burned : this prouods benig repeated seven times, after
which the heap is covered with vegetable matter for the last time
and burned. The saline matter is then dissolved in water am! boiled,*
and by this process khan Is prodnood. The waste of straw and leaves
in preparing the ealtpetra and k?iarb is enormous, and at a v* • ^ low
average. 1 estimate that 91,400 tons are used as fuel In (his botfiness,
the ashes of which never find their way back to the fields...
At least twelve per cent, of the cultivated lauds of Nunu Btbar
ate annually sown with moat exhausting crops, which cannot thrive
wUboui heavy manuring. And these crops, beaidas takmg up the bust
lands and nearly ali the available manure of the country, aiu in
themselves nou^manure pr^duo^rs. Therefore, as a nuiurol conss'
quence, they thrive at the expeuie of the coicai crops, I uow give a
list of the principal non-manure producing crops, with a memorandum
showing the approximate area taken up by them
Acres.
1 Poppy
•• . 1 .
... 173,163
2 Plax, Mustard) and Satllower
... ...
...
S Sugarcane ... ...
...
... 44,000
4 Cotton
... 52,000
b Sunn, Hemp and Futua ...
f ...
... JS/JhG
C Tobacco
...
...
Total
... 725,Job
The high rates of Interest charged for petty advances to cultivators
prove another drawback to improved agticuliain. The u^ual rates are
fi7i pet cent, for money transactions and per cent, when the transac¬
tions are in grain. 1 have known 100 pur cent, to be exacted for gram
timuaotions. 1 do not believe that there is one ryot m u thoueaud
free from debt.
Inieonrlty of tenure, and the want of a proper system in keeping
village rent accountsi are also greet drawbacks to an improved system.
The proprietors are, as a rule, most uuicrupuloud an i grasping ; at.d'
the more wealthy amongst i.win leave their affairs to br managed by
native nndertiogs, who are a shi -ie worse than themselves.
There Is great popular belief In the deterioration of the soil and
dlminiehed crops. The ryots, when questioned on the subject, will
answer; *'Ia former years we used to get heavy and seasonable rains,
and the crops were sown and gallic red wlihoul any extraordinary
labour. The fields used to be full of weede, and when the rains
commenced we simply had to plough twice and plant out the paddy,
and we reaped heavy crops. But we plough eight times, we
carefully remove all the weeds, and even with all this hard work the
crops refuse to grow as they used to/* The natives also say that tu days
gone by the mango trees bore fruit regularly every year, but now ^y
bear only every feo<md year. This may be only a popular
Bui still I would not be swpriiethie itjwas the case, as oertkiu/y the
mango groves yeoeive most atrocious treatment at the hhodp,pfl^
native oultivelors j, hhd ft \§ surpiisiog to me that they bear fikt
atalh Tomycsitola knowledge the soil hai deteilOHi^i,! cud the
crops ate worse than tbey^^were when X first ehme to xhi djtificti, Urge
tmoti of land that used to bear hrotn of rt<w iwidve or Idurtheu yeaie
ago are now given op to that ^ernicions millet f and no
proof than this is wanted of the defetlorat^ atate.of the sol), P
glance at the prices now rnling for the dikereht hih^ of gmln will
prove that the land does not produce so much as U n^ to. Bomper '
harvests mean low prices In these parts. ' ,
Ihave many suggestions to make for the haproveineni of tha eCU’^ and
of the condition o| the people. These suggeatloni are certainly
disinterested, us they hinge on increased support to be given to planless
and other noo-ofilcial Bufopeans, as 1 am certain that without their
guidance and assistance the natrvea will never better themselves or
their oountry. Tlio Ions and Waste by the present ptimitlye system Of
agrloulturo arc Incalculable, and yet the Indian ryot takes upon himself
to grow crops, with his limited meana and scanty supply Of manure,
which a Buiopeau agriculturist would not think of oultivating unices
he bad money and xuanure to assist him. The result of the ryot's
abortive effort is. as I have already pointed out. the rearing of these
exbauaiive non.maouro producing crops at the expense of the cereal
crops of the country. I style the ryot’s system of cultivating these crops
abortive, advisedly, as ihe average produce Is ouly one-quarter of What
is produced m other oouiitries where inMligent management is brought
to bear upon the^^ultivaticm of such crops, aa sugarcane, oottoUf flax
and mustard. Aod, when we iak» into consideration the millions pi
acres that are devoted to these crops throughout the length and breadth
of British India, my saggeation to check this sinful waste of good land
sUould iioi bo treated merely as the Utopian dream of an interested
adventurer. Theie is no reason why the sugar and cotton crops should
not ,< .Miucc as largely in India aa m other countries, and yet we find
the uvt lageproduce uf sugar m Judiu is 12 ewts. per acre against 60 owts.
in other countries, of cotton lu India 60 lbs. per acre agoiust 200 lbs.
in other countries. And this slate of things will go on until the end of
the chapter if the Uoverument docs not interfere. The question will
uoturally arise : Why don’t Kuropoaus tnin sugar and cotton planters
m India if the produce can he iuoicased so largely ? The answers to
this fjubstion are several : Isf, tho Burupean has an impoverished soli
to deal with in the first intunce; %Hdly, the Imliari species of sugarcane
have so detcrioiated that the Kuropean would bo a ruined man before,
he improv'd them ; '^rdly, tho cost of the plant and machinery of sugar
works iM so CKcesEivo that the Butopeau plauter lu India could not
afford to work ul a loss uuiil he had iinpioved the quality of the cane
and increased the furiiltty of the soil. 4fAiy, the sugar industry has
not leceivei the same fosieiiijgcaie from the Indian Government that
has been bestowed ou it by tho Governments of their coontrios, Qthly
the cheap g4r and sugar of native production would drive ihe Buglisb*
ni'^u 4 sugar out of tho local markets, as be cannot produce so cheaply
us tuc native cultivalor ; and if be went in for making the same inferior
acliCiUS, the markets would soon be gluUed.
The same arguments apply inagieal measure to the cultivation of
cotton. Besides, the native ryot has very hazy ideas of the difference
between mum at iuiimt and the planter would find his fields robbed of
half their cauo or cotton i£ siiict protective measures were not oosfired
him by tho Go7e^nmen^ The thieving proponsiiios of the natives are
the great drawbacks to Europeans engaging m a general system of
farming in India. Indigo has escaped them in a groat measure, as they
counol cat U. and they ominot manutactuie it without fear of detection.
HowcVf.. these questions arise—first, should the ludieoiimlnato
outtivnt of these crops bo allowed ; secondly, should not Government
interfere and insist ou the weeding out of all lands that produce less
thanSSevt. of sugar and 1001 bs, of cotton per acre. To acoomplish
these objt ds licenses must be granted for tbo cultivation of these crops,
and in tl esc licenses it should bo particularly specified that the straw
and dung .«id aslies produced from the cereal crops not be used as
maimres fo’ Laese special crops. The lands rcaorred for the non* food-
grain, non-mauuro*produciug crops should be made to produce ail Uis
manure required, wbioh either may bo dug iu or eaten on the land
before sowing; or else extraneous matter such as marl, artifiotal aod
mineral manures sUould bo used. If these soggestions were acted on
and improved upon, half the area of cultivated land that is now
occupied with sugarcane aod cotton, would guffioe to produce tho same
quantity that is now made all over India.
Flax, mustard, safiabwer, castor and other oleaginous seed planis take
up a vast area of the bvst cultivated lend, not unly in North Behar
but all ovejr India, A superficial observer does not notice these cropl fo
much, as Ihey are generally mixed with the cereal crops of wheat aod
barley; but etiU the immense loohl consumption and enormous exporta¬
tion from the Country will prove that these cro]M «re ooliivatefi la a
illp-eht4 m*tt»«hrtQ an alarming hxteut. Under the present system c* eat-
tlvatioo theaeerojis are Acarse to the land, and yet no atbef prapi eaild
be made more beaefioial to tbe agrioultuie of the ooiUitry« The eteeki
of theM pleats are omd as fuel i the seeds veMrved for Some eooiomptioa
1, TEEE nfeUN AGRICtriTimiST.
15
M» ml; tQ tlio ytllm ollmtn, ftnd the «plFt)li». alook la ao^d lov
exportAtloa. Tkeryol^ fotl book hia share of oil, whidh eoataloa no mineral
matter) but the valuable mannrial oil cakes atd reaerted by the oilman
ai hU per^ulelts. If the ryot wants olloake for hie oatUe he has to boy
it baok e^aio, but as he is generally too poor to do that, he has to go
irlthonlit. The oil cake is therefore sold W these who have set up
trading oarta The trade in these districts is most active by bollock cart
trsAo. jphe roads are nearly all unmetalled, but they are well bridged
end in good working order. Forming a low estimate of the number of
carts In Korth Bebar, I should say that there are fully CO,000, the
bullooks of which are never tethered in the fields, boton the roads and
In houses, oonseuaently all the oilcakes these cattle oonsame Is lost to
the soil) except the very small quantity of ash which is saved from the
oakee of burned oowdung. Under these oironmstanoes It must be appa¬
rent to every one that the oleaginous seed crops ace now a burden to
theeoili and yet, whet a blessing they oonld be made. Take flax, for
iastanest if » were sown separately for fibre as well as for oil, from well
•elected seed, a new industry would be started which would afford
employment to thousands of the poor during the staokest season of the
year, Koreover, there would be no waste of manurial sabstanocs by the
prooeas of preparing flax (or market, os the ilax water is a most valuable
fertiliser, and the dry chaff when worked up along with fermenting
farm yard dung will pass into a good mould. The fine fibre or thread
of flax takes nothing out of the ground, as a bundle of well dressed fiax
will leave no ashes when burned. And again, if oil-milts were established
throughout the country, and the exportation of oil seeds stopped, India
would keep all its olloake for the soil, and export oil which contains
little or no mineral matter. This is a subject which deserves the most
serious attention from the Famine Oommissiou, The trade in oil seeds
sprang up about the time of the Crimean War, in ooufhquence of the
closing of the Busslan Forts, and has made most alarming strides of late.
The total trade in grains and se^ds iuoreasod in value from £3,850,000
iu 1857 to £13,560,000 iu 1877, or about 274 per cent,, and it now con¬
stitutes 23 per cent, of the entire exports. I see nothing but ruui staring
India in the face from the nature of its export trade. What does the
poor starved soil get back for all the saltpetre, oil-soeds, outton, sugar,
opium, and tobaooo robbed from it, and sent across the seas 2 For
besides having to supply its own teeming population with these com-
mou ueoessanes, it also eaters into a largo export bnemass of an ex¬
haustive nature ; moreover, it buys back Its own oottmi, m the shape
of piece goods from Kngluud, to the tune ot sixteen millions sterling p^r
anqum. One would fancy the cotton was sent backwards and forwards
from India to Fngiand to bo seaHonodjOr at any rate that the ooimtiy
was too thinly populated to admit of the cotton mauufacturmg industry
being started ou a large scale I No wonder that all this blood sucking
has at last weakened the paiteiit, and laid him 00 his beam ends. Aud
yet the only crop whioh is cultivated at ullou rational principles, and
which acts as a touio to the impoverisliod soil, is made the suiqect of
most bitter attack by the local (I iverotuenb aud some of its officers, bir
i^hley lUdon's persistent attack on ludigo always reminds me of tho
fearful onslaught made by Mr. Winkle ou the small boy, There nr^
bigger aud more worthy foes scattering the salt of India's sod to the
winds ot Heaven, and yet Bir Afehley expands himself iriaquariug up to
a miserable 2,000,000 acres of indigo laud, indigo is tltc only crop
which returns any vegetable matter to the soil in Uehar, It is a legn-
minouB plant, growing to the tieight of five and six feet m favorable
HOils. It fs always out green, (wo ouitings being ubialue*' in the year.
The refuse plant and indigo water act ns moat valuable fcrtilisore.
Being a legume it absorbs a oonsidorablo amount of ammonia by the
leaves, and a field in which indigo has boon cuhivatod is etinched with
nitrogen. Besides, all (hat this luxuriant growing green crop sends out
of the country is 20lbs. of dye per acre I
At the very feet of the royt's fields lie the material to turn the country
Into a garden. For instance, in Ohamparun there is a chain of fllinllow
lakes covering an area of 139 square miles, with a layer several feet
thick of noil fertilising marl. Aud again, (hero arc the magodlcent
fodder crops of the Bast, such as the mci'htiraiHnit noryh^n
mlguro, and others, which are the most luxuriant growing grasses lu
existence, capable of producing nnlitnlted supplies of fodder and manure
But a long purse, low interest, and a guiding hand are required to
develop these resources,
1 cannot say that free trade principles liavo improved tho conditiin
ot the royts. Being notoriously pour aud improvident they have sold
their grain in seasons of plenty, and starved m seasons of smretty,
The most extraordinary thing oounected with the Indian grain trade
Is the rapidity with which prices fiuotuato from cheap to famine rates,
Barley may ho selling to-day at one rupee per raaund, aud e>ix months
hence it is not procurable at half that rate. Aud ws cau rest assured
that when the pricoof grain is verging on famine rates, the onttivators
arenot the men who profit. Iheij are tho great wmmu'n m the country
and, as at best they only produce enough to keep body aud soul lugctber.
it is f4efr objeot(i£ they could only act upon it) (o keep thoir granaries
full and prices At present tbe muhajun is the ruling spirit of the
age, and ho has grown fat at the expeuse o! the Oovetomeut reputation
and the masses of the people. It is sinful the way these men aro allowed
to deal with the people, more particularly in grain transactions,
and as much as 100 per cent, profit is as often as not made by The village
grain dealers. The mouths ot June, July, aud August comprise tho
season daring whioh the agriculturist is hardest pinched for food. He
borrows freely during that period from his and iri September
hae to pay ba^ 60 for every 40 seers of grain borrowed—very often UO
seers aro exacted. An energetic rmhajm who goes in for quick returns
may donble bis eaplcal within tbe year. Now. I have to propose that
the QoVernment pula stop to these usarioBS transactions once and for
ever by openiog its hand, and establi^ing grain stores throughout the
country, which stores would svootually prove pillars of strength to the
3tata« There is no oooaslqn for Government to have a separate eatablish-
mout for thUrbiitltuia, which might be entrustedi to truatworthy planters
and aomindars, Tho traMaoiioDs should all be done in grain f and the
gialn itMfed bnlv he the hardy mUlets of tho country, which are
never attfiehfid by wudTll% kfi*p lound fer year# wltUvat
Tho etore-kaensrs should be boiled 40^11 to sell this grain, but to
exchange It in kmd at reasonable rates, For tnstaooe, a rcyt bonowiniB
40 Beers of grain tn June would retard to September 43i icers. Andil
this system of quick retarnt in kind at favourable rates is introduced,
the stored grain will aooumutate at suoh a rate that in a few years there
will be enoagh to feed the whole population even Iq the worst of seasons.
Tho breads made from the tawrovA and ehwim millets are wholesome
euough, though tough. No loss by wastage arises from storing these
millets, even though they should he kept for thirty or forty years, 1
beg of the Famine Commission to think of tho reputation gained by
Joseph for his wise precau|ionary measures; and the uommisslon shonla
not bo above taking a bint from one who Boooesifttlly combated against a
Sevan year’s famine in Bgypt.
I have now to recommend the planting ot more frnit treea flooh as
the jack, mubwa. and mango. During the present season of dtstresst
have particularly noticed tho Important part played by these fruLls in
staving off famine from tho ryots' doors.
Ttiore are many estates under tbe management ot iba Court ofWatda
in this province, but tu my oertaiu knowledge no experiments worth
beiug recorded have been made in agriculture, and the Improvements
iutruduced liavo been more in the direction of adding to tbe numerons
roods of the province, or building new palaces and bsxars, and iayiog
out pleasure gronnds.
The irrigation canals of India are the ofifsprtogs of an impoverished
soil deficient iu organic matter. It wasouiy when we found that OUr
lands would neither attract or retain inoisbnre (hat we commeneed to
shout for canals. If 1 wero proprietor of Behar 1 would not have
an irrigation canal in the place, although 1 would always keep tho
natural wafor-oonrsea full of water. But as I am not proprietor ot
Behar, and have no moans of stopping the great waste of eow^ttug and
vcgeiahlo matter winch goes on iu tbe provinoe, 1 see ifiissons ot
drought and partial rainfall Ipomtag^ befoxo an i and th«r«fore on the
prltioiplo that half a loaf la better thau no breal, 1 have raised my
voice with the best of them, aul shouted for canals, eighteen
years ago, when 1 first oame to the ou nut ry, the planters would have
scouted the idea cf having canals in North Debar, but fur the last four
or five years they have been begging aud praying for them. There is
no Btrongor proof required than this deterioration of the soil; and
1 ogam repeat my well-worn dirge that deficient rainfall is caused by
au exhausted surface soil. Irrigation Is our last resource,
1 have, this year, seen what I never saw before, and that is, numbers
of largo trees dried up by the roofu for want of moisture ; and I have ao
hcsittttion IU saying that this would not ha/e happened if the leaves had
been allowed to rot ou tho ground, instead of being swept away as they
fell.
It is not likely that any large area oi tho cnltivated lands will ever
booumo waxte again, and neither is it d««sirab)e that ibU should happen,
as the wild grasses ot India aro of a very bad quality ; and even where
the cuttle are plentifully supplied with ihein they never seem to thrive,
but are to the last degree wretched. Theae grasses were only valuable
111 promoting humus in the soil iu aot aa an attraotor and retainer of
iQOisturo. Now, that ibore are no longer large traots of waste land, it
IS positively iinperative that wo should copy the laws of Nature and
promote organic matter in tbos jil. Wboo a piece of old waste land is
broken up it is black with humus, but in a very few years after it has
borne oojcai crops, under the present spoliation system of Xodlati
farming, it baoumos olmoat as white in colour as the palm of my band.
In my opinion no laws can be too stringent which aro framed with the
object of stopping the enormous waste of vegetable matter. Bven
should tho nativns rebel against tho new innovations 1 would fight it
out with thorn, and make them adopt measures to restore tbe fertility
of the soil. Is it a fact that wo are afraid of the natives of Imlia, and
are obliged to pander to (he wilful prejudloee of ou ignorant body of
peasants, who have already succeeded m rendering arid the onoefertilo
lauds of Hindostan?
Iu negleciiug the agriculture of this vast land we ore proving false to
out self-imposed task of govorrimg India for Iudia*8 sake ; and we shall
have to answer before Uud for tUiu wilful nngleot of our duties. Let
us, however, rouse ourselves bufore it is too lai», and endeavour to
remedy the immense harm olpe,idy acoompUsbedi Bemembcr that it is
a glorious uudertaking, more glorious in ite object than all the British
ends of justice, canals, and railways which have hitherto been orammad
down the unforluriate native's throat, ns U is the only teat preventive
of famine; and by taking Hindoo prejudices by the horns now, and
wrestling wuh them sucoesaftilly, wo are conferring a lasting bsuefit on
future generations. Ueally, from the way we have hitherto maoaged
India, one would think that we farmed it (or a certain term of years
and were trying to make as much as possible out of the wretched land
daring the shur^^ period of our ioaso.
The natives mast be made to sot more value on the vegetable produce
of their fields. From the little cow-boy, who burns bundles of grass to
keep the flies away from hia cattle, to the high caste ordio lox Hindoo,
who consigns the ashes of his relatives to their last reating place with
the Bid ot cow-dung and mango wood, they must one and ail be taught,
that it is tbe wholesale baruing of tho produce ot the soil which has
brought these seasons ot droagUt to tho arid plains of India. The arfiar,
cotton stalks, aud uiaissa roots are more than enough to supply fuel to the
mhahitants, with careful m'^-nagement, without tkti aid of a slngta eaho
of cow-diimj ’f as, at a very .ow average, 1 estimate that 2,700.000 tons of
arhar, coUtoii stalks aud maize roots are produced yearly to these
districts ; whilst the consumption ot fuel for a population ot 7,889,381
goals sbonid only be 2,535,864 tons per annum ; this is at ao average of
60 lbs. per month for each inhabitant, which is very high.
AU tho villages to the province should have dlstlognishiog brands for
their cattle, and all cattle aud buffaloes should be marked, BeB->
peotable natives are at present obliged to tether their cattle in tbe
villages, instead of folding them ou the fields, for fear of cattle-lifting.
A recoguised systom of branding oattle would do away with this evil.
lU now draw flits paper to a *oloso, as I have done my best to
(That I coualder to be the most prominent evils
arid India, 1 have expounded ideas wh^
]M wild aU4 Utoplaa^.theavorageIndianofflclal, but itiu
1 bave aii6a^ gaatlemen meet ever; leuggeetioa D^eforibe
jbif Ifidie]i ognoaltere wltb (lie mma argamaniit fbb laegt
ol todw mtirtliblWe gentlemen are well deeotibed by a writet la fna
Apridititu^ GmUe of Indio^ 08 follows; <'Xiie8e men seem to imagine
ibat India ts exempt from the operations of the laws, to wbloh felie
Temidtidev ol tfae eartb Is s&b|ected, or that these laws affect India la
some etmelal or peculiar way; they appear to think that the priaolplee,
whietiahouia govern agricultaral practice in India mnst be epeeially
Zadiam*' And, therefore, if I hare offended the dignity, or roused the
ire of my one of India's barcditary legislators, all I can do is to aik him
to remember the folbwing lines trout an old Bogliah drama
Frey, Ooody, pteaso (o moderate tlie ranooniTot your tongue.
Itcmeoiber, when the iudgoumt’s weak, the prdudioo is strong*
XBB U/knAOEMBIill OF CLAT SOILS.
A COOBDllSfGi with my thirty years* experience, the true way to
conquer these soils and make them profitable is by very high
farmlng'^that afler the nnder-surfaoe draioing, to feed them
abundantly with rich cake<fed manuro ttindo under oorer, and thence
at once carried to the land wiihont any iutermcdiate dong-heap; adding,
for a great mangel crop some 3 owts. of reruviau guano and 1 cwt. of
salt. ITor a fall wheat crop after mangel, apply 2 owts. of guano and
1 cwt, of salt, intermixed before aowing, and applied at seod-tlme. 1
onoegtew7qrs.of wheat after heavily manured mangel, and never
expect less than 5 qrs. pet acre. All this ImpHos that we have plenty
of cattlO'msflking manure under covet both sammer and winter, for
which ample capital tnuet be found. Our red clover is first mowed for
hay, then immediately top-dressed with twelve cart-loads of Irosh^mode
rich cake manure direct from the covered yard. When the eecond
growth ol.oloVet comes well above this manure, fattening sheep are
folded on it, consuming cake, corn, malt cuhns. Ac. The land is then
*eauoy*£or white wheat,which mnet not exceed one buehel of seed per acre.
After tbe white wheat is harvested, we take on the same ground a crop
of rivettf, and then mangel heavily manured. In 16GS, o good wheat
year, I tbns harvested 8 qrs. per acre of fine white wheat, sold from the
maohlue at onoe at C3 a, per qr.; and on the same ground grew, in 1809,
7J qre. of livett wheat, followed by 39 tons of nmogol. Thr aoheovy
dressings and largo crops are a certain cure for stiff clays, tor they
diminish greatly the pro rata fixed charges of rent, rates, tithes, seed,
and manual and horso labour.
Poor farming and small returns on such soils are ruinous. It would
be better not to farm at all than do bo with iusuffleient oapUal. Tbei,e
non*>cakateons, glutiuoua clays, which crack In drying, and are there¬
fore unfit for the ordinary bnck-uaking. They arc like birddimo
when wet, and extremely hard when dry. Sheep cannot be folded on
iliein in the wot ssasoo. Carting roots, off, and carting maiiuie on, is
plougbed Quder befpM Whiter and phty eeai^ifM Iti the
receiving an addifioli M* $ cw{a uf’^^^iiA^daihaiadJ
Very heavy crops of mi^el <^0 *0 mti per iS^ miy ttew he fo^
on th^sd soils, while aih^ w 0 UW^sne*idlrlwM^
Covered and Ml<^rard^hthlH|edlll^|Chajtoreti0li«hil, fo
these cattle eboold be fed winter and Shsmiief M
up green food or pulped koots, mixed With wefit# wlj^ke.
Horses should aUo have opt up and pr^aiwd food, iln
winter under cover, eitbitf on iwraw or sparred floors, they dbiiot
foot-rot Itt covered yards, althondh they do '’SO' tii tthobmred
These stiff soils ate impra^eafile lor iheep in I
very eucoessfaWy "undee ouSeT, but t^cy telg&ira Jete'''#axmth tflilbl oatf^
The great advantage of covered 7 “^?! ieeOonamy nf
of manure, which should go' dirSot to tSm 'flhld, Id loiai^
equal lo 15 Of dnng heap or open yar4 manure. Thifli theid' IS' a' l^lwaS
saving of horse and manuid labour. ' My nelghhouts are at length Ifill*
Ing of them. With proper vSntUdtiop. and a slight dally
animals In these yards are especially healthy. 1 have expenefloed ihTs
for fully 80 yuds. By covered yards these heavy Iknds beoOme »ea^
makers, which 1 conidder most Important, I make meat to gel Jltaiihre.
and thus obtain maximum com and other crops. Snoh arable forms
require mntdi tenant capital—A16 to per acre would net be tOO
much, to produce the most profitable reaults. It Is a great mlitikn to
take such farms with only ifiS to ^]0 per acre. The amdnnt Invested
live stock alone Should be at least per acre ; much 6t It fed ml
imported food. It is surprising how far a good green or root crop will
go if passed through the cutter or pul per, It pays better than turning
out and roaming at large. Iron hurdles on wheels for sheep pay well.
In Goucluslon both I and my bailiff are fully convinced that this fruin
could not be profitable at present prices with hneovered yards, ihc
roaming at large of animals, and the uodrafned and Uttle flelda of
ancient custom. 1 feel for those who stiil have to farm under such
adverse conditions. The extra £1 of rent for all modern Improvmenls
is the key to profit.—«f, Meohi, ^
TEE GUTTA-PKODUOINa PLANTS OP THE
MALAY PENINSULA,
I N an appendix to h report of an expedition to Perak, recently made
by Mr. Murton, the superintendent of the Botanical Gardens, Sioga*
pore, a good deal of information is given regarding the sources of the
different kinds of gutta produced in the Malay Peninsnla. Five
varieties arc enumerated, and Iheir respective values in Perak and
8aluogor given as follows:
Price per pionl.
iu Perak.
In 8alangor,
Gutta* B 00600
r)0 to {>2 duia.
uot known.
Outta-tHbuii
... 46 „ 50 „
60 doU.
GnLla.rambong
.It tl2 ,, So ,,
not known.
Guita-fiinggatip
... 17 „
20 dole.
Ghtta-pufib-suncltik
lo ,, 30 „
« „
no easy task at times. These clays soon run into a mud condition if
water stagnates lu them; thorefore the most important oonditians are
under and sutfaoo drainage, to plough them before winter, taking espe¬
cial cure, even where uudor-irained, to keep open furrows and water
furrows to withdraw water quickly from the seed-bod, and thus preserve
ns ruuoh as possible, its friability. 1 kuew of somo targe farms in Bssex
on these clays, which caused heavy loss to farmers who came from a
friable or drier district, aud who have laid these lauds on the fiat, aud
have thus lost their crops in tbo mud. 1 know of such farms, even
where .luder-dramed aud fnuly manured, which have faded for want of
opeu surface furrows, especially where deeply steam-ploughed. A
farmer, used to a friable dry soil, workable at almost any time, feels
perplexed and annoyed on our eblil clays, where horses or steam ploughs
cannot go on the wet land for many tkys until a propitious ohatige. A
wet, frestless winter on such soils causoa much Idle time for men and
horses.
Frost (when wc can get it) the grand and nnoostly pulverizer of
such soils. 1 once ploughed part of a field when wet for oats ; frost
did not oomo, so the farrow alloes dried as hard as cast iron, and were
too obdurate even for tov Grosi&lll, so as rain did not come In time we
could not sow onr oats until too late to get a crop, strangers could
hardly realise such a oond^iion of soil, and should, therefore, consult
local practice. Where steam ploughed in autumn on the flat, local
fiirmerfl Immediately draw out open furrows (at a distance of 7 feet in
Essex) by the ordinary horse plough, lo keep the land dry duriug
wiuter, so that, for spring sowing It would only require broadsharlng
or Boaii'dylug. Spring ploughing for root crops in these dense soils is
a vuy hazaidouB affair now. Farmers arc finding out that very deep
caltivatinn with the powerful steam plough is a oostly mistake. Too
much of the bad subsoil gets mixed with the ftecd-bed. bteom ploughs
are now much used m (his ueighbourhood, but at diminished depths.
These .'tcDbC clays are unsuitod for permanent pasture, bat grow fine
crops of rod or white clover, winter tares, andeapeoialiy mangel lynrzeL
The climate ia too dry fur swedes. Cabbages do well, W utnv ,#hoat
aud Tartar oatn thrive, bat the laud is too stiff for barjSTo rye¬
grass IS sown with the clover, which is only iaken for one year, and
fotloaed by wtntoi’ wheat, wbleU has an aboitdafioa of straw, Xho land
for, mssgQi ahottidho vory heayily msnuYoa 1
Of the first—guiia-soosoo—Mr. Mnrton was unable to obtain any
samples of the tree producing it, and the only information he could
gather conoerning it was that the tree is entirely destroyed, except In
tho interior of Fcrak; that the gutta is firmer in texture than gutta-
taban, and coutaiuB a httlo oil. This must not be oonf ounded with the
gutU-sooBOo of Boruoo, which is a caoutchouc or rubber,
Thu second, orgvLtta-taban, is the gutta percha of commerce, end the
product of a tree defccribed so far back as 1837, by Sir WUHam Hooker,
under t ho ;name of homndra guttaf but now known to botanists as
Btb. It appears that, in Perak, there are two sorts
alike in foliage and general appearance, and differing only In the colons
of ha fiowore, one being white and the other red. They are known to
the Malays by the uamea of hTgialo puiih and ^giato mrah, but the
prodi as of both trees are called gntta-taban. DieUptU gnUaUtDOtlt
abumi mt on Gunongs Meeru and Sayoag, and Bujong, Malaenih A
few L\rge trees still exist on Gonong Babo and the Thaipeng mnga,
Small Diauts, from one to eight feet, are abundant on the granite for¬
mations in Perak up to 3,500 feet elevatloa.
To proenre the milk, the tree is cut down at five or six feet finia the
ground, the top cut off immediately, when it becomes too small
for ringing. This, the native say, causes tho tree to yield a mnoh
larger quantity. The bark is thon ringed with small knives oalled
** golos " at intervals of from five to fifteen inches. The milk oontlimesi
to fiow for about on hour, and is collected in vessols made of palm leaves
or oocoanut shells, and theu boiled for about an honr, otberwise Hi
becomes brittle and useless, Bogarding thequaniity of gutta each
)S capable of producing, no trustworthy information seems (o have
been obtoined. One of the principal merchants of F^ak informed a
memberof theexpedtUontbata large tree will yield forty eattlei of
gntte, but Mr* Murton regards this as sn exaggeration, for from numpr*
ous inquiries among the men In the jungles he was (old that from five
to fifteen catties i8;abont the average quantify obtained, an4 never
more than twenty eatUei* Ho partlealar season seems (b be
in Perak for oolleottog the gQtta,andMr. Mnrton wps nnohi^eto glean
any information ws.lOi wbalhef or not the trees yield more fO' ntm
Maeefi;(b«»ftig8«tto! 3i^ofAit^fithoweTm,tlmt
AemCCLWKlBX,
bdUllL to SrtSto t* ^ tf»itiea
itottfr ^tiottod t«ito ^liwy to Hoteialwr l^TT»*0 ^nt JtJjJ Itfobobio
1^ TOO Wiwi dontroyed to tonitaSi tWt ^ui^tltj^* to* ftt to a
T5ot .!*.»% .*port^ i» «»• rt>»t>* d »Mo^ “'•'
««>t Uitoftgb which » plw of tc^ i» pat to
3&XbStog«BW thioaghthciaaglti. »«» balta twy
d^^winwd»ht,te)BiXOto SOcatthuhi abaut th# j
Mc al a M^li^wMtc eataw. *»* a lUghUj wfldtoh Bat tortdc. ^e
^a» Mowdiag to the qoaattty o* hark aod oihw
SSKSiTX l?TiSm« It 1. of .
jK? rtlUTatoa 4l XHtlupdta^tt^. “ towcbmlMiiaoi ttatp « s
*«t»B»iaffiaiialoothlgh»bouiabep«ooataa bom the janglMs W •*
la tia btoken a» iojatad, iu which cats the ptooU, oTen it they
tfflwIvA ft toftft to ITftOOTOfi
Tbaihltdfclndot gatta, namely, gn«a.tamboDg,l«ao^ib^MtoInis
'ko» al iha naWta ol caoBtehono, or tadia-robber. Mr.Martoa did
i»t find tha trao pradaoing » and ho wao Intormed by the Malaya
that It waa only to bo mot with In tho Intarlor of Patak, and on the
oldo rf the Penintnln. Thoao people doaoribo the tree ai taring
latga loott above gtonnd, and large, bright- graon leareo, with ^1“
OolLanehaa. Tho milk la obtained fromtheiolargo rootB,whleh ate
2;jnJ«twMrot?«...y.ar.apieal »»1»8 *
f^Ttna 1 the anal ylolS, howoror, la lald to be afiont half » ptoul.
Bdo robber to laid to roqnlre no prepatatton for martat, It haa the
-- ,-.^,., 0 . of long otilngo ittagnluly welded together j the taat <1B»%
2ngom-likoap^anoo, la very ®'“ J" lo
hrown colour | tho lofotlor qoaHtiea hare a large admlnture ®* ^’•
^mmooh drier, without the gum-lito oonatotenoy of tho bettor
SIST m.a oaintohonc «»"* Terak ha. much the »mo ^mnc.
2a Aioom robber, and Mr. Mutton oontldere theta la but little doubt
“at Itl. produced by the name treoPlhm. '‘““"T2l2irthe
to Malaya agreeing olo«>ly with that of the above-named plant, ho
2ed polnta to the btanoheo being probably the oonaplcuoua ted
«,hinh ennlooo the yoong leavee. Prom tho feet that young planta
r^^blliZia^ to to Blngapore Gardena, it 1. to be hoped that or.
iMTicr tbfl mlatn of ffttttft-rambong will bo definitely aettled.
In Borneo, awated bim they are ^
plant prodocing it w a mneb less' Tliere are two varieties ;
etgbt incbci In diameter, but often mneb leffl. ^ ue
one with very dark outer bark^ligbt oork*< olourod, with
red inner bark ; and the Ynifa? bark light yello w. 'Xbe foliage of
longitudinal ohanixels, itnd the inner burst iigu
both pl^wnto rtSl^hSnS^annl^sbaped and the other penr^baped.
frails differ in one being »Pg readily sought after by
Tho fruits of both forms ^ Iha/vUs of WillouQhbm, belonging
thsMalaySe dark-bajked
to the natural order, «,*u XoQg®Boaudeat stoma are often cut
variety la *be taat neoeaaaryto doao,
down to proeuTO to ^Ik, bnt » w mi a . »
except to render to opOTationoIooliMti^ k oBdtbo mUkellowod
ligierellyrlngodatlntorralaoflO to ia ioon^^^^
toJnnInto "J*?**?!• U oSSoTto flow lor aome
anything ntaunbi® tor the purpose , « oouuuu ani thin.
tat grudtalto Bbawatoa dartar Mlm^^ ^
aiasf 'sa Sm
Pramt thA foMiwtntf ^etotoks, U will be seen ibut tUsTo Is a great deal
vaF iatSt ^fcfcbe mtm ol those taluaUe plants otod fteas
JloldtoBdae^rwi^ to "to tie hoped that, witE an extended
EnowloSge (S to pUnie themaeltelblooreaBedeupplioi mayetootlud
their way Into odmmeioe. „ .
INDIAN SUQAU AT THE PAEI8 EXHIBITION,
A NALYSBSmado In to flrat fortnight of March on ripe cane
Avotageoamplee of ohipa from tho CutUng of whole bnudlee,
weighing from 100 to MO lha., taken for analyela.
torter, bioato and tore ovate m ^
obtatpad and p»^in ‘hoaaeM^maonwMjtutm^oan
Mototbor.lSIT. W doTMv’ptoSI« aStoatiodolalorgutta-Ubau.
nbd is worth only 16 dol^ per picui ^ When orosa-
Inoeuoln^ng lUU ^.JJu^Kamsaa ,\ out off aomo leafy
jgg to Moom vMgo ft^ a^a^waw nao^
fer isrsstfjS-j; h sm 2
LtS’CSf
to Perak fat taxtag with gutiai taban audjmtlK toa «ado^g lu
y«y taritUe, bat, I have tat aeon to gotta, not ‘bo ttta proanon
STwShta PeSTitota MO to which It to
^totobitAtakWN:.''
«'• rr?sS5§ 1 §
I
gs ign??-?*
^^bg;3 ?
-RSS I
-O* ' ** 3
gsa?
s spill
If
o> * f5» I P
_iJr
* eo Ol >2 , S
^2S5:ii2 IS
ffoafSI?*7*"!♦< IP
Ofl^co £
M MS tfb O
Vji « ^ ^
00 Wr^ g
rajsfg s
: : : ; * :
! J Si 5 «e 5 I aU
Tbo large quantity of onoryalaltaablo auger In the top la rematktate
aa compared with to rertof the cane, and to large quantity ol Uo-
knowu^" in to middle aa ccmpaicd with tho teat of tho cane.
Th» Mboabs, Wa^tkb and Solids of Aska. OAfiBs.
Deterininatlona when actual marked thna*,-when by dlfletence
markedt. ropa.
Tops.
Water,
Analysis of one bundle
Ateisge
Soluble
Solias.
ia*i4
ll'Sl
11*08
THB
topped
fiat iag«r*}umve
Afenge
jiflftlf tie of tlie tops of wbicb
appmftWe
Averego •*«
®aL“i
MIDD1.BI k ^007.
Megais.
Water*
Boluble ^
Bdids,
r *B !>7
♦77*18
24<26
} *8*00
*7668
16-82
t74-77
ifi-aa
C »H'40
t75*20
16*40
m'9
308'83'
C2‘27""'
8*47
75‘96
16 67
Mibdlk.
Megass.
•Waleri
Hobblo
Solids,
) *8*68
+75-6
25*/2
J *8‘63
t75'7
166/
17M1
IfiVS
31 39
b'«5
7&'C5
Vn’
**OOT.
jMcgnss.
Water.
Botublo
) •*8-74
#76*44
1182
y Fr-O'i
t7n 48
Ifi'Ha
1
t7r>'8<)
lf> 70
TTas
228 72
46 X
83
#6*24
15'46
top ttiid two mii
Avemgo
Therefore, h&Tipg on a bundle fbo separate average aualysls of
Middle-^two analysis
Koot-*-three „
The body of the oane, by sepa-
rate analysis of its midiile and
root) has an average analysis
And the average of fourBualy<)iN^
of a simply topped bundle >
was J
:a
of)
Blegasa.
Water,
bolttb’c
.Soljds
8'f>5
7.f;'65
16 7
«*8
70’2l
15 11'
' 8 47
75*l>5
IG’68
S-47
7o06
1 o'6<
e is 6 f i,
to the top 2 feet,
WO may see
Ihe average analyses of the whole oaiie is r--
Megass. Water,
Tops 7M X 2 ST 15*2ft 79 27y X -
BsSy ... 8*47 X 6 ** 42*85 7f)-98 X 5
57‘61
Average ... 8-2
Soluble Solids,
Top# 18'08 X 2 - 2616
Body «. 15*67 X 6 77*95
XU4 01
Aveifige M
And Megass^
Fibre aud oeliuloqc
lnorgaiiio*~cbiUly silox
audhmo . *2
H'2
pardamoms are likely to spHng up, afiter wblofa the plant Se left to
grow, the only operation being to weed : thle ie done at the anhOal
period of piekifig tho crops in the neighbouring elearings. Alter
four or five years of crey, one or two more trees arO felled, probah^i
beoauee the branobes of the surrounding trees have grown over the
cleared area, and it is neoessaiy to again Jot m the reqatpito
amount of light, Tbo plant begins to lessen in crop at about ton
years, and the clearing is abandoned at about fifteen to twenty
yea% when the forest again grows up. An old garden, seldom
oxceoJitt ua acre.
Ml, Dickenson thinks that there is little fear of the forests
cioterioiaung from the method of cultivation now in forOe, fmd he
says, tliLt u is i; v/jj,tc to lei the laud lie idle for years. Xt is
thuugl.'. t’ .*1 ii would not be well to allow ic^wind to penetrato
into lie , 10 , Cot '"I'ith regard to the (|uantity ofland that ought to
bo cultivtjcii, !ho report before us says
Tlic Coorgs undcistand very well the danger of killing tho
googf !uyn the golden egg/’Iho consoquenco of felling any
laip jf Ibresl loi cardamom culuvaliori ; but to be on tho
ealo fiUi and in case the rcutere l>e tempted to open out tho forest
too ucu by anolhoi sach a nee jn the pnoee in cardamoms as
oociino) a few years ago, it would bo a good plan to institute a
lule by vjiieh aijly om cardamom olearing should be made to so
mnt »3 aci. , -jav T to 30-4o , theso are only guess figures, and very
likely the proportion m'>ht bo safely increaeed. They might bo
easily fixed moABuring areas at present under safe cultivation.
AtiotUer good chock would be to fix the tuaximiiin area to which a
cleniing may bo opened. 1 beg to point out however, that the
(oueluaioti I Bave at present come to from an inspection of a part
of thfj ghats is liiblo to bo modified on an examination of the rest.
But 1 havo no hositation in saying^ that with the present low prices
obtainable for cardamoms, tho^eis no immediate danger whatever
to bo apprehended."
The clearing of forest imlosB tho land is immediately taken up
^ d^precAierJ, for when the u,.ui lb cloarod, if it is not at onoo
L ‘idu ated, tho torosl doow not lo-aaHert itself, but a low ecrubgrowa
li]. V'hicb oftL ‘0 takeb <'t') in Iho hot 8ea.soa and which extends to
the forenl b(>yondl. Tui’ ooHsofiuonce oj tho clearing of tho forest
IB tho diminution ot the water supply of tho district, and it ought
to bo the object of the Government to provoiit as much as posaiblo
this being done. More especially, should tho forests on tho slopes
ol tho gh.Us, and near the sources of riv-rs be conserved. The
CooigB, wo are told, ait imiUtinr Iher European brethren in
rloaring tho forest, tin Idgh ]>rico f coflet, tempting them to iuvest
in Hum industiy than allow the fores*, to stand as it has
done ft., ages ft is ukcly that trie uuojoci of the depletion of
Ir'f}'- VI ' 1, ''oug.bt undoi discuBsiou at the aFsomidy of tha
Ooiirunieshtiiere lv> Lmquiro lutc the cause o£ famine, and it is one
lUul rc.j^uitob then moat oauitvt ‘lUt'uliou
THE II^''^LUENC£ OF TREES OK RAINFALL.
CARDAMOM CULTIVATION.
A very intoroBting papei has boon written by Mr. Dickenson,
ABAUtant Oonservatoi of Forests, on the cardamom cu’iiva-
tiou in Ooorg, a subject which is not much known in this pai l of the
country. This plant is indigenous in Ooorg and the waslern coast,
and has long been an article of coramorco with foreign countries.
Some years ago two EughsL planters (licd the expenmont of
card r.mom plantations, but they found the prodacu was so
great in its natural state, that li wa- impossiblo to compote with
those who were able to got it toi .lolhing, or next to nothing. It
is not likely that the expcriineut v/iU bo repeated. 16 is only
during a portion of the year, naiufly frc»' Novomber to April, that
these forests can bo examine* ^ Mr .ckensou was miy able to
go through a portion of tho toruui, durinr^ the time he was employed,
but Uie part of the country that bo took in hand oeius to have
been gone through thoroughly. These forosls are situated, for
tho moat part, on the weatern slopes of wbe uhftt, there are very
few on tho inland side, md thca arc ’iuated to tho north¬
west of Nalknad, toge^ ior w» i* j!e locks in Kadyatond*
Almost tho whole of tho western slopot re wooded except ihc‘
upper part, whore are belts varying in height from 500 to 1,50()
feot, which aro generally bare of forest or grans of any kind. The
alopes are concraUy very stoep, and the ground is covered with
decaying loaves, the trees aie numerous and griAv tt.^ a great
higbt. Belwcoii the lioes Llio ground covero-l with loaves
80 that the buu rarely gets to it. Tlie height and appearance of the j
cardamom vary in diiforont parts of Ooorg. ’’’horo tho ground in
cleared for cardameui cultivation, many kinds of plants and weed
Bpring up at tho same time ats tho cardamom plant, tho soeda of whioli
have been lying dormant 'u the grbund with that ''f ' cardamom
plantB. Thocardamom plotfi aro formed by felling Ivt u . uree trous,
tho Ooorga bemg pretty well acquainted with the ^Iacoa where
D It. EDWARD BALFOUR, the late head of the Madras Medical
Dopartmeut, has f urniBhed tho India Odlce with a memorandum on
the "InflueacQ of Trees in India," which memorandum is being distributed
m India for tho benefit of the present generation ol administrators. Dr.
Baifoar, tells us that he wrote and printed a paper on the above subject
so long ago as 1840, and that in 1847 tho Court of Directors oalted for
mformation from India on the quuaUon whether tho rainfall and produo-
tivoness of the soil were known to be|iii{laeno6d by trees. It was only
from the Madras Fresidenoy that any information was furnished to the
India Office. It is iutorasling to note what the Madras Colleotois had
to say on this subject in 1818. or thirty years ago. Mr. Blane,
Ooi'ecior of, Oanara, denonnoeil the way in which the forests wSre being
desi^'oyed, and recommended Government to preserve all forests which
wer' not private property. Mr. H. Forbes thought there had been no
appr eciable decrease in rainfall, but that the water ran off more
rapio y after forest clearauoes. Mr. Connolly, of Malabar, furnished the
raln£i>U for B8 years, and showed that the amount had not decreased,
thong.I the olearanoa of jangle had been great. In North A root, Mr.
Binning wai informed that the rains for the last 20 years or more, bad
not bee. jO copious or regular in that district as in former days, and
that, of late yearn, the jungles ahd supplies of water had gradaally
diminished." The people of Salem told Mr* Lookbart that **when the
streams from the bills of Oollymally, Xullamally, and KlnamaUy were
covered with jungles, the water was oontiunally rnnnin^, but after the
jangles wore removed and the lands were converted Into nunjah and to
totokal fields by means of reservoirs, wells and tanks, these natural
atrt^ams had been afiieoted.” The Collector of Bellary noted the fact
that Ramaudroog Rills, 3,000 feet above sea level, was often surrounded
with dense mist, when the plains below were dry and parohed. Dr.
Balfour, who first visited Raraandroog in 1846, and again in 1866’, noticed
ou the latter visit, ihe great diminution that had oocurred in the trees
on its edge and sides. Dr. Balfour declares the railways have had muoh
to do wltii out forest and jaugleoloaranoes. The OommiUee appointed
by the British Ansooittfon in 1851, ooniisting of Dr. Dle|hotp, Dr.
F«ib«Bp,I«kOiq^tiilMB»itdSmltli ul Bighud BtndMfi 414 unub
TKB.ap>u» jAjmmm
tO'fonit QmnttffitWtibeneetinlty of proteo^lsg ftffwtBAikd planting
tiM. JfU«roii|r^wrUera«b6did good in estgblifhtnenii
of Fof«irt 13!«partiii«nts, Dr. Ralfour manibna Hr* »ho
limod ttePfo p^jpdkkts on tl^e fQbieei.nncI nrgad tbo importgnofl of pJanU
iitg \b9 JitWo with trees wherever n tree wonid grow« ^yo agree with
Dr» BatfOhr that the pnblie ehould be furnletied wtiiiacomprehoQBiye
tamd of what the Korwt Departmoute h^ve done, with a view to
deierminlag whether the iaboura of the uej^a».^n<eutb ntay not be profi¬
tably datteadod. The oouelaeiou X)f ilallour comet to» i*fter mtvuy jcaw
coneiderattott o; the subject is tlut the praeeiii veutuij, the
falntall has not dimiutsbeJ uor has the f|Uantit: aurvoaUj/ ta'llug
becotno taor-i anoertain ui tha' mau, partly igncrant and wholly
reoktese, has denuded ^Uo soil trfer and rtirrba, ;md bateJ the
eutfaoo to the auo’s ♦hoa dcprlv'ny the oowotry’ its (’^neeivative
agents, and making tho extnraAS of fiooda and droughts of more
frequent oooctreobe. and more severe/ t"
OUXiTUUE AND UGES OF THE CA8P U A.
T his plant ai>ativ«'';E tiopical America, whoro U hnaa^vays
fanned ouc of tho f'Uol loud nsourc's of the a!.on *
indeed, it elands ii; no^uly the same pl.icc in ihoso couuu'o.4 Ihut
tho potato holds lu more tempmalo regiunb
There are two dis cot spocies> tlu swool nd ’ V’ InUf r the ffcsh
juice of the lattoc deo,dly poison, !<’/ ’■ • lu ( o nSous
in the sweet kind. Tioding '> ' .uu to dobuoy lio* )40.Si.uvu!» ju vhty
in tho bitteji siad, hot that is no mpondo^ oo Jho ihujI
practice in tho SVoal Indiod IP pies'' U’ a*» mhoo uid / . -.y
it in tho sun, u.o-o oxiiooiv t ,k ou'jI’.'cIo ' '
purpose , when thoroughly U.y noKtt* * ■ hoKtiu
It is probabL' .hat tUk- i’*ul as iutf Obyi« )\ ii> V t
tirao of thePortn{yner<o doinm’ ’oh' watj coHamly horo lu 'o.,
tiius of Ur Put":t, it i 'hough ^ hn* '*"ve' ’’coi ’ ich ‘’h-mI, u hi\‘
1 uvii , J. i ■;». 'Iru-1 ^ ' o ' ' ’.u
ci* tr h lU ^ !>• "Uij* d'iirv . up’h. *' i
fttloi'Uoii t'j >'i T’r ''uug ot tms olam aun ‘o' \ < tii
ciUwaL’O’i £*" fic’ t-raduaMv o^loudi,", 'fy 'j-'i
cocoanut'’ au^'b'
Tho iisua' inO*'*' 'ji ps*{.'iun*^, .g a / i\ Lniu tl a ju *.,1 ''
thodiy.eaHon 'ioti m'U'* i '‘lo uscai ♦u-U'ii' iu« •» i-uiuKk^ui ^ .‘P
rivoo' ''i uiJHP < di'k *'iCL'’Uiiej I 8«' hcMoo’' »”> hiu)o>i 10
hole. ' u c1 sQi. a1. wJ d li't'‘ dn^aiiti
when tho iiisl ruo of ino soa'^'v.u uat-* txilU od Iho soil suihuunllv
for tho purpose. Over this tho kurakK-fm le sown, avI'ch tho
monsoon lainu have suflicioutly satuidtod Iho gKji.od Four
months afterwards the kurakkau is lurvosteui, tho t4a’i’..Gc wcodi^-J,
and a slip of sweet i>otato vine stuck in hero and tlioio, and
nothing more is required for twelve months, or rather uutiiing luoie
is done except to guard more or lose successfully agaiui^t tho
depredations of cattle and wild pigs. Tho practice is to sell tho
crop on the ground at prices varyiug from two to six pico por
bushel, tho puichasers digging for Lheinselves.
It would probably be a more profitable system to grow each ciop
by itself in succossion, but tho natives have their own wfiys and
will neither loam nor forget anything, in one instanoo another
plan has been tried, with what succoss remains to bo seen Tho
roots of all Jungle plants that survived the running fiie wore eithur
dug out or their vitality otherwise destroyed. The cassava was
planted iu lines at five feet apart, tho ground was regularly weeded
till the plants met and shadod it and kept down all othei giowth.
The estimated crop of this laud is ten tons u£ roots per acre, aud
the time twelve months.
The fresh roots boiled eat very much like potatoes, both iu taslo
and oonsistenoy, and arc in this state wholesome food for man and
all kinds of domestic animals. Figs and cattle ;eat the raw-fresh
roots greedily, and thrive on thorn. The dried roots moistened
With water are good food fur pigs and cattle, and ground aud
mfted, it makes excellent cukes and puddings ‘ ground without
alftingand moistened, poultry prefer it to grain. S'hu fresh roots
reduced to a pulp washed witli plenty of olcau ooid water, and tho
fibre separated by a sieve, a pure BtarcJi will setlle to tho bottom
of the vcBsei used, which rolled into pellets while inoist, dried in
tlie sun, and passed rapidly over heated metal plates, becmucs the
tapioca of commerce, au article which most people are ncquaiatid
With, as sold in the apotheoariea* shops at a price loo high for
common uso.
It is believed that the fresh cassava roots would pay tho producer
at 24s. per ton on the spot. It takes four pounds ot fresh rooti to
wake one dried, aud the labour per cwt. will be at least 76 centb so
tbtttthe wrreHpondiug price for the.dried article would bu ik pei
siarcm, either in powder or the form of tapioca,
could be produced for is beyond the present knowledge ot the writer
hereof, bnt^th proper machinery it could probably bo done to pay
? ^ ^ Doadott docks used to
•Re* two iffSei ' , ,«o »Q
as an arMole of either | 0 ^ second, elsif %
the dry state, and as thl ^5 4|ticeliture only i
when it can be depend | - mt* or their
weeks lu the year), perl 1 ®
cider milt to rnduco §'§
drying hous<*, where art I
thus doing in one day v ^ ^ ^ •
woathor, aud iu wot H *3
Ceylon, ^
NlTROaENOB
1 ;^VKRY farmer wholwll
focdiug materials on
I mmo'dp.' OT ' defU toraier '
, of bcritoNnimilai iuoompos xhe ciais of
I bodies bewriDg this uatnfi L . -ighedtimportance. Animal tissues
I arolargHlynmaoopof Jb:miuoM. ladoed.lean muscle almost entirely
.ousisit-of thoaosub^sacos, whioa in conseqnejiue imve recolverl the
iifimi ot iitfBh-fofmt>r«i N-. »i> . rainoidaeiscatlalcoaititueats
ot rlio \,xiy. \ 0 , , loms 0 ! vegetable
g.ojvtK and »'-itl out .ILmaiuoxii no norc^scor piaai t.sauc 1 # pcaaibiti
ft II a llw form mr “ia* v^imak foceive all Ihoalbu*
uiu'ouh alU'rwii.f' ..orod up m tboi' owi 0 'dios
fti'm ' di f,at, U hf .^lOoC-Uou ef albuminoids
Cv)h*u.^j^'d III rtii, I i,OK .) • real-imporfanoo , the
ieeuiriR v.iiucof n lor ^ vod uifaci '^Teod ■* go-,<' -oal on (,iix quantity
I- dUmmoM pui^OLf I :k iniportanoo
J alhuaurnOA (hat a siotomonlof thou quauuty is to be found in every
auJiljisH ot teeduig mfttiuiaP ^
i-rjto»tii«.iinv •he uolK l.-nu* Lot ld» uot: reoenlly posseswd Oijy
aooura.o and ^poiid> m ^yoe^.niiimg the quantity ot aibaminojda
.0 * ii it ^juii ii».'y iii. V.. C\'nh MijoLtiy been foroeo, to
,o-tofiniiio p cnnstHneii ol !» 0 alhummoids—tiie nitrogen, and
• ? k'ulHto fr->- tbr wL'ouus'>1 loirogeii the quantity of albuminoids
,^1* QSs.d .'ic w 4'' ( H aihumiuoids ootikaxii a oouidaut, and nearly uniform
porrcuU«i.t. lutt'Cvii.. it la perfootiy saf.- and aoourato to calculate
t'-om T>« .iinounl nitrogen a »uod the amount of albuminoids which
t ootiiam I I Lii; 0 i'‘'tawca v'outaiulug nitrogen is present,
1 », r. and of moat kinds of seeds, nearly the
wholo oi the uiIh^i>,lu really cxIbU in the form of albuminoids
ir, Buch cases the caloulaiimi oUhu chemlHU arc fairly aocuraio, and
I tli 4 i libuininoidrf stated m his tt'port uio vilih alight difference, actually
pn^.oiit mthoiimd When, bywover welu.-nti Aucouicnt foods such
as loob or green fodder, me analyst 4 . oaZciilatioiM are entirely irt fault,
Ilnrc, as m other oados, he ih ocrusttuueU to aiujuply the nlf-.(gun present
byG'S.'p, aud tooousulerthrt prodiiOt Ihuii obtaiuod as ihe quantity of
ftlbummoiUu present 11 tho roots or hay. The coiiolusioa ib, however,
cironcous, as vo^jolahUi foodrt of this olasj eont-ibi several nitrogenous
bodies besidesulbuuiinoidB' lo rciokon tho whole of the nilrogin as
I albumuioiaswill.tlKirebne.gieatly ,pxRggyrato tho amount of albumi<
uouls really jiioseut.
U i» only Within the last few years that wu have obtained any aeeu-
rate kriowloduo oi tho va-ioua introKiimxM Indies juoaonl in rooU
Pieviously 10 reomt uivomigatloriy, it v/i« assumed that the whole
ot the uuroiren ex’aU J an albiim.uold-.. Tue iuvcsUi;atlfms in quest ion
have beouoartuM out oh'chyty L. s^chMao, though wnh him olher
eheuii«Uhttyobeoufro*tt tim.*lotim.5%^. mi , 'iho tools examiuod
havo iHjpii ehicily mangtl wur-cl, nion nicmitly potatoes We wiS
endeavour to givo somo account uf the itsulis arrived at.
Iu 3867 Sohu! attcniou to the large oinoimt of nirtatos
ooutamod In m'lny rooix. He deicrraiaad the amount of nitroffon
proseat rr uitrum^ m ;ar-bflut, turnips, and carrots. Tho
amount i > o/iotjou thus comljinod vai lod from 1 to 31 per penl. of the
total nitioue.i priruml riio largeat quantity of nitiatcft vfis found iu
otaagei wurael hv..sidee Sohulsie found that the Lap .".ontauxed
a Btnall quantity of smiinoriift. varying in H analyses from v“U0Gd tc
U*038Cperowit. ufthctu'hJ.Miip. "jeesArom v wou .C
In 1875 dchnlzf' puldishevi afar more corii[)Iete iuvestigatiob tbn
time coufiuod in mungcli-. Ho determined with great care tho anicuui
both of luo ‘'ftua ineoiiiblo albumiuoidfi, ihu fiiiftatjiy of nitrates and
also of nmmomo. Mot, neHidt'-i tln>vy nigiodiftnnj, tjio uovv for the* flfBi
tuue uxeuitaiaed ihut uir.iigei rnituin a ^argo amount of soluble
aiuifh'a, «'i ux4ct u'AtuKi of those amides he dil not then ascertain
bur merely the qaant.'y of UJtfogon which existed m tUig form ol
comlnuatioii. .lo fuiLliti showed that maugel cuntaius anothe
?n »ur*TbeV'‘ bchcibler had already shownloexis
1 iti77 Schcisc ra Hi abed a further series of rchults, obtained will
maugolH oi viiQthe 4.oasun This investigation included tho chaDg.
« T f of tho root, when flowe
nuil seeu aii ptG u- in tlii-i mvestigatiou be asoertaiDod the uain''i
Of the Piii'dt- < .'c y abundant lu maugels; he found it to be glutiimlu
anc, 'i(i8uC!'%Lw ij, a small quantity of another amido—asparagiri.
" !■■ ■■ " ■ ■ - —5 . .... .
«rrr.f^''dal>dCl;ialiiCdy evatauuag nitrogen m the form of amidogin*
aJBWi
, by 8 ohffl «0 will He amhIitoia me fotiowfog
AttiflllUgi
fbf»it|^^
ItOOO purU at fro«h mesg^l
dOiiMiaeiL
Root* of 137^. Boots of 19711,
Jllbiuiini^de, iasoloblo
* f, spjiublo
Olaiuimi Attcl MpMsgIn
lletatns .., ..,
Mitrio odd ».
Atomoda
"^ith tlie eacopUon of tbe Insoluble albrnninoids, the whole of these
fi!in|teoOQl bodies exist in soiotlon in tUe sap of the root. I'hu mennor
lit iifhtob the nitrogen was diatribnteit among these vsrloas bodies will
be seen more cldtrJy from the noxt table, where the total nitrogen In
each oumgel Is taken as lOO^ and the distrfhutioa of this among the
rariods Ditrogenons bodies is shown. The manKols of 1874 oontainad
0*2400 per cent, of total nitrogen, those of 1876 oontamad 01979 per
otnt,
Albnminoidki insolnblo
If soluble
OUtomin and ospuagin
Betaine ...
IDiiiioaeid
Amuionia „*
Total nitrogen
The quantity ci nitrogen existing as albuminoids is seen to bo oom-
fmratirelp small; in the first mangels only 21*71 per oeot. of the r itrogen
present is in the state of albuminoids, to the second maog^’r^ 19*71
per cent. When analysing other mangels less tiob in nitrogsu, bobatso
found a somewhat higher proportion of the nitrogen in the state of
albuminoids { the proportion was in one ease 29*79, aud lu another
87*93 per sent, of the total nitrogen present. It is nlaiTi that it these
roote had been analysed in the usual way. and the whole of the nitrogen
oaioulated os albamiooida the quantity attributed to the mangels would
have been three to fire times in excess of the truth.
Kilrates are apparently a very variable ingredientof mangels, some-
times reaobiog a very llarge proportion, lu the analyses now referred
to tbs nitrogen as nitraloi formed from 9*46 to 44*06 per cent, of the
total nitrogen.
The nitrogen existing as am ides is in every case a large proportion of
the whole. The principal amide-glutamin was not isolated by Uohniac,
be ouly obtained the acid (glutamic acid) which is formed by the split
ting op of the amide, lie obtained in the same way aspuratio eci 1 ,
formed by the splitting up of asparagtn. Tht-ae uoidu are proved by iiis
investigation to have existed in (he origihal sap as amides. Both
glutamic end aspartic acids arc known na products of the dcuompositiuu
of albuminoids, and are thus plainly related to them,
Betaine is ,present in small and variable quantity ; It diminluhes as
the root approaches maturity. Seheibler found 0 * 2 ?.i i>er cent, lu the sap
of BUgai''>eot ou July 1 ; this quantity had fallen to 0*084 per cent, by
October I, Betaine is, very curiously, identical with a siibatauce known
to exist lu the braUi, and called by its discoverer oxyneurin.
We have said enough to show the com plicated character of (ho
nitrogenous ingredieuls of roots, aud the fallacy of assuming that the
whole of the nitrogen present is in the foim of flesh-formers. In a
second paper we hope to describe ihe results which Schulae has obtained
with potatoes, and his luvesiigatioo au the part taken by the amides and
nitrates to plant nutritiou.-ll. W. In AgriovUural GmeUtf,
FIELD experiments WITH POTATOES.
indebted to Mr. Wilson, Cliapelliill, Berwickshire, for
** tbe fbllowiugvery ir.'.i.restmg report of experiments con¬
ducted by him last seasoii
During the season I have made some experiments on Victoria
potatoes, which may prove mtoresllng to some of your readers, if
you will allow me space to give the results. On Maich 16th, I
planted a field portly with whole potatoes of so^ioiid ,'=(ia& as usnaHy
dressed for seed, and partly with cut aats, ow , potatoes of medium
siaccutin two, lengthways, no potato being cut i^ifcO more than two
sots. I lie portion planted with outsets bi ail ded about ten days
earlier than the whole, came away more regularly, aud in faot
had a more luxuriant appeafaiioo througiiout the ftffnp m,
which I expected they wouU prove the heavier crop, I'hil 1
attribute to the onttihg of the potato catising^ehilier decay,
coDBcquontly more mpid growth; and this is home oat hf m i
ihab to lifting the crop this t^o vhoU 8«t« m
fkttoot, while not t v^ge of thh otit mtiatos* Bo iharhao
the differenoe throfighottt the that totaiy Ihoo^t thp
whole sets had been Mforlor Seed* they #ere, however, the pm
seied, find only soparfi^ the day he*hro ijtey were plfihtetfw Ttta
Crop lifted as follows (per impei^iai Acre)
Tons. Cwta Qm
I»bA
Whole Seed
#«a
... 10 18 2
18
Out seed
*«s see
... 9 1 1
8
M*. turn
Mm*
to favour of whole seed
... 1 17 1
18
Whole Seed.
Cot Seed.
Ware
. 84*622
Ware' 78*411
Second B..
. 11*062
Seoonda^.. 18*678
OhalB
, 4*816
Ohats ... 8*018
Nitroi^ea of each couatituout
to iOu oC total mtrogeu.
Roots of 1874.
Root.* of 1876,
6 83
h*29
16*88
11*42
82'16
42 80
6*71
1*36
86*88
82*64
2*76
8 59
100*00
lilO’OO
The victoria bearing stioh a heavy crop of apples, 1 fmmed the
opinion that the matarity of these must exhaust the strength of
the plant, which ought to go to form tubers, and this induced me
to cut the blooms on a few drills to prevent them formlhg apples.
This I did when they wore in toll bloom, and again ten olys lator,
wlien they showed a tendency to bloom a second time. The eonse-
quenoe was they oontinned growing, and became much strongeir to
the haulm than other parts of the field, and were so observaole up
to the time of lifting os to attract the attention of oasahl passers
by. The following is the result
Bloom out o\
If left 0
In favoarof bloom ^utoll ... ... 1 6 2 18
Bloom cut off Bloom left oo.
Ware ... 87^502 Ware ... 78*824
Seconds... 9*706 Seconds... 15*182
Ohats ... 2*792 Chats ... 6*044
Tht^su are the averse results of six separate experiments to
I diSurent parts of the fiold ; and in every instance the result was
decidedly in favour of the cut bloom ; indeed, it was quite apparent
to the eye, without recourse to the steelyard, that the crop was
superior both in quantity and quality. The drills tested were
immodiatolv adjoining, in some mstances one on each side of that
from which (no blooms had been out. J hope this may todooe
others to try further experiment in the same directions next
season.
IMPROVEMENT IN NATIVE AORIOULTURB.
A CORRESPONDENT signing himself Mukkukannadi writes
to a Madras paper
** From your issue of Monday, I see that the late Colonel Vortue
recommends, as a partial loinedy for denudation of forests, that
villagers should bo mduoodto plant trees. This might easily be
(1 m *, it they only knew whore to plant them, as every one at all
fioquaiuted witli them knows how readily they adopt any simple
means o£ improving thoir cuitivatioii, if the advantages to bo
derived arc clearly deinouhtialed to them. Now they are always
eager to obtain leaves of trees (to bum down into manure, or
simply to place on tli© laud, thoio to rot), and may be seen out in
the open couiitiy swooping together the leaves of avouae trees,
&c. ; aud one conaUnfcly sees in their fields heaps of manure*,
oonsistiug chiefly of the stalks of plants, leaves, Ao., carefully
placed ready to bo ploughed in or spread over the land. They are
also willing to pay for loppings of^venuo and other Government
trees, U be used as firewood. In fact on the west coast (and
probably on the east coast also,) if allowed to do so, they would
strip av' ime trees of every leaf they have, for manure, or even out
down e ery treo for firewood. 1 think wo may assume, then, that
Jf assure 1 of getting the leaves and loppings, they would wilUnkly
plant any nmiiber of trees near their holdings, the only treble
required b ig to pul in a bough (which is quite sufficient, though
not perhaps the beat way of proceeding), and perhaps to water
the saplipgs thus obtained, now and then. Now for this, there
onght to be sufficient room in every village ; because, theoretically,
30 per cent, of the laud of every village ought to be reserved for
oommonal purposes. And further, if suoh rough and ready
saplings were planted at regular toterVale on the boundary of this
laud, left uncultivated Cor common use, it would check the aufoldal
practice, almost onivei^sal I believe, Of ryots cohtinuatly encroach-
mg on this 30 percent., and Would drive them back from absorblnir
the pasture land, t<i cultivating more highly the land they ha^e
Cases are coiitinnally cropping up in which ryots are fotfiid
cultivating parts^f such waste laud ; on investigation it aonears
that the pfeoe to qu^tipn is almost surrounded by limds sJrWv
ouUi’rated and eotored iti putiah$, and so is Ims oliiriblo
oommunia purpp^, as not being easily accessible. So, in a wSk
nioitiont,thedivismaeffider allows it also to be tmtered
caitiratot^puftoA, and onoe entered to a pum, ft to not tnMe^
Tons. Owti. Qrs. Lbs.
... 10 8 0 14
.M 9 1 1 24
^ ^ fl<»ti:««qtjiHiei« tha ov m vilk^a
aupmam ; emi»oall|r^ b«mm«d in
\fT> lap4f (the Tillajre pa^h to iH f ffo being by .ttiw tiipe
ablorM in «nnw onfl*« holding) as to be inwesiiNt* ;b4 tbeoatjtle
of the yitlage baire to be driven further aneld vvhic)i,fifiveB extra
f^intlee fw cattle thefts. 8o much fot plaoting and pasturage.
** !I!lwre is due means of supplying the ryots wth manure which
is, 001 nearly so well developed as it ought to bi^and tbst Is by
mgikglog prppsrly the sweepings. &o., of towmi* The paddy and
grsss whioo come from the soil} aro iahen to the town and there
absorbed as food ; bat nothing is taken back to ifoplace them, while
the hnimal and vegetable manure produced. in the Oonotry itself
does not cottnt}*ai it does its own share of exhausting the^wih (the
Tegetable part having oome straight from the soi], and the animal
pi(i;t being derived from grass.) Lqoking then at the enormous
am^t offertUising eteme^ ananally sunk in food, wltliput any
retnra whatever to the soil : wbal can we expecs but gradual
ishpoverishinent of the soil r The nalutal corrective, »s,, the
aUnvial matter which washes down from the hills, must apparently
diminish in quantity, year by year, unless the supply is inex-
heustible. which there is no reason to l^lieve ; and as thia corrective
k less efEeotual every year, and the population, the exhausting
element, increasea every year, the process of im^verisbmeut must
g o on with ever increasing rapidity. I think the action of animal'
fb^in oonneotion with food may be described as follows. Leaving
fish out of the reckoning, as they are so to spook on a separate
establishment, we may assnme that all food £o| man or beast
comes from the soil, directly or indirectly: corn and vegetables
and grass being an instance of the former, and flesh of
sorts, an instance of the latter. All ibis comes from the
soil. Now whore does it go to ? What booomes of it ? It will
be admitted that after being taken as food, it is changed either
(1) into part of the aDimal's body, or (2) into something which
. passes off at daily or lesser intervals, or (3) into gas (such as
carbonic acid gas, &o.) which passes off as breath. Part No.
I. will, unless the animal be huinau, probably return to the soil
when the animal dies ; but if it be a man, the loss to agricutenro at
Its death may be two-fold, ».«, (oi) the body itself will not return to
the soil, and (b) in the case of Hindoos, a large quantity of fuel
(general^ about Bs. XOO worth) will be lost, and its place have to
be supplied by cewdung which ought to go into tho soil. Tho
loss to agricniture by the human body not being utilised, has boon
much dwelt on by soientifle men and others, especinlly in connec¬
tion with the question of cremation in Europe. It is, however,
perhaps hardly to be expected that human feeling on this point will
ever yield to arguments of utility, but all tho more need on
that account to guard oaref idly against waste in other ways. Part
No. 3 (the gas) is largely utilised by plants, and is perhaps almost
essential to their existence. But the most important item ih no
doubt No. 2 ; for that which a man casts off in a lifoiirno is much
greater in quantity than what is left when ho is dead. 1C thou
tho whole excreta of tho town of every sort, sweepiugs, Ac., weio
utilised as manure, the impoverishing process would be greatly
checked, and we might here in India last out very well till we can
afford to import artificial luaniiros. One question, however,
requires consideration ; that is, whether the present cheap supervi¬
sion of Municipalities really pays. How can the President or
Vico-Presidont of a Mofusil Municipality find time and energy to
work out the problem of utilizing all the off scourings of tlio
town ? Would it not be better, instead of making tho whole thing a
burden to some oiflcial,or some balf-heartod unpaid private individual,
to employ a paid Vice-PreHideut on a siibHlautial salary, say of
Bs. 200 or Bs. 300 a month ? Probably the saving by efficient
sqpsrvision would almost pay the extra cost, to say nothing of the
benefit to health and agriculture. There is another point one
would like to mention, it this letter is not already too long, and
that is that it might bo a good thing if stops were taken to provide
agrlonltoral literature for the beueflt of non-profssHional men who
are in the way of teaching ryols to do better, if they only knew
anytlUng of the subject themselves. Could not Mr. Bobertson, or
eoime oSier prootical man, bring out a hand-book on agriculture
(with special reference to Indian acquirements,) if necessary in
monthly parts? Probably two hundred subscribers would bo
enough to pay expenses, and considering the number of rovenne
of^olale, there ought not to bo any diiiioulty iu securing that
number,*’
tLOUGUlNG COMPETITION AT SYDAPET;
A HIGHLY iotereitlDg spectacle In connection with rduoatlonal
progress in this Presidency was witaessed at the Qoverument
Experiketital Farm at fljdapet. The annual ploughfug oompetitiou
came off imd attracted ia pretty good number of visitors, Includ¬
ing the Hon’bte W. Budleston, Mr. Justice Eeman, and Colonel
Macdcnald, llfoa public were thus afforded an opportunity of judging
how far Mr. Bohinsoa’s efforts to iotrodnoe and render popular on
improved mathod of fdoughlng among the natives of the country have
succeeded, ahd also of oouttaiting the working cl an English plough
wBkthfttbf tha'rtuto imptis^nt used by the pgrlcnlturists of India,
"'"■j y ■ ■ ' " y-- . ^ .. ii iiii usiiiie
to |iatt«ni OB tito h m iaitlio ittufi '4i|
compeiitien was lestriaied to studanfs bt the Scl^l of Atriceltafe only j
and Iu the third class tfaepriaes were ebxBpstsd^ for by. ryots or thelt
labourers only.
The following were the prises awarded w
Cues 1
X
A Swedish plough ...
... .«4 ...
Rs.
96
2
An American «
•
*,• ,**
... f|
20
3
Implements or seeds...
..
w
11^
4
Do. do,
... .*• ...
*.* If
10
fi
Do, do. ...
... ... ...
*i. 1}
fi
ChAsa 11,
1
A Swedish plough ...
.. ...
2
AoAmorioan plough
..
*«* n
3
Implements, or seeds, or agriooUnral book
*}
m
4
Ditto
Class III.
... ,1
n
1
An American plough
...
... Bs.
20
2
Money ..
... ...
If
10
3
Ditto .
.
6
The judges in the different olasses were
OlasB I.—Mr. L. U, Rurrows, Mr. J. II. Oarstip, and Mr.aT. F, Price.
Glass 11.—Ur. Cornish, Major Bertie Hobart, and Mr, H. Bb SulUvau,
Class 111.—Mr, L. A. Campbell and Dr. F. G. SbaW.
A plot of ground contutning six hundred square yards was allotted to
each competuor, and the judges in awarding the prizes took into account
the regularity and straightness of the farrow, the depth, the speed iu
executing the work, and the general finish of the work. For the oom'^
petition in dossil., there were thirteen students of thesobool, and they
competed iu two batches, the seven first getting tbroogb their work, and
six afterwards. The competitors in this class were apprentice hands
who have not received a training for more than three tnoutbs ; yet it
was gratifying to find them manifesting considerable skill Jn working
the plough. iSome oxcSlIent work was shown, and an interesting faot lo
couuocLioo with the competitors in this class Is that some of them were
graduates of tho Indian Universities, It is certainly a great advapoe in
the history of agriculture in this country to find B. A’s, who cnee
only aspired In some post under Government, turning their hands to
the plough and thus setting an example worthy of iiuUatiou by their
countrymen. This pleasing result is duo in a great measure to Mr,
Bobertsoo's unlirinR eiloris to make the stttqeet of agrlculiure as
importeni as bo cun iu the eyes of the natives of the oouulry. He must
at fiiSt have experienced very great diflicutty fn getting the educated
youth of the country to consent to take to Ihc plough, but having now
BO fur succeeded, there is no doubt (bat the good rosait already achieved
will tend to innoh further advancoment. While the oompetitoiW ia class
II. were at work, the competitors in oiass Ill. also were engaged lu an
adjacent field. Hero was an opportunity afforded foroontrasUtig the
working of the English plough with a native plough. It was easily per*
ceived that the quality and quantity of work that can be turned cut by
an English plough is immensely superior lo that done with a native
implement. Tho English ploughs were easily dragged by the cattle
employed, and, takmg everything into consideration, there is no doubt
that an BngllHh plough if substituted for a native plough will be a great
saving to the person using it.
The oompetitiou in class L was watched with very great interest.
Fuarfeeu competitors in all oonteuded for the prizes offered, eight being
ploughmen of (he farm, one a student of tho Agricultural School, and
five oatBiders. Those bdouging to the farm used (be cattle and iiaple*
metits of the farm, aud outsiders had to provide their own cattle ahd
ploughs. The ploughmen of the farm shewed excellent work, and
proved what English ploughs tu the hands of trained men might be
made to do.—Afodrus
THE ARTESIAN WELLS OP PONDICHERRY,
POMDlCHflBBY, Deo, 4.
I N passing by the public garden of Pondicherry, you' now can aeo
at any time, espeoially in (ho evening, a large crowd of people*
and yon will suppose those Europeaus and natives are promenading to
admire the greenuees of (ho trees and the variety of the flowers j hut
on entering the garden, you will be an ey^-witness to the preient
great attraction of Pondicherry. Tho D. P. W. is at work digging
an artesian well by a machine supplied with a complete stock of
^oots, costing Re. 3,000 to ihc Freuch Government, After a few days’
trial, the driilipg is going on with great sacoess and celerity, and has
attained the depth of 90 feet. The merit and honor of so important
au enterprise moat he given to M. Foulain, In spite of the little
enoouragement hla acheme met with at first, thia pbllanlhrophio
gentleman, moved by the disasters and mortality caused by the famine
in 1877, resolved to devote all his energy to seek for the mcaos of
alleviating ia future such dreadful berrors. At his own expense he
ntide an experiment at Savana tho most importmit cotton splnning-mill
q|stl^ under hii Althouib |»e tuci paly Mfyr/f
THE' UTDli&ir.l^ktet't^iT.
1,
tunsto .tftM witir on tii« Sth o(S«pt«mbM 187T,«fi«t
ettsbt mmtu oi oaoEtMit thwarted by Mveral dfffi^titdea.
Bodontaged fo’digdaaper, wban 359 feet (FreQob meaeare) wae leaobed,
he dteedtered wa abaadaat stream, gWiag per mioate SdO litres (897
platiO of water, This spriaE iB at 83 deg. of the oeotigrade ibarmo-
tneter, gtriiig 7 at the bydrotimeCer, otherwise centainiog 710,000
of terteoos salts. M, Poalaiu thoa searoned in the compound of
aoothel! eoiton manufaotory at Oappalam for a spring of water,
After 86 days of easy digging, be fonod at a depth of 213 feet, a stream
more abondanl than that of Savanah, giving per minute 180 hires (702
pints) of a limped and'slightly ferrogiuoua water, showing 31* centigrade
(hermomeior, and of the bjdrotimeter. ^
After these two snooessful oaperimeata M. Ponlala's ability is admired
by every one, noiexolnding bis former opponents. Now several native
gentlemen are requesting his aid In the digging of artesian wells in
their large fields, and he ie just now at work in the village of
ArehipakumUi digging his third artesian well, Atler the two yenrs of
dreadfnl famine we have just now experienced in the south of India, on
aOGOunt of want of seaeonablo rain, the success obtained by M. Foulain
isofilte greatest importance, not only for onr little French territory,
but also for the Immense colony of our English neighbors. By the
digging of wells ia several places, the crops may be assured even if the
clouds giro no rain, and Iherefore the famine with its horrors can be
in fntoro removed or considerably reduced.—ifadras Mat 1.
THE WHEAT CROP IN PRANCE,
F
iBOM an article published in the BulUtin dea llallesy it
appears that the French wheat crop o£ this year auionnts to
82,500,000 hootolitros, or twenty millions less thun au ordiuniy
average crop ; this appears to bo the goneial opinion, and the
crop is therefore as bad as in 187.^. The nalurnl weight this year
does not seem to exceed 74 killogramos per licet., which constitute
a further deficit, and reduces the total cx^p to 01 , 000,000 quintals
(27,110,000 qrs.) Ooucerniug tho piobablo requiroinoiits and
o£ tho resources various countries during tho present season, tho
BulkKn iha Hulks gives the following figures
bmiHi, The deatraction of theig logooii and tjia mumi aoale 89
prevalent on orange trees ehoutd }^ oommenced aa toon as they
appear ae they do great injury to the treesi both by the e^trao-
iion of juices and clogging np the breathing pores of^
the bark, llie pests may often be avoided by destroying
the gravid female coccus, who at periods may be seen
climbing the trees and depositing her yonng. Try kerosene
and water in proportion of three wine-glassfuls to seven gallons
of water, and apply with a strong syringe. It is highly spoken
of as an insect destroyer. Keep the mixture Well stirred with the
syringe while using. _
Worms in flower pots.— A correspondent of the Irish
* Gardener'a Record writes as follows under this heading “ Have
any of your readers tried mustard water for the purpose of
destroying worms in flower pots ? I have^ and found it to answer
admiiably. A tea spoonful to a gallon of water is sufficient. 1
Iiavo never known it to cause the slightest injury to the roots of
the most delicate plants. 1 advise any one troubled with this
pest to give it a trial.*' We will give it a trial. There is one
great advantage about the employment of mustard for this
purpose, that as it is invariably kept in the house it is always
h,andy lor use ; v^eieas lime, with which to manufacture lime*
water is not always so available. Worms in pots are a great
nuisance, but a humanitarian gardener has remaiked, earth¬
worms sliouVd never be ruthlessly dosbroyod; they are appointed
by natuie to ventilate tlm subsoil by boring iu it chuuuels for
the Jimiisson of ai' .*’—Land and Water,
Franca ... ...
Imports
leqnu'cd.
Qrs,
... 6,900,000
Presumed sniplus
for export.
Russia .m
... —
6,200,000
Italy ..1.
... i,oso,ooo
—
Great Britain
... 12,070,000
Auatro-Uttnuary
... —
2,250,000
Belgium ... ...
615,000
—
Portugal
... 17&,0C0
—
Holland
... 6211,000
—
Denmark
... —
175,000
Bweeden
... 70,000
—
BwiUerland
... 1,200,000
—
Norway ...
... 108,000
—
United States ...
... —
13,000,000
Algeria
175,COO
—
Sundries, iuoiudiug India ...
... —
700,000
Tout
... 22,H58,000
23,125,00')
Germany docs not figure in tliis table, us it only exports from
^ Buffalo iioiw as manure. —A few days ago we saw some
claysauihemams in pots that were very romarkablo for the vigour
and healthy appearauoo of their foliage, and on making enquiry wo
found that when tho plants woio shiftod into their blooming-pots
a good dressing of buiTalo liorn manure was given in tho soil.
We have heard of this as a most excellent manure for vinos,
strawberries, &c., and the api>©arance of those healthy chrysan-
tbeinuuis piovos that it is well suited to them also. The
shavings which cousUtulo the manure ate small, and a great deal
of it is little better than powder ; it readily mixes with lire soil,
and it is uudoubiedly rich iu nutritive properties. Unlike somo
of tho chomical manuios, it is free from injurious iugrodiouts, and
can be safely used by all classes of gardeners. Wo have ourselves
made a few exporJmeuts with tho buifalo horn manure, aud are
w ‘il satisfied with tiro result.— Ibid.
HINTS TO GARDENERS FOR JANUARY.
W ATER all hard wooded plants, examine each plant, and those that
need water should have enough to moisten eaoh particle of soil,
Should there bo reason to think that the roots arc balled '* with hard
ono pa*'*^ what it inipoits in tho oUkt.
GAKDJi:?.
A CORRESPONDENT of tli<^ Garden says that some have an
idea that a tree c.mnot bo moved uiicocssfiiliy without a
largo ball of earth being attached to the roots, but whi-ro there is not
sufficient maohinery for the purpose failluo is often tho result.
The system of moving he i ocoimnodds is to begin at home disUuoe
from the base of the tree, XvHiei* further, in fact, than is gcnerAlly
practised, and to comb the soil a.v;iy from the roots, injuring them
as VUtle as possible. If a tree be gone properly round in this way,
and the loots saved, suocoBS is perhaps more certain than when
trees Rio trmwplanted with large balls. Ibis can be taken as a
contribution to the discussion of the import am qiiosUon of moving
large troos. Tho succoas of the pUu can onl> be demoustiated iu
praotisc* _
Toe iusc'^tB that attack the orange tree are cocci, piobably
COOOU8 hesperidurii, a species pretty common to other plants os
well a$ tho firafigo* They (gtu bo destroyed by u./o/ either
Fowler'S inaecticido, or Qishur*tf compound, or the foUo \ j g-—soft
bpap, 2 Itw*; flour of sulphur 1 j lb. j tobacco, t lb. , miJ o
ei kerewne, Mia, and apply witk a rtwo* polntw.
clay, pull up the plriuts uud soak the roots m tepid water or uncover
them and sluice thorn well with it. With regard to glass-houto
speoimens, regulate the growth of Dipludunlae, Btephauotis, Cleroden*
drons, f>ther plants of a scandeat habit, that, are grown into spcci-
mens. Those only starling into growth should be syringed frequently,
and no^ have too maob water at tbo roots, Txoras should have bottom
heat, either by being plunged in a bot-bed or stood on the surface.
Rondelela Speoiosa Is a grand subject when it has justice done to it.
It must not be allowed to iinvo too much water, but if it is allowed to
biiQome very dry, it will shod its leaves. Keep the SelaEloe'dae in
a shaddy t ji the bouse to enable them to retain their fresh delieate
green oulour, '(non 08 as‘*un<r” 6 Ilieirtuberous-rooted plants will require
more watej^js the young growtlm begin to show above the surface,
Xiet uothiug suiXer^ tor the want of water.
FoBctNa Houser.
Keep tho syringe freely at work amongst the foliage to
prevent its being infested with Rod fipider. for it is impossible to have a
good crop of fruit if the roUage is unhealthy. Free ventllatioa without
the foliage being exposed to tho infiaouoe of keen blasts of wind is an
important point in fig growing. All suckers must he removed ahd very
strong growths stopped at 4 or 6 leaves above the old wood, See
that the borders are not beooming dry. Trees in pots must be eaoouraged
with weak lime maauro. A layer of half-rotted horse dropplngi on
the turiaoe of the soil will assist these.
The whole of the stock excepting recently-potted incksn
aud eioirni ebould >aye * elfght syringing ^ on warm at^oons.
riaatl th|it ftTi requM to itaod for Cmitlngs mast not hm too high
A otf W tot bottom b«Ali ibobt obt W ^be«d«4 «bi4
|0»1bw«f^ibtl0p liiOt VontiHita froofy (o k^p tfao ym« growth
itooky. Aa «« trHtotboio aot«g there ate tome t.«o fopre yoaog ylante
wltkilo 0 «bof^ 4liMiiee of tt«, atdag the ebmiy kido of a vabt* oaaree, for
wiitetl4)t hh0ht{>0uudf all doiag well, A ** SaOktr ** plimted aloogatde
atabt# thAoure iindeta ahady wall, baft thr&ed out Ai^ov ahd hardy
plant fhr is adtanoe of the otbem we tnehtlon^ Altogether wa'lholine to
**iihaile**lor Plae^ppiet, although the Superihtetf debt o* tbe Maida
Vbto rnmr la Utfd<m haeiag tried all fciitdi of «a|ieriBieate eandot eay
pOftMvely irbat tiitoumatanoea are moat farourahle to the devalopmetit
of plbea. Aft * matter of fabi, in the West ludlea and South Amerloa,
they grd^ anywhere and any how,
dMAterry gtaes fthaded atahd wUl do ; expose the
plants to light and air. or they will bare flavourloet fruit. Disoontiuue
liquid manhre, npon symptoms of the leaves withering.
Fbietyl^Stop back all laterals to one joint beyond the main spur,
and the later spun to one or two joints beyond the bonob. Thin out
the bonobes before tho berries become too large, or they become
crowded and render the task diffloult without jojuriug those that are
to remaiui Look after the inside borders, and maiutain an abundanoe of
atmoftpherlo humidity. Mr. D, B. White. Kilpauk, Madras, has freely
experimented ou vines, and now tyussesses Soma maguifloent ones,
extending over 60 yards lu length, ou two sides of his jiuttgaiow, and
supported on posts 15 feet high ; the vmes are then trained aoroes a
trellis work overhead, 16 feet wide, the walk underneath being
delioiOusly cool and ehady.
£A0WBR GABDgKa AND PLgASUBB GBOWNDB. *
Purohase rock plants, as their chardctar may be seen in the foliage,
and many are in dower now, Bandy loam ts the best for filling
the fissures of rook work for the general uollectioos. Boses from
pots can be planted out now, for auother six weeks with eaocess. It
the plants come to hand in a free-growlug state, keep them lu a
cool airy iramo lor a fortnight or three weeks, to well harden before
planting. The wild rose from the gbfits oau bo grown lu beautiful
profusion on ornamoutal rookeries. SUr the soil of tulip beds
and tread Banuuculus beds carefully betweeu the iowa lu dry
weather water them well. A mulch of cocoa-fibio refuse or well
decayed mauure will reader watering .uuueoessury, Tiitomas can be
propagated uow by tukiug o3 the stioog aido^suckers and piautiug
them in lich sandy soil, Tuc seed of these plants ought tu be
sown soon in a cold frame or a very slight hot^bed, Sow four or
live seeds m each pot, turn tho seedlings out into the border with
the ball entire, and take up and divide iu tho spring.
KXTCUiON Qabvjsn.
Cabbages are 12 annas and i annas each la Madras, and as to
lettuces, they are as rare as the Dodo in its ancient haunts. The
square miles of oompouuds full of weeds and rubbish are a staudiog
monumeut of the pa<4sive obstiuacy of butlers to prevout their
master's cultivating even a mouthful of green food out of the
market "to stimulate their torpid livers. Howorer, perhaps some of
the *' Benighted '* may read, mark, aud learn that, lu December and
January asparagus seed may be sosvn with B<i£oty. Bvery mau requires
10 per cent, of potash iu hts blood aud he may just as well get it
by cultivating aud eating asparagus as by paying a doctor for Euu's
fruit salt. The young asparagus plants must be thinned out, as soon as
they are largs enough to handle. Where any of the second sowing of
peas has missed through being destroyed by birds or mice, stir up the
soil and plant asparagus. Bow vegetable marrows, cucumbers aud melons
in manars-bedft. Always remembering that, such plants grown iu a
cool temperature are stronger than those iu a hot; to plant them all in 9
inch pots saves time. Sow fur euoocssion peas, beans, lettuce
oabliage, eauUfiowere, endive aud small salading. Aud if anybody,
native et Baropsao, telle you they won't grow," say, you mean
to persevere them iiutU they do grow.
•i'ipOTIINa AND TEANSPLANTING.
n^EVEB pat a small Beedling in a large pot; for it only looks
loAsly ohd out of place, but will not thrive as if placed in a
thuinb-poi Btoots are either annual, biennial, or porenniul ; and
under <dl oircumstaneee the ^fibrous parts (radioulm) are strich^
aunnsl, and as the vyluter approaches deoay or remain in a state
of rest, as we term it, until spring returns, and then renew Ihcir
vigour, which wd ^roeive by the formation of now leaves. Plants
Or trees may Always be more sucoeo*fuUy transplanted when those
fibres are in a state of deeay 5 for^ being of so tender a texture, tliere
is atwayh the liability of i^eaHug the hand pf-
Amatsori «td, ot odd^e,' thb pumijd will fis^warily oqua*
tho part of the plimi They are dointy
objects, aud will iW after their old home to a new *
one ; aud from them We may att tsm mdtiy on invaluable leeson.
Many of you last spring, after the toil and weariness of moving
and house-cleaning, took nothougbfof the body needing rest, and
now in the sultry days Of sommer feel the need of it, and
acknowledge, when too late, that had you been more oareful then
you would not be obUged to sufilev so dearly for yemr impradenhe
now. Always, ff possiblet transplant when these fibrous roots are
in a state of deeay, for the roots aliuoet exduSlvefy linUibe
nourishment from these fibres, and in proportion ssthey arejujured
by the removal, just so much is the plant deprived of the nxeausdl
support, for that sap wliich Is now employed iu the formation of
Vew fibres would have served to increase the sike of other portions
of tho plant. If your plant produces seed la large quantities, the
fibrous roots exist only iu a very hmited number, and, oiM oerto,
the production of seed, particularly in tuberous*rootod plants
reduces tlio amount of root developed.
Ill nurseries I believe it is usually customary to prune the roots
of trees which are being transplsiitod. If at any time a root
becomes bruised, it should immediately be removed, lost It decay
and thus sfEect the neigUboming parts, aud may, if not removed,
cause tho loss of tree or plant. This operation should boaporCormed
iu the fall, for theu tho roots, like tbo other portions of the plant,
are comparatively empty of iluid ; but if you wait till spring you
rob it of much of the vitality which it has been hoarding up for
its spring compaign, aud thus retard the prospect of future sucoess
to a iate day. If you wish some of your shydilcomiug tuberous*
rooted plants to bear aee<], keep the tubers pulled ofi^ for then the
^ sap is thrown upward ; and if, on the other hand, (bo tubers are
desired, pinch off the blossoms. Some of us have been taught that
it was much more difficult to obtain seed from tho early potato than
from tho later varieties. By simply removing tho tobers tlrey will
blossom, and give us as gieat an amount of seed as the late ones.
In watering plants or trees we me accustomed to pour it on the
stem or body, and not on tbe ground surrounding it. ITears ago a
successful experimentalist discovered that by placing a rad'islt til
water it would imbibe freely if only the extremities were placed
therein ; but if plunged iu entirely, imbibed but little and soon
wilted. This fact explains wtiy the skilled gardener waters Ids
trees and shrubs at a distance from the trunk or stem. While
recently watching the rain drop peacetully from the clouds, 1
thought perhaps this is why the leaves act as a roof for tlie large
roots, collect the drops whioii run from one to tbe other, and at last
fail from the outei edge, which serves as an euve, and brings tho
greater portion of moisture just where it is most needed to cause
these fibrous loots to push forth and seek larger quarters. Tho food
imbibed by tho roots is slowly aud with much labour carried to
the vessels olf the stem and branches, and tliero deposited. The
roots usually are incapablo of increasing the family of plants to
which they belong. Blill (here aio some exceptions, and certain
species have tho powi^r of forming what are called adventitious
buds, ami aie thus useful for (he purpose of propagation. I behove
there is no known rule to determine what species wpy be thus
increased ; and, therefore, experiment inmt be brought into
piacticc. If at any time it becomes necessary to prune a root,
leave it with a smooth, clean surface. If small roots are bruised
they die bm k a little and tlmn soud forth new roots ; but if iho
large oues, they lose their vitality, and, as their rugged tissues
remain open to the frequent introduction of water, decay is the
resiiU., and tiie disease spreads to the healthy portions of the plant
aud death is usually the result. In many cases it is wise to
remove a portion of the largo root, and thus compel the plant (u
throw out youug, active fibres in place of tiiose which have for a
season seemed inactive. Extensive growers of the gooseberry
annually dig along their borders with a sharp spade and cutoff tiie
roots, thus oausitig the inoreafte of branch and fruit. By careful
observation we may always tell when the roots of our plants need
more soil or new quarters, it is not necessary to leniove the plant
as soon as the roots begin to curl round tho edge of the pot. Let
them grow freely ; but do not let them become dry sod woody.
They should bo white aud succulent. When changing a plant
from a small pot to a large one, bo particular not to destroy these
tender fibres, aud, aftsj* placing the ball of earth iu the centre,
pack the soil moderately firm iu the space. After repotting stand
tho plants wheie they may have a free circulaUon of air around the
pots, and the roots will be uiiich stronger aud more healthy, while
that have stooid crowded together have mado^ but little progress in
root foimation or upward growth. Many times fiorists, instead of
removing a plant to a larger pot, simply wash the soil from the
roots and return it to the iwmo pot, but in a new soil, ihis ie
why they use such comparatively smaW pots fur largo plants, Jfy
wsshiug the soil from the rodts the fibres me uunimr^, ^^
'pMnt oau goon in its labour or forming leaves and hlossoms ,
wl® if n 5 break the soil from the roots wo break the fibres also.
24 ' THE fimiAll AiGRICULTtjkST. JaotxwyJ, 10^9,
AaalOULUJJBAL AND HORTiOULTUBAD SOOIEXt
OF INDIA.
€fi>mral Maetinif ntu held en Thur$day, the 2S^
fi^ovemher 1$76.
Ths HoH'blv L. S. Jaokbon, C.LK.. Pretident^ in the Chain
Tan iifoeeadiDfCB of tbe Itit meetiog were reftd «bcI coofirmed.
Tiie foIJoiriog gefiliomon were elected membyre
The Buperiateodeot, Boteoicel Qurdene, Seharuopore, Mr. Cherlei
Boberlft Meniger of the Nobehanee Tea ^tate, Auam, and Manager
of tbe Punkabarree Tea Oonpany, Paokabarrea,
The namee of the following gentlemea were eabmitied aa dealroiie
of loiniog the Boeietg
Walter Knagge, Eeq., Trafalgar Eatate, Blogaporei- proposed by the
Eeoretaryi leeonded by Mr. W. H. CogeweU*
Edward Soartb, Eaq., Niogrl Tiug Tea Factory, Aasami—propoeed
by Oaptain W. J. WiDlameoni seconded by Dr. E. Dray.
Baboo Orfja Proeaono Mokerjee, Zemindar,^ GoburdaDga,~proposed
by the Beoretary, seconded by Mr. J. E. MacLaohlan,
The Hon'hle Jostioe Wilson,—proposed by tbe President, seconded by
Mr. W. 8. Oreswell.
CONTBIBUTXOKB.
1. TtanfiacUous of the Asiatio Society of Japan, Vol. VI., Part 2.
From tbe Society.
2. Jocroal of tbe Astatic Society of Bengal, Part I, No. 2, and Part
11» Noi. 2 and B, 1878, From tbe Society.
8, A number (88) of rare mango grafts, and 12 ijehee grafts
prepared In bis garden at Utterparah. Prenented by Baboo Bajkissen
Mookerjee. A special vote of tbauks wao accorded to the Baboo, for
ibis acceptable donation.
4. A case of plants from the Botanic Garden at Sigonpore. Presented
by tbe Buperinteudeot,
g. A small qaantity of seeds of taberous Beyoniee and of UMnefdica
eanguinea. From Samuel Jennings, Esq. (Transferred for sowing in
the Garden.)
6, A packet of Geranium seed from Nainl Tal plants. FromT. M.
Francis, Esq.—Trauaferred to Garden.
7, Four varieties of Patna mliletH, From John Scott, Ueq.
8, Seed of the ‘'Forbidden fruit,” (C'lfriM—?) Fiomtbe West
Judies. From Col. W, M. Ijeca,
2. A few more seeds of tbe "Aki" {IHighia sapuin) and of
Ladak tobaoco. From the Department of Agrlcolturc. N,-W. P.
10. Foar kealtby seedlings of tbe toa plant from Assam. Presented
by W. £. Bfflitb, Esq.
GABDKN.
Tub Gardener's monthly report was read as follows
** The weather having become more open during the month, tbe
grass-cutting work of the cooties was aomowhat lighter, which gave an
opportunity for utUiaing their services iu a mure general way, making
new roads, repairing existing opes, and tidying up for tbe cold season.
As autboriaed, twelve extra hands have been secured for a time to
prrpa- < flower-beds, repair roads, Ac., as Ibe original staff are all
engaged in the afternoon watering which, as our water-supply siaods at
preauut, will always prove an heavy Kcm nine months out of the
twelve. Putting off young elock, fruit grafts, Ac., taking off rose layers
lowiug seedPi and watering have <»ocapied the malleeg' attention, to
say noihiug of tbe D. 0/s, which are as brisk as evci. Tbe Liberian
coffee seedlings are, 1 And, of extremely slow growth ; a couple of
seeds of the second sowing (sown 1st October 1878) have germinated,
lu this same pan I tried a few green berries, but otherwise Arm and
full sized, and apparently only requiring a few days more to colour,
but they failed to germinate. This would seem to indicate that the
berries must be left on ihi^ plants till they are coloured more or less. 1
have hopes tbatlahailbo tide to succeed better wilh the oulliiigsas
sooQ as 1 get some bottom-beat fn the propagating house. A case of >
plants has been received from ibe Singapore fiotanio Garden, tbe plauta
being In fair oondltiou, Coasigntacnts of various other seeds have
been received and duly sown. A paper, shewing the percentage of
germinatiou of vegeUble seeds m the trial sowings of 1878, is herewith
enclosed; they were ail sown.uuder exactly tbe sams coadition!!. The
eeedsfiomMessrx Sutton and Bone, of Uewl.ag, have certainly taken
the lead in both germinating powers and rubustnnss of the seedlings.
A report of the germination of the Imported flower seeds will be sent
la next month."
The tabular etatement of trial sowings shews that the EngUsh seeds
have germinated best, and the American second, wUlUt 11 . tma\x and
German have germinated but Indifferently, It was agree- 11 ,, ctoonsUIer
this at tbs next monthly meetiog^ when the trial sowings of fluiivaf isads
will be submitted.
BsPOBT Off THff OOMFAffATfVff WOBJOfft} Of OffBTAlff FtOVOEf
Tbb following report from Dr. H, Lynch on the nbove eabject «$s
submitted
“X return herewith tbe plough you were gqod enough to lend me
for the purpose of testing the draught when used on the light soil of
tbe field attached to tbe Allpore Jail. The plough Is CMte of l(iiiieome*s
very light ones, Us weight being only 8itb. Tbe depth of the furrow
was between five and six inches* aud the width about seven. We
found the draught when the plough was drawn hy a pair of hoUeoks
at their ordinary pace, was between 2i and 8 hundred weight on land
from which a crop ol millet had just been cut. Tbs bullocks used
were average country aotmals, well fed, and accustomed to ploughing.
The plough, with the same bullooks, was alio tried on grass land which
bad never before been turned up—the site of an old village. Here the
draught was as much as 4 owt. to 4^ cwt. This was as mueh at the
bullocks could manage, walking very slowly, and they could not hare
doae a day's work at it, The land was wet aud heavy.
** The work of a native plough was compared on tbe same grass land
wilh that of the English plough ; tbe draught was found to be 1| owt:
Buob a trial is of little use, as the native plough Is not intended to
aooompUsh its end in the^same manner as the English plough, Xt
Boraicbes tbe ground and has to go over the same surface repeatedly to
get to the depth^ which tbe Eogliuh plough reaches at once.
One result of testing the draught ef the native plough wot that
we found that bullocks, such as are used here in native carts, are equal
to a draught of U cwt. Anything more brought them to a itaQd*Btill.
Tbe work done therefore by the native plough is equal to the capacity
of the country bullock when half-starved in the hands of the poor
" We also compared Bansoms's plough with an American wooden
beam plough with wooden handles, made at the jail from a pattern you
were good enough to lend us. This plough weighs aSbut 8G pounds
(the weight varying according to the kind of wood used). The
ploughshare is a bar of wrought iron, made to shift forwards aa tbe
point wears out. This plough turning the same furrow as to depth
and width as Itansomo's, but a broken one, whilst with Bansome's the
work was beautifully even, tbe slice being turned completely over showed
tbe same draught as Bausome'a.
“ Comparing the two ploughs as to cost, tbe American plough can be
made hero at from Us. 12 to Re, 15, whilst light English ploughs for
a Binglo houo or pony cost at home from £2>10 to £8, or in this
country, from Bs. ID to lls. CO. The differeuuo, then, is altogether in
favour of tbe locally-made wooden plough, whioh turns out just aa
ofUcient work, though not so good to look at as the English one, which
is far lighter,—D6 lb. against 84 lb,,—and can be made at one-third of
ti e ooet of tbe EngUsh plough."
UaSULT OB'SOWlNttS Oir " REANA LUXITBUNS " AND “ LUOttBNE"
IN THE AOBA DISTHICT,
The subject next introduced was a oommunioatlon from the Manager
of the Agra Ice Company regarding the cultivation of Lucerne grass aa.d
Ueana luxuriaos
" Home of the seeds of Ileana luxuriana, with which you kindly
Curuiahed us, sown in April last 6 feet apart, produced 30 to 40 seers
weight of fodder at first cutting in September. Besds 'sown in iGotober
of last year, surviving the winter and one sharp white frost on 6th
Janu'^ry this year, yielded a first catting in April and a second in
Octol^er ’, but on the whole we think the soil more profitably employed
with 'iucerne, which, caoept in the rains^ when indigenous weeds and
excess of mplature seem to choke it between them, yields a fair out,
even o-t out poor soil, monthly, aud doubtless with manuring (which
we pi rpose) the plants, which are now springing into a vigorous
resoscimtioD quite refreshing to the eye in this dull brown barren
looking locality, will exceed their former outturn. A plot sowh In
geptembi ^ id76, nearly killed by the long drought of 1877, yielded
early in this year repeated outtings of 24 to 30 inches in length, and
good substantial thickness of stalk in 25 to 80 days; in one ease we noted
ttO inches In 21 dCys. We have abuudanoe of water and irrigate so as
to keep the surface from absolute dryness i beyond this, this plot had no
manure until later ou. The soil is a mixture of eaud, yellow loam, and
small dhbris of building—poorest stuff.
“We note these facte as they may iatereet you, or serve to inform
some one who wants to know about Luoerne, which strangely enough
seemi little known in tble diitriot.”
I’BOafiBSa OF COFFfflB AND TEA ODDTIVATlOff IN THB ANDAffiffi,
Bead the following extract of a letter dated 10th November, from
Mr, 0. H. Brookee, on the above aubjeot
“ 1 went to inspeot the tea plantatiott at the n4w clearing on jpatnrday
last. The plantation is sltmaed on rising ground about 150 fact above
the level of the sea} there are about four acres of land il^er tea
cultivation, and them are epproximately about 10,000 pUmts. Th4 first
bede planted look imaarhAble healthy; they were planted m gbottt
TBS tiSFDUN AGRlOBLTtJBfST.
Srotm o«t foiir^ndATg ite««oiiofa. Tbeib plauM
nUt»»maaA ^tAM KM AMAm aI tekOTA MIMfttt WftWiQg ^110
tha^A^tf Ar« pjAOted About five fee^ epirt: fib® *•*••**
to th* aqiaU ptouST but the iutroduotloa of oati J
grout OxtOut. ®bo cofteo plautotion ot Mount BonfioMi ta^ fiour ob^og
SoudmoD. I hivo seen somt of the pUnts »|«o«d tiiiS
weight Of tbo berries i there ore about ^000 p oaje, »»d at these
there are abput 60,000 now in beating, and wo
8,000 lo 10,000 lb, of coffee this eeasou, so we shall hereafter w well on
lu coffbe and tea. Soger could be mautifeoturod in large
the cane grown hero ie excellent. In 1881. the coffee plants
will bo in bearing, we ought lo get a crop of 60 , 000 lb, of oonee.
>l«at4-eira OH THB PABT BBASOK Ut TH» BSHABIW BlSTIIlOT,
The following oommunioation from Mr, O.NlokeUs, of Pussena Factory
Jouupore, wee ne*t submitted _ * 1 ,- oith
** £t the monthly general meeting of the Society held on tne
Ootober, under the head “ Horticultural Notes, a letter was read fro
your Benaree oorrespoudent. He says,—“ The damp le ®*‘J®**‘'J* ** *
agafh enob rains have not visited Benares for ten years. I n®
Indigo planter, and my experienoe telle me, and 1 am sure all planters
wm agree with me, that the past ramy «»«««“ b«
light one with two exceptions,— 1 >«., 1873 and 1877, 7iha
few and fat between, and the heaviest fail did not
damp was eexlainly not excessive, and the little rain that did
at the right moment, which was the principal cause why the nnur e r
crop was eo flue, . . iiia
<• I cannot agree with your correspondent about the past neing ue
heaviest rainy scasou within the last ten years. The*years 1874 n
1876 were indeed heavy rainy seasons ; In those years the rams wgan
early and left off late. It rained sometimes for a fortnight at a t me,
and five to ten inch showers were of common occurrenoe. in tue iiai
lands water flowed out of the wells, and of course the A;h«rrw/crops
were an ,entire failure .* even the succeeding ruhhee aid*«ot tto wen
owing to the lands not being ploughed euifioieuily.
“I don't think the crops (r«&Aes) will be fine this year unless ram
falls soon. There is hardly any moisture in the ground, at least not
suflieientto mature the crops."
Letters were road— , ^
From Ool. M. H. Lowther ; a few hints in connection with a Gardner $
Kote Transferred for journal. . . . •
From T, M. Franois, Ksq.: the substance of a paper lo the Amt^^ean
AgricvXUiriet, reaarding a novel mode of putting down cuttings of held
wooded plants—Transferred for Journal.
From bamiiol Jennings, Esq., a few notes on tuberous Begomat,-^
Transferred for Journal. . , , ^
From the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Tounghoo Division, *tPP]y®3
lor a quantity of tea seed for the Thandoungyer plantation,—To ne
oompUod with. , , . •
From the Beorctary, BoyalHorticultural Bcoiety. IiondoD, returning
thanks for certain seode, ....
Before the meeting separated Mr, James Caldwell drew the auention
of members to a collection of forty-four water colour paioUngi, full
size, of as many varielios of sugarcane collected by him in New
Caledonia in 18G9 and 1870, for the colony of Mauritius. The whole
of these, with many other kinds from other localities, v era introduced
in Wardian cases, to renew the original cane pTanls previously oaUjvaiwd,
which bad so deteriorated, from long and exhauetlvo cultivation, as
to bring the sugar Industry and the Icolony to the verge of rum. The
result was completely successful, and the orglnal outlay advanced by
tbo Clovernment was not only fully repaid, but left a ooi^lderable
surplus. The paintings now exhibited were made in New Oaledouia
from the plants, as actually collected, by Madame de C. Moon, a
disttogalshed amateur flower painter (who has largely illustrated the
Wany of MaurlLias), and from their truthfulness and floishod execution,
they form a singularly interesting calleollon, as remaikable for their
unexpected vari^les of colouring and form as for their novelty
The best thanks of the meeting wore accorded to Mr. Caldwell for the
exhibition of these drawings, which were much admired, and for his
remarks thereon. ^ ^
Mr. Caldwell kindly comented to allow the portfolio to remain for
some weeks in the Soolety^s rooms for the luspeotloo of those who take
an interest In sugarcane cultivation.
agricultural show in khandeish.
To BB HELD AT MAHEJI FaI», KhAEDEISU.
Opming dag, Monday the 3rd February, 1878.
A ll articles including Live Stock must be delivered not later than
Saturday the 1st February at Mahc^li, after which date they will not
be received. This does not apply to vegetables and such liko perishable
articles which will be received up to the morning of the opening of the
Exhibition or up to date of examination.
All articles intended for exhIhtUon, shoald be consigned to the care of
the manaledar at Malieji.
The Exhibition wiU he open to the public on Moudey the 8rd February
1873, but the first few days will be occupied by the Committeo in iudg^ng
Ac. Fiises Will be awarded on Saturday the 8th February,
No priM will be given in any doss unless the itook exhibited comes up
to a fair standard t»f excellence.
Committeo reports to he sent into the Collector by Friday morning (7Ui
Febroaty) by the latest.
Mamledar to he Isfomed by the Judges of their awards not later than
Friday morning (7Uk Fehruavy) so that orrangments made be for getting the
, money ready dtOt
A,—Hwtsxs.—80 JPtiuo, Sbtoi Me. l.eOfi, for Imafido
natk>e hmderit
L For brood mates over U hMt. thh pmdaw of any Oovern- Bi
meat stallion and in fo»I tp, ,or with foal at foot, by a
Government atalliott. If foal'* to be not less than
4 years or ** with foal" not less than five years old*
There prises of Be, ito, lOfland 60 ••• «♦ 00!
2. For brood mares ot any breed not leas than 14 hands and one
inch, with fool by a Govenunont staUloni or covered by a
Government stallion. Four prizes of BI, 100, 89,40
and 20 ... ... «+ 2®
3, Colts one year old and under two, by Government fitalllnns*
Three prices of Bs. 60,40 and 20... ... IS
4. Geldings two years old and nnder three (any country hresd)
Three prizes p( Us. 75, 50 and 25... ... 16
5, Ditto throe years' old and under four (any country^hreed).
Three prizes of Bs. 135,75 and 40 ... *•* 2'
0. Fillies one year old and onder two, by Government stallions*
Three prizes of Bs. BO, 40, 20 ... 11
7. Ditto two years old and Under three, by Chirernment
stallions. Three prizes of Bs. 75,50 and 25 ... 11
8, Ditto three years old and under four, by Government
stalUons and hkoly to become a good brood mate* Three
prices of Us. 125, 75 and 40 ... ... ... 2
0, Tanga Ponies, geldings, 13 hands and nnder, not being the
property of a stipendiary Government servant Two
prizes ot Bs. 40 and 25 ponies to be sold if claimed^p to
80 rupees the pa«r ... ... ... ...
10. Country bred pomes, geldings 13-2, and under and not more
than 8 years old. Three prises of Bs.40, 80 and 20
(No prizes to be given to prize-takers of previous years
iot the same animal and under the same head, nMther
can an animal get a prize under more than one head),
A hand is equal to 4 Inches.
Entire eolts ot pomts allowed to compote os geldings, if the
owners agree to geld them at Uaheji.
B.—Cattle-26 Prim. Total Us, 606.
11. Best bull of any brood and independent of age, one
prize ... ... ... ... ..,
13. Count ry'brad bulls over two and under/oar years of age,
8 prizes of Bs, 40, 20 and ID ... ...
13. biiloh cows, four prizes Bs. 80.20, 15 and 10 ...
14. Field bullocks, nine pi lzes of Bs. 50, 40, 35, 80, 25,20,15
10 and 10 ...
15. Ball bnffuloes, two prizes of Ri. 20 and 16 ... ...
Id. Milch bulfiiioea, three prizes of JQU. 85, 20 and 15 ...
17. Bull calves by Government balls, or bulls bought ftom
the Asrd, Zpi'izea Bs. 20,15 ... ... ...
IS. Cow calves ky Government bulls, or bulls bought fhnn the
herd, two prizes of lie. 20 and 15 ...
C. Grain and Seeds.—89 Prim. Total Jts, 49B,
(Each competitor tx> exhibit Jifleen seers, certified to be the
produce of a Barvey, number of uot less than 2 ooros in
his holding.)
19. Wheut. 3 pnaos of Rs. 20, 15 and 10 ...
20. Grain,.! prUca of Bs. 20,15and 10 ... .m
21. Kico indigenous, 8 prized of Ba 20, 15 and 10 ... ...
22. Itice Caiolina, 1 piizc lie. 20 ... ...
23. Bajii, 3 prizes of Bs. 16, 10 and 5
24. Jowan. 3 prizes of Rs. 15,19 and 5 ... ...
25. Linseed, 8 prizes of Ri. 20,13 and 10
26. Tilly, 3 prizes of Hs. 20,15 and 10 ... ... ...
27. Any other oil seeds of Khandeish, 8 prizes 20,15 and 10 ,,*
(For the following, each competitor to ezUibit ten seers
cortifled to be the produce of a Survey number of not
less than two acres in his holding.)
28. Tut, 3 prises of Bs. 15,10 and 5 ... ... ...
29. Knithi, 3 prizes of Bs. 16,10 and 5 ... ... ...
SU. Grid, 3 prizes of Us. 15, 10 and 5 ... ...
31. Mug, 8 prizes of Bs. 15,10 and 5 ... *.•
32 . Feus, 2 prizos of Us. 15 and 10 ... ...
D. Cotton—17 Prizes, Total Ms, 320 and a Gold MsdaU
(Each competitor to exhibit 25 seers grown in Khandeish,
certified produce of one field.)
81. Cotton, Hinganghat variety unolcoaod, 4 prlzea, 2 of
Bs.25,aad2 of Re. 20 each ... ...
84. Ditto Dharwar ditto 4 prizes, 2 of Bs. 26 and
2 of Rs. 20 each ... ... ... •**
36. Ditto Hiugangbat, cleaned, i prizes, 2 ot Bs. 20 and 2
of Es. 15
86. Dittij Dharwar ditto 4 prizes, 2 of Bs 20 and 2
of Rs. 15 each ... • «» ••• '*•
87r Far the best uJC ait samples of cotton cxhiMtcJ, agoW «od*l
Of cash Bs. 166 ... ». «* "*
TPE.
%* FiaaSB^lS Pritfii, Total Bt, 210.
(Ea«1i to exhibit ten eoeri.)
FOaE^mY,
as. Hemp (laott), S pfixee <d Hi, 20,10 and C ... SS
S9, H«mp (A>niheti>« 8 pHiei of Be, 20, 10 and 5 SO
40, Ale4fl1}c»,ap^ix«i«ofnH«20, lOandS ... 8S
4t. OottOh itoek, fibre (pAlketi) S priiei of El. 20, tO and 5 ... S5
41 Jateftbro, Spidzeiof El. 20, lOandS 85
41 OUier ditto ditto ... ... 85
F, Tobacco— 12 ivr««, 3Hal Jfl#, 220,
(fooh oompe^toi to exhibit 10 seen coriifled produce of
one field).
44. Tobacco indigeaoai grown in Kbandeiih 6 pmesi 2 ot Eg. 21
2 of Rf, 16 and 2 of Re. 10 ... TOO
I N view o{ the oiroumataacee b^ougH ^^4 report of tli«
Neilgherry Foroefc Roaervo pQxnmi8id<»n aiid othaaV'lM lofcod
on the notice of Government, tile Clovppnbr of^ l|a,4fa8 in
reeolvee to direct tVat no application Ifpr Fopeet or ^ola land be
eutortaiaed on the NeilgheiYies Until the whole dIetHbt h(m hfitni
reported on, and the general qneetioa of land reBorya^^Onf ^whether
forcat or grass land, been opneidered, and futnre poHoy decided.
Any such applicatioiiB addreesed to the Oommisaloner will be
registered for future dispoeal. f.
4l). Tobacoo exotic grown in Khandetib, 6 prises, 2 ot Be. 88,
2 of 20, and 2 of 10 ... .120
G, Bvas,—8 PrUeif Shtal /?«. 45,
(£aoh dbtnpetitor to exhibit ten seers which inait be oer tiflod
to be a fair saiupio of two inaanda.)
40. Indigo prepared ia Ebaodcishi 1 pilao of Re, 20 ... 20
4t* I prise of Bs. 15 ... ... ... ... 15
48. Kttsumb, Z prize of 111 . 10 .. ... ... 10
H. EuaAB Cane and ScaAB—lO Prize*, lotal Re, 385.
The former to be ekbrbited in sampio) of canes, as
certified samplea of the prod nee of not less than an ac'-e.
The Utter in samples ot one hh’li, approximating amaund
in weight,
40. Man^tma or Nagur Dewla canoa, six prizc<i of Us. 35. 80,
25,20, 15 and 10 ... ... ... ... 135
50. Black oaneiffoor prizes of Rs, 26, 20, 15 and 10 ... 70
51. Khttdia canes, three prizes uf Es. 2^, 15 and 10 ... 45
52. Goor prepared in Khaadoish, 0 prises of Rs. 36, 30, 85, 20,
15 and 10 ... ... ... ... - 185
I. —RooTi AND Vegetables—U PrizeSf Total Re, 68.
(O'o be exhibited in samples of not lees than five seers.)
53. PotatooB common, grown m Kbandeisb one prize ... 20
54. Ditto sweet grown in Khaudeiak (Uatalos) one prize ... 5
55.
Oaioas Ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
6
56.
Weugi Ditto
ditto
ditto
oiUo
8
57.
Cliillies^grotva in Khaudeish, one prize
ditto
8
68.
OarroU Ditto
Ditto
ditto
ditto
3
69.
Gartio (lacien)
Ditto
ditto
ditto .*
3
60.
Beet root
Ditto
ditto
ditto ...
3
61.
Turnips
Ditto
ditto
ditto ...
B
02.
Lettuce
Ditto
ditto
ditto
3
03.
Nohlkohl
Ditto
ditto
dilLtf
3
64,
Cauhfiower
Ditto
ditto
ditto ..I
3
65.
Cabbage
Ditlo
ditto
ditto
3
66.
Tomatoes
Ditto
ditto
ditto
8
J. Textile FABEK'rf-14 Priaee,
Total Re, 1.35.
Not less than 3 pieces of each desoripiioti of fabric to bo
exhibited, by each individual competitor, for a prize under
any class, and to be certified by the fitamlsiZar of the
ialuJba, that they are 6ona ^de Khaudeish made by the
exhibitor, or his family,
Fabrics ti> bo sold if claimed for the price fi.xed in the
class under which they compete.
67. Sarees of the value of Us. 12, one prize
68. Ditto ditto 6 ditto .m
69. Ditto ditto 8 ditto
70. Dhotios of tho value of Ui. 17, oue prize
71. Ditto ditto 8 ditto
72. Ditto ditto 4 «iitto
74, Turbans of the value of Us, IB, one prize ...
74. Ditto ditto 7 ditto
76. Ditto ditto 4 ditti
76. Carpets, two prizes of Ei. 20 and 10
77. Simple Dungree, oue prize ... ...
78. Double ditto oue prize ..
79. Couutry Blankets, pciZe ... ... ...
K, Carts Ac.- *6 /Win. Total Re, 160.
15
7
($
15
11
7
16
10
7
30
5
5
b
The endeavour made to cultivate trees other than those indlgen-
oufl to Mysoxe, ia some of the Govorament fuel planialions, does
not appear to havo met with encouraging resnits. EaperiinentB
wore tried with the Oarob, Mahogany, Red BauuderSp^Sal^ Wattlo
(Acacia Bealbata) Gum Tiees, (R. Bohusta and R, Olobultis).
Auatraliau, Blackwood and Silk Oak (G. Robusta). The Carob
has grown well and bo havo the h^bqgany, of which seven only
havo boon planted; the Rucaplipti have aoRered a good deal,
epocially tho einall plants. The Gievilla Bobueta (Silk Oak) docs
uut appear to have been tried on a la^'go BCalo ; o Rue cluetor of
these tioes is to be soon noar the slaughter-house in the Ounton-
mmit, but tho tree is nut fit for fuel or ii tuber. To make plantations
a source of future levenue, steps ought to be taken to sow trees
broadcast, by means of ploughing—pitting out is an elxpeneiVe
process, and trauspiantod trees do not grow so robust or quick as
seedlings left to ibemselves. A go^ specimuu of this kind of
£(>' ^H-muking may be seen near Jutoor, whore a tract of land
was ex) dealt with by Mr. Ricketts some years back and is now
a dcuBO giovrth of fuel.— ^S^joctator,
Some of the diihGulties which will attend tho management of
arboricuUiue by the Department of Agriculture, have already
been noticed in these columns, it is a huzaidous experiment for
01)0 man to contioJ and direct tho scaitei'ed opeiations of a
proviuco comprising nearly fitly districts and nearly fire iamdred
telisile. It IS doubtful whether any more satisfactory results will
bo obtained titan under the old system, by which Collectors with a
lancy for tree-planting got a good deal done tbiongh Uie
ichsildars. After all the new system throws on Collectois the task
of cany mg out oporations decreed by the Department, and super-
adda the 1 isk uf possible friction with public works olfipials. A
grant is made to tho lotmor for planting and to tho latter fur main'
Uiniug avenues. Tlie question naturally arises when is thoiesponsi-
bilUyof mainttiiiauco to commence ? The district olliceriiiay gaily
spend his piitiuice of live hundred rupees m planting a first-rate
av euae, which he will handover to the P. \V. D. to muiptain out of
ihuir still nioio iusulficioiit allowance. Trees will die, who is to replaoe
ihcm ? The Ooiiector vows he handed over strong and healthy
Hess to the District Engineer ; the latter recriminates perhaps
that the trees were made over msufiiciently protected, or, as is the
fashion uow-a days, surrounded by vast trenches that aie Do
pfotooiioii against the active goat, and may drain oif the mois*
turofrom the rdots of the Hiipluig. No doubt all these points can
be disposed of by a tow simple rules, but the peiiod ox trauaitiou
iu management Is not likely to have been farourable to arhoricui-
turo. Apropos of arLioiicultuie, it should be recollected that it is
not enough to stick a sapling, however strong, into a hard dry soil.
The grouud should bo thuioughly broken up to a considerable,
depth, and where the avenue passes through usttr, tho sterile soil
8houi^t be rcplttoed by good earth from a neighbouring field (very
little is required). Heat above and drought below kill thoosaiida
of trci'S. especially deciduous U'ooa (such as the shisham, dio.)
Water should bo given plentifully, and a good lop dressing of old
manure will stimulate tho growth marvellously. Free planting
isbuta foim of gardening, and we may look in vain for avenues
if their nursit'g IS left to the caie of an ignorant road coolie.
Planting must bo llinitied by the funds available for thorough
sup>xriuiei.aence. —Piuiiaer.
89, Baggage carts oxhibiteu ii. • lali at a price not oxoseding
M«. 40, to bo sold if claiuK 1, two prizes of E«, 8U and jio 50
81. Uidiog earls exhibited for sale at a price not exceedtug
Es. 40, tv be sold if eklmed, two prues of Hi. SH and 70 60
82. For the best taaga or curt oa ivrings to be Jot Rule, two
prizes of Es. 3') and 20 ... ... ... 53
t. MiSCKLLXNBoUa—2 Prize*, 'Ma: Rs, iO,
83. For the best lac not leH4 than five pounds iti quantity aud
gathered in RliaadeisU, one priAO .. ... ... 2i)
84. For the best set of uaiivo field impletner.is coimaliog i)f
let Nagar (plougli) 2nd Wakhnr (hoe) 8rd Kolpe
(woediug hoe) 4th paaier (seed rlepositm) one prize 20
.„8.UBMEBG1!:D POIlES'f OS BOMBAY ISLASD.
Observatiojia hj G. E. Obui5Ton» lUaidanl Engimet, Bomho/y ^ori
Trmt, dated 29fA May 1878, (cemwtinicated hy
HE strata eaposod in the excavation for tho Prince^a Dock con-
sist of tho surface silt or black mud, which oveilics to a depth
of from 4 to 5 feet a dense blue clay of varying thickness (from 0
to 20 feel), but nearly level on top ; uuderneatU this is found lown,
mooiTiw,* and rock j the latter is very irregular on the surface, jmxh*
iiiug at times into long narrow ridges aud massos of boulders with
Total Frixu Rupees ... 4^60
4 A looal tern toc decomposed Took^
LQmxShWf^ST.
91
ioil l^iiTMp# The reck iff sofl:, end oonetits mostly of indurklie^
nedl^lMi lmkeddediii a herd matrix. Nmubera of tma Have been
fbond <ab0ttt 360 up t6 date). Many bad been eyerlttifned before
being covered with blue clay, but the roots were only partially
team Out of the loam Or moorom in which they grew, others were
standing upright with their roots deeply planted In their nntivo
soih ThO atanding trees only extend to the surface of^the blue clay,
none peitetratod the muddy silt above ; and for a foot or so below
the love! of the blue clay, the, timber was riddled by the 3Vcf/o
WVfiUii ora similarly destructive worm. Moat of the other trees
also' showed signs of this worm. One tree was found charred on
one side for a sboft distance. Tho largest trunk found was4G
feet long and 4 feet 8 inches in girth ; some of the timber is quite
sound } it is of the colour of dark rose-wood, and with a straight
grain. The level of the roots of these varied from low-water
extreme spring tides to 12 feet under. This shows the land to
havehnbstded at least 30 feet, as the,trees must have grown above
hi|^-wat6r mark.
Kota.—>Tb|s disooFory of trees, in the spot on which they grew, below
low*«afcer mark in Bombay leiatul la chiefly remarkable, because
it sbewB that, iu recent or aub-re^eat times, depressioo must have taken
plaoe in the immediate neighbourhood of ground which appears to have
been relied. The Prince’s Dock is on the eastern or harbour side of
Bombay Ivlaud, and the Bsplanado surrounding the fort on the western
side, not a mile away from the dock, is oomposod of tue rook calleii
littoral concrete by Dr. Buist, a mass of eheUs. corals and sand oemouted
tosathor by carbonate of lime. It is scarcely possible that the materials
of which this rook consists can have been accumulated at their present
elevation above the soa; m all probability tboy formed, when first
deposited, a sand banker beach not raised above high-water mark, aud
as it is diffioult io understand how elevation and depression can hare
occurred sinmltaneously oo different sides of so email au area as
Bombay Island, it is probable that the whole area has undergone
elevation aud depression aUoruately. If the elevation he the older
movement, then the Bsplanade must once have been several feet higher
than it now is ; If ^the dopressiou is older, the trees at Prince’s Dock
have been at a greater depth beneath tho eea than they now are. The
former la perhaps more probable.
The such alternate movements of elevation and depression have taken
plaoe in Bombay Island was shewn by Dr. Buist* many years ago,though
to a smaller extent than now appears probablo. At the same time, before
the depth to which depression has extended in ihia^case can be estimated,
it is necessary to ascertain what kinds of tr^cs are represented. If
they be such as grow on laud, the depression must have bf'cu greater
than If they bolonyr to'such forms as /Jomsawiaor JHlut^^uifsra, vfhlaii
grow some feet below high-water mark. The oiretimsianoe that tho
trees are bored by Teredo ia in favour of their haviug grown in salt
marsb, whore these moilusca are pooaUarly abundant,
W. T. BLANFORD.
MINERALOGY,
THE WYNAAB GOLD FIELDS—MR. SMYTH’S
REPORT.
Ko. ISIS of lllh November 1876.
Bjsad the following paper
From Bi Baovos Smyth, ssq„ Mining Engineer to the Secretary to tho
Govemmenti Bevenue Department,—No, 18&, dated Devalub, tho 5th
November 1878-
1 have tho honor to sabmit, for the considoration of His Grace tho
Governor in Counoil, the fourth report of my prooeodings.
2, I have much satisfoobion in etatiug that on the I7th October, gold
was found in Urge quantities in a quartz vein about thirty chjms soutU-
easterly from the Alpha Mill* near an adit known as Wright'e Lovel,”
S. The atriko of the reef at the point whore the “ run ” of gold occurs
ia nearly north and south, aud the vein dips rather rapidly to the east.
The average thiokneiM of the veiu is about four feet, aud throughout a
thickness of two feet or more j tho stone is veined and seamed with sosqul-
oxyd of iron derived mainly from tlie decomposition of pyritoH. Fing
gold is disseminated throughout the blocks of atone which have boon tnkstt
011^ and it OQirars also in well-deflned layers associated with the ores
of iron. When the blooks are broken, numerous jagged pieces of gold
are seen, and thin lMC.Uke forms ace found in some paru.
4. The yields of gold from the stone obtained at this spot have bocu
as followi j—
1, No gold visible in the shone
9. No gold visible in the stone
8. A little gold to be seen ^
4, Gold visible b the stone
3Q4
oz. dwt. gr.
0 11 6*0 per ton of S,8401bs.
1*8 ditto
m ditto
Id'7 ditto
16
13
11
Hone of the Hober speolmeas have been treated.
8, The of gold eppeam to be transverse to the lines of the dip
and strike of the reei^ end t an|lie4»aU that at a gteSter depth, and at
t of tke Bombay Soeiety, fel« p, 1/7,1657, |
points nortbjof the plaoes where the riah'stone le fonudi sunferone quartz
will be discovered that will give good vOtiiroe,
0. In an adit below Wright’s Level;i and nearly due east of the point
where Ute richest specimens have be^ got, paroots of pyrituus qdarts
has givcm an average yield of 8 dwt and 1^*04 gveineper ton,
7. At the Skull Reef, ab out twenty-two chains north of WrighVs Level
there is a grt^at iliickness of quartz* It measuree about fourteen feet
from the hanging wuU Io a mass of 'floating rock’ (country), hut the
total tliiclincsR baa not yvt been asoertsined^ Here there is at the fsoa
mudi atone that is practically miproduolivo. The reel has been carefufly
Usirtliu five sectioas (vertical), and the yields, per ton 8,84olbs. were as
follosva : —
OS. dwt. gn
No. I SJcctioQ.—Tlimging wall oue foot in thickness ... 0 8 16*18
No. 2 flection—Hanging wall three feet in ihickuess 0 0 0*02
No. 3 Section.—Hanging wall four feet iu thickuoss 0 t 0'20
No. i flvciioa.—Ilangiiig wall five foot iu lliickuese ... 0 2 8*21
Nq. 5 Section.—lluugitig wall Six inches in thlckuess ... 0 0 4*25
8. It Will b3 observed tlint tho stone in the fourth soction gave
somewhat better yield than that from the olher soctisns^ and on tracing
this lino nortliwards along the strike, stoho was obtained which yielded at
tho rate of 1 rz. 4 dwt. and 5 grains per ton.
P. Hero, an \n nearly all other ca^es, the gold is associated with
sesqui'Oiyd of iron, but dean gold m almost Jico-frec quarts is seen in
Bomo places.
10. The increased yiohl at the last-namod spot api'cara to indicato the
setting in of another baud of auriferous qaartA. *
11. From a reef about forty.tive chains south-ooiteTly from the Devalah
bazaar, T have obtained quartz which yiddcd in several secUens as follows t—
oz, dwt. gr.
No. I flectiou ... 3 0 0 ... Button not weighable.
No. 2 dvi. ... 0 9 1*01 pertou.
No. 3 de. ... 0 3 4*4(1 do.
The quaitz from this reef contsmed a not very large proportion of
pyrites.
12. Duo west Of this reef, and about twenty ciiains from it, thorn is an
outcrop of auiiferous quaitz, and gold is also fonnd iu the Suil near the reef
13. At the Cavern Kecf. about twcuty-six chains east of the Alpha
bungalow, the native miueis Jiave made (fortlicui) rather largo aditSt haviug
ovideutty followed tho direction of tho pyritous seams, uests, and joints
which are ionud there somewhat abuudaiUly. These openings, as I uiAt
lufonued, tinil from my own observations believe, have h«ou worked, only to
a viiy amalL ctent, uiuier the Kiipe^vitaon of Nuropeaus. The reef presentii
good prospects as indicated by the yields, which arc as follow i—
oz. dwL. grs.
1, l.hiarrz ... ... ... ... 0 2 21*30 por ton,
2. Pyutoua quartz (the proportion of pyritos
being largo)
...
... 0
19 3-00
do.
3. Fyntous quartz ...
...
... 0
10 2*69
do.
4. Ditto ...
... 0
11 4 99
do.
5. Ditto ...
... 0
a 560
do.
fi. Ditto
... 0
14 U-00
do.
This reef will bo fuitlier tested as soon as other nrgent work now in hand
m dispuacd of.
14. A saiiiplo of pyritf'S which it is ssild was takeu out of the Ettimu
lloef (a perl ion of which has boon laid bare by the Wyuaad Prospoctiog
Company. and which was formmly worked by ibe natives), hag yielded at
Hie rate of 2 o;.. 1 dwt. aud 7*78 gis. per loo. 1 have examined the abandoned
workings at the Ettacal, and 1 have failed to find any tumecal shoiilar to
that which 1 treated, but 1 have not yet had any quartz broken out. Tbei‘6
is, however, no doubt, irum the evidence 1 have obtained, that highly
auttferous pyrites aud pyritous quartz occur at this point,
15. Tue results hero given are to my mind highly satisfootory, but any
ouo result, whether Jargo or small, if cuusidered by itself and without
leiereuoe to other facts ounuected with it, would be altogether mialeadiug*
10. There are numerous reefs m the ueiglibouthcod of Devaluh, reported
as auiiferouB, which 1 have not yet had tho opportunity of examining, but
qnarla was taken irom one root somo railoa north of Devalah bazaar, aud
about four miles west from Nelakutta, when I was surveying there| and
gold was found in it,
17. I have marked on the lithograph map of the three amsboms of South-
East Wyuaad (scale one inch to tho mile) partly from my own observations
aud )>artly from lufoimatiou afforded by gentlemen resident in the duitrieti,
the position, approximately, of ninety outcrops of quurtx veins, and west
of Choladi, intersecting a lino about fourteen miiee in leogth. there are
said to be eleven distinct reefs. lt> is not to be supposed, however,
dunug the shori ume t hare been in the Wyuaad X have been able to
ascermu the position of all the reefs. There are many blank spaces oa
tho map*
18. Tho poaitlou of the zeefii is beiug marked down also on tlie Tngono-
metrical flnrvey map (on the scab of four miles to one inch), aud from ooc
reef three uulfil uoith-easb from VellirymulU, J. am assured by a geuitcmau
resident thersi and who w acquaintodwitli the reefs near Devalah spemaious
of auriferotts quarts have obtained as rich as auy fpund iu this
116
miil^bowli^. b«6ft teolf^ta^poSiKl^
tlM tMi f»nn tlift |[0t4 wftp
19* mtidn that An «riia meaiiiriniflr tfrAaty<d!re isU«0
tbirtocm mUeii from north to «oath**-tbirAA bnadred
cod tw«nt3r49i iquam inil«t«^<A ixt^rseeted by qbaits reins in tbit district
SO* Tbe yrsAt tbieltneM t^^ msny of Uie reins and the formation of the
oOBtfttryo-^iiifth is snob as to admit of ihxi quartz being mined eooaomioally,
iiodee{>siiaftS or heavy expenses for the drainage of the minos being
hfcWMafy*— hAvo tp bo tahoh into oonvideratioo when the nnmbor of reefs
if lookad at and an ealUnate of Uie anriforona resources oi the district is to
be made,
81* Nor should thaexteniire, but shallow, workings of the native minors
who spnght for gold in times past be forgotten, Ihoir smali excarations
and pits are found all along Uio lines of outcrops of the quartz veias» and
in many p^ces the soil sot usually more than tvo feet in depth from the
favfaae to the bed*rock, has been oarofuliy washed,
their ** raoeV’ the lines of which are now nearly ohhfcerate.h and the
rUns of their aqueducts, made for the purpose of conveying water to the
mineSt am to be seen in some parts of this dtstnet, All tliese teud to show
thht the miners found remunerative ein2>loyinent m mining both in the reefK
thWselves and in the soils conUining the (Zshrt.«and dref‘tia'> of Uie reefs,
22, ft is notpoBsiblo as yet to indicate tUo reefd that are distinct from
each othor, to show on the maps those that.are continuous. Any attempt to
indi(iate thh main linos of reefs from a auperiiciai o\amiuation of the country
mast necessarily fail, 8uch can be done only aitor a proper survey lias
bahn nuUl^ and the position, the strike, and the iip of each unborop ascer¬
tained.
2d. Korambars have been at work washing earth by gmund-sliiioiug north
add nofth*ei6t cl t^evalab, and in some places tliey have obUiucd lotigh
gold, which iudloates the existence of reefs thut in all prohuhibly wiU yield
well, jq one place a “ leader** was oat by the Kornrnbais, a poruoii of wlnoli
showed gold, and, if approved ol, 1 ahall c.mti(uie topronpeot with the aid
of the na'ive miners in order to dUoovor tbv, auuferous reefs.
84. The Korumbare have been workiug lately near Needle Rock, and
1 bo Vo also commenced box'sluioing in the same localit 3 \ There wok aome
delay in obtaining suitable Limber for makmg boxes, but Ihoso that have
been made will bo snlHcieut for the purpose intended.
23, There are tu'o quartz rcofs at Needle Rock which I h/»vo examined,
and which are shown on tlie key-map, and the proprietor of ti* ostato has
informed me that he han sought the permission of ILs Grace uie Governor
to name one tlio ^*Bttclingham Jteof" und the other the *^Ciia,ulos Reef.**
26. 1 have purposely omitted to this progress rcpittl all lefarouce in ibe
uineralogicalfacts observed, and other details which, unless iustructodto
the contrary, 1 propose to meutton in my linul leport.
27. The weather during vbo past month lias I vcn i...ourablo, and it
oonUoues dno, and 1 have hope that 1 shall make rapid progress with my
field-work. On tiuturday next, the Dt.h mstant, 1 propose t» go down Iho
Garooor Ghaut, and to visit the mines near MurJauiy. Jt is nid (hat the
season is now favourable, anJ that any doluy might result in my liridiiig
it dilhculb to indnee persons to accompany me to a locality whioh i, r,spoiled '
to be uubealtby in the sucjeolmg raorttliR. 1 trust that this prnpnqaT, \
though interfering to some extent With iny work here, will bo appi^vodof. '
26. 1 continue to leoetvo intbrinatiunaud cordial a^HtstallCti ivoru every
ode, roBidOttt in the district, who is aware of the uaUirc of the wm k 1 am
engaged on, and it affords mo ploimure to sLulu lhal Air. 7'hoiaaa Laing,
the Quartz Miner, and Mr, G, 1i). Withors, odsiatant, perform tUoiv duties
to my entire satisfaction.
2*». On Thuiaday, the 2Ut October, tlie the Governor was pleased
to inspect numerous gpeoimouB oi auritcrous quartz obtained from the
Alpha Mine, and to obeervo also the method of testing the atouo by
amalgamation. On the same duy, ilia Grace visited and examined the reef
at that point where the rich quartz has lately been discovered.
On Fiidaj, the ist November, those intomted in mining were honored
by UiB Grace’s Visit to Needle Uooki where gold was got both by box-
aliuoiug and ground-sluicing.
80. On Saturday inottfing, the 2nd November, 1 hud the honour to lake
Bis Grace’s wishes respsoting the mode in which 1 should conduct tin*
investigatiuns lhave bef^n appointed to make, and vcutui'e to entn-fcom the
hope tha(> ths dual resli’i -^f my labours may in some measure obtain Ilia
Grace's approval*—
OOTACAMtIND, Doc, 0 .
A CORRESPONDJSNT writes to the Madrai Athenofum “ The rcsi-
denU in this district^ as 6* U* Wynaad is ttow in the lioiits of the
same, take uunsidcrablo iotereet in the qae(>tiou of gold mining. We
gather trom the public prints that the JHadrui Mhonafimand JDailjf
does nut look at this onterptise in the sadguine mdunet that othdrs do.
Having had uuiisiial opporinnltied of inapcotiug the'Wynaad gold reefs
and their oultuiu wheie marked, 1 have come to the conclusion iba^ a
company wiiha iafgu amonut of oa^iftal ehohtd makfe a good thing out
of quartz 01 u«hmg 111 i>. K. Wynaad, bat that airbt
capi'ui is requued to crush with prbfit, ad the gold ii', •< >x rd1d^ thidly
distiriboted over a large bulk of stohe—'the* gdld Is gei^efdlljf alMdst
inyitible, Eotbat poQuliarly espeustye indt^1it4rj/ la r^^bre^udloaiy
mkdd wUh other mgtilf
AU ** tqrfaoe gold *' {with ooHqo^n) her Iwea IdeM
tbonaUsee of the land* **'WMbliig to? g&ld’^ dAhndt» tkeiwfofe be
progrably earried on, 1 ohsqrre that Mr* Btengh flymthe td
have found reefs whioh yield at the rate of 204 oa, 11 dw^ 1^^
ton. I think you are right to oaU thlf a ridiouloitt y$fid^ton of
stone; a ton was not crushed to get this yle|d*-*-a pteoO of stobt With a
quantity of gold in it was ebipped off and weigbed-'-and tiuoalonlt^ien
was made as if a whole ton of quartz had been erushedf and, gol 11
dwte. 16*7 of gold bad been found soattered over the ton*' Bat
a ton been crushed, and so mooh gold found scattered over it, the test of
the capability of the reef would not be a sound onw» At least JUHW t^s
of qnartz should bo crushed and the average struck to Moer%In^t]}e
ootrect a vertigo yield of a reef 6, The Companies which have beSn
working for some years have crushed in the aggregate over l|000f tons,
so (hat there should be no difficulty in asoertamlng the eorrsot atjerage
yield. 1 have just seen 71bs. of clean coffee taken off a tree In this
district, as there are 1,200 trees planted to the acre thefd,' the
tbe estate might boast that his estate yields at the rate Of .8,4(Klffi>t* per
acre, t.o., nearly 4 tons per acre > But alas the other 1,199 trees have
yioldtid in this acre so miserably, that the aggregate amnunt'ol yleid
from them is under SOOlbs. Such being the case, would tfab proprietor
of the estate be jnsiifxed in advertiiiog his estate for Sale as yieldkig at
the rate of 8,4001b8. per aora—beoausa one treebss yielded at> this
rate 7 I fancy the said proprietor would bo much laughed at if be published
the assertion, so 1 quite agree with you that it is simply rldioulons to
assert that yoqr gold-fields yield at tbe rate of 204 oz, 11 dwts* 19*7 gfs*
per ton of quartz, because a chip of quartz yielded so much gold ; had
that said chip weighed 2'240lbi, instead of Iths., thh yield of gold would
hare been 204 oz. 11 dwts. 16'7 grs.
Bzaggerated statements of this nature will bring contempt on ni^bot
the oareful examination of the Wynaad gold reefs which I have
persoually made, leads me to the belief that a truthful assertion of
Ml varnished facts willdomueh good—and will bring capital into our
dishdotto work our reefs on the large scale whlohoan alone emure
lUeir remunerating capitalists.
ff the yield is now exaggerated—a reaction most, sooner or later, set
in—and our last stale shall be worse then our first—a panio will arise
and oapHalisis will be frightened from the safe investment, goidfiiiaing,
i.e\ “ quartz crushing ” m B. N, Wynaad really does present.
A PiKlga correspoiidonl corroborated the report that Li Hung-
chan#? iiiis contracted With Mr. Arnold Hague, or Now York, an Able
geologist and mining expert, for tho purpose of prospecting for
gold, Milver and othei minerals in the north of China. This he says
liaa be(‘ii effectod on the auggostioii and through the efforts of the
Amtiriciiii Cousul and Viof*-Couaul at Ticulsiu, Mr. Hague is now
m ThmtHin, and will ehortly take his departure for the mining
regioiiH. Our cmreepouilciTL finds in the dovolopment of Iho
resomcos of Cliiua tho panacea for Chinese emigration to California.
American PETRoriWUM. —Tbe total export of American petroleum
from IdiJl to, and moluding 1877 (Id years) is given at 442,699,968
dollaiH cuHtoiii house valuation. From the host sources of informa-
lion there uio at this time 10,000 oil wells, producing and drilling,
which, at a oust of 5,000 dollars per well, would make an in vestment
of 50,000,000 dollars in thin branch of the husinese. Tankage bow
cxiHtiug of a oiipucitv of 6,000,000 barrels cost 3,000,000 dollars and
7,000,000 dull Mrs, have been invoHtod in about 2,000 miles of pipe
line oouncoled with the wells. The outiro invostineiit for the exist¬
ing oil prodnction, inoludiug purchase monoy of territoryi is aoma-
tliitxg over 100 0o0,000 dollars, which Amount oanhot bo lessened
iniii h, if any, tor ns wells ceaao to produce, now ones have- boon
constantly <0 tiled to take their place.
®lp| §\mim
TEA.
fTlHEI endeavours of Mr. Burrell and others to place pure Indian
^ teas within reach of the general mass of oonsumere in Bnropey
and to educate, so to speak, tho pnblio taste for unmixed Indigo
teas, will make it lees and less necessary for agents att^ brokets
to urge tbe managevs Of our thk estates to manufaettite the' g^at
bulk of their teas into rasping tea,**
To manufacture a ** rasping tea’* means to sacrifice all detioate
arohta, all fine finish, in fact all that constitutes a fine teit^, fit
for general and immediate consumptioh^ in order to make a bitter
tea”, that is unfit to bo drunk by itself, and oulj^ servee as art ad¬
mixture to low class China teas, without which they wbttld pfbbabliy
not be aaloablo* It is a matter of congratolatioii that in spite of
this great demand for ** rasping tea”, there is stitl au%i^t fine
tea turned out in India to sustain the good tiamoi IndiAii tea has
Mi'iMlEHig ' foMlwl*, ttttd tt thVtatiua
,OWja;im^^«> Mkwagw^ ^an»ot M blamfta, a
ma^ ot eornnai m«Bt comply with tUo ittBtri^Uo»« they
ro^inVa fii?<^ tlis agents. In manufaptunng ** raiiy^aif
t|^a pxupi^ .of formi^taiioa is checked uiitimplyf
is partly firad* the resnlt beings a strong biting tea, wbicU
may perhaps be termed a kutoha tea,—such a tea however as
the brokers want, but not an article that will do credit to
jC^dia i^hould it come pore to the consumer. An a riilc however such
tea, does not reach the consumer, except as a component part
of a mixture, oonsisting of perhaps one^part of this tea and six of
China OoUgoa or inferior Souchong.
AoOoaniNO( to ofholal returns, the total area of land under tea
cultivation, in the yeor 1876-77 (those returns are inexcusably
late), amounted to 145,685 acres, showing an increase of nearly
21,000 acres over the recorded aoieago of the previous yetu*. We
suspect, however, that some portion of the increase exists on paper
only, and is due to imperfect returns in the year 1875-76. Assam
shows up for 102,711 acres, Bengal returns 30,242, the North-
Western Provinces 4,709 acres, the Punjab nearly thp same, and
Burmah ends the list with a solitary plantation of 150 aciea,
situated near Akyab. Nearly halt-a-million acres of laml have
been taken up for planting, but are not yet planted, and a good
deal of this will probably never be planted, being either iftifit for
cultivation, or reserved for the supply of timber and fuel to the
plantations.
A TUIBD BtUTloN o£ Liout Oolouol Money's work ou “ The
Cultivation and Manufaoturo of Tea,’’ has recently been published
by Messrs. W. B. Wliittingham & Co., 91, Graco-ohuroh Street,
Loudon. The body of the work is an essay for which the pii^o
of the Grant Gold Medal and Rs. 300 wtis awarded by the
Agricultural and llorticuUucal Society of India, in the year 1872.
The.book has since then been greatly enlarged and correctod by
the experience of the past six years.
tiO-Eaoh bas, hit h nninW of ptotwb(iM«jj^
which corresp<^od t5 Ihe'bdwf wd which Uper to %
minute pciuk'Tljis fi jho notably point of physiw
peculiarity, for tiiough each of thf pi^tubefattces the little creature
emits a drop of bright Irantiparei^ ftmd aO sOott as ib is touched
ou the back with a straw or stick { and vihen U dees SO, it lookiji os
if it has so many drops ol dew resting Wpeh it.
(5.) —It feeds voraciously upon the tesi leaf, and in four or five
days, liftic ft dosen liaye bared a largo bwh of every lejaf* J3Jh®y
do nut. however, touch the young buds, for tjie rpasoQ, probably,
that there is more of toimiu iu them. This, hoWO'ror, Is
coiijuc-turu.
(6 )““Tho owner of the estate on which the catorjL^illar wcA foppd
kept Also a few in a bottle to watch their habits and doveloppiSoL
Of the small number of five insects which were placed In a tart
bottle with a perforated cork, and a small supply of toa'
frotjuontly ohungod, four died and dried up against’the Slda of the
bottle, and only one underwent a molamorphosis, and has been
kept in a separate phial without any further change being noj^iobd
for more than three weeka. It located itself before tfto change
along tho contro of a tea leaf On the upper side, and dravl^iug
the loaf into a fold, spread over itself a covering of a browsisu
color and of tho consistency of a douse cobweb. It has retdalhod
in that sUto over since.
(7 )~-Tho insect when afivo crawls by folding its body up and
using altorufttoly tho front and back halves of its body to seiae
tho branch along which it travels.
(8,)—Wherever it crawls it leaves a web behind it, in same
Way as miuiy caterpillars do, but the web it pays out is so strong
that it retpiuos some prossuro to move or break it.
(9.)—.The body of the insect is very tough, and when shalsen oft
tho tree It was (lilllcult to kill even by rubbing with a stick, so
that each insect had to bo cut iu two with a knife.
(lO.)-»Th0 drops of liquid which U oasts out through the pores
on its back are also of a property which causes a oobweb to stick
to auytliiug to which the liquid attaches.
Probably some suieutilic people could throw light upon the
nature of tho iusect and tell us if wo are to look for a new peSt
in this shape, or whether it is an ovil wliicU is not likely to^spread
and riimons pioportions. A boillo full of these inscots
wojo Hubmitted to thu Oommisaionor of the Nilgiris, who was kind
eriongh to promptly send them uti to Ihe Board of Revenue, wjt^o
have science moio ready to hand uud are better able to help
determine the nature of the pest.
TEA IN CEYLON.
We give prominence to tho following from the Jtulian Tea
Gazelle :—“ Speaking of tho noo essily for tlie pioduotion of teas
with the requisite quality and flavour to suit the taPte of tho
English market, it cauuot be too strongly iiupiossed upon ageuts
and managers that it is essential to pay inoie and more atten¬
tion to the adequate inanunug of the land. Poverty of soil
moans, wo know, iu many cases, poveity of tho proprietor ; and
it is act, of course, always cosy for au o wnor to expend what
ho would desire to do in tho way of enrichment of the soil.
But seeing that too often inter ior quality is due rather to
exhausted soil than to imperfect cu Uivation or manufacture, and
that where the former is the case, the only proiituble icmedy
is judicious expondituro in the improvement of the laud, it will
prove short-sighted policy if every etfoit be not strained iu tins
direction where the fact of the necessity is at all apparent.’'
It is said that the mosquito blight this season has proved a
terrible pest, and the loss to proprietors in conse(iuence has been
most serious. Many promising estates this y^ar have proved short
26 to 30 per cent, of their outturn from this blight.
A NEW ENEMV TO THE TEA PLANT.
A mong the pests ol the tea plant may be mokoned an apparon tly
' new insect, in the form of a caterpillar, which has lately
shown itself on an estate on tho Nilgiris. Tire owner of the
estate experimented on a few of them, picked ofE his trees, and
the following are a few particulars i-*
(l.)-<^Thd caterpillar is about an inch long with five pairs of l^s
in addition to a pair where the body points oil! at the stern.
(2.y—has a'small crpain-oaloui‘ed head with a pah of minute
bl|ick eyeSi^d has ihe power of drawing in its head, which it does
when it comes into contact with any suspicious object.
(8.)--^It ie of a bright s^mcn colour, growing to a pinkey colour
on the stomaeh. Xt it malted, ikth one, and in some cases with
fhvM|ldaolB stripes down the. h^ ^ Those having throe stripes
to i^ appwa&cOftlM aides ^
M uch as writers on tho subjoot of tea onltivatioii may differ
I til .)Omo subjeotb, thoy arc at least agiood on the matter of
altitude, and, itidood, it needs no practical acquaintance with tho
subject to tinduistand that ns tho tea planter looks for his crop
irom repeated flushes of loaves, those flushes can only bo obtained
under cirouinstanced favonrable to a free dovelupmeiit of vegetable
oigaiiiHaliou. This cannot take place iu a region of continued cold
with a low rate of r.iinfAU ; frequent showers and a tolerably high
teiuperaturo, without being of a too forcing charaotor, constitute
the conditions most lavouvahlo for a succession of flushes. It has
been laid ilown as an axiom by toa planters of experience, that
the plant may bo cuUivatod with x>roflt within a range of several
thousands of feet, and that whilst a high altitude gives quality, a
low elevation is favourable to quantity. To what extent this rule
holds good in Ceylon, and how far the experience gained in Assam
may bo applied to this island, are points which are yet open to
diHcussion.
There iu one matter, however, upon which we believe there is
no room for doubt. The fact is indisputable that tho soil of Assam
is far superior to most of that to be found in Ceylon. The Assam
plantations have been formed out of forests, the soil being a rich
vegetable loam, free from stones and gravel. This well established
fact should induce caution on the part of any who may be
contornplatiiig Lho planting of tea on laud whereon coifeo has
ceased to bo productive ; at the same time it may bo weU to bear
in mind tho opinion of agricultural experts who declare that,
although land may have b on exhausted of the olements necessary
for the support of one variety of plant, it may yet coutaiu the
essential constituents of food for other growths. This penit will
bo put to a practical test bofoio very long, as thero are at tho
presont time portions of abandoned coffee ©states under tea
cultivation in several districts. Time alone can determine if the
quaiky of the leaf produced be satisfactory, and whothei such soil
will I'uutinue to yield flushes suffloiently abundant to be remunera¬
tive.
To what extent aspect, soil, rainfall, and altitude will together or
separately affect the qiialUy,yield, and dfliabiUty ‘Jl te^ plantations,
to be ascertained. The great variety of couditions under
a (gliding cultivated in deylon, wfl), b^ore years
vn supply un with sfleh data as shall shei^i beycua
-'80
dottbe, vliafc Atii tb« oomaitloas favourable to the jptoftjable
cuUivajtioTi of tea la Qtolon. Tlmt tea, rpey
aud exerted at a price or prices that will Teave a profit to the
groirei*, we4o ttot for a moment donbt» and that, too* ou epota
where It would'uoi bo possible to grow oofiee profitably. A^toa
may be wmdooed inferior in quality Ip that growru on other
plantations, yet from local ciroumstanoes in its favour, it may give
a profitable return to the proprietor. It remains to be seen how
fat the advantage^ wo possess in choapnosa of transport and
certainty of labour, will help to ooutiterbaiaoce the undeniable gain
to ABtam of great riohness of soil.
•irea growers must not, however, forget tlAt there is much more
oeoessity in the produotion of a good marketable artiole, than the
more cuItivaUou of the leaf, Muoh depends on its manipulation,
both in the first stage of firing and rolling, and in the after
pteparatloQ of the jeaf for packing. There are ton plantations iu
the oloeo vicinity of NuweraBUiya and the Wilson Plains, at an
altitude of 6,000 feet, and in a compaiatlvoly dry climate ; there is
nnolheroh tlie north-west faoo of tho Uambodde Pass, at an altitude
probably of 5,500, bub with abundance of moisture : Ihoro are
estates again in Upper Howahotta as high as 4,000 and 6,000 feet,
but with a north-easterly aspect : tliero are tea plantationa in
Lindnla, in Arabegamua, Polosbagie, Yaodessa, and Uakwane,
ranging between 2,000 and 3,500 foot, and there are again estates of
tea on the Avisawella and Peak rangoa not more than 500 foet
above sea level. It has yet to be seen how it will fare with all of
these in yield, in flavor, and in durability. But all will equally
need tho core and skill of au experienced mauipulalor,—CVy/on
Tiwttfs. • ______
INDIAN TEA-MAKING, &o.
To the Editor of the Produce UarkeUf Beview.
Bi»,—The usual custom of plucking in carefulJy-managed gardens
is as follows Tho flush, for the two first flushes, is allowed
to rau to five leaves, of which only three arc taken with tho stalk,
at one pluok* A portion of the fourth loaf is also HOnietimes
gathered at the same pluck, but this bit of a leaf is often taken
separately, at a Beoond pluck, or move, of the hand. The piece of
the leaf that remains on tho hush is left to nurse Hucooodiiig
flush. Tho fifth leaf is loft on to nurse the tree, for tlic sap docs not
perceptibly circulate iu the leaves of the preceding year, and some
portion of refiuodsap must return downwards to f*;xm new wood.
By circulating through the loaves, the natuie of the eap is altered.
If every leaf were taken oil’, tho now wood would hecomo spongy
and porous, and the tieo in a few ycais would langiiish and look
old. The old sap melts and returns ; the new sap liscs 1 ly the
action of the .sun through the outer bark. In the root it appears
to be only weak sugar and water , as it rises, it evaporates and
becomes thicker, till itioachoa the bud, which it ouca^’ons to grow.
The half leaf alluded to above having been neparated firm the
stalk, will not easily roll, andofleu will not culoui black (because
it is separated from tho stalk), and is called by us planteis red leaf
or fauniiigs, while if it colours black it iu cullod Broken tea. The
twig with tho three leaves on and the broken leaf are rolled together j
tho dillereiit qualities, Pekoe, Pekoe Souchong, Souebong, and
B >kenTea, are separated afterwards by sieving. Wh^-n the leaf iu
put over the fire to dry it iu red, tlie same colour as uftoi mfuuiou,
butae libecomcB dryit asHumes a black hue. To colour the leaf
black (in drying) it must be r'dled with tho ''talk. Not so with
greOD tea . then the leaf ougl-.t to be uepnvated from tho stalk,
and tho stalk must not bo rolled witu tho leaf, or it will bruise it,
make it red, and then it would dry black and not green, llespcctiug
the third, fourth, and fifth flushes or liai vosts, the flush is only let run
to four leaves, of which three-aud-a-half luo taken ou above. Ther<
are many pluckiuge, thu-o to each harvest—the early, lb' middle
(the heaviest orop),.ujd the latter uhoots. Tho stalks iu China tea
are for the most part i nte* pruuings, added aft it wards : they at:p
known by tho clean cut of liie knife, and their hardness. Th^ true
stalk of tho flush is very, very, delicate, or the smaU delicate
women and children of India, with hands moie delicate than any
of our women, could not pluck it. Boar in mind that it is plucked,
not picked ; that is, it is seized or hold between the soft parts of
the first finger and thumb, and if not delicate and soft, would not
come away, indeed, docs not do so, if tbo baivost is a few days
too old. The harvest is often gathered m torrents of lain, which
men iu this countiy would refuse to work in.
Pekoe iu Chinese is '‘hairy loaf,” and is the top bud. There are
four to five harvests iu tho^oar, but every Uarvee;: give a
haiiy bud at the top of the twig. Tho first flush itL.*(ily gives It,
as there Is too much sun, whioh opens the bud too quickly | nor dq
old treeti always give it* la oui* English
means thoi top bud and the lob leaf i Pekoe Squebottg,
between the Pekoe and Souehoug, the eocond on the stalk ;m
fadt, it means neither Pekoe nor ^uehoiig. (Oerefelliy slewed lekx
ought to have no Pakoe tips.) Souchdag means the third leaf oa
the stalk, If the Pekoe fias few flowery tips, it is afisur^ to
expect to see any in the Pelme flouohong. Te have flowery Pekoe,
wo muBt liave a suitable season for |t—sun, mist, and rain,
in equal proportions. The red liquor of all black tea la Atede hy
brtismg the leaf in the act of rolling (just the same as an apple,
when btuised, turns rod inside, although the skin Is not broken),
and the act of getting or bocoming dry, no matter how, noeasiOni
it to assume a blaok look. If the leaf is rolled too hard, the juices
run out, and quickly lose their flavour, become soar, jaet sO the
juice of an apple becomes cider. Iu the act of rolling, the i^ed
juices of the leaf roll over the white silver tips, and tins makes the
tips rod, called Orange Pokoe, and the loaf at the side dries block.
Orange Pekoe shows that the tea has been rolled properly*
Plowory Pekoe means bright silvery tips, neither flower nor
blossom.
A pLAin?Bn.
Chellcuhami Oclobor ]7tli, 1678.
THE INDIAN TEA INDUSTHY.
T he oultlvalion of tea In in the British dominions is becoming a
rapidly extondiug industry. Two small parcels of Oeylon teS were
sold At the f)ubljo |saloB this week in London, and realised a fairly
BAlisfactory price. For a first effort Ibe result was hopeful, although it
iH said thoi'ti is muoh room tor imprOTemeut In the quality. Whether
ten cultiyation will ever rival lhal uf coffee in Oeylou, it is impossihle
to predict, us the industry ts qnito iu hs infanoy. Capital, however
hemg rained, and we believe that a Oeylou Tea Company Is being
cplnblisbod with every prospect of sucoess, atthongh pOBStbly In these
times of dear money aud general depression, the most favourable
moment may not have hevn oboaen for the launching of the Company.
The progress made by Judiau tea is remarkable. It is booomiug
largely used in Knglniid, and it promises to be )u future a serious
rival to (be Obiuese productious. In 1873 only 18^ miUious of pounds
weight wero imported into Groat Britain from India, against nearly B2
rnillioue in 1877. At. the Paris Exhibition Indian tea, especially under
the auspices of Mr. Burrell, has taken high honours, aud it was judged
superior to the Chinese teas. Mr. Burrell has been very successful in
making Indian tea known in Knrope. The gardons of Assam, Caobar,
Chittagong, and the Nollghoines, and a number of other dUtriots, are
bocuniing celbiiroted ilirougbout (he world for tbeir productions. No
doubt the iudubtry has Buffered variations of fortune since its com*
mouceraent, and its very oxistenoe has been threatened by the
mexperience and want of knowledge of those who so eagerly wont
into the outcrpriso, and made haste to be nob with the provetblal
< result. As Colonel Money pomlb out in the prize essay,—which wo are
giad to see has reached a third edition, for it is full of practical
' informalioi), aud desorves to he studied by every tear planter,—a number
I of people of various occiipalions engaged in tea cultivaiioti, for which
they were not suittul, and naturally failed to do auy good. Tea
enltivaiiou, like evcrythiug else, requires special knowledge aud
experience. A pioper amount of labour is essential, and this is now
being obtained by the Assam tea planters from different parts of India.
Conslderaiile difficulty was also found in the Qovernmeut zegulations
fiji (he sale of waste lands. The Government might have been expected
t f give a more active and prnctlal support to such a promising industry
») tea. Other industries have probably been favoured with direct, or
p ^hapa equally valuable indirect encouregemeut, audit is'auffioienfly
ic. oguiaed as a general principle by the Indian Government that the
rcj uucea of the country ihould be developed, or at least that Ibe first
attempts at development should be made, with the asslstonoe of the
Go oiumeut. Tea culiivatiou is of coarse now able to stand on its own
mer ts although a liberal basis might very well be*adinittcd for ibe
j||Uia...g‘t>ni^sing of Crown lands, and the Government ought to bo
sure of its own title to the lands it sell before putting ;tbem up to
auction. For ;capital to be expended, security of tenure is required,
HtsCkA^vVuuci Money seems lo tbmk that this essential for an extensive
and successful industry Is not satisfootorUy provided fox under the
present arraugemeuts. The Government hare also oauaed dUsatitfaeflon
by their stringent leguUtioua riH^arding coolie labour. Each Goolie
brought to the tea gaideus costt* Bs. 30; and there are the expenaea
of housing the people, aud supporting them when they cannot work i
and if theoooly dies, the planter loses of course the whole of the money
expended in obtaining his services. This labour diiflculty fg one that will
cure itself iu iuocit for, with all the dense population of India to draty
upon, a BUfiioeub eiuigratiun could snrely be secured that would iatia^
the needs of the toa distriois, llie sugar planter m the Vfeat Indies hat
to spend at least ^20 for each labourer he obtains from ludia, and to
cake all the risks besides of a Long sea voyage, and nt mortality' amoog
la oomparisou with tbeiecoadltiotts, the Aakiait^BtfiaCisr
ehjoya facUltlcd tcf ahukihtag latoux which may he lala to hi itmcft ia
AaRIOUIiTimiST.
81
thfir:wi 7 ^ Hd howavir^ boUtt^ to pioduoei it ibatplf ilWoiti.
Tber« iitHift i praoMtillf iilmlruil 4maiid lot tt#* . Wilb » toiiump:
.lionAbit ii not oipiblioi «a aotimMed omnaioaf tbb btpoot tlwIndian
ttb^roirer muat be in a iinooeBafQl oompetuUn w}tb ibe Obioeee prodoeer^
Mid Uiii een only bo brought about by aendiog to atifket tea oC e^oal
ex<folle&e4v tritb that Irom Ohioa, but pirodooed at aueb a coat aa to
atto# a iftatar margin befcaecD profit and low. That the atmagle aa
to relative Oheapneaa ol produatfon U beooming keenei^ the fallnre of
the JUpaneac toa^grovers to auooeafulip compete agaifilt oihBt aouroes
of production la deoiaive proof. Ooodaeai ol aoili fully utUiaed by
proper agrlooltare, thoroughly appropriate oUmatie ooudltiooa, plenty
of laboiw and eeooomy In naTog it, oareful atteetion to anailty and
taftei and advantage of tranaportt-^theso are the mainapringa, both
natural and artificial, of the Indian tea induatry, and we may hope to
aee the tea garden^ol India iuoreaae and multiply noUl the induatry
become! auffioiently importaut to be reckoned ae oho great factor in the
pfoaperity of India, and one unfailing Monrity agaioat that evil of
nathmal bankroptoy which it la the gloomy favblon of peasimlat writera
on Indian afiEaira ao confidently to prcdlot.-^'^P^aa^err €fazeUe,
COFFEE.
A OORBfiSPONDENT haa aent a Ceylon contompornry a
Liberian coifeo leaf moaaunng 15 inohos by 7 inches--*
probably one ol the largest apeoimens ever boqd.
Tfifi Mysore Planters* Asaooiation has applied to the local'
Government lor the loan of iho sorvices ol Mr. Harman, of the
Experimental Farm, for a few weeks, that ho may bo able to giro
his opinion on that much vexed question—GolEue leal disease.
SULPHUR AS A REMEDY FOR LEAF DISEASE.
A GOUHEBPONDENT, whose opinions are entitled to great weight, Mr.
Moiris, of the Hoyal Botanic Gardeus, Peradenljfa, Ceylon, writes
A a there is now some indioation of a trial being given to salphur as a
means of checking loaf disease, it may be of use to planters to have their
attention drawn, through the columns of tlio Obserifcv^ to the extrnots
and correspondence relating to tho process of snlpUuring diseased plants *'
which form the appeudix to the socompanying report.
Sulphur soeniB everywhere the rceognisecl ppecitio for fungoid posts,
now that (thanks to the labours of the soionUBtH who have lately been so
soundly abused) it la pretty well established that the fUmileui vdstatna
ill one stage of its existence, at least, is suporlluial, it is therot'oro within
reach,of such treatment as that applied to Uio miidete of hops and the
oidium of the vine. If a serious attempt in made lu Ceylon or a largo scale,
and extending over two or threo seasons theco is no doubt sometluug
satisfactory will be obtained.
I was reminded to-day by Dr, 7'hwaitce of a astrong proof of the cfflloacy
of sulphur m checking fungoid attacks in the case of the potato dL»>oasc.
This disease IS cansed by a fungus [Peronospora tn/estaus) which like the
limihia during one stage of its existence has a supeitlcial dovelupmeiit,
that IS, it IS found on the stem aud leaves oi the potatoes before it peueti-at.es
the intercellular tissue and gives rise tofimt spores. Kow in iho noighbom*
hood of Swansea, whore the air is charged with sulpliurous fumes troui the
larg-icupper works of that district, the potato disoaao la haully known, and
1 have often noticed that the potato was the only vegetable which could be
successfully grown within a certain area there.
If sulphur were applied in May, during the rainy weather, and carefully
dusted over the stem, branches, and leaves of the eoffioo trees tb is c^uitc
possible it might eheok the severity of the attack whioh comos on m J une,
July, and August: Again, say in Beptomber aud October, when the fungus
has fruited and the spores am lying lU thonsauds on the ground ready to
germinate and cover everything with their thread-like filauicnts, a good
•prlnkling ol salpjmr on the fallen leaves and everywhoro round, might
destroy the spores and prevent the filaments from again reaching the trees.
Theae SMm to be the beat seasous for operating ; but even now it is not
too late to apply aulphur to the stem and branches and thns kilt the fita>
ments that are probably luxuriating there undei the influenoc of the present
moist atmosphere. It is quite a mistake to thiuk that because there are no
fruit ipora% Ihcce Is no leal disease. A microscopic examination of the
braocihea, and leaves would, in April and May or almost at any time iu the
y«at before the spores appear, reveal such a development of mycelium or
ihrea44tke filaments of the Bmileiok as would convince the most sceptical
of Ike exiataaoe.
Byallnmansglvefnlphura fair irial-nothing promises a more satis-
factOfy reaultlf thoroughly and eystematically applied.
The passages in the appendix to Mr, Oooke’s reports sent bo us by Mr.
Morris, ate as follows
KxtrBtfh aud Odrreiponftenoe relating to the piooess of salphuriag
diseased plants.' ' -
** Wherever whitolAngi appaar* at least wham fruit is saperfieml,
aulphur may ^ applied with great advantage, ^ Aa regards the peach
xMldaw.praatioehadtM^ht Sto.Til^ long bafow ^PS mildew was
#
thought of, and it Wilt he fbund aqually efficacious in the ease of etrawbenries
and other plants whioh vdjfor' fiwth Mmilar attacks,'* if. fierkelg »*»
G(*r«feiisr’a CJirenfclA ISfifi, page SfiJlj
In practice it ie found tbet the easiest, moat economical, and at the same
time the meet eflbctual mode of applying the sulphur is by a common
dredging box at the end of a long pole* Little at present has been douo
with solutions, but we should strongly recommend trial of Grigson's mixture
especially m (ho later stages of the dlieasc, as more speedy in its action.
In all oases, however, the grand point is to watch the first indication of tho
mould, aud apply tlio remedy at once.—Ganlsnsv's ChfonioU 1854, pope 685,
The ocmposltion of Gifgson's mixtnro, rocommended in the case of the
vine disease, was tho Allowing : One pound of fiowet of sulphur, and on
ecjnal volume of fresh slaked lime, to be boilod for ten minnies in an iron
pot in five pints of water, so as to give four pints of olear solution. This
is (o be mixed with one hundred parts of water, or to such other atrength
as may be found most efficacious, and applied with an engine.—Gardener's
Ckromolc 1854. 596. [We should think that the mixture of lime and
sulphur dusted on to iho trees beforo or danng rain would afiswer the
same purpose.—Kd.. C. G.]
lu rrply to applications to hop-growem in Kent for information ae to the
process in practical use amongst them, the following has been reoeived ; " lu
answer to your question ns to the use of sulphur for the cure of mildew in
hop plants, t beg to inform you that ‘flowers of sulphur* are usually
employed for this purpose, which are the best sublimated sulphnr, Some
bop-plonters, however, pretuc sulphur vivum, or blaok sulphur * soufre crut,
which is, 1 beliove, crude sulphur melted, allowed to oool after stones and
other foreign suhstuneea have been disengaged, and then broken up. This
is used largely in France iu tho vuieyarda against the oidiiini, It is heavier
than the flower of sulphur aud there ia tlicrefore, more difficulty m it
appiicntiou.
Salphur is put on iu hop-gardens at the rate of from 40 to 80 Ihs. per acre
there beiug about 1,100 hop.plauts to an acre on an average ; with a sort of
j travelling Winnowing machme, with a swiftly revolving fan, whioh blows
the sulphur over the plants, as it is drawn belvtoon Uio rows by one horse.
Tho rows of plontn are amngod with regularity at distances of from 0 feet
to G foot C inches apart, so that the sulphuratur travels easily between tboroi
being about 2 feet 8 molics in width. Tbcir height is fiom U to IS feet, so
that the sulphurator, whoso blast or pan from which tho sulphur is expelled
is about 3 jr feet f'om tlio grouud, oovers the greater part of their biue and
loaf lurlaco with tho fine dual.
The operation should bo performed at night wltCn the dew is falling, pr
aflcr ram, that tho dust may adhere to tho plant, it is done twice, or even
thioe times, but rare must be takrii not to apply sulphur after the floworiug
of the plant. As cofioe plants ar>i not higher than irom 8 to 10 feet, and as
1 imagine not plantod lu vogulav rows, a dredge, aud by haud, would
probably be tho best machme to use fur putting on the sulphur. There are
small hand machiueswlih fans, as used iu green-houses, that might bo made,
available.
May 1 bo permitted to refer yon to a paper upon Hop Cultivatin'', written
by mo in the sixth volume, socood series, of tho Jourutil of the Boyal
Aguoultural Bociely of Kcglaud, whicli fully describes tho process of
sulphunng,," —Clvtrtca iF/wisAcad, MoktdstmhOt KmL
As ono of the oldest planters I have ubod sulphur for the ouro ol mildew*
or aa it is gonemlly called mould by hop-plautors, for many years. At
lUbt tvdphur wmif or rofuso sulphur being ohoaper, was used, and i believe
I was the fiegb planter who ueod the di/wers or finest sulphur, which has
been found tho best, as it adheres more closely to the plant, and X believe
is as cheap, from there being less waste. It is not used till the hop is in
burr or blossom, or till white spots are »oeu on tho leaves, though many
planters almost always use it for procaution. The plant should have
moisture ou it to make the sulphur adhere, when it requires leas, it is of
little lisa applying it iu dry Jiot woatlier, aud Him, used will sometimes
blister, and it requires some kuowlodgc whoa and how much to apply. It
is applied by au iustrument drawn by a horse, which throws the sulphur
over the plaut, and as tlio coffoe plant does not grow so high as the hop,
and is planted as legularly, that may be easily done. One oautfou may bo
necessary. Hop-planters seldom use sulphur when the aphides or Hoc are
found on the hops, as from a cause unknown the plant generally goes into
whut ia termed a black blight.—/', B, Elny, Mavdshne,
lu reply to yours received yestoiday respeoUng iho uie-of sulphur ou
growing hops. Ths way of osiug it is to put it on dry. notes a solution,
/'lowers of sulphur ia used, and sometimes aulphur or black sulphur
but the formor would be ths better for vines, aod 1 should think for the
cofieo plant, but I kuow nothing of tho habit of the latter. Fur bops we
have a ma-^hine to throw it over the tops of tho hops, and generally find it
efiectual.—(IsoT-yc Whife, MaidsUhta,
la reply to your letter X bug to give you the fellowtng information
regarding tho appUcaiiou of sulphur to hop binoB. The preparation of
sulphur, whioh 1 prefer is the flowers of sulphur, but some hop-growers nee a
prepsratiun called aulphur vivum^ which ousts less per ten. but which (
believe ia as dear in the end, and uf less power as regards the mildew. My
sulphur is applied either early iu the morning when there is dew, or else
on a Stilt evening, but some hop-growers apply it in the day-time, when tho
sun is shining, which I condsider leads to ajvery groat waste, as when tite
hop leaves ore dry, such a staall proportion of the sulphur adheres to thorn.
The tolphar is blown from a maohioe which is drawn by a horgo up ant?
ft Hi *P 9 »dWsttil* wCH 4 I!W ^
grow %atf Mglii with the W wd probil^y li nol |M4
ip $B the hep Uili* Tholo ie a hai|d maohinh whIoSt
hi|, ^ which wcttld b« mm Uhaiy to answer fof nee ip a
ep|iee|[|^lpeht^^ horMtaaehiae* hat lailttig thiS| a dvedjse tor 4pst*
highl hAad ntifht ha I apprehend the toffee plapter# do not labour
ttodof jthf leiae ditdoult; as the hop^gtowers as regards iasoots* Otbeu hop*
gTOWam ip trying to sa^o their trop from being '.destroyed bp mildew are
drawn ipito as had amerih for if there are only a few aphidos oa ;the leaveiv
the use of sulphur leads to so great an intreasa <i>f them as materially to
Ipjuro hoth crop and nmiiity. It seems extraordinary that this should be
the 0^9, hut namhera of hop*d;rQwera oan bear me oat in what 1 pay. I
know of no one w^io met a eolptioa of sulphar.<^i?. /. Ooodwin, WaUrinif
Imeyrn
At the Tory outsotr Mr. Berkeley suggested salpbnr as a remedy for leaf
disease. Mr* Oooke> however, the other groat authority on fungi, in the
body of thoreport from which we have extracted the appendix on salphuring,
while stromrly recommending solpbur as a remedy for another fangqs. the
**hlack rot*' of Mysorci espressos doubts of its efiloacy lu the case of UemiUxa
thus ;—
The means to bo adopted for getting rid of a pest of this nat are must
nooossarily be simultaoeons on the part of all the pluotora, or it will only be
temporarily banished from one estate, to bo soon revived by the trausporba*
UoQ of the minute spores through the air trom estates on wluuh the parasite
may be permitted to llourUb. There are features in the charaeter and mode
of acUon of this fnngns whioh leads to the belief that the application of
sulphur would have the same beuelloial indueucc that it now has in the hop*
gardens in cheeking the hop disease. When sulphur was lust proposed iur
the hop it was with difficulty that the planters could be prevailed upon to
adopt it. The opposition which the practice encountered was strong at the
time, hut experience having proved its undoubted value, it is now univer¬
sally adopted. Although it is improbabU tiiat snlphnr would bo of any
use against an endophyte like the coffee loaf disease (IfsttuZdia), the rot *’
is very different, and would snbmit; to a different treatment. There is no
doubt that every diseased leaf picked Arom a plant and bnrnt, diminished the**
sources of future injury by so many dop6ts of undiBseminaied spores.
Again*
Various opinlens are expressed in the reports as to canses and treatment
of the disease, on which it is difficult to form an opinion, and t ..uooessary
to offer comment, further than to call uttention to the fact that faulty
drainage, stagnant water, and partly decomposed vegetable matter in the
soil, are all favourable to the development of fungi, and dcuumined to the
healthy condition of the plants. It is doubtful whether sufficient precau¬
tion is always taken, either at home or abroad, that the B'^iI about the rootj
of growing plaats should not be contaminated by the nijCelliL or ** spawn”
of fungi, which,, is always to bo found amongst partially decayed vtgetsblo
debris.
The spoeimen of soil sent with the loaves now examtnod is Isrgely
impregnated with uiyceliold filaments. The partly doeomposud fragtnouts
of twjgs.are so many centres from which the myoeliutn riiliates in ail
dlxootiens. The appearance of the soil seems to indicate such an amount of
stagnant moisture as would foster ** root fungi," und prove detiuneu^J to
the growth of healthy and vigorous plants. Although some ot ihia ami has
been placed under ex^^erimeatul oouditious, with the view of obtaining more
oeitain and definite dtita, the result could not be ascertained so suou as
would be required for this r.‘port. If any fact of itnpoi tAuce should bo
evolvod, it will be made the subject of a supplementary uieincraudum.
Fungi of the obaraoter of the fltunilovi a u./t likely to be beuefioially
affec'cd by the application of snlphnr. Piokoig the leaves as soon as the
fungus makes its uppeuianco, and ba>‘uiiig them, may, li' persoveringly
pursued, bo of service, lu Mr. M. U, Meppeu's mply (goe “ Tabular State¬
ment,*' page 11,) he states that; “ laA year he stopp »d its progress in a
smalt field of young coffee by picking off the nffooted leaves. As seen as ho
observed the disoaso amougst the plants, hu put in ohildron to pick off all
the ufleoted leaves, which wore cniieotod lu baskets and afterwards burnt.
This stopped the disease ou that field, as it did not appear again j the
young plauta soon recovered, and became m fiue condition.’' Thi s is how.
ever, a tedious process, uud not so easily acoompIisUod when the trees
aoquito a larger sine.
I
LIBl^iaAN OOFFJSE.
(Froccsdmgs o/ iht Ma(ir<M Agri^BorticuUural Society,)
T)1&AD letter from Deputy iSurgoou-Qener&l Shortt, dated the '
lietreat, Ercaud, 30tb September 1878, foywardiog the
following report on his Libedau Ooffou plaats, aud asking for a
lew plaete of Pitheoolobinxu auinaa.
** lilBBiaiAN CoyyjfiB.—I rocoivod two plants from the Agri«
HorticuHaral Sowoty, Madras. These were soiit to mo from
Bangalore, tfirough Gotoael Boasoa, and arrived here qu the 2l8t
Ootobfir 1875. They were about 6 uiehoa lu height, U and
lanky, one Jiaving fear and, th^ ether two leave;.. They were
plant^ pat oa the elope of a hUI*aid» a little over 4,000feet^i^bove
t.''
hm ftotwiaBjl* ttiw fc wi w
'tbofEw wMcIi art Xb#!,
thftirprogreM. Dotafttherft WwWlasil^.tolBOflrf^^
tnottlhi of the yeer, I will ofily ^lera
any preceptiWe change waa obBorvid^ '
** The plants oontmaed stationaryi and on the ^8th BnMmher
of the same year. No. 2 ptit ont two fr^h leam Jth fehmrJ
1876 both plants looked dull, and during tin) following infi|itehi of
March and April were attacked with the leaf diaeaue. ^ !^n May No,
1 died down to the level of the soil, whilst No. 8 continned.sii^
with sbrunkon and decaying leaves. In Jane NeC 1 threw a tiaw
shoot from the root-end below the soil, and No. 2 |ittt out If^ih
foliage, and improved materially in appearance*
In July No. 1, that had thrown up a new shoot died away com¬
pletely, whilst No, 2 was looking vigorous and healthy ^ had
attained 15 inches in height at the end of August, although infested
with the coffee bug, whilst the common coffee was free.
in April 1877 this plant had attained two feet in height, but
was looking sick with most of the leaves more or less corroded. It
coutinned much in this state with little or no improvement till July,
when it began to recover its health and had put on a strong gnu
vigorous appearance. In the month of October, though lookinp;
healthy, the plant ooniinlied stationaiy, and in January 1878, it
coulmued muih in the same state. It stood the subsequent dry
weather very well aud it now stands 40 inches in height and has
four primary branches, averaging between 7 and Sji' inches each in
length, the first pair is given off at 22 inches from the soil, most of
the leavee arc imperfect having corroded away, but the remnant
loft is green and healthy. At the summit of the plant as well as at
tji ond of the branches, a fresh pair of leaves have formed in each,
thcA largest perfect leaf measures 8^ by 4^^ inches. This plant is
now a little above throe years* old, on the 21st of next month it will
be thieo years since it auivod here, and perhaps when it came up
it was between two and three mouths old.
I have given the plant uo special care beyond that of keeping it
free of woods, and in Juno last it got two baskets of manure (equal
parts of cattle manure and rotted vegetable matter).
" A few months ago I received three other young plants from the
Society. These wore immediately on receipt transferred to larger
pots, and after a couple of months were planted out in the open in
somewhat rooky soil, with a southern aspect at the same height;
after a while two of the plants withered away, and the third is
now shooting up.”
Kesolvccl, that Deputy Surgeon-Qoneral Bhurtt bo thanked for
the report, and informed that this Committee will be glifcd to have
further reports on the subject, and hopes that he will soon have
better progress to communicate.
COFFEE PBOSPEOTS IN TRAVANCOUE.
I T seems pretty certain that the present season in Travanoore
will bo a very poor one, worse, if passible, than either of the two
preceding years. Tlie hopes raised at the beginning of the year by
the good blossoming have boon falsified by the subsequent failure
of the benioH. The crop has droppeAin an immature condition
from the trees and not more than a fifth or a fourth of the eaUmatad
crops will be foiihcomiug. On some estates the outturn will not
exceed three bushels to the acre, and certainly very fiiw plantations
if any, will pay expenses. This discouraging outlook is all the
mvua diatresting that it follows two very poor years already.
Manv a small capitalist has hoped ou and tided on in the sanguine
expt^fialion of pulling it off” this year, whereas all such planters
will jow be in a worse state than ever. The muUitudiuous small
nativ'i planters who have sprung up from nothing liho musbreoms,
will collapse like mushroom^, and their estates heavily mortgaged,
will not, 1.1 the present state of things, fetch the money advanced
upon them. These men are turning hopelessly in all direotions fdr
the moans of paying off their old debts and of carrying on their
coffee works.
The South India Coffee Company are sdso feeling the gloomy
outlook very severely* Not only do their own estetea uost
thau they produce, bat the heavy advanoea to othere have drained
the coffers most unmercifully. The Company find that, in anti¬
cipation of a better crop than will aotnally be realised, they have
allowed their clients to overdraw the Value of the now estimated
outturn. Oonsequoiitly, they have been obliged, in self-d^ence, te
put the screw on pretty tight, and to demand the irepayment, at
once, of the overdrawn amount. When the only hope o| piyment
at all Uea in the crops, and when the cropa themeelvee m over¬
drawn! ia not easy to ocinply with the Company’t tammdoa
I imy lecitti whatever.
abnormal
l^na bt w itn Irhree yoara hatb <rbi(« 0 «m tl^o oojflteo* root and
iafib;«n at^ormal donditioiL Tbe tiNwa minoarry of thoir
jwOK 1 ^ laaioti of tho aroaktulng iofl.twnl?ea bftbo paat fov yoarn.
.Ttwjr iwmt tone, and thia, wo trust, they will soon The oyolo
of jdeonght^ should hsvo mthsnsted itself in the present season, and
1$70 ought to insoirhrftte a oycle of bumper crops such as were eeou
Bdyen Or eight years ago, when within three years of planting the
' fiova esUte psid all its preFioiis expenses by its maiden crop, and
left a Bttbstanfisl profit in addition. The oomparatirely low ele¬
vation of the Travanoore estates is the cause of their ruinous
failure when tbevainfall is less than usual. This defect cannot bo
remedied except by the abandonment of the low coffee altogether,
and this probably will yet have to be done. There is one ray of
hope, though a heavy feeole ray. in the thought that a short crop
may fetch higher prices through sheer scarcity of the article. We
have not at present sufiioient information with regard to this year’s
coffee produce of other countries to enablo us to gain any solid
comfort in this direoiion.
The heavily handicapped condition of tho coffee enterprise in
Travancore, to which wo have referred on previous occasions, is
now felt to be a very serious burden indeed. Land tax and export
duty have to be paid on the prodoce of laud wbioU would not fetch
its original purchase^money if put up to auction to-day. It would
be an act of grace to remit the land-tax on all coffee land pur¬
chased within the last eeven^ears, on land, that is, ^at has hithorto
been nothing but an expense and a loss to its owner. The Govern¬
ment would lose something certainly, but this will happen in any
case after such a year as tho present. Those sanguino but itnpe-
ounious individuals who " went into coffee” on borrowed capital
and have been borrowing ever since will have learnt & wholsome
lesson; while hopeful capitalists will buy up no end of coffee
estates for a mere song. It’s ill wind that blows nobody any
good.—'ifadras S'imes.
SULPHUR AND BURNT LIME AS REMEDIES
FOR LEAF FUNGUS.
O N the effects of sulphur we have the following testimony
from a planter of so much experience as Mr. James
Blackett
DotcTrO^ja Estate^ Aram}fha{hih November 187B.
Dxab SlB,—In your issue of last Saturday^ you court euiiulry on
he application of sulphur, under tho heading of Ouro for Loaf
Disease.”
Tho following is at your service. In November I applied
5 cwts, of sulphur to a little more than live acres of oo'l'oc, oi at tho
rate of an ounce to a tree (patches of which had several severo
attacks of leaf disease) mixed with artificial manurcM, spread
evenly over the surface and thoroughly dug in to tho depth of 8 to
13 inches with one-pronged diggers, and for tho first year or two
1 could see no abatement of tho fungus as the seasons oaine round ;
but during the last twelve months 1 could see an iiuprovement,
not very great, but a decided check, and I am now of opinion that
the action of sulphur is slow and that it should bo applied in larger
quantities. I intend trying two ounces to a tree very soon.
There are a good many things to be taken into consideration
with r^ard to the coffee, I have tried the sulphur on, such as the
crops it gave before loaf disease was known and since then, and
the treatment it had before and after, and present appearances
with a crop of at least 8 cwts> an acre this season, all of which I
have made Liir allowance for in my own mind before forming an
opinion as to the effioiency of sulphur ; but I am apt to err like
most mortals.—Yours faithfully,
Jas. Blackeit.
Sulphur must be applied in much larger quantity than about
$0 Iba to an acre, before immediate and marked effect can bo pro¬
duced, Hr. Blackett’s oxperienoe seems hopeful, however. Probably
mixiug the sulphur witii acid or ammonia calculated to make ft
immediately soluble would be advisable. Good cow-dung would
j^bably be a good vehicle.
We have several times adverted to tho bonefioial effec ts of limo,
our latest reference being to tho case of a planter who has found
the aupHcatioa of burnt coral to some of hie land followed by such
eXodhmt effect that ha is determined to treat all his land after the
same fashion. But even more than in the case of sulphur liber il
appUc^ODB of time are necessary, and in tho absence of railway
^tonlion the ^cst is in many cases prohibitory. Of the value of
lime, however, there can be no question. Some of our readers may
jeodleotapabaroiithe^Boilof Old West India Sugar Estates,”
by Professor rh^oA|,^whlch> we extracted into the Observer and
comment^ om v.r* Phipsau traced much of the infertility of tho
exhausted sou to the absence of time. That burnt lime applied to
aug^ land is followed with fhe best j^oiSIbto effect we have had
fresh pcoof, in aoeount wOstito has Isvouied
with a visit to ehgar ,ei|s*ss;;iir fPonw^^ estlttsa were
tormed on mangrove awampa whistfi bunded and skloed with
foCereucotoa rise and tall of tidb /Oqoal to 6 feet. Drains or
rather canals were out Ihroogh tl^e laud so as to give facilities
i ot water oarriage. From our friend’s deaoriptioti; we wete
reminded of all wo have read of the sugar estates In Sir James
J^migdens former scene of Governineut, Dethorara. After a time
the canes on this laud woto affeete'd by insdots '{pot$ hkne) and
red rust, much to the dimination of the returns In sugar. Bub-
vast raassoa of comminuted shells were oldte at hand which
oiimeaa wore emploj^d to bitni. By moans of tUv facilities of
i^tor oonvoyauoe, the estate wa# thoroughly limed, and all evil
effects diaappearod. It is true that speoimons of tho insects may
still ba found when sought for on the canes, ready, no doubt, w
multiply and do mischief should the lime bo used up. But tbere
I ®’*0 ""^d rust and no diiulnatioa of the fair averag o yield of sugar.
We are strongly inclined to believe that, were it possible to lime
a ooifee estate at the rate of 5 tons per acre, it would suffer little,
if at all, from the effects of fungi, or grubs, or whito bugs.
EXPERIMENTS IK COFFEE CULTURE,
TN the Ooylon Legislative Council on November 2 O.^Tii 0
A Uou. G. A. Talbot, iu introducing a motion "That the
different species of coffee grown in tho West Indies be imported
and grown in tho Royal Botanical Gardens of Ceylon,” remarked
that they all felt indebted to tho Governor of Trinidad for tho
information as to the coffee grown there, which he had sent hero.
If those species could be developed and grown here it would be Gie
means of increasing our large industry—the planting industry.
There was a great deal of uncultivated land at nearly every eleva¬
tion and with a groat many different sorts of soil, bnt lately an
impression had go no abroad that all the land available for coffee
has been filled and that there is no more jungle which could be
planted with coffee, and therefore a great deal of capital which
would otherwise have oomo hero, had been diverted. It was moro
than probable that if those different species could be ifi troduced tfi
tho Botanical Gardens a great deal of land which cannot now be
used might bo planted with coffee. He therefore mbved that
those species be introduced to the Botanical Gardens at Petadeniya*
The Hon. J. P. Obeyeskera had muoh pleasure in eooonding the
motion made by the lion. Member for the planters, especially as
there was every probability that several species of coffee may be
discovered in the West Indies that would bo suitable for the lowef
elevations at the maritime districts of Ceylon. The fact that the
Liberian coffee grows well at a low elevation afforded him evAiy
reason to suppose that fresh varieties can be obtaiued from thO
West Indies that will bo equally suitable for the low lands here.
llis Excollonoy said that Ihero was only ouo point on which ha
would ask tho Hon. Member (Mr. Talbot) to make an alteration, and
that was to introduce the words “ and tiimnam, Dutob Ouianfi
and Dorbioe.” Tho Euglish Colony of British Guiana was a very
large coffee exporting oolouy at one time, but the coffeo planta¬
tions were rooiod up to give way to sugar plantations, Which were
moro profitable, although the coffee was a very fair quality indeed^
The coffee land thoro lay at water level, or even in some plaoee
bolow the sea level; there were not any high bills there.
The Hon. Mr. Talbot said bo and in fact every one interoated in
Ceylon was very much obliged to Uis Excellency for the Informa-
tiou which ho had given thorn. Ho, therefore, inserted the words
suggested into the motion.
Tbo Colonial Secretary observed that the Govemmeut would
have tho greatest pleasure in complying with the motion of the
Hon. Member
The Hon. Sir Ooomara Swamy suggested that tho words ** Bota«
nioal Gardens” should be omitted and that ** Ceylon” should be
iuBorled in their place, as it might bo found that the coffee would
bo found to grow bettor in other places than the Botanical Gardens.
THE INSECT REMEDY FOR LEAP DISEASE.
Sib,— la a recent viait to some estates in the lower coffee dlstrlctSf
t examined as many fungus-diseased leaves as 1 could, whilst Walking
through the various estates, and shall be very pleased to hear from
others, that my exp erleoce was not an isolated one.
In Hadugannawa, on aboot ooe-tbird of the leaves examinod, t failed
to find any isseot preying on the fungus, but on the remuindor, Ibero
were as many larvcs feeding as would average 5 or 6 to a leaf; on
sofarat leaves there were 9 or 10, end on one as many as 26, In went
Matale my ^parienoe was the same, only there the number on one leaf
wasashikbasSi.
All theeatetM 1 refer to ad joined native jungle and ehens,'
♦toWw into iil! <* mart ot «»• 1 »»t« b»a wtlnir
*»y #aiif of to Mtetn* et fooiat, iMTtog oaly «mw 4 »«■» akt
tM99»t)^l$rV4iobfttb»U(&miaqte^y, ii9X mw ««v 6T41 olthq
lUt«r«r4lkliKi;4boatf>tttUd fungus spots, apporaUily laying eggst
fly if, 1 tbiuk, idsDtioal with odo X noticed some years ago infesUng the
witd ifig tree in the low'coantry, on opening the frnit of which X have
feen hundrods if not ihoosaucff emerge from their prison,
Jf othen in the low-oonntry can corroborate my experience. 1 tbmk
we may hare great hope that in the insect world we shall find at least
one of our host fuliss for orerooming MemiUia ^itatrisB,
F, M. Kaokwood.
Colomho, l«tbKor.l878.
itad
^Kinety-two a iMtlf iwrea <i?f-- .
feet by six were up-rooted bark tbihi obtaliiedi
being at the rate of l,90dlha |ier here. The land on t^eep
trees were grown was not well suited for cin^ona onl^pai^oiX)
and the outturn |;ivea abore does not inotndo beri^ obta^ed jn
past years by thinning and pruning, 'the experience ^ftined on
the plantation is sufficient to show that complete coppiorngj
cutting close to tho ground all but a few trees, is a perfeotly
safe way in Sikkim of taking the bark crop, was front four
to six years of age coppice better than older trees^ but the
method of partial coppicing results in failure with trees of every
ago.
PORTER AS A CUBE FOR LEAF DISEASE.
W. A* M. D. writes to a OeyJon contemporaryReferring
to your paragraph, "cure for leaf disease," in tho Observer
of November the 2nd and the mention therein of the
use of country rum in the preparation recommended by tho
correspondent to tho Oazeta de JNotieiaSj Rio do Janeiro, has
re-oalled to, my mind a fact which 1 saw some years ago on a large
estate In Dimbula. Tho field of coffee round tho bungalow had a
very bad attack of leaf disease, but another gentleman and my¬
self remarled that a few trees near tho bungalow markedly stood
ont as having hardly a diseased loaf. A close examination showed
that ih;e drippings and washing which pass a lot of beer and porter
bottles, must have been the cause. We therefore, to try the
experiment, applied two bottles of porter to six trees that were
affected and found that these trees recovered In a wonderfully
short time. Of course wo thought nothing more of it as the little
item of cost stood in the way.
CINCHONA.
A RESOLUTION on tho annual reports on cinchona cultivation
and on the Quinologist’s report is published in a recent
issue of the Calcutta Gazette, The cinchona plantation consists
of two parts—the older portion at Rungboo, Rishap and Mungpoo,
in the valley of tho Run jo; and tho newer ou iho EUrng epur,
and in the adjoining valley of tho Ryang. Tho woiking of tho
plantation during the year 1877-78 was, ou tho whole, very
satisfactory. The Siltong plantation was iucreased by 152f acres,
and tho older plantation by 07J acres. Tho total area of tho
former is now 242 acres, and of tho latter nearly 2,000 aciea. Tho
Siltong plantation is still too young to yield a crop, but the f/op
from the older portion was 344,225ib8. of dry bark. During tho
year under review 700,601) rod bark trees {Cifichona succimbra)
were planted out, namely, 26,800 in Rungboo and Rishap, to
tuplaco the old plants uprooted in taking ilio bark crop, and
079,800 on new laud—265,800 on Mnngpoo, and 414,000 on Sittoiig.
In audition to the red barks, 8,870 trees of a hybrid variety
were planted on the Siltong division; this variety yields
an excellent bark and promlsoB to be very valuable. Efforts
have been made to increase tro cuUivalioa of tho yellow
bark tree (0. caZtsaya), winch produces the most valuable of all
the medicinal barks ; but owing to the difficulty of propagating
the beat varieties by seed, progress has been slow. The result
of tho year’s operations with^these plants has been only to increase
the stock in the nurseries by 2,000 plants. The question of
selecting other iocalitjes, whore the cUmalio citrdiliouB are more
favourable for the propa r&tinr of this plaut than i i Eikkim, has
been separately submittu ' hy Dr. King, and is under the consider¬
ation of Government. The 'Tup of the year consisted of 341,060ibs.
of rod bark, and 3,1G5lb of grey bark, or 344,22idb9. in all of dry
bark, against 207,7811b9. in 1876-77 ami 2U,3ynb‘<. in 1875-76.
Tho bark yielded in former y<.ar8, r.c., from 1861)-70 to 1876-77,
amounted in the agrregato to 529,0171bi,, that there has been
taken from these plantations sinoe their commencement no less
than 873,2421ba. of dry bark. The Rod bark crop was^taken by the
three methods of harvesting usually followed, namely, up-rooting,
coppicing, aud thinning
lbs. ' ■
Up-rooting -v •••
Coppidug ... ... ...
Thinning ... 1)7,274^
Total >
Thc Government Cinchona Plantations in the Madfas Pfesl"
donoy yielded in 1877*78 138,838| lbs. dry bark, which is a large
harvest of bark than had up to that^time been taken in any one
year. It was thus distributed
Crown Bark
Red Bark
Other Kind I
Natural
Iba
82,8674
Mossed
24,6794
Renewed
12,003}
Branch
6,865i
Natural
17,076
7{,SW|
Mossed
26,892
Renewed
18,183
60,CS1
Yellow
1.8464
Grey
Dast and Mossed...
677
2.79
■.—
2,761j|
Total ... 138,8081
Of this crop, 132,951 Jibs, wore sent to England, l,0001bs. were
supplied to the Govornmont of Bombay, aud 4,830Ibs. to the
Madras Medical Stores. It is observed that no record bos been
kept of tho number of trees that weie stripped and mossed, but
that information on this point will in future be available. The
irocH cm the plantations having now been numbered, and sub-
divisions formed, some sort of working plan can bo probably
framed, aud the yield in each sub-division be estimated with fair
accuracy. The barvesi in the previous year was 103,3411bB.
o£ which 102,3841bs. having been sent to England wore sold
within the official year now reported on for £30,434-12-0. The
Commissioner takes no credit for any receipts within tho year
from tho 1877-78 crop, but of the £33,231-12-10 which it fetched
CtO, 965-10-0 woru realized before the Blst March last.
The prices fetched by the shipments of Grown bark during 1877-
78 were still high, though below those obtained for the previous
year's crop, viz,
Highest prices.
1876-77,
1877-78,
Crop.
Crop,
s, d.
X. d.
Natural
... 13 0
8 4
Mossed
... 15 8
8 5
Renewed
... 13 6
11 10
Branch ...
... 15 7
10 6
Rol bark, with the exception
of " renewed ’*
red, had
decli.ted in valno, viz.
Highest prices.
1876.77,
1877-78,
s, d.
s, d.
Natural
... 11 0
1 u
jt<‘npvwcd
... i) 2
6 10
Mossed
... 4 7
2 8
In view of so largo a harvest of bark, the plantations may be
taken to be in a satisfactoiy condition ; but the Oommissionor
stales that there is still a difflouUy in regard to labor, and that this
led to " very little manuring," being carried out at NeddiyattUm
aud Pykara. It appears from tho expenditure statements that only
Re. 461-4-9 were spent under this head against an estimate of
Rs. 700, and that of this amonni, Bs.4Q0-5-6 wore expended at Doda^
botto, while tho Keddivattum plantations received 15-10-6, and
thoBc at Pykara only, Es. 9-4-6. The favourable results obtained
by manuring have been frequently demonstrated and ledto tbe late
Acting Oommlasioner making a larger provision on this aoeount in
tho current year’s budget. Every effort must be made to iltiUae
this provision to tho fall extent, for it is above all x^oewary
that tho twos should not be « starved" now that th^ fehuj^Sra^ve
powers are eo largely taxed by the repeated removal ol berk*
it V'
Smmtf 1/1
Bi* l8,C^8iil,r^^t>ii^ allotted adtJ^ o£ Ba 25,279,
on ty^k:oai>, and the itebjocb damauda aavloua oonaldoi^aliicio, U
seeitts probable tbat the ^ovarnmant rate o£ wage ia too low, and
if foend to be below that offered by prlirate plaotere, it must be
promptly raM. Iftbiais doae there ehoald be no difdcnity in
obtaining cooUes at Dodabelta, nor yet at Neddi’srattttm, now that
good Jinee have been built and arrangemonte made for storing
greSn against the mooeoou. From the Oommieeioner’s remarks in
paragraph 6, there would appear to have been a tendenoy to subor-
dini^te the work ol^ ooltivation to that Uarvesting, This, the
Government observe, must be oheoked, lest the future of the planta¬
tions be'eaorifioed to present gain.
The propagation of young plants appears to have boon vigo¬
rously prosoouted, and the Government notioo with satisfaction
that 5,000 were planted out in the Dodabetta plantations. The
public took 187,350 plants against 142,000 in 1875*77, whilst the
demand for seed rose from 143 ounces to no loss than 3231bs,
Cuttings to the number of 170,500 were also sont out of the nur¬
series, The stimulus aSorded to private oiiterprise by the success
of the Government plantations could looeive no strongor proof.
Adverting to the Oommisaioner’s remarks regarding the results of
the small oopploing experiment of May 1871, the ^Governmoiit
observe, that Captain Walker states in his report that suckers were
left growing when the trees were cut, and that it is impossible now,
to distinguish these from ** real coppice shoots from the stoel.'*
In Septembst last, Hr. Barlow applied to Government for per*
mission to propagate the rarer varieties of cinchona, such as caliuvja
and hybrids, for sale to the public, and incidentally alludoiJ to by the
Cinchona Committee being in favour of more extended propaga¬
tion of all the varieties. The Government sanction operations, on
a moderate soale, for raising every variety for which thero is a
demand. Some indecision has lately marked their action in this
respect. A proposal by Mr. Webster for an enlargement of tho
nurseries, with a view to meet fully, if possible, all demaads was
negatived, os it involved an extension of the plantations, and it
wae considered advisable to encourage the raisings of seedlings by
private persons, but it was not iutonded to put a slop to opota-
tions within the limits already fixed. It is now ordered that
tho attention of tho Assistant Superintendent at Noddivuttmri
should be mainly turnod to the propagation of the calisa; a species,
as well as of any other variety that his experience may load
him to consider adapted to tho circumstances of the Wynaad
plantations ; but as long as a demand for C. %wciruhra and C*
qfbcianaUa plant exists, these also should be roared as for as space
will allow.
Wn learn that Mr. Woolley has concluded, through Messrs.
Parry and Co., of Madras, tho purchase of Colonel Fyers’ Oinchoiia
Gordeu on tho Kooudahs. . This property was originally acquired
by the late Hr. Schuarre, and is said now to oontaiu some fine
cinchona trees. The bark on the plantation was once removed,
and the trees seemed to have renewed without tho application
of moss. Perhaps this was thn work of shade. Tho fact is ouo
deserving of notice.—/Sfout/i of India G5asn;er.
CINCHONA AND HYBRIDIZATION.
(J^om th$ Ceylon OUener,')
D BS. HOOKER and Thompson, great and leading botanical
authorities, represented hybridixation or tho crossing of
species to be one of the rarest possible ocoutrencos in nature. And
the operation is often dificult and often baffled when all tho
resources of tho gardener’s art are applied. We were therefore, not
A little surprised at the tone taken up by botanists in India and
Ceylon about hybriaation in tho cose of cinchonas. Planters wore
warned against it as the source of untold evil. While tho late Mr.
MeXvor was experimenting in the production of hybrids, so os to
secure improved ploj^ts, Mr. Broughton denounced tho vegetable
half-castes, as jportaking only of the bad qualities of both paronla I
This in the face of the fact that tho bark of a hybrid produced by
Mr. Mclvor was pronounced by Mr*. Howard to be one of the
richest he hod ever with. Mr» Howard wrote an able paper
^ the lobMi i&dihewed,hewltehle a Pfitbmlii and A wtkaya
were to Sport,—dOi^ afl3Sti^>Howard prefab
coll them, form being obthinwl frm tte teed of a tree appttfeh^y
of pure type. Mr. Broughton wroth te tff* Howard truly, that
from the pure stock plants of Ch he (E^ard) had sent
to the Kilgiris every possible form, large*leaved and smalt,
sharp-leaved and broad, would be seen growing on Dodabetta.
The changes produced in C\ by the climates of the
Niigirie and British Sikkim were attributed to processes of
hybridisation for which j^eally there had not boeit time. It will
be in the recollection of our readers that tho bai4c of true (X
offfeinalia from Lool Condera, for which Messrs. Howard and
Whtifeu paid such high prices, was pronounced to be thakof C*
calkaya, or of a cross between that variable species and the true-
to-type C. iuedruhra. It thus appeared that good resoUs from
crossing wore anticipated. Our own sentiments have been often
stated. We treat tho idea of hybridisation os a mere bugbear,
while we behove in almost interminable variety or diKerence of
form as tho results of seed from the same plant. And even when
cuttings are taken there aro wonderful diversities of form. If the
omohonas wo cultivate are hybrids, then tho crossing must have
taken place in Sou th America. This is what botanist Kuntee says,
according to a review wo extract from tho PlanUrel^ Gosetts, and
ho goes so far as to cbaracterisse the famous C. Udyeriam as a
hybrid. He also talks of it as sterile at the very moment that seed
from trees tho produce of Ledger’s seed, is being received in
Ceylon from Java Herr Kuutzo not only believes in the hybridisa¬
tion of the cinchonas, but evidently does not believe in the
goodness of any which are true to type I So do botanists differ to
the confusion of poor non* scientists like ourselves. What ore we
to think or believe ? One thing wo certainly take leave to doubt,
and that is that that C, ledycriana as a by hi id was accidentally
producoil in India.—Wliat wo do believe is that seed of C ledyerkma
produced plants differing widely, in accordance with climate| in
Java, in Bikkiru, and in Suutlicrn InUia. We prefer to hold with
Howard to iuimenee variety of form, rather than to constant
tendency to *‘ininglo, lumgle.” But, as Mr. ICuntze believes in
emlloss hybridization, wo wish he had revealed the secret of that
it regular process by which barks with 12 per cent, of quinine are
invariably obtained. Borne of our friends who are so afraid of hybrid
C oifieinaUgf will bo horrified to see that Kunize classes this kind
not as a species, but altogether a hybrid! The review is as
follows .—
Tub CiNCiroNAS CuLTiVATBu IN Asia.
Any contribution to x>reviotts knowledge of cinchonas and their
most profitable culture is welcome. Wo are not in a
position, however, to judge of the value of a great deal contained
in the pamphlet quotod below ; but if Mr. Kuntze’s claims to the
hononr which ho covots rest upon tho merits of this work alone, or
oven combined with hid piimeval freshwater ocean, his chances
should be very hleuder indeed* Nevertheless, we give the substance
of it for tho benefit of ourfiicml^ in /ndiA, who may be able to
corroborate or controvert the writer’s views. From the title we
expected a monograph of the whole genus, but found It to include
only the forms cultivated in Asia. In the course of his travels Mr.
Kuutze visited the plantation in Java and lu India, aud he states
tliat he is the first botanist who has comparatively investigated Uie
Dutch and English plantations since they have been in a flourish¬
ing condition ; consequently bo is in a position to publish many
hitherto unknown facta. With regard to tho yield of alkaloid, he
says, “ It is no small result of my cinchona studies that I can
confidently propose a Ilian whereby in future it will be possible
to obtain an average of 12 per cent, instead of the 1—4 per cent
hitherto obtained.” This is to bo eflectod by planting hybrid
forms, as tho secretion of quinine is increased by hybridity. **And
tho more irregular the hybrid—that is to eay the less the
charactoristics of tho parents aio blended in the offspnng, the
richer tho bark is in quinine. At present only one irregular hybrid
is known, (J. lalgeriana^ which yields from 5—ld| per cent. The
latter equals 17 83 jiur ce,»t, of sulx>hate of quinine, the moidmoni
quantity hitherto found. Unfortunately this hybrid is mostly
sterile, whilst all tho other hybriils are extraordinarily fertile.”
An“irrogular*’ hybrid is the offspring of a species fertilised by
the pollen of a hybiid, in which tho characters of the parents,
instead of coinmingUug ami forming an intermediate in leaves,
fiowvrs, <&c., are separate aud esily recognised. The present method
of planting pracUsed by tho Dutch is in rows on gentle slopes in
forest clearings at an elevation of 5,000 feet to 5.500 feet. 'iVested
thus, Kuntze statosthey succeed well, and this moae of treatment he
regarda as better than that adopted by *the Eughsh iu India. All
the kinds saceeed in Java, whereas in meet other plaotstione oniy
A suaeateti.
T Wy, X$76, %hm mm *Hettin>
»j>* w7.(?iAWn!^ Urn nm^ly ;— ^
l/Wj'SIS S <}rtiB^y^^JJAB$Sl^U$^9^
. , MoMB OL O^ciapi^lifi 1
C« OatUay^--tiedgediiua
177»4^ 0. Bacoirobra and oatoptera
HOBO 0» Laocifolia
£12. Qt MIoranttMi
!l?haDatoh m fefctmjp Q tucciruhra anA C. mireranffui dia oat.
beoavant tboir b<s^k is vary poor iq ^aiaioe ; whilst tba i^fflish
tiave pUntod J4tlo also thaa the former/ thp bark of whi^ is
hasmtable for commerce, as U usually contains only 1 per cent, of
cumine against 3 per cent, of oinohonino. The number of
oltiobeua trees ia India is estimated at 10,000,000 to 12,000,000.
With regard.to species, Mr, Kuntze could only distingnUh four
ia t^e planthUouB of Java and India, three of whidi be “ was
pblig^ to re-iiainej beoause the names by which they are known
in bidtivatiob ate partly defective, partly connected with faulty
desonptiouSf and partly include species and nUied hybrids.” This
S POeedlng is all the more indefensible as the author reoogmees
e foot that bybridity in the genus is illimittable. His species
he places In two gropps, oharaoterisod as follows
A. Leaves small, dark green, ribbed almost coriaceous leaves,
regular capsules, and funnel shaped fruit calyx.
1. 0. WeddelHaua, Kuntee ; 0* Oalisaya pro parte,
2. 0. Tahudiana, Howard.
3. lAiam ample, light green; thin capsule veutrioose, beaked.
3. fl, nowardian^Kuntae ; C. succirubra, pro purls.
4/ U Pavonlana, Kuntzo; 0. micrantha, pro parte.
0. lanoifolla mails, 0, ofhoinaliB, L., 0. scrobiculata, Hb. et Bpl, C.
Purpurea,'B» etP., and several others are regarded as hybrids of
Americah birth. The tpeeierum hybridar umque elaria is no doubt
eorefully elaborated, as the author has had some praclice in *‘re-
fo|tni^^ the classifioatiou of Brambles ; but we fail to see the
utility of it. In the first place it Is admitted that the species freely
hybridise, aud the hybrids cross with eaoh other and the species in
the most indefinite manner. Secondly, will any one planter label
a certain hybrid according to its pedigree as follows t ” C,
Bofmrdia/ai^Pahndimi cum Pahudiana demo cum Pahudiana
Weddelliam^'2 Baoh succeeding generation of seedlings, if the off¬
spring of cross-fertilisation, which they most lik^^fv would be,
would get an additional name. The liybrtd 0. LetKoriaua was
orginally brought from America by Mr. Ledger, who found it 120
Ugme from Peleohuoo in Bolivia, aud it has also boon accidentally
raised in India; Kuntze recognises it as the ofiepiing of the hybrid
Pavoniani-Woddelliana feituiaod with pollen fiom one of the
miginal parents, and as it is sterile ho proposos raising it artifici¬
ally in the manner indicated. Itespecting 0. micrati.j:a, the author
ssys that the larger the blade of the leaf is, the shorter is the
petiole ; but this is not in accordance with our experience.
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OAUIDXXAt
THE
laa.
INDIAN AGRICTJLTtlElST.
A U0ITTUL7
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
yOL. IV.]
CALCUTTA : SATURDAY, 1st FEBRUARY. 1879.
[No. 2.
NOTICE,
Th» IhdUH jfoBIom-TinuST wiM Supi>liedlo all Schools and
Mmionarks in India at Jtalf imce.
Calcutta, let Fob. 1876.
R. KNIGHT.
CONTENTS:
Taqe.
. 38
. S8
. 38
. 89
. 89
. 39
LaTTltW-*
Cheap Ploughs ... 37
Eucalypti •••, *•*
EsperiJueutB In Wet Cultivation 37
Well Irrigation. 38
Girdling Apple Trees ...
Fern Coltoro ..
Bamboo os Paper Stock
Coffee Land Tax in Mysore
Mummy Peas .
K&ns Grass: Mr. Schrotlky’s
Beport «M •** 39
mu Farming.40
Agricultural Schools for
Bengal .* 41
A !New ^urce of llcvonuo for
India <.. .42
Lsadzno ARTICLI£»—
Tho Madras Byots . 43
Arakan Tobacco .41
Sunn Flax .11
Tho Baugaloro Experimental
Farm ... M. ... 45
EnnoaTAii Notes .45
COUUUNXCATEl) & SePECTED—
Uoporl on Bamboo ; Its Culti¬
vation and Cropping ... 30
Indian Agriculture aud Model
harnia . 31
Some facts about Lime ... 31
The Sydapot Farm ... ... 52
Carbon as Plant Food.52
The Kelambur Took PLanU-
tious .53
Kdas Grass in Bundclkhand ... 53
New Commercial Plants 5G
Condition oi the Madras Pro-
sldency •I. ... ... 67
, GO
. 51
, 51
. Gl
. 02
Faoe.
The Qaedkn—
Notos ... •«. ... 57
AgiioulLutal and IlOrtiCttUural
Society of India 57
Botenicftl Gardena and Parka
iuUie NoilgherrjCfci ... 58
Foiie.«(tbv--
Notes .
Mahogany Seed
MlNEftALOOr—
Notes .
Tho Iron Works at Warora
The Wynaad Gold Fields
Tioniu tho Simla llili States 02
TiiePlantem’ Uazetie—
Tea- * '
Note .* •• 3'*
Native Tea (rardons .*'3
Tea Statistics 1870-77 ... ... 03
Leaf Destroying ^CutorpUJaja O'J
Laliardugga .0(>
AloStiuitu might ... 6'j
Coffee—
Notes ... CO
AgncuUufo for Coifoo PluntoTs 07
Antidotes to Leal Disease .. Ob
Kdw Method of Uoliug Bleep
Laud ... .0i>
The Peuik Country .7 J
Tho Coimbatore Coffee V^oiks 70
Skkioulxuuk -*
Note.s .71
Tho Wild Silk IiiduBtry of 1 iidia 71
The Royal Bcrkshiie Root Show 72
ADVBaTlSKMBNXS .72
KOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS.
Our Cotreipondents and Contributors will greatly oblige us
if they will take the trouble, where the returns of cultivation arc
stated by them in Indian weights and mecuuns, to give their
English equivalents, either in the text, in parenthesis, or in a
JhoUnoie* The bigah in particular vurida so much in the dif*
provinces, thdt ' is absolutely necessary to give the
English value of it in all cases* It would be a great reform
if the (JoverniinefU itsslf ^oUowsil the sam course in ail the
s.
m"
LEIl’EBS 10 THE EDITOB.
CHEAP PLOUOHS.
. Bib.— I learn from the Report of the Agri>IIoriicu1tara1 Society pnb»
lihhtid 111 tho AgrwuUuHai of January, that wooden ploughs on thn
Amorican pattern “can bo made hero (Calcutta) ntfroiu Ra. 12 to Rs. 15,
whilst light EugU&h ploughs for a singlo horse or pony, cost from
Ra, 45 to Ra, GO.” Wonld you let me know whether Dr. 8. Ly nob could
supply ploughs on tho American pattern at Rs. 15 1 An authoritative
reply would obligo your correapondont as well as several others in this
distriotf
S. DATTA,
BlsUwftOttth, As.wm* .
EUCALYPTI.
Sir,— 1 pce a correppondent enquires whether Eucalypti have boen
known as yet to bear fertdo fruit in India.
J probnuio tho Enculypn m the Neilgborries have been bearing seed
for many yearti. As regards the P;injab, I can state that a tree planted
by Ml, ]'orkiue, C.8., in tho gnrUeu of the Deputy Oommieslouet'a
house at Hoshiarpur, about 12 yoartt ago, and now about 50 or 60 feat
high, bears a sinuil quantity of fertile seed, Also, that the Eucalypti
p iunted at Abbottabad m IlUKaui dislilct seeds ftcely, for 1 have hod
several pounds of seed uunl m',> i'rom that giutlon. The growth of
lUo Eucalyptus in lluzara is wry rapid: uud it U probably there
that its gicatPist AUtcess in tbe Fuujab has been attained.
The fipciues aiu so luihrult Hint J cannot be sure of the spooies either
by tho tree hiMt niontiuueii, (thcro are now many of the same kind in
tho Dtatum aud district of iiobhiarpiir) or of the Hazara one. 1 ..hink
however the species iu both cases is identical. It is not (Hohiiliig*
Olobuihs does not roadi<y succeoJ hero. It is not which is
easily iUentiUcd by its lung thin leaf, uud wii/ow-liko atom in the young
plant,
W. COLDSTREAM,
llofihiurpur, lOth January, 18/9,
EXFEIUMENTS IN WET CULTIVATION.
SiB,—1 ha\o !xuc*h plcasdro in eiioluslog for your information and
that of the substiibcrs to tho Jnthun AffrwuUuruty a detailed
Btalctuoui ot the lusults derived Iioiudcop ploughing on paddy landii
carried out during thoytais 1875-7i> and 1877 by an uuligbtoaod native
rosideut m the Kreuoh iiotilemeut of KariLal iu thisdietricL
To ascertain the yield per aero deduced by these esperiments, 1
would premise that iho land measures 6 6 acres, and inasmuch
as 20 ma/u! go to ouo veh, one mah is as nearly as possible one-lhird of an
aero.
The yield oi paddy tUeroforo per aore, it will be seen, was nearly
82 t,alamg, A kahnn is equal to 21 Mailras measures of paddy, or 12
Aladras mossures of rice weiglimg in tho aggregate, say, 36JbSi Bo that
tho yield per noro nmouiited t</S2X36Ib8,, ortho respectable quantity
of 2,U56!b5., ur nearly UO bui}bels,(taking wheat as the standard).
The ratio of yield on l&uJs treated sciontidcttliy and non-scieutifioally
is, it Will bo soon, as 5*4 to 1 in thie instance of wet oultivatlon.
R. R. E. BROCKMAN,
^ Captain M, E*
Tanjofc, 1
2Ist, Dc'jombor 187$. J
IN hoopraynpoora u, a villugo altaohod to Mag&uum of Tiroonellaor,
ii miles from Karrical, I mutlo the following experiments, induced to
do 80 by tho study of Mr. Robcrtsoii's reports.
FloiNo. I.—It oontaiusy^q guUea (2 mahs and 80 gulies) and ic
a sandy aoU. During dry season no craekf pro apparent oq fhe
88 ' THE INDUS'AIJBIOtTLmrST. I, WW,
l^Dt Ife. the surUce, ftiia no oraoki 4a]iog tfrj
Mim} ImttiioittlHioU itf quite cUyey, They call il OoUi k$^r, %nn
during dry eeaeost when the eorfeoe fe Urm^ ihoro wore aoionnd qluy
ylaoee below in which cattle would gtnh to the hnee* Theie they
n1wey#»TOfded and would peu only when forced. It conininehSOgultec
(6 mehfl end SO guiles).
Plot KOi clayey during dry aeaaon fall of deeporocks
containing a lUtlo more than 200 guiles pr 2 mabs. When blocks
of this aiiff clay wore turned, they oon\{uned plastic clay conlaln*
ing moJitnrci whereas on the surface and bottom it was dry
oarlh.
In 1870 1 iNingbt an Koglish plocgh called Howards Combined
Plaughi and as it was fa pieces nobody at Nogapatam kuew bow
to fit it together (though wo Could form sonic Idea of it from scemg
a flguro of it in the Agricultural Class Hook) till a Brother of the
Bociely of Jesas^ In St. Joseph's College sot it all right very soon.
1 most any that this was one of thr* ploughs supplied hy tho Diadrss
Oovemment somoyears Xiaclc aud tJueo Hirasdars bought it to please the
talaq authorltiss. and it was never used by them, lud was lying idle
at Hegapatam, where 1 managod to gel it
Boonaffer harvest in the middle of FeUuary and before the
uommenooment of the dry season, the 8 plots were ploughed up to
the depth of C inches hy the aaid combined pbngh. Bufialoe bulla
each aw are used in drawing carts were yoktd, and pulltd the plough
with ease. All the 3 plots wore pi jughed twioo
la plot Ko. 1, twenty five cart-loads of ashes and stioet sweepings
were applied towards the close uf Ma> or the Ijogmumg of
Jnne.
In plot Ko. II., twenty carts oi 'no so id manure and iO oails pi
tank soounngs (at 8 carHoads for a rut uO wore applied,
Plot Ko. Ill had no mauuie.
Tlots NoSt I and 11 wore grown with Ampitbam Kaiavay padd>. and
plot Ko. Ill with Beguppu berttmany paddy well suited lor seasons of
drought Though the former paddy is called Aruputhutn Kuruvay (bO
days Kuruvay) It actually lakes almost U months fui irviwhng. It
was sown m the month of Juno which is gouerally th( ^.nmencemont
of cultivation soason in that pait of the oouutrj. As soon as water
was let in, country ploughs were used tor puddling, ^ud within d (lavs
the plants were trausplanted. The Kuiuvay seedlings wero from IS
to 22 dajs old. The Kuruvay plants were watered os country paddy
plants.
riot Ko. 1 gave (o6) thirty-thico kalamn, ol Kuu la} piditj and plot
Ko* II gave (48; forly-i ight kulams for the fiiM ciop. Alter Kutiiva>
liarrcut 1 applied 2 oait loida of Kivaloy pu udu m plot Na I only.
This plant is uvod as manure in many vdluges about fvairikal and grow
in sandy soils near the coasls 1 don't know if it iM he wild indi| > i
referred to by Mi. Bobcitson, 1 have not kocii this plant in tin j
mlonor. After cnltlvafmg with ooauliy plough! 1 again raised Chumba .
paddy in plots Nos. 1 and U.
riot Ko. I gave mo (10) thirty lulams, and plot No J1 gave (it)
thiity-five kalams, and plot Ko. Ill gave (18) eighteen kalams and only |
one crop was raised on it. |
Kext year, which was one ut go'ural ib .ig it, plot h o. 1 aloie w&s
gtown with double crops ui Icfoie, lais year [lot No 1 had not aih* |
manure. About only C carti of cowduun wuc applied and about CO
sheep were folded in the snid plot loi about 20 days, whose manure was
ploughed iu. Ihe sail plot No I i j double ciopi ot Kuru.i^y and
Ohumba padd^, gave (00) ft.-U t dai •(, riot No li bad lo doublo
crop as about the time mC tra ^iplantiup ivutmey scodlmgs the urigatiug
ohanuel was dry. Of ci Jiso HI had novel doubk crops
and it yielded viry much the lamo as b< lo e i ., IS kalams, Ihis
plot was too low eud geniiall> iuundulL' It is also situated amidst
the fields of Kallundai pa 1(1 Y, which is siuici toi lands of low level
aud the plot was n manured In this yt ir ^ uly which wae one of
general drought, the uc efit ot deep iloughmg wo^ vtry striking
For when the adjoin fields had Huftcied f'om Suioy or Kuhehombu
my oulHvalion did not nfi'oi ZUo deep soils retained
muisture till water came lu, while othoi laiida not so ploughed,
auSered
In the 3td year the satno ih ug vfOs done as in t v. ^ear pAectdiup aud
plot Ko. 1 of 2 uiahs aud 'lO guhes utvo yielded < w that. CU kalams
for two crops uudianged from CO It j kalam'i altoi paying the
Charges of reaping and tUioehm^; whoi as bo for the espeUmeut the
said plot scarcely yielued 10 kalam XUo r^suhf of the other
plots are also satisfactory in that, '^vhiio the avenge pit luie of these
plots as well as of elmilai plots lu the village un loi tUa t^dinary
STAttitn, was about lOd kalams a vch, oi S aaianii t . the produce
nndcr this cgporimshtat system was more timu mf qaantity
1 am florry the egaot ijnantiiy of produce undoi the old syetem tor the
lame plots wai not recorded boforc. •
The ittferencee to be Oiawn Uom this are--
(1) Theexcouenoeef deep ptonBblog eannol doubted loir one
mement, The mere driving tbrodifh the «oil iiiaoomplete» and it amet
be turned by deep plonghtug*
(2) That ploughing when theioU b dty soon after harvest, is oon-
ducivQ to its eurichment, as 11 lets the air, hdht and rain reach the
soil.
(3) That plants In deep ploughed lande withstand droagbi bitter
than 10 surface cultivated soils, and that plantsjn the former ait free
from discuses which attack ihe latter during drought,
(i) That at the rate of yield of plot Ko. X contatoing 2 mehe and
80 guiles (which ranged from 00 to 03 kalame ^or 2 crcpi) I veil of
land can be rendered fit to yield more than 810 kalams whim ioaroaly
100 kalams a veil is the average of ihe produce of aimllar lands in the
said village,
V. BAVABATA FIIMY*
WELL IBBIGATIOK. #
iSia—'I see by your columns that s scheme for well Irrigation is on
the i/ijng Of course if (he Government undertake It. welf and good ;
If not, 1 think it would be a good change for capitalists or a Joint
Stock Co., to make wells, renting them to cultivators at a reisonabls
percentage on outlay. I have always advocated the mnltlpHoation of
wells for irrfgation purposes, A well will Irrigate about 10 acres, and
would be u rrcat means of preventing, famines In the event of drought—
lu fact, If the Pcraian wheel was introduced into the N -W, P. and
Bengal, It wonld bo a great improvement on the present means ot
irrigation by dboakis " or water-lifts used by natives. The cultivators
ikmselvc! have nut ihe means of makiag wells genet ally, but would
n do lot be glad toiont them. In fact the lotroduotmn of Artesian
\Ullswoitd bo a great odvantage. 1 believe it has been Used with
great BucoesB by agouilemau in Madias, the cost being loss than that
uf awcll India wants irrigation, and the introduction of a better kind
of plough J btliove some experiments have been made at tbs Calcutta
iail will) groat success with a light Amcrioan plough, costing about
Its 10. Its introduction would be an advantage, as by (he wrotobed
t '}ugh8 now m use by the natives, ihe soil has to be ploughed up 5 and
( iimw befoitt it Is fit foi sowing. The labors of the Famino Commission
If IS lopBd, will (lovtlope a better system of irrigation and improved
metliudc» of working the laud ; but that great inoubns,tbe money-lesder,
must be brought withm bounds, us olhorwise luile improvement in the
social conditiou ol the cullivafor oau be hoped for,
« PHILO,
Calcutta, Tauuary 8lh, lb79.
UIUHLING APPLE TUEhb.
hii —Xhu giidUngoi apple trees, is a piactioe which, though not
('encially known in Luglnud, has been adopted by many gardeners
to mil iov( aud increase ihi yuld of frmt. Ihe process is a simple one
and IS cainc i out 1 bchevc, by tinppiug the bark oil the lower branches
(r the main stem ol the tree wh( II the fiuwei blossoms. I would like
to know wbolher girdling has been tried in India, end it so, with whal
u Ulth
ibo (juUivalion of ihe apple is tarried on to a large extent in
Baiigaloio frim which 2 )Iate the fiuit is sent to many parts of
<1 dia. but it bus only bieu within (he past decade, that anything like
tjuufitic IraiDiiig has been brought into operation tUroogb Ihe exertions
a f( w /'entlcmcn here. Added to ibis a very largo variety of the apple
J At has been impoiUd from year to year, which having now been
a climatised giow in great luxoriance
It woi Id be mtereslmg tborutoie to know what further improveifienti
in fjr niig and (tUaaiinyooM be introduced, and 1 should be glad it
un> f i our numerous readers < uuld give me hints or information through
your columns on the subject matter of this leitm.
TBOI8.J. LSOHABa
Bangalore, 2nd Pecembsr 1878.
' ■ I ' J ■ tflLg ' ' W eg I ■ "UWgBLl"B V
FEIiN CULTUUE.
bta,—irt require a rich sandy loam and moist heat,
propagated by mcaos of sookera There are two species coUIvated m jj ^
Pftloutta
i, (*lrnHufih (round leaved), 3 feet high| found m ludta ahont 1|00^
i folds a eoarso sort of eago*
f;, rtwfHW (lollca-baok fsatriy, 3 feet high, foofid ip Okinft
in 1737.
Soil as above, but require lo be imported^ as they do fiot
propagate m India, They aic indigenous in the lymmttMitidli Qkm
vl Uop,, M ittZTZZlZ
ttB mpm AmmrvmT
69
febhary 1,1679,
SKit'Sfil"
ot t)i« l^efli <[&»%> tanAt txwii^ J^/^irfiirae00, lo
th# diidlAff CMmtti, tb«r« «re tw^ or thr^
a P. f.
TIilS SAME*
6lS»«**'Tottr oornupondent Dr»Sbortt* sUtos that Ihs ieedi or nula o£
th^ Oyeadf *'aro oaten by tlie poor groabd Into a ttotir and cooked into
aeortof a conjee,'* Now! would not adfise any of your readers or
your correspondent making a trial of It. Unless prepared as I shall
desoribe, It bas polsonons propett{6s> and sometimes prores fatal, but
geaeralljr oaases soyere vomiting, the only antidote lor wbli/b is largo
doses of tamarind water, uuiU the vomiting ceases. The plant is quite
common all along the Western Gbats, m Iravonoore and Malabar,
bnt is not found at any great height on the Hilh. It often has two or
three heads or branohes. It seeds during tbo b,-W. monsoon, and sheds
all its leaves In,December or January, which its puts lorth ogam aflor the
first shower of rain, after the bot weather ilrcs have burnt the foiosls
The trnnk ot tho plant contains a very laigo poroentago of coaise
fibre (X should say 74 per cent ) which should mekr a good ** half stock'
for paper manufacture, and as good as that produced from bamboo,
A tranipaicnt glutioous fluid like Iho white of an pgg eaudes from tho
tree when cut, and foims into a gum. The aveiage fioio a tree will be
about a quart; its properties are not yet discovered. Ibo Kordus and
Muleers of tho Anamalais live on the nuts foi some months It is
prepared in the following manner before being used as food. As soon
as the nuts are ripe, which In when they assume an orange rod or }lUuw
colour, they are gathered and taken to a flat took and cut opeii.m two ,
the kernels are taken out, elioed and dried out in the sun fur tbice oz
four days, until the thumb>nail makes no impressiun on them by
pinobiog } they aio then gathered and soaked in a stream of runuing
water for three full days, after which lime they are dried aud stozed Lor
use. The kernels aie eaten roasted, or made into flour lox ooujoo,or
sweet cakes with the addition of honey. It contains, 1 think, a good
quantity of staroh, the taste after being prepared is not at all disagioe-
ablo. It 11 not oaten largely m Malabar or Travaucoro, but on the
Anamalais, tho nuts arc not even allowed to bocomo properly npo
before they aro removed by the Hi 11 men Whilo on the autjoct of the
above source of food of the wild tnbov, Imay as wol) mention aiiptlitii
food supply of the Muleers, aud that IS the iipe pulp of the tauiaimd
which IB quito oommou about the vaiUya of the luacaaliia, ihoy live
PU it for a month or two. 1 once had the opportunity ot wiluosemg this
strange banquet. A group of about a do.on half-naked, duty m^n
women, and children, uoie (squatted arround a hrifi made of i pui iit^ular
kind ol wood (AnogeiHmt latifvhut) aud a heap of lamaiiu 1 with tin.
shell Each one took a piece u moved tho shoU, lolUd (he puJ[ adl into
ihe ashes and thou lifting up thiir woolly bead'*, ami openiiq'thur
by ena like mouths, tho fruit was pal down Ihoti tUio its uud swultowod,
seeds, ana all, CHoU man aud woman cousummg tlneo or Ijui ii>4 at
each meal. Iho objict ot the ubhes was to icmovo the acidity of the
fruity and to prevent it acting on tho Luwtlo.
iUG flora.
BAMBOO AH TAPEU folOtK.
bin,'—Bamboo is largely use l m Ohiua fpi papoi mauufacluiti. It is
cut while still green, sciapod, and cleauod , tho tine h]x ivin,^ s ate steeptd
in water and reduced to a paste by a purticulai methul, mivul with
Isinglass. This paste is converted into various kinds of popoi fliloie being
bleached the paper la smooth, soft, of great strength, th( c 1( ui bung
light yellow, Tho coarse shavings are also made into thuk sheds with
which a very naeful Under is manufarturod. The under la mu ie with
rolls of paper whiob are lighted, aud when thoroughly ignited are thrust
ihto small tubes of bamboo which are at onto closed and tbo ilumo thus
put out' the burnt toll can thou bo kindled with a flint and sioet as
required , blowing on it a few times lights it into a flamo, being the
only kind of tinder that possesses this peculiarity. Mixed willi slaked
lime tho paste is made into a strong, useful and ornamental plaatoi tor
walla of boildinga. The tfaiokor shavings can also be used foi stufliug
oaihlooB, pillows, Ac.
COFFEE LAKJD TAX IN MYfot^EE.
Btn,*«-.Why have you not ere this publivhcd the Minute on taxing
ooilee lande in Myaore In your valuable papoi » Mr Gordon, 0. 6,1,
Chief Commissloaet of Ifyaort, has published a Minute on cofloo and
sent ihe aame to the Governot General for sanction,
Bhould the Government of India sauction what Mr. Guidon has
baked them to do, it will rutonlBe-tealhs of the native cofieo plantofb
in Myaore. 1 will not take up muoh of your vaittabie apaoe Mr. Editor
Hi wia ihow yoa bow E wUl aJIeofe iko nntiTei, At preient the natGos
aswollaathaKuioiWaupay ia export tex of one lupce a owt, or
et aoy rate they arc supp^ to do ao, hut tho native does not export
hm ooifeo; lie aella ft on the spot or fit the nearest market town in hie
talook, so the morohaut who purelmaest and not tho grower, pays iho
duty, Mr, Gordon proposes to levy a tux of one rupeo eight annas aa
acre Instead of export duty. Tho opintOn of the Mysore Tlauters'
Association has been askod for, and tbo reply is that one rupee on ecio
fs as much as oofleo land in Mysore can stand; the opinion ot
indiVKlual European planters hasbron asked for and replies from /vs
oi them have buoii rz carved by Ooveromenf; bnt Mr Gordon forgot to
nsk the opinion of a Btugle native planter 1 have poiated oot to you
that the native does not piy anything just now, but the export duty
IB paid by the merchant Uu lei Mr. Gordon’s now soheme tho native
will have to pay iho (ax whether his lauds produoe any coltee or not*
No warning has been given to the native that a tax will at any timo
be Buhstiluted for, aud instead ot the export duty, neither bashisopimou
been asked whcthei ho would oonscut to tbo tax or not.
From and after the Ut of April lS7fl, the tax must be paid or rather
ought to bo paid, but P'i out of 100 of tho natives will give up tholr
holdings. They cannot aiTotd at picsout to pay tho tax proposed ; they
have had no warning, Uuu hods of thorn In fact Will not know that a
taiL on then land has to bo paid until they aro called open to pay down
QUO rupee eight anuae por aero fur every arro tboy hold.
Tho Chut Commissioner s Minute on ooSoe is well wnlion, but very
misleading to tho thVQitimrnl of India an far as the a|tivi)S aro
ooncerued, and if it is true that the Chief Commissioner wishes to drive
tho native planter Irom hia holding ha will sucoced without a doubt*
1 trust tho Govoinmeut will w ithliold its saaction to this paper uutit
they aro in poBsessioa of moie luforuiaiion as to how the tax will aiZeo,
u itives. Give them a w truing that after a time say throe years, iho tax
will take ellett, and then if they caunot afloid to pay, it will be tholr
own fault, but without any warning, to allow tho natives to
onltivate aud make tUeir places prodaoo at feast six mauuds on aoro,
1 ihioi lit most nuittii. I have heard it wlils{iered that Mr. Gordon
Wishes to diivo tho naliv s out of the way as far as eoflf'o is oouoerusd
to allow of inort Euu peau*! cutniug mtu Mysore. 1 am as I have said
above, cettain that should this pi iposnl ol Mi. Gordons booome law,
the natives must go to tho wall, but I have my doubts as far as
tho Eutopeaus vre concerned
MOUB ANON.
Kadur District Mysoro , 2ynd Dvcombfr, 187B
MUMMY PEAB.
tin,—'With isferieuoo to recent correfipondouco I may mentfon
IhU abut I was stayiug in the Isle el Man about the year 18112, my
ho t obtaiuQ I some mummy poav which germinated, Tho plauts
giowu wetu tiaiued against a wall and leachod some 10 feet in height.
Duy iLSimblod tho oidiuary pea in every rospeot, exoept ilso. Tho
po I was as long as a man s hand and coutalned 15 or more peas abont
tho sauiti sue as what aio known as maitow fats. 1 left tho Island
at tor wards aud can give uo aooouut, ol tho suhsequenb oxpotimonts.
My impios^iou nt the time was that tho poas were the product of
repeated ueloetioii ol the littcst it would bo intsreBdog to know
it ..uoh detouorated afleiwai Js to (ho original sixo,
0,8.
y* ''—It I lemembir rightly tho peas wore Obtained from a mummy
lu tho Eikhibition ot ISul.
KANS URAbH MK. bOUllOTIKY'S REP02T,*
(Jh ti(f hilitoi v/ihe Ptmiter*)
Siiif^Vour IfIcrouco, ill a recent issue, to my report on kans grass,
publishci lately m the A-IK i', with Mr. Oadoll, the Banda
bebtlomeut Ofllooi s review thereon, has retalkd the subieot to my
mind aud 1 hasbcu to ooireob a moat eorious orior and an oversight ot
an impoitunt portion ot my report, whioh uuderlies both yours aud
Ml CadellM re\iew. It is prtLlsefjr the srroi 1 fomaw. and which I
endeavouied to pi event by dwelling at some length. lU my report, on
the nature and the diifeieneo between noaUaMo and nnavaUabte plaht
food, which uthorwiso would 1 ave been quite out of place, I slated
that on th i bams of my experimonts, aud analysis ot the difiorent soils
enbmiited lo me. 1 have come to tho couclusiou that " an oror-satara*
Uoii of thj soil with rtCfliiAdto limo aud siUca and astoMp fAc toffvr,
i 0 BV( ulial <iud neoessaiy for the germinaiion aud developmeut of kaus."
1 w( il draw your attention te the woide italicized, Mr. Cadtll
rclt rnng to the fact that some hoils, also overrun with kans. ate shown,
by Ue results of ouUnary chemical analysis^ to con tat a much Ires lime
thin other soda which aro iievoi aScctod^with kans, thiuUthatmy
eoaoluBLou that au ovoi>*Atuiaiiun of the soil with available Ifuio fs
* five pages h4*0u.
40
THE OTIM AGRlfcUlTimiST.
"1” H •KT.^y-
ueooMfirj for the deretopmeDt of kmt, irOl probobty tofttlfo opu^
modifioatioDi ProMly it will, >a it oppeiTA ttL«t iba loUa eattt to too
were by no naaoi fair ropreadotativos of tho obiof oIcuMei of ioifi io
wbioh IrOBis ia fotiod to ba preralaot» bot Mr, Oadell baa orarlo^kod the
fiOt tbafe 1 Wd available JIma, the word available deritisgipeclal
aigtiifloMloe by my preceding totnarka explaining Ibe nature of a
diltorenoe between aand tcnnoaiJad^epiautfoodi Referring to
my analyeeB of the eoiie. you will obseire that ordinary ofaemieal analyeii
sbowk the poroentage of total lime in the three ditZerent eoile.
Ko,I. No. II. No.m. rroportion,
Sane. Kana Kaos. **
Total Lime 6'50 10‘60 b*0i> per cent, 1 to 1*63 to 1*55
The available lime which may be eouaidered as fairly represented by
the average of what can be extracted from the soil by percolation with
weak acids and water, atanda in the following proportions.
In 1000 grs. of soil, extracted by weak acids.
No, I. No. IL No. HI, rroportion.
Available lime 12% 30% 28*5 grs. 1 to 2 48 to 2‘33
In 10,000 grs, of eoil, extracted by distilled water.
AvaiJablellme 0% 10% 11*2 grs. 1 to 17 00 to 18*06
Average proportion of available lime in soil
free from kens to that in soil overrnn with hans 1 to 10*07 to 10*49
The proportion oiavaiXahU lime in the diHerent soils varies tberofore
immensely from the properlion of the total quantity of lime, as shown
by qfdinary chemical analysis, >nd as only that propurtluu of lime
which exists in the soil in the available state, can influence plant life,
any concluslonB baaed upon the relative quantities of available plant
food wbiofa ate found In soils, cannot be modifled, or aHeoted by the
results of ordinary ohemioal analysis which gives available and unavail¬
able plant food under one heading. Ah a matter of fact, ordinar;
ohemioal analysis may show two scils <o contain say No. I, 5 per ct^ni ,
No, II., 10 per cent, of lime, while the i^to^oiWonotjivatlahle lime m
them may be the very reverse, %,e„ No. 1. may contain 1 per cent,
No. IL, i percent. Until therefore we know the proportion of mailaUe
lime in haharaa^parux soils, overgrown with kans, and its, proportion
in the mme elau of soils, free from kans, wa must still oonsider the
question an open one. 1 wonder Mr. Oadell was . struck by tho
apparent inoongmity of my recommending heavy <Uning with lime as
a remedy against kans, which I say is due to an excess of it in the soil.
Add, however, the word amUabUf with all the weight it carries in my
reportt and the apparent absurdity oeasos to exist,
It does not matter how much lime there ia iu the soil, provided that
there ia do excess of it in that peculiar stats of ^^bysical combinatiua
with the soil, in which alone it can influence plant Itfn, But though
iixun the resolts of my experiments and analyses, 1 was bound to consider
over«sataratiou with available lime as an accessary iu encouraging the
germination and development of kans, and though Mr, Oadell hat ne
well to draw attention to the fact that kans is likewis,» prevalent in rjiis,
shown by ordinary chemical analysis to be less rich m lime, he has not,
I think, drawn sufficient attention to the prominence I gave to available
silica, as the cAief cause of the spread of this pernicious weed. I said :
** An over-saturation of the soli with avniluble Ume and silicf^, and
netabli/ the latter^ is essential ^and neoessary for the gorminution and
development of kans."
IlUaRNB C. BOHROTTKy,
Calcutta, 28tb December 1878.
HILL FARMING.
Indian Agricidtumt couples my name with an enquiry,
ns to whether the publio could not obtain some information as to the
working of the Lawrence Asylum Farm, and enquires whether a statis¬
tical report could not be made, showing what ihere&uUa arc likely to be:
1 believe a statistical report is annexed to the usual Annual Report
of the Asylum, as this report has but a very Jimitea circulation,
the public does no benefit much by the mCormation given, and as 1
think the subject of 'I’U farmiog deserves a great deal more attention
than it has received, i venture to offer the AyrioulCurid the benefit
of my expoiionce.
The question asked by the AgrieuUuritt is « what may be expected
of It I"— 'Whether tho Lawr&noe Asylum Farm, or farming in general is
meant, I do not quite understand.
“With regard to the L. A, Farm iu particular, I have some doubt as
to Us socoees; it has a good deal to contend with. In the management
of a farm, freedom of action is of iU first importance, and this the
Manager of a Onvernment or secni-Clovernmeut cstablishmcut caunot
expect to have; the directing powers must and will have their say and
way, whether they understand the matter or not. ex'! the consequenoe
fa ohstroeUoo, and amioyaDce, and disajutage to those who me
(0 gafry 9 ^ awigoB,
2 .
3 .
4.
5.
• 6 .
There is another mtttft that tells hei^viiy <m aftfdre of thie kia% i|uit
are carried on by Oovermnent-^e^^iiftfitsir. .11? jaanf® to he a tl^og
pretty generally understood that a man'* (Joilsteettt pay shefitM be
angmeoted by porks, wheneTar an opportuatt;^^ c^ere, and IhO farm
authorities, in taking advantege of (heir ohancee, only folio# a
general rule. The perks from a farm are of course free table
farm supplies. 1 think 1 may, at a low estimate, put the loss do^
under ibis head at Hi. 2,000 per annum cash, and taking into
account the demoralizing effect that sooh a system has, I think then
is litttio chance of a Government Industrial Hstablishment being
successful, in a peouuiary point of view,
1 do not say the system of perks is wrong, I suppose it Is atelfo of
the good old times; but I call attention to it^ to show that sapposlng
the L. A. Farm to turn out a failure, it is an item that should be taken
into account
Tho success, or non^euoeess of the farm is of little direct lnlpp^•
tanoe to the publio ; what is required to be domoustraiod is whether
farming on the Hills is or is not likely to pay as a oommercial speou*'
Jation ; and on this point I have very strong oplnioni ; 1 say molt
unreservedly that it would. Always of course given that it was carried
on under good maoagomeut, Ibe reasons I have for believing so are the
following.
Compared mth England^
1. Rent is much lower.
Taxes are almost nil.
The climate )s better-
Growth is more tepid.
There are large oroas of free pasture.
There is a greater length of growing season.
7. There is lees compeLItion.
8. There is, and always will be, an almost unlimited demand.
1 know some of those statements will be disputed, particularly the
last. I was often told when opening the farm, that it was no use to
grow good things, that no one would buy them. I was also told (a
thing (hat an Knglisbman ought to bo ashamed to speak) that 1 sbonld
bo beaten out of the market by native competitors, 1 propbosled
differently, and exporieiicos proved that I was right. The greatest
difficulty the farm had to contend with was to meet demands. There
seemed no limit to the business that could have been done, and this can
easily be understood. Any one who has roslded on the plains, knows
bow ]aded the appetite becomes, and how eagerly it welcomes any-
Ihiug lu the shape of ohaugo, especially anything in the shape of
fresh vcgotahles or ealud, and for the pioduoljon of these things the
climate and noil of tho ILilia arc singularly suitable. The Ncilgberrios
should be veritably the garden of .Southern India and if a regular
supply was organised, tho ('onsumption would be enormous, as they can
be carried very long distances. I have sent supplies os far as
Bccundrabad, and they were reported as arriving fresh and good, and 1
have myself eaten vegetables, a week after their arrival lu Madras, and
wht>u brought to table, they were in prime condition.
But it IF, not us n vegetable!-producing district that we should look for
profiponly, this at the best would be a limited branch of Industry,
What bhould be armed at, is the production of meat, Instead of the
iiihabilauts of the Hills being dependent on tho plains for supply*
iug them wuh a lot u( wretched, luro-boued, goat-haired abominations,
to isoalltd wheep, and good-for-nothing half-starved cattle, from whose
bones it is difficult ta pick a meal; we ought to bo sending large sup*
plies of well-fed meat to ibe plains.
1 now proceed to show what 1 consider to be the capabilities of
the Hills as a meat producing district,
The first and most important consideration Is what description of
stock is most suitable, and I have no hesitation in saying tfaet sheep
stand first, It seems to ho believed that the Hilts ate unsuitable
for sheep, on account of the heavy and continuous rainfall during the
moncoons, but this argument is put forward, either without thought, or
without knowledge of the condition under which the aqiinal thrives,
Uijcic is scarcely an animal so well protected against rainfall as the
sheep; it’s thick and only fieeoe is as nearly waterproof as tha
feathers of a duck, and it seems to have been a special provision for the
protection of tho animal from wet and cold. It will be said experience
proves that excessive rainfall In Hugland is highly injurious to sheep.
True, but the circumstances am widely different. Heavy rain in
Bngland means poaohed and sodden laud, and as sheep are genemUj
folded, night as well as day. it follows that during these timrs the%
have no dry place to lie on. and this is oortainly iujorlons; but ly
ibis would never ooour; In the first place the land never beool\!^
soddened, even dating the heaviest rains, and balf-an-hour alter rain
has ceased to fall, the pastures are perfeoty drained. BCoondly, it Is
compulsory to house sheep here as a protection from wild animals^ and
IhiSf with ordinary care In the oonstruoUon of buUdisiks^ would eosnre
theirtolngihyKnd comfortable sleeping pla^i, l(||oi(lmpQStaBM
.fel^ '1,%. THE lUBIAJT AGRICULTtTKIST. 41
“'r-.1 j r. .nn -*
to rt^meittber thftt U id^iiot the Aotaal rainfall front whioii iliaap angler,
bft^ &om tho want ot drainage. f:k>mo of tbo moat anbealtltj abeep
/larifajr In Bogland baY 4 been oonvartod into ewoet and beaitby paatnrea,
fllmpljr dTaiaiiig. Tbo chief diseafles from which sheep suffer
In England ara catarrh^ and foot and belly rot* The first is doubt*
less Caaied by enposurei and lying on wet ground j tho second
from want of dry footlngf and tho last from feeding on sourf and
badly drained ^paatares. They need not he enpoicd to any cl these
aansea herei the nndraioed portion of hill land does not extend beyond
the few swamps, scattered Wo and there, and no sane person would
grase sheep on a swamp.
oolleotors, with a few women or ohlldren to ooHeot ferns or other
bedding, it is astonlsUing what a large qaaalliy of rich manure a
Hook of sheep will glTe» Another Importaot matter is that there l«
no neoessUy for being oonfloed to a breedipg eeasou, tho ilook will
breed ail the year round. Many of thoeweeat the l^arm had three
lambs in a year ; two at ono birth, and one at another. Keep them
woH fed, and there Is no fotyr of deterioration from \oo fteqaent
breedings
J, BABNABU,
Late Bailiff, L. A, Form.
Again, it appears to 'me that Hills are the natural habitat of tho
sh^p* lhaye never heard or road of them being found in their wild
State in a low fiat country. All the sheep and goat tribe are found on
mOnatain ranges. It is also known that tho meat from the sboep fed
on monntaias Is superior in flavour to that fed on plains. These
things show clearly that Hills are (heir natural home, and why should
the Noilgherries be an exception 71 maintain they arc not. On the
Contrary that they are singularly suitable. Asa rule Hilly districts
are unsuitable for cultivation from tho thinness of the cprfaoe Soil, but
h^ we have thousands of acres capablo of being brought into the
highest state of eultlvatlon, aud specially adapted for the growth of the
turnip, the very thing on which sucoessful shoep'feeding depends ; and
another thing of great importance in fecding->*DiIcake-*'ia within easy
reach. On the'Whole, I can hardly oonoeivo a more favorable local i^ty
for the industry ;here are tho prospects; a delightful climate, ImmoDBC
areas of free pasture, a splendid turnip growing soil ; Oilcake close at
hand, and an unlimited demand for woll-fed meat. Thoso are the
theories, now let us come to the facts, The L. A, Farm has a Hock of
sheep, tho original Hook of which was purchased locally, in common
with all other animals on the Hills; they are of no distinct breed ; they
are brown faced^ short wooUcu animals of pretty compact forms, and
weighing, when fatted, about I21bs. a quarter. They yield mutton as sweet
as the celebrated Welsh meat so much prized at home. 1 tako tlieiu to be
ibout the stamp of animal suited to the Hills. Tho largo heavy lowland
sheep would be quito a mistake. To bring such auimals here would be
aoUug contrary to nature, smalt, lightmado animals are the things for
Hill Banges, all over the world. Those sUcop from their first arrival
at the Farm, were very nufavourubly situated i then sheds, not having
been built for tho purpose, had no drainage whatever, aud the Farm,
being always overstocked, it was impossible to mako any provision to
help them over the scarce season, tlo that in tho dry season they
suffered from a scarcity of food, and in the wet from a wet sleeping
place, and still they throve fairly well. They never suffered from any
epldomia disease. Not a single case of foot, belly rot or of fiuooe maggots
occurred during the time 1 had charge of them, some three years. There
was considerable mortality among tho lambs, but nearly all this could
have been prevented by good housing aud suitable pasturage for the
owes.
So far theory and practice agree, we now oome to the highly
iraportent matter. Supposing tho foregoing to be correct, would it
pay to breed them 7 This is the all important queatiou, and here is
what 1 know about the matter. 1 put up some wolhora to
feed, at 2jl years aid } they were bred upon (he estate, aud up
to the date of their being put up to feed, they had co^t
aholutelif nothing. They bad grazed their living from the time they
were lambed ; and the lost of their heruiug and houBing was amply
repaid by ^the manure deposited during the nights. They were fed as
follows :«*a dozen were selected from the ilock, and wore driven out easy
distanees to pasture (ancnltlvated) up to about 1 r.M., proviously having
had a small feed of oilcako and turnips. During the afternoon they
wera again fed on oUoake aud turnips ; their allowance was 1 lb. of
oake per diem, and turnips ad Ubitim, the latter was not weighed to
them, but X should suppose they consumed about Slbs per diem.
Considering that two rupees per ton was tho calculated coat of turnips,
the latter item was not of much consequenoe. After six weeks feeding,
six of the animals were brought to the knife, in prime condition, and
they averaged about IQlbs each. The meat was bought readily at C annas
pier lb- We have thus:—
^/T^oet of feeding pet ahoep 8361bs of tarnips, about
^^.ibs, of cake
Bs.
mD^oa.
401 b. of mutton at C annas ... Bs.
The skin and offal are oalonlated to pay for killing, ant aiatribu-
tibn of meat,
leonld go on much fi^tber on the snt^eot, but 1 should tbink
wbat I have said is enough to eall attention to the matter. X will,
before 1 ooao1ad^ call attention to tke value ef iheep as manure
0 5 0
2 0 0
2 6 0
16 0 0
AGRIOULTURAL SCHOOLS FOR BENGAL.
\ _ 7
To
A. W. CnoFT, Fsg., A., DiQEOron os' Public iHSTBUOnoir.
SxB,—With reference to the Jotter dated tbo 12tb August J87d» 1
have the houor to anbmit (ho following sketch of a plan for impattlng
agricultural education in this country.
From time immemorial agriouUnre has been carried on in this
country without the aid of any book or school iustruotioD. The know¬
ledge of the simple method which the farmers adopt for onltiva-
tiou is acquired by tradition aud observation of the proctlo^ of
others.
Tbo plan which I propose is to replace tradition and individual
observation by school teaching, and to extend tho scope of the teaching
to the improved method of cultivation deduolble from the application
of science to agriculture. For this purpose £ propose to establish
classes in existing schools wbero instruotlon may be imparted on the
following subjects: elz;—1st IClements of Botany ; 2ad<*»AgriQaltaral
Chemistry ; :ird—Tho influence of climate on Agricnlture ; 4tb—The
character of soils aud their relations to plants ; 6tb—The influence
of seasons on Agriculture; Glh—Acolimatiaation on the introduction
of foreign plants, and the conditions necessary for suooess in sueh
operations ; Ttli—The invigoratiou and exhaustion of land, iuoludiog
ploughing, tho employment of manures, the rotation of crops, and tbo
lufiueuco of leaving lands fallow after cultivation; flth—The employ*
mout of hitherto unused vegetable products to purposes of art and
manufacture.
The first named subjoct must form the gTOttnd«work of all subsequent
teaching and especial attention should be paid to it. At presentf
Botany forms a subject of study Jo many schools, but tbero is no He
book nor any teacher for it. Tho work required for Botanical Jnsiroo-
tiou in this country should be practically treated, and iilustratod with
oxamplos from native plants. It should also bo so framed as to contain
ample luatiuotlou bearing directly upon sgtloulture.
For the second subject there is also no work now available but the
desideratum should be easily stippllod.
Unaer the 3rd and subsequent hcadj, my work entitled the JSritUi
Dur/ja/b is the only one now available. It oontaias much informatiaa
which if brought to the notice of. agriculturists would be ot great
use, but it would be necessary to revise and extend it considerably for
use in a college.
At the first start I would not suggest any thing that would involve
heavy expenditure, my wish is to begin from a nucleus to bo oxtended
f"om time to time na it may prove sucoessful. The first require*
ment is a complete staff of teachers, aud, until this is produoed, no
school can be established with any prospect of soocess. To supply
this desideratum, 1 propose first, to open an agrionltaral class (n the
Normal schools of Calcutta, Hooghly,) Dacca, and Midnapore. Four
teachers will be required for the purpose, and (hose I believe ire
available, it will be their duty to teach tbo snbjeots above enumerated,
and at the same time to compile text*books.
At tho beginning it will be necessary to offer special enconragi*
ment to (ho papil4e«ohors who will attend this elosi. and I propose tba
inoreaso of their stipend by four rupees monthly.
To control the action of the four teachers, and to give Uniformity to
the oonrse of education proposed, .t will be neoesiary to appoint a
Bupeiintendeut; who should attend each Normal sohool for two months
every year, to Oliver lectures and to manage the farm that should be
attaobed to each school lor the practical iostrootion ot the 'stodeuts.
The remainder of his time should be devoted to travelling In the country
for collecting seeds and plants, which may be either introdneed to the
farm, or preserved tormaklug a herbarium in eaoh school for the
Botanical study of the studentA
When the supply pf teaohera available from thi Normal schools shell
warrant the measure, I wonld propose to open agrlonltural classes In
sUlah schools, gianUn-aid sohools and vlUage-aohools, where the boys
have pasMd the |#tk year of their age.
At fhese ace two classes of men in each profeisioO, a maneglog oloss
and a workixig*olnsf. sain sgrleuUuial education it would be so ananged
42
THE INDUH AGRICULTUEtS^r.
as to ptoduoe in ttio blgber scbools a bod/ of soisutifio agriculturists
from tbc liiglier order of soelet/, and In tbe lover schools it vlll bo
taught toouitfrators, who mil ho (horoughi/ proMttt in l^raotleai
work.
to tbe former it may bo at first doslrablo to giro some oucouragement
suob as romissiou of ifaa schooMoes. I am sure the poor boys will
readily apply for their admittance to the agricttUaral class, and if they
be allowed a share of the farm produco* they will look upon It as
ample,
la the aiUah school o£ Baraset an agtiouUnral olasa was onoe opened
for the odnoation of the boys in agrtoultare. bat, for want of a
teaoheri this olasa bad to be abolished, If the Bame class be again
opened and all the lands formerly occupied by tho model {
farm bo granted for expeiimentai purposes it ehould readily he
rerired.
In oonneotion with (he agrioaltoral class in each school it will be,
necessary to lay ont a farm of not Joss than a hundred biggaba of land,
for tbe praoiioal instruction of the boys in a small part of it,
Kxperimenta of various kinds should be instituted, for improvement iu
the methods of ouUivatlou and acclimatisation ; and, in the rest, indigen.
ous Gultlvation should be carried on, for realising a certain sum whioh
may supoly all the expenses of the farm and tbe cost of labour. As
there U*no means to keep a farm attached to (he Calcutta Normal
Bchooi,it is desirable that the students should attend the Imperial
Botanioal Garden for the practical study of botany and gardening.
Their trarelling expensos to the garden will amount to about Us, 15
monthly.
I In *«puip^' then the oellnlar tissue exlsUn^ in the old etefai
' has by age been convert ad Into ligneous tlsene, in other words
wood, and as remarked during such oonfemionthe illioa, Bgnine
and other oombined matters forming the substaaoe of the stew
have also become solidiiled and hardened, they therefore having to be
got rid of, as it Is only tbe true ligneous tissue which eoniUtatei the
*• pulp," strung oaustio alkali at an elevated temperatnre, sryo high
pressure boiling, has to be reaorted to render them solubla and »mav<«
able, and as they form a very considerable portion by weight of the
woody steins, it follows that the ultimate dbrpua rosidoe is eonilderably
less than if the plant were taken in Its young Or herbaoeone stage el
growth, tho fact boiog that the average yield ofpulp'’fromUie Old
stems is only about do per cent, while that from the younger stems
ranges from 00 to 70 por cent, (the results in either case being
aesossod from tho stems when dried). In tbe old stems moreover
certain coloring matters (as well as the silica and lignine) being
deposited and fixed, eron after boiling a more energetio and therefore
more costly bleaching agency is required.
Neither is it possible to dry “ pulp ” so readily or so eeonomleaUy
as the fibrous Paper Stock," nor will it when dried pack into so
small a balk ; the freight and carriage charges, important items, are
consequently more ouorous.
So far, therofoM, as regards the quality of bamboo Paper Stock,
of course 1 am aware tbat this, my statement, wilt only be accepted
by many cam gram, I mean fhat as bamboo and the ** Paper Stock "
produced thereform is not r*j yet oommeroiaily known In the market
it can only be judged by the somewhat limited trials I have made,
Baob farm will have to bo supplied with tbs necessary iinplemonts
Including two ploughs and four buUooks.
A small laboratory and a monthly allowance for chemicals will
have lobe supplied to each JSormal school. The total cost for these
Is not likely to be heavy.
nUBllY MOnUN MOOKBBJEB.
OalcnttB: )
Normal School, 2lBt October, 1878. j
A HEW SOURCES OF REVENUE FOR INDIA.
To tho Editor of the Taper Maher^o Mvnthig Joamah
Sib,—I n the ooucluding paragraph of my last letter* 1 proposed to,
show “ Row Bamboo l'ai>er Stock," prodaoed under fairly favorable
conditions, can be brought iuto tho market to competo with Baparto.
both as to quality and cost," ,
latly. As regards quality I have not shown the Paper Strok *' i !
have produced from Bamboo to a single paper maker who has not '
admitted its superiority to Bsparto, both as regards its nommul strength,
and the divisibility, fiuenese, and felting properties of its fibre : the raw
dried stem also allords a much greater yield than Esparto* thereby
demoUBtratiug that It consists of more cellular tissue (generally torinod
cellulose) oonsequently not so much extr)n«ou£ matter to get rid of, and
It follows that less alkali is required lor the boding process, tho hoiied
fibre bleaching as readily if not more so ihau Esparto,
Although it is well known that from time immemorial the bamboo
has been employed for paper making by tho Onhiese, Japanese, and
indeed more or less tbrougnout India, hilheito only the old and matured
stems have been used for such purpose, I do not pretoud to say that
paper, even of fair quality, cannot be made from the bamboo in this
oonditloD* but with ago the etems naturally become woody* and oan
only be treated as the Chinese do by long continued maoeratiou or
destrnotive steeping or rotting* or as wood now is by high pressure
boiling iu strong oansuc alkaline solutions, by which it is* like wood
reduoid to ^‘pnlp.**
The system I adopt fc/r prodaoing fibrous ** Paper Stock " is very
difleient. 1 take tbe young herbaceous shoote or stems of the season’s
growth, Qutttng them while the sap is still flowing and before tbe BiUca,
lignine, and other conatituents of the sap have become deposited and
indurated by ago, passing them as freshly out through crushing and
slitting rolla, thereby abatraotiug mnob of the sappy matter; thus tho
pure fibre at this stage of growth is more readily and freely separated
from tbesa extraneous subatanoes, and being produced iu a tow4ike
oondition by bdng wiilowed or teased out after boiling and washing, is,
when dried, put np into hydraulic pteseed hales for economy of freight
(limilai to cotton or jute), being ready for blcachiag and Uie suooeeding
paper making proooases wbea received by tbe iaauafa< a a vc.
Having dasorlbed the oharaotstistios of tbe ** Paper ^took ** 1 propose
to produce iema tbe powig bamboo, it may be well la pcM but the
difference, both praoUcally and oommeroiallyt bet~.VvV'.x ff gtA pulp ”
ilio results of which may be seen from tbe specimens of paper and
Paper Stock " at the rooms of the Association,
However good or suitable the quality of any fibre may be, mpecially
if proposed for paper-makiug, seeing the present low price at which
paper has to bo produced, the crucial question after all is cost, and
unless this oesential olcmeul can be brought within reasonable limits^
success is hopeless.
The main, or rather the Immediate difiiculty, In this connection Is
fhat bamboo as a purely raw material cannot possibly be Imported
into this country on account of its bulk and lightness* and consequent
cost for freight; it follows therefore that it must be converted into
“Btook " where It grows or is produced. In this respect however It
only rcBombles other fibrous plants of an equally bulky nature (in
their raw or natural condition), such as jute, flax, hemp. Ac., from
all of whioh the ultimate fibres as articles of oommeroe are produced
by somewhat complic ated processes, besides whioh such plants involve
costly system of c nllJ vatlon which the bamboo does not.
Crowing extensively in most warm countries* tbe bamboo is
osBontmlly indigenous to tho Tropics* and even there Its most proliflo
growth is governed, or at least modified, by climatic influences, being,
although not an aquatic, still a waterdoving plant, and therefow
flourishing best in a very moist climate, such for instance as British
iJarmah and tho Tenassenm Provmoes, the Straits of Malacca and the
Islands of tho ludiati Archipelago, It abounds tu South Western India
and Ceylon, iu most of the West India Islands, Oeutral America, and
the Brazils ; in Cliina also and Japan it is most abundant; in Southern
India it forms iii many districts dense and almost impenetrable
jungles.
The bamboo is perennial, that is the parent stool or olump lasting
ivauy years, with most species from 60 to GO, when, having reached
maturity, the plant flowers* seeds, and generally dies; young plants
tl on spring up from tho seeds thus shed, forming tbe dense jungles or
fo ests alluded to.
^Vhon the seeding’ occurs, which it frequently does over a wide
dU^not, the grain, somewhat like coarse rice, is eagerly ooUeeted by
the nati ves^ constituting a nutritive article of food.
Tbe natural habit of the bamboo is that each clump or root-stock
produces a growth of young shoots eaoh year, from 8 to 10 or more, these
being throwu up at the rainy season common to most tropical coaulries ;
these shoots attaiu their full height in a few weeks, ranging according
to the variety of the ba mboo and tbe ago of the parent stool, from 80 to
60 feet high or more (some species, EtmHta Oiganteo for example
attidning the height of 120 feeO. Xf only a portion of these young
soasou^s shoots are out, leaving say from oae<-fourtb toofie4hirdto
mamtain the vegetative functions of the plant, it will retain Us natural \
vigour for a lengthened period.
ttom the foregoing it will be evident that an abondant^ 1 may
indeed say an illimitable supply of the raw fibrons material exists. I
will oonsider In my next letter undm what conditions this valuable
paper-making material may be made available for the axlgehciai of
enr trade. .
Olaxheogh, Gaaderland*
awaL ...
THoa, Bomiam,
fdWrWity i,
TfiB'^nbjAN AanicuiTtiBisT.
4S
' ®1|^ Hwtot
CALCUTTA, FEBRUARY 1, 1879.
THIS MADRAS RYOTS.
(rpHK Blukw FampUl«t" UUs na that the lyota of the Madras
* FxesideAcy iiave boon bord^aod by grievous ovor-ftssas.'i''
mebtB, ftijid tbo uuthor, BIr. U. A. D. Phillips, of tUo Bengal Civil
Service, advocates the iutroduotion of & permaneut settlomout. No
fault is found with the ryotwari systoru per ee : but the writer
urges that the system has beeu abused by the Madras Ooveru^
meut; who, in the matter o£ assessment and collootious, iiavo
beeu judgoa iu their owu cause. The Bellary district is taken
us an example of Madras eettlemouts, and it is shown tbat the
reveuuo demand has had to be reduced over aud over again
owing to over-assossiueut. The demand in Monroes time was
55 hikha of rupees: in 1822 it had been reduced to 33 lakhs,
aud in 1857 to 31 lakhs. 1874-75 it was only 25 lakhs. The
writer shows that since 1657 there has beeu a more liberal
policy, which was boginning to show its good ofTect. previous
to the famine: aud ho is of opinion that, i£ the present assess¬
ment, which be considers fair, were made permanent, *tho ryots
would become a prosperous poaseutry. The lyots pay in tlioir
revenue, direct to (iovernmeut. They are, in fact simply
zemindars: that they have remained petty zemindars, is duo to
the fact that high assessments and prohibitive rules have
rendered the land of little value. For this reason, there are few
large holders, notwithstanding tlio fact that there is every
facility for obtaining land. It appears that more than half the
total number of ryots pay less than Hs. lu, as annual reveuuo
to Government. Though it is easy to obtain land, the oppo¬
sition of the leddios or village-heads prevents it. Tho ryots
are jealous of outsiders, aud rather than let them take up laud,
they apply for it themselves, throwing it up after perhaps a
year’s cultivation. Tho exercise of this jealousy is faoiUuted
by the rules of pre-emption, which Imld iu the allotmont of
land. ‘^It is only by bribing tho reddies," says thu wirier,
“that land can bo obtained, aud they par CiCdilnicc arc
intercstud in keeping out of tho village, educated and
influential outsiders, who might harm them by supplautlng
their influenco, and bringing to light their numerous oppressions
and peculations. It is easy for an ofllcial to say—‘* Let
iulliioutial capitalists ignore reddies and tuhsildais: wo huuU
receive them with open arms, aud give thorn as much land as
they like to tako.” Can the outsidor ailoj d to iL^uore tho village
head? Wo uil know tho power of e:icactiou possessed by a
paltry process-peou on Its. 6 a nioulh. lie is armed with
Goverumenfc authority : he is part and pared of the Sirkt?\
What shall we say of the village loddie, who posseases magis¬
terial powers and collects the revonuos ?"
Tho writer proceeds to give instances of many rules which
bear hardly on tho ryot, aud throw obstacles iu tlio way of
improved cultivation. Formerly if a ryot grow a second crop
ou wet laud, he was bound to pay the full assessment over
again. ^*No wonder that double-cropping was a dangerous
experiment. Tho second crop might prove a failure, ami the
cultivator would be a heavy loser. Iu this lospoct tho Madras
Government, which is iu tho position of a ssemiudar to tho ryohj,
appears to have out-Heroded Herod, and to haro surpassoJ tJio
most wanton and extortiouato exactions ever indulged in, by
the much-abused landlords of Bengal.” TUo rule has since
been modlUed, and now a Fael josil of 50 per cent, is added to
the assessment, if a second crop is sown. The writer points
out that even this charge is indefensible; “Land is flest
aswMsed high, because it is near a tank; and then extra
aBBesement is put on when the water is useti. If tho Fad jaaU
be called a water*rate, the^^jHm land ought to be assessed as
dry land; aud the water-|||^ould he levied separately, as in
the Godavery and KUtna * deltas. To call the Jaecond crop
assessment a water-rate, is absurd. A ryet pays a high wtjt
assessment, because of the* advantage ho oajoye of beiug able
l^wet or Irrigate »u he f^se wet or irrigate his
land, that is, if ho uses tho adifantago which ho possesses, then
ho must pay oxh*afor it. Tho ryot thus pajs twice over, for
tho same thing : ho pays for his cake, aud then he pays for
eating it.” The rooson given for tho paucity of wells is that
formerly, laud irrigated by private wells was asseased as wet
laud. Thus, there was no iuceutivo to dig weljs. Sinco 1860
only, tho highest dry assessment has beeu ^ohargod, but tho
writer points out jliat no additional assessment whatever
should bo levied on account of now wells oonstraoted by tho
ryots. Again,—the mlos of remission, arc very uncertain, and the
taking up of now laud is something very like gambling. “ The
following figures iudicato that ryots in Madras may bo emshed
by heavy payments for waste laud, perhaps rendered unoulti-
vable by a bad season. In 1874-76, out of 2,211,777 acres,
asHesBed at Be. 25,38,251, which tho ryots left waste out of
their holding«, they were only allowed a remission of
Be. 2,66,552 on 77,067 acres. Again, in 1675-76, of the total area
in ryots’ holJmga left micultivatod, 2,220,719 acres were
charged, and tho aBBoasmont thereon, Ba, 23,56,748 was In¬
cluded in the domaud.” Tiio writer argues that tho fact that
tho rovoiiiie demand has undergone gradual deoreaso, proves
that tho land assoHsmeut from tho commoncemont wa* crushing,
indeod ovorwholiniug, or if this position bo denied, tho other
horn of the dilemma must bo chosen. It has been shewn,’ ’
tho writer says, “ that reuts are even at tho preseut day by
no moans low. They aro perhaps fair. If something over
twenty lakhs is now a fair deiuaud, what shall bo said of a
demand of fifty lakha seventy years ago.”
Again -a punitive assossmout is imposed, if land betaken up
without previous appliuatioii. Tho writer shows that this rule
often works hardly on the cultivator, us poor men with little capital
nalurally haug on as long as tliey can, to see if tho season is
likely to turn out favourable. “A propitious moment for
ploughing or sowing oomos, aud there is no lime to lose. It is
hard to make a man dance atteudanco at tho tuhsildai'’s office,
at such critical moments.*' Tho writer gives one romorkable
proof of the former harHliuo'H of Government as the zemiudar.
It seems that ryots woro junHlanlly deserting the Governmont
laud, aud colbivating iuain lands which they woro enabled to
rout on v(iiy favoutablo terms. To prevent this, a tax called
“iiiani, niUisk" was ^imposed ou those who ciiUivalod for
inamdars. “'L'lriH tax," says tho writer, “ wae as great a, .^hock
to tho Hooiiriiy of private property as can well ho imagined.
In 1856, Mr. Polly recommended its abolition, as it led to
injurious interforerico, ami urged tliat if onh/ ihe msmtnmt
mm louiered, theri icoalU ho ?io fear of rtjoU ik^ertiinj Birkar for
iatxon land. TIiobo rcmaiks are worth dwoUing on for a moment.
Huro wciQ privato landloicis, actually taking less rout than
tho Oovoruuicul. Wnicli was tho exacting and extortionate
zemiiuUr—tho inamdar or tho Goveinment? The fact is, M
has boon louiaiked above, that private landlords are actuated
by motives of eulightonod. solt-mtorcr»t.” Tho necessity for
such a luouburo us tlm abuvu, indicates that ihe back of the
ryot had boon biokcii by heavy assossmeiitH.
Mr. Phillips shows that whereas in Bengal custom and status
have to a groat extent boon ousted by Iho advent of competition
and contract, in Madras many customs had been stereotyped and
given tiio force of law. It is urged that there are bad customs
ixA well as good. Tho proposal to give greater power to village
punchaychif ^la condcuinod iu stiong tenutf. “ We aro afraid
these puiaous belong to the category of laudaiores teinporU aetk
Tho writer thjuka that it id due to tho pomianont sottioment
that thoiu has been no declared famiuo in Bengal this year.
Tho price of food graiub has iu many districts been oven higher
than anything known iu 1873-71. At such times, somindars
can do much good by executing private works, aud undersolUng
the bauiahM, Iu Madras evoiything is left to Government.
“At preseut,” says the writer, “where is the class that could
guarauioo the interest on new railways, such as tho zemindars
of Patna, Gya, and Mymeusiug, have done. Leave tho reuts
low ; leave the ryots a large margin of profit, and such a olaas
will speedily be created.” Tho writer iu auotlior place says
“an ectuable and fair assessmoiii, fendered permanent, must
result itt the same good for Madras as it has for Bengal. Tho
Goyommeat lies in tho wealth of its subjects : aud
^ omburdeued} eultiystloa i4 chockedi aud trgds
44
THE INHM A#EICCI.T0B»
Pebmay l> tSW.
Cfuinot dipaodi Am iu bo la MAdraS} Iobb of Und
remuft win be amply ropatd by inoreased reooipta under olber
beede: by the facreeso ,tit cuftiVatfou, the expanaion of trade
and ' commerce, tiio prosperity of the peaaautry, aad the
creation of a wealthy and iufiueutial middle-clasa, wbidi acta
as a bulfbr betareoa the Goremmout aad the masBes. Then,
and not till tho^, will the Goverumeot rest free from the
nightmare of deiiciU and the horrors of fat^ine/'
We have givon Mr. Phillips' viows as fairly as it is possible
we believe to >»tate thorn; but it is strange that he should
TOgard **a permanent” settlomoat, as the proper remedy for
unduly high asseasmentB. As a foot, the Madras assessmonts
wore intended to be permanent. If unduly heavy, they will
ctu^ the ryot, whether the aBsessmout is pomiaueut or annual.
The light remedy is light assessments under leases subjoot to
periodical revision. We believe the 30 years lease to bo too
long, in the truo interosta of all parties bhoreto, but tho
principle is right.
ABAKAN TOBACCO.
I T is vdty satisfactory to loam that as a result of the establisb-
mont of a Government Tobacco Farm in the Arakan Hills
several maunds of unmanufactured tobacco cured on tho spot
havo been despatched to the London and local maikots for report.
They will we trust elicit from tho most coinpetoni and
practical judges a careful and well matured opinion. Most of the
tobacco was we understand grown on tho Farm, and a largo portion
consists of leaf of a remarkably hue description raised
from seed of the American and Manilla " varietios iutroducud
into the hills some years back. It was on loaf of this tobacco,
but cured in their own rough way by tho tribes, that Mr,
Broughton, tho Government Quinologist, Madras, ropot > j in 1874;
have the honor to report on a samplo of tobacco grown in
“ HortUern Arakan. Tho tobacco yielded 23‘4'> pc cent. ash.
This ash contained 8 59 per cent, of potassic carbonate. By
** determlualiou the tobacco was found to contavu I 95 per cent, ot
” uicoUno. TIwbo results show that the lubucco important
constituents in amount closely resembling those which me tho
** most favorite tobaccos of Furopeau smokers, or the llavunnab
“ and Manilla tobaccos of the English markot. Liko all the
” tobaccos from British Burnmh, its qualities are most onoonraging
“and show that its site of growth will produce robaoco quite
“ worthy of export. Tho sample sent is worth sending to the
“ Homo market.”
It cannot bo expected that what has now been cured on tho
Faim will compete with the fragrant loaf of tho West ludiuu
and American vatioties, which the experience and woik of years
has bronght to such perfection, but wo arc p/iuguiuo that it will
be r^uud a good marketable product admit after j'ta/iit/aciuivj
of a ready sale* Tho oxpcrimont wii'i further domonsUato what
has long been uigod for the Arakuu UiHh, that a country poBfiesHiiig
tho cUmalio oouditiouB and soil yield iobaooo of such luxiuiaut
growth and siao as that raiscu on tii v Fatm this suason (inaiiy
of tho leaves meaauriug o by 1| feet) abounds with latent
wealth, and as such oifeis special altraotious to the capitalist. It
would seem that tho Arakau Hills are oajiablu of groat developmout.
Wo understand that the application of an Enghdi gonllomuii for
a grant of 2,00o acres in the vicinity of J*"arm i .is been
received very favoutaOly by the Supremo Government. With
order secured amoiigs' the tribes, thero is evcjy leasou to bclicvo
that the province will become one of the most important in th^
Empire. The permanent sioam comraunicttti,)n recently opened
up betwoeu the hills and port cf Akyab will greatly facilitate tho
imporiatiou of labor and the opening up of tue hill country. If
the Farm-cured tobacco bo favourably reported on in iho English
market, it is worth consideration whothcr ueverument might
not advantageously coniine itself to buying up tho leaf grown
throughout tho hills, and by improved ctuiog, render it lit for homo
consumption. T7iis however would He more within the sphere of
private enterprise, and should with the other established prodnsfii^'oU
seeds, cotton, &c., aH!ord ample room for tho in : pioneer
of commerce. An epidemic of cholera on tho Faim utirlog iho
yoiu together with the illness and (^bseneu of, tho
added couuidmbly to iho diihculiies which tilUmd most now
projects at thoit outset, while the absonco ot ail steady Iftbor in
a country with a population of duly about fourteen to a square
mile the greater part of the seheon, further restricted the operatiooe^
Notwithstanding those minor ohstoclea however, ;the Fma has
boon productive of mnoh ifidireet good by giving an impetus to
cultivation, and Introducing new produote which hare ludnoed
immigrants to settle down in this locality, so that viewed on ihe
whole It may be conceded to have amply secured tho object of Its
establishment, ond should by next year if it be continued, With
efficient superintoudence prove a iluanoial success*
SUNN FLAX.
TN the Punjab, Sunn Flax is generally grown in narrow strips
A along the edges of fields of cotton or pulse, though in places
in patches alone ; it is generally sown about the month of April
and irrigated up to the rains, though some cultivators sow it
just after the first shower in June ; the April sowing gives tho
best result. About tho end of August or beginning of Beptember
tho plant flowers, and will be from 6 to 9 feet in height. If flue
soft fibre is required, cut the stalks while still in flower; if
strength (for.cordage, &c.), when^the seed is formed, but just
before it ripens. The plants are either cut, or pulled up by the
roots like ordinary flax; the former method is preferable, the
operation being done with a native sickle, After s being out the
stalks ore steeped—in clean water, if possible—the duration being
'^q^t^udout on the season of the year, and climate. In August or
Sopiember in warm situ atious—2 or 3 days are sufficient for the
lino pofl fibre, but from 6 to 8 daj-s if requii'Od for strength, and
the completion of tho process is known by the readiness with
which iho bark separates. When ready, the labourers take up the
stalks, lay thorn in hand-bundles on the bank, and then take tbem
up in handfuls by one end, and beat them on tho water to remove
tho glutinous matter from tho fibre ; tho stalks oi'O then turned
tjtul for end and again treated in the same manner, after which
the fibre is washed, the pith removed, and hung up on branches of
trees to dry. Tho sap and vegetable matters should be separated
from the fibre as quickly as possible, as it is the fermentation of
those subBiuuccs tbnt hastens the decay and consequent weaken¬
ing of tho manufactured aiticlo. The object of steeping is to
sopaioto tho baik fiom tho woody part of the stom by dissolving
the glutinous matter which causes it to adhere, and also destroying
miniUo vessels which are interwoven with the longitudinal
fibros and keep them together in a kind of web. A certain
or inciiiicut putrefaction is exdled hy fke Steepingy which
must he carefully tmtehed and slopped at the right timcy or the fibres
uhU becohiG rotten. It takes about 25 Boers (501bs.) of seed
to sow an acre, and it is believed that an aero will yield
but ween eight and nine maunds (SOlbs. to the mauud).
Suim flax tnrives best in a high and dry situation ; a clayey, low*
lying soil is bad, while too rich a soil produces coarse fibres. It
is cultivated up to an elevation of 2,500 feet above sea-level, and
i i '^rown all over India. In Travancoro it is called WuJsmnnar
i.> Bengal, Biljanjany and in the Punjab, Niha mnn. It is
p^•duced in large quantities in the neighbonrhood of JubbuL
pw e. Locality and climate slightly change the growth, but all
bel iig to one and the samo plant, vis,^ tho Orotalaria juncea, Xt Is
ver' Klmilor to Iho Spanish Broom Sinrtium yunceum, well*
known in England for tho tough fibrous nature of its branch twigs
It slenld not bo mistaken for the Hibiscus cannaUnus (Vern. seen-
lenhra pcdHcai) which is inferior in strength. It is sometimes called
the female of the Hibiscus cannaUnus* It is exported to Europe
under tho names of Bombay hemp, brown hemp, Ooncaoeo hemp,
Baleetto liemp, &c. The fibre is used for cordage, fishing nets,
ropes, strong packing-cloth, stout gunny-clotb, Ac., and It is
preferable to liassiou flax for spinning. It has been tested up to a
strain of 170 Lbs. without breaking.
Hr. Hoyle, in his Fihfcxm Plants of Indian gives some interesting f
particulars about Bunn flax. Tho earliest treatise on the Bunn plant \
was written by Wiaset in 1804. The seeds are offlomal*<^o4
to purify tho blood in special diseases* It belongs to the N, 0*
LeguminostS’ tho seeds are flat, irregular in shape, oval or
triang«lai‘» deep conoavo, surface smooth, or with one of twd
ridg^; color, pale yellow to deep brown. Though o«^ed hem|^
itshas naconneotion with tho truo hemp A
simple description of maohiuery would ebeapen tbe'v present cost
of preparation* ^
45
fm MmiKiuom txm^mnmAh
A .FXBBnotqaita foitr^ear^ olmore or exiatencoi
J3L the experimeutAl Station at Bfuigolore ie to bo clOeKxiU I
neo the word Station advieedlyf ae it ia better undqratood than
the term Famj which has a commercial ring in it, and t would
suggest its adoption to all scientihc agriculturists, who may bo
at any time engaged in endeavours to improve the agriculture
of this country, f'anns, so called model, have fallen into disrepute
with the Indian public, being too much iu advance of tho cajiacity
of the native farmer^to appreciate.
Model Farms, cultivated in the very best inannor, are institu¬
tions whtoh can only be of use whore the community, for whoso
benefit they are designed, is sufficiently free from the projudicos
of oustoin, snperstitioii, and ignorance, which are so strongiy
developed in tho Indian ryot, to be able and willing to adopt
anything out of tho common, which it may see anywheie
adopted with profitable results. When oducutiou has icached
the cultivating classes of this country ; wlien sciouco has by her
enlightening inilaences aided iu dispelling the oluuds of suporsti-
tioh ; and when time-honored custom is no longer the hard and
fast rule of tho farmer of our national properties ; thou perhaps
Mod6l Farms will serve a useful purpose. Until thdh uU those
interested in Indian agriouUuro had bettor, I believe, bury tho term
in oblivion, and endeavour to wipe out tho memory of past failures ;
failures though they bo owing simply to the misguided oudogvuurs
of civilian amateurs. Nothing should bo loft, if possible, to allow
of such futilo and ill-direoted attempts being confounded with tho
movement which has of late years commenced in Madras, and
which is now surging northwards rapidly. Bombay .having decided
on following the exaiuplo of tho Southern Presidoncy, and iu no
mean or half-hearted manner; let us hope that ero long Bengal will
relieve herself of the reproach o£ being ono of the last to see iu
what lies tho true interests of tho country and the people.
But to return to tho Banguioro Station, of which I sent you a
abort description somo months ago. It is to bo closed as soon as
Mr, Ilarmaii, tho Superintendent, can be got rid of, which is not an
easy matter, unless it bo true, as is reported, that that gentleman
is going to take up a profossorship of Agriculturo in tho Poouah
College. The only satisfactory part of this change is the sphere of
extended usefuluoss to which Mr. Usman will be transferred ;
coming to his now post with several years of Indian oxporionee,
he will start on more advantageous terms than it has yot boon
possible for ttuy agriculturist to do, and no doubt will oro long bo
able to feel the satisfaction of having made some real progress iu
eduoAting the public on agiicultural topics.
The waste of public money in closing such an institution as
that at Bangalore, after so short, and what has been on tho whelo
so satisfactory a tiial, is and must bo groat, for in preparing
such a place for experimental work, much labor and expense
had to be iuourrod, the return of which is doubtful now, ^Yhy
in A country just recovering from famine, and thorefortt all tho
more ueoessitoug of an improved system of husbandry, it should
be one of the first to sufEer retrenchments, is a matter of mystery to
any one, who is not aware of the pitch to which tho peuny-wiso
and pound-foolish policy is carried iu this country. The money, so
often wasted, or, if not actually wasted, ill spout in irrigation
works of doubtful value, would do far more real good, aud teud
to a far more stable prosperity, if spent in well-dovisod, and
stronuoosly executed measuroB of agricultural reform. It is to bo
feared that the money saved (?) by closing the Bangalore Station
may be spent on the manufacture of tanks, for tho extouNion of
the growth of the worst crop, in every respeot, oultivatod in
Bontbern India—namely, paddy, a crop only fitted for growth in
malarious swamps, and pestiforons deltas.
With such a specimen of their abtusenesB before us what can
we expect the Government of India to do theinsotves, with a view
to i|nprove the condition of the ryots. The latter illiterate ;
ignorant of almost every thing, but what has been timo-honoreil,
as Regards farming ; superstitious to an almost incredible dogroe ;
souk almost hopeleBsly into debt under the hands of ravenous
usurers $ permitted to treat national property, In the shape of tho
soil they ooUivate, just as they in their ignorsmoo please ; is it
surprising that the oountrjr is retrograding in agrloultoral
prosperity at a pace, winch Ineraastng year by year and season
hyaeasoxi, must before loiijjr,haless uaeasum wido'^reaghing and
well out ar^ put execution, most, I say, booh land the
country in iri'etrievable bankruptcy? The soil is India’s sole
source of wealth at present—the sourdC Of her revenue, and will if
tho trealnicufe of it which has boon allowed to go ou unche<^ed
until now, is not put a stop to, be the source ,of her rnin.
Cftlled upon to support an inoroaBhig population, leas and leas
manured year by year, cultivated with an implement whioh can
> but scratch, is it likely that the soil can long continue to pay the
rents whioh aro put upon it ? And yet oiir rulers do not mako any
move in the matter except backwards. It is time that all who have
the real ioteresls of India at heart—and in her interests agrionituro
lioldH the foremost place—-Bhould combine to press on Oovemment
the urgency of tho need, tho greatness of tho danger of delay,
tho necoBsity for immediate action. The timo has come when tho
public Bhould make tlioir voice hoard, and should ; do our rulers
decline to open thoir eyes to the danger, make what efforts they can
on their own behalf to arrest tho ovil. Nothing effective can be
douo until the Legislature stops in to stop indiscriminate aud ill*
guided cultivation; to relievo the burden of debt; and set its face
against tho practico of ontorlainiug tenants on Qovermnont lands,
who ha VO not tho requisito capital to oouduct the cultivation of tho
land» they hold iu a fitting manner.
AamcoLA.
Oth January, 1870. •
EDITOIUAL NOTES.
W E havo bofoio us an interesting sign of the progrossivanesa
of the ago iu tho form of a pamphlet entitled the Kaira
Agricultural ifeoorc?,being the first of a serio'^ of papers it is intended
to circulate among tho agricultural classes by “ Tho Committee foe
the Enoouragemont of Praclical Agriculturo” at Neriad in Guzerat.
The brochure foi warded to us is an English translation from tho
Guzoratoo. In tho course of somo inlroductory remarks we arc told
that it is to encourage the spirit of enquiry that impoverished landa
aud decreasing returns have aroused amongst the cultivating clasees
that this commiltoo has been formed ; Wo havo done what wa
could with the moauH at our disposal. As no ngtioultural oduoaiion
is availaMu in this ProHideucy, we have sent some of our Patidar
lads lo study iu the Madias Coilogo, hoping that tho information
which they will there ocquiro will be of use hereafter to the
cultivators of this district. Wo have also arranged for the supply
of tho pIoTigliB which have boon most suooessful in Madras, and
wo havo Bout a practical man to tho Madras Farm to reoeiva
iuMtruction in the use of those implements. Borne experiments
have also been made in tho manufacture of bone-dust for manure.’*
This is most gratitying news; pregnant with promise of
a bright future, aud wo earnestly hope that the Neriad reformers
will not bo disoouroged by tho small clitfionlties that will
besot tlieir path at the outsoi. Let them but havo their heart
in the woik, and persevero with it, and tho bonefits they
will confer upon Wosteru India and the oountry at large
are inestiraablo* Tho immediate object of tho socioty is to
di.stribuie iu n popular form .simplo iuformation that will bo of
practical uso lo the cultivators, and to encourage the ryots to seek
knowledge. This first part consists of an account of Mr. Boberteon's
recent visit to Neriad, and includes somo useful bints on the subject
of ploughing and uiauuriug. In some of the land examined by
Mr. Bubortson ^^plts had already been dug at tho instance of the
committee, aud were deepened by Mr. Bobertson's diroofcion and
the sub-soil examined. The result of thi/^ examination was
astontsUirig. Bich virgin sod, which had never before seen tho
light of day, wofl stirred at every stroko of the spade, and whea
theso experiments wore repealed with precisely similar results in
olhor fields, Mr. Bobertson told uh that we were happy in tho
posseSHion of some of the finest soil he had over seen.’* In tho
next issue of the Record we are promised a paper on the subjeot of
tao use of male builaloca for agricultural operations in Gnzerat, and
wo are pleased u> see that a prize of Bs. 50 has been offered by ono
of the members of the committee lor the best pair of male bufiEaloes
trained for ploughing4
Wn havo not yet loond time to notice Mr. Bigby’s two admir*
ablO volumes, on the Madras famino* We are obliged howoTsr to
46 ' THE.rimtAir AcaiCTJtTtTE^ . i, i$wr
dies^nt; from ccrtmn of Ui« cooclawoM* and hop© to find an early
opportunity of reviewing them. Thus ho evidently entertalne
the belief which actuated the Supreme Government throughout t^o
famine, that the moreet eueplcion tlmt the Government intended
to enter tho market, would instantly paralyee the private trade.
** Ho human being within the distiict which the Government had
taken ae ite epbore would ever obtain a pound of food savo from
** Government stprea so long as the famino lasted. And this it is
** which renders the question of Indiatv famines so profoundly
•* oiubarrassing, The grain trade does really, under particular
oircumstanoop, fail to fill a space which tho Government is
bound to occupy; but if it occupies this void a minute to soon,
or takes this necessary step with an amount of OBtenlalion
** which causes its purpose to be miscoDKlrned, it instantly destroys
** a power, on tho whole vastly moie valuable and cillciiMil than its
own, and ends by starving its lens of thousands whore it meant
** to feed its thousands/’
Xt is sheer delusion. The facts disprove tho belief absolutely, but
in India, we arc accustomed at once to reply, “ so much tho woiso
for the facts.’’ We have aeon over and over again, that the
certainty of high prices is all tho etiinulus that is needed, to sot as
much private enterprise in motion, as tho country will yield, Tho
fact thutiihe Govornmont poured 400,000 tons of tooil into Beliar,
in 1873-74 did not arrest for an instant, the pouring in of another
400,000 tons by piivato enterprise fiom the Punjab and Upper India*
Wo have encountered but one famino as yot successfully, while so
strong are ancient prejudices and moutal pro-occupatioua upon tho
finbjeot, that tho very measures whiidi wore then siiGOossful, would
have failed to a certainty, wo are lold, in Madras. Why should
they have failed there, any more than in Beliar ? Tho strength of
tiaditiouB and prejudices amongst officials in this country, is
overwhelming*
The Act that was passed last Session of Parliamc *>' called tho
<<WcighU and Measures Act, 1878,” came into operatioi* on the 1st
of January* Tho great object of tbo Act, is to secure uniformity
of woiglita and measui'os tbroughout tho United Kingdom, whoro
notwithstanding the imperial standards, tho couliUMion that prevails
is almost as great as in this country. Local measures have hitherto
lield their ground, against every aliompt to iutroduoo
uniformity* Hot only was there no unifoimity in tho unit
of measure, but quarters, ” “bushels,” “hundred-weights”
bolls, ” or “sacks” meant different measuios in diilei'eat pLicc'
The confusion in weights was almost as great, and It was wlin a t
view to rectify these anomalies, that tho Act of last Scasiou
passed. Tiom the Ist of the present month, nccotdiug to tho
23rd and 24th clauses of this Act
“ Any person who prints, and any clerk of a maiket or other
person who makes, any return piico list, price current, or any
journal or other paper containing price list, or price current, in which
tb" denomiuatioa weights and meafi^ icH quoted, oi leferred to,
denotes or implies a greater or Jess weight or measure than is
denoted or implied by the samo denomination of the imperial
weights and measures under thi^ Act, shall be liable to a fine not
exceeding 10«. for every copy of overy such return, juicohst, piico
cmTont, journal, or other paper which ho puldishes.
“ Every person who uses or has in his posHOssion for use for
trade, a weight or moasuro, which is not of tho douommatiou of
some Beard of Trade standard, shall bo liable to a fino not
exceeding £5 ; or in the case of a second oilenco £U^ and the
weight or measure tl A\ be liable to be forfeited/'
It is now illegal i> England, to use any weight which is not
some fraction or inultipiO of the imperial pound, any measure of
length not derived from the standard yard, or any measure of
weight or capacity, not derived from the imperial standard pound.
*'Eeaped measuTo” is abolbhed, and tho vessel only filled to tho
brim. Tho existing aiib-divislons of tho pound measure are to be
of coureerolamed,audnocbangoiBmiid» hiTrry and apothooarica*
weight. Tho law is airaod at Iho local customs of trade. Bargains
in any but imperial weights and measuic'-i are now illegal, and
subject to a fine of 40s. for every sale made. Local standards are to
bo provided by tho Board of Trade and are to bo subject to
verification at least once in five ycai«*
How if Mr, Whitley Stokes instead of spout ^ ^ iJs strength
upon tho framing of new Legislative Acts, that only bewilder
the 'people, oncumtothe Statute fiook, and fill the doufts with
new litigation, would take ujp the long negl^ed subjeet of
Indian weights and measures, h|s might leave behind him gratefbl
memories in India. The first step would be to measure the extent of
iho evil, and it is almost infinite* Ws shew onrselves at times as
timid in oiir legislation, as we are generally rash and hasty. Wo
believe that we might long since have dealt with tho great evil
under notice, with the strong sympathy and approval of the people.
The disappearance of the usury laws from the Indian Btatate
Book, is we observe being commented upon at home. Hr. St
George Tucker writes to the Tinws, that thS mistake which our
Legislature has made, has been the compelling of our civil courts to
aid and abet the usurer, ludiati judges have been denied the
liberty of modifying usurious contracts* Sir George OampbelJ,
when head of tho judicial administration in Dude, limited interest
to bo decreed, to 60 per cent, of the principal ; but the bond, the
whole bond, and nothing but the bond is considered to be the
perfection of civil court wisdom in India, as a rule.
“ The Parliament of Boumania is showing an example of wise
logislatiou by placing restrictions on tho alienation of land. After
thorobellion in Oudo had been suppressed in 1858, the Government
determined ^ aulhorizo the barons or great talookdara to give
away, sell, or devise their estates at their pleasure. So distasteful
was this to noblemen whom Government wished to honour, and
oil whom it fancied that it was conferring valuable privileges,
that in* January 1602, almost all the chiefs of lUjpoot clans,
vised by Bajah Uunwuut Bingli of Dbaroopore and Bolakonkur,
, igncd a petition to his Excollcucy tho Viceroy humbly begging
that the supposed boon might not be conferred on their families,
but, on tho contrary, that any alienation of their lands should be
restricted by Hindoo laws and by ancient customs, in accordance
with which the noble Bohubtrees liad held the greater part of the
Gftwgetic valley for hundreds of years.”
Every official in India, down to the assistant magistrate, knows
that our civil courts have become hateful to tho masses of our
Indian Hubjocts, becauso those oourts have become the tools of tho
rapacity of the usiiror. Mr. Bobert U. Elliott very opportunely
points out tbo practice in the Hizam’s Civil Courts iu the words of
a native official.
'* By OUT oivU laws, our ryots are protected as far as possible from
moocy -lenders, for iu our oourts a mere execution of the bond on which
the claim rests, does not make a ooutendiug, or ahaeut debtor, liable for
the amount sued for, until the creditor should have proved to the
BBtisfactiun of the court the ceusideraiion for which the bond is
executed. And if, on going over the accounts, it is found that a
usurious rate oi interest hsn been chargoO, the court at once radiioes il
I to a reasonable rate* In tbo execution of a decree agsiost the property
of a ryot, uis houao, his agricultural implements, and a supply ol grain
sufficient to keep him and hia family for six mouths are exempted from
nttacbmciiit, and this wise measure saves the cultivator from beggary
and ruin, la these days of reforms and innovations, 1 earnestly hope
and trust that this wise and benefioeut rule will not bo meddled With.”
Thus iu tho Nizam’s dominions, a peasant is recognized as a
) Uild, and treated accordingly. In our own districts, he is regarded
a if ho were an Englishman with a lawyer at command. When
I 0 ryot comes to complain that ho is in difficulties through his
It noranco of the low, wo tell him, Ignorantia juris now exousaC*
II this does not satisfy him, wo tell him of the law pf caveat
DufHot'y and BO on. No one could speak more bitteily of the existing
law iliftu our judges themselves. “ Tho Civil Courts” says one of
tbci ' often become tho direct cause of the cultivator’s misery.’’
There is something radically wrong with our administrative system,
when no remedy can be applied by us to evils universally admitted
and which are clearly susceptible of modificatiou. Here again is
work for Mr. Whitcly Btookes of the right order.
The office of Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens and Parks
on the Neilgherries, extracts from whose last annual report we
print below, is no sinecure. Mr. Jamieson has charge of the Ooty
Garden, the Medicinal Garden, Upper Norwood, Stonehouse Park
Banning Dale, Sim's Park, Burliar and Kulhutti gardens. The
gross recoiptfi ol the Government gardens were Bs, 2,fi87-10>^
The Government very properly suggest that the seeds availahJo in
the gardens should be regularly advertised for sale in the news-
papers, and that tho publio should bo put in early and fuliposios-
Moa the results of experienoo galn^ in the oultivstibn of the
1,1«T&.
im mrnm agriculturist.
47
LiUeriju^ And West ladfau uoffee plants, with a hiatory of the
treatment of the plants and full particulariB as to growth, Wo
hope that the wiehea of Government will bo carried out Tho
medicinal gardotto where,tho jalap, ipeoaouanha and oti^or plants
grow, promise to be sncccsafuL At Burlier the ipooacuanha plants
thrive under partial shade. Sim’s Park, established iu honor of
the late senior member of the Madras Conncil, is doing well,
the expenditure in the year 1877-78 having beon'Bs. 2,689. Tho
Kulhutti gardens wore not remunerative ;the sale proceeds of tho
plants were small, and Mr. Jamieson recommends that tho
plantation be sold. 2t is thought that Sim's Park, which is pro¬
gressing moat satisfactorily, will need all the time and attention
that the superintendent can devote to it.
A Eastgook correspondent tells us that the Olive has just been
discovered growing wild in groves, in British Burmah, by Mr. 0. G.
Forbes, Deputy Commissioner of the Tharawaddy district. Should
this information bo confirmed, it will be very important These
wild olives are said to ilourish luxuriantly in many parts of the
new district of Thai’swaddy. The tree appears to be of much moio
rapid growth than the Italian tree, for while the latter takes from
twelve to fifteen years to come to maturity, this Burmese spcoies
fruits after throe years, and tho fact that gloves of those trees aro
growing wild in tho plains near Thongzal, exposed to tho great
beats of March and April and to tho heavy monsoon rains, proves
that they are very hardy. Tho strange thing is that wehovo not
heard of them before. It sooms that the Burmese make a picklo
out of the fruit with salt and water, but it is thought it would
answer admirably foi oit. If such is the case, and tho necessary
machinery is sot up, Burmah may soon bo ablo to add a new and
valuable product to her list of exports. The Irrawaddy Valley
Railway passes wiliiiu a few miles of these wild olive groves, so
that every facility can be had for bringing tho fruit or tho oil to
Kaugoon. Townsend tolls us that the olive is iudigenoiis to
China, whence it was imported to liltiropo so e^irly as 1771.
In Mr. Benson^a report for tho year 1877-78 of the Agricultural
Bohool at Sydapot, tho cost of the institution is stated as
follows
lls. A, P
rheoturc master'A salaries and wages of
Ordinary] OBlwblisliment ... .. i5 VUt 5 j)
charges. I Slipoods and HI holnrsliips to students ... $1.‘OU o 0
\,CuUtU)guatex|t0ui!>ei} . 15 0
14,017 6 2
Extraordinary oapenses, lacluding'tbe provitsion of qaarters
lor stttdeutB .. . 6,8()8 lA 1
Total ... lC,0iG 3 3
In November last Mr. Benson w rote to the Board of Revenue
that as tho Government have issued orders for the admission of n
fresh class of students, the cost during the comiug year will bo
iiioreasod ; I estimate, as far as ignorance of tho intontious of
Government will allow, that the ordinary e5]>onses of the college
will bo about Es. 20,500. The cost of oouduciing the institu¬
tion in future will depend on the adoption or otherwise of tlie
recommendation of the Board to appoint special Professors of
Chemistry and Natural History. If also a scheroe f^r the provl-
aion of elementary agricultural iustructiou in the districts, be
developed, it will be possible, when it is in work, to reduce the
lengthof tho present curriculum of the College here, which has
been designed to bo the Central Institution for the whole Presi¬
dency, from three years to two.” The Board in forwarding the
above to Government have pointed out that their proposal was not
to constitute two additional professorships, but to procure two
qualified agriculturists to take charge of the district farms, employ¬
ing them on lecturers in any subject which they might bo com¬
petent to teach duriug their stay at Bydapot, whilst learoing their
duties. As the BOhool of Agriculture is likely to become a perma¬
nent InsUUtion, tho Board of Bovenuo have asked ilie Supenn-
tendent to submit year by year a budget estimato in regular form.
* Ilf reply to an enquiry from Mr. Benson, regal'd ing Iho number of
stipendiary Btudentshipeapidscholarehips which itie intended to oifor
to the class about to be taken io, the Madfas Government observe
that it was never intended to maintain the number of stipendiary
Mudenfshifts after the first eiiMs at twentyand no reference
at all to the subject appears to have been made in the prospectus
issued in September last inviting a fresh olasi. At the same time
the students now admitted may with reason have anticipated that
some such assistance would be afforded; and the number for thia
class al all events will be fixed at fifteen, but the stipenda will be
slightly reduced and be Be. 10 for the first six months, Es, 12 for
tho second year of training, and Be. 15 during the remaining
nine months, until tho close of the final soasiou.* The scholar-
ships will remain at tholr present amount, hut like the stipends
will not be paid after tho ooumo of instruction is concluded. The
cost of those benefits for tho eutire period of training will thus
bo as follows
15
Stipends
at
Rs. 10 each, for
6 months
... Es. 000
15
» 12 „ „
12 „
... „ 2,160
15
If
t> •»
.2,025
3 Soholarsbips
»»
>• »i »
21 „
... „ 630
Total
... Es. 5.715
The Govern meat gather (hat tho funds likely to be at the dis¬
posal of Government for agricultural purposes will bear these
chargcK, but it must be borne iu mind that when the fall number
of three classes is admitted, tho charges for lectures will grow
materially.
•
Wjhs quoted a statAment from tho Brewer's Guardian in our
last, that maize has been Bucceesfully malted, and we are now
told that'not only maize but paddy, has been successfully malted
at tho Aiveugbaut breuory. Tho difficulty of procuring barley
oil tho lulls is very great. When the Governmont insisted upon
bailoy malt aloue being used iu the manufacture of Nellgherry
boor, they overlooked tho fact that tho produce of barley on the
hillH i.s insignificant, and muoli of this smal) home growth is not
aocesBiblo to tUo brewer, because the bnrirbor cultivator Consumes
it himself. However, tho lealrioliou to bailey malt has been with¬
drawn. Maize glows remarkably well m all parts of the hills, tho
elevation of wliioh is not over G,000 feet. Some of the cobs produced
at Coonoor from American seed aro said to have been ' superb**
Tqe diileronoe that aspect and climalto iniuences oxerolso ttpou
agricultural and horti cultural pi educe is powerfully exemplified
in the appearance, at this time of year, of the orchards of Messrs.
Misquith and Frond at Ootaoamuud. These gardens are only two
miles apart as the crow Oies ; the former has a southera aspect,
and is at present rapidly matmiugits fruit, while the latter with
a norlhein aspect is wintering, and there is but tho faintest
somblanco of the coming blossom. Mr. Misquith’s fruit comes in
about March and conlinuos till May, when Mr. Frend’d is only just
begiuning to ripen. Both gardens aro about the saino elevation.
Mr. Misquith’s experiences tho greater share of tlio north-east
monsoon, while Mr. Freud's gets tho worst of the south-west.
Mh. Macleax, the Collector of Customs, in his report on the trade
of Calcutta for tho last official y^pir, attempts to explain the great
increase which has recently occurred the trade in myrabo-
lams: The tauning trade usually consumos a considerable
qiiaiitity of oak baik and acorn-oaps from the Baltic. The derange¬
ment of Russian tiade iu consequence of the war, led probably to
this supply not being available, and therefore oonsumers supplied
themselves with inyrabolams from India, where the crop was
large.” Tho explanation seems satisfactory on the face, but
tho fact is that the only effect of the war on the Russian export
trade, was to divert the exports from the Black Sea to the Baltio
whence there was a much larger trade than usual, while the war
lasted. Tho real cause of the sadden increase in a trade, which,
has for souio time been rising in importance,would appear rather to
bo the iuterruplion in the f^upply of valonia and of galls (valonia
being the acoru-cups of Quercua from Turkey and tho
Levant. These articles are largely used iu France and in Eoglaad
for dyeing, tanning, and maluug ink, and the source of supply is
tho coasts of the Levant. Myrabolams will not improbably
bccMue a staple article in Indian trade. They are the fruit of
certain kinds of t^rminailo, abounding iu the Central Frovinces,
and parts of Afadras and Bombay. When the railway is open from
Nagporo to Ohuttisgurh, there will Ijea great development of
tho trade, for the forests of thoso tracts produce a practically
iucxhaofltibleeQpply. Tho country is at present almost inaccessible,
48
rm
An Itotiag &ud Cattle Fair will iDO hil^ al:
Sd«falb,^aH^atf 6ti I3t^ 14th and 15th o£ t£aa toonth. fhe
itibjeol mre a^ tpld» has been taken up warmly bj t^e chiefa and
people et the neighbourhood, and also by many influential out*
aiders. There Is every reason, therefore, to hope that the sucoeas
Of ilm Soogarh meeting will even exceed that o! the previous
similar uudertakinge of Major H. L. Nutt, Preaident of the Com¬
mittee at Wudhwan and Toondla. We believe it is intended to
make the coming AgricoUoral Meeting a thoroughly practical
gathering and not a mere tamaaha* To this end there will not only
be ploughing matches, bat suitable lectures are to be delivered.
The claw for poultry » a new feature in these exhibitions. Seeing
how largely the dornestto fowl is made use of in this country, and
how poor the quality it is porhaps a matter of surprise that
eflorts to improve the breed, such as Major Nutt now proposes to
tnake^ have not been made before.
Imsband^s death. Bhard>i( J^ptor^i hh^vw in awtdimce
with tho spirit of those dajfr, refm^ed to give a of tho
although it was strongly urged liy J^ord An^lfind^ tho then
Governor-General, and the plantation had to bo given up by
Madame Heifer, who returned to Burope*
Tas fact is now pretty well established that should grapes fail,
we have an excellent substitute in oranges for the manufacture of
wino. A French paper states that four different kinds*of wines
have already been obtained from the latter fruit, one called
imperial, and a dry wine from the fruits produced In January;
mandarin from those of April, and a sparkling wine, by a special
process, possessing a little more than 12 per cent* of alcohol* The
fruit is made use of boforo it is fully ripe. Growing so plenti¬
fully as the orange does in parts of India, Nagpore and Sylhet
for instance, we may hope to see good wine produced in this
country before many years Imve passed.
ft is understood that Mr. Croft, the Director of Public Instruc¬
tion, bos his attention directed to the provision of Agricultural
Sehoohi iu Bengal. Bombay has moved in advance of Bengal
In this matter, but Sir Ashley Eden's rule will bo signalized we
hope, by the commonoement of agticultural, as well as technical,
education in those provinces. But for the unfortunate year 1873,
Sit Geofge Campbell would in all likelihood have had one or two
AgriouUnral Colleges opened in 1874. If the local Government
has any project of the kind under consideration, it could hardly do
better, we think, than do as Sir Bichard Tomplo did, write to
Mr. Bobertson of Madras to visit os for a month or two, that the
Director of Publio Instruction and tho Secretariat may consult
with him, as to the stops to be taken to initiate the exporimoiit.
Ml'. Hurry Mohun Mookerjoo submitted a sobemo for tho formation
of agricultural classes in the ezistiog Bengal Schools a montli or
two ago to the Director, but what has come of it we have not
heard. Mr. Mookorjoo's scliemo is a very modest criand might
be submitted perhaps for Mr. Bobertson's opinion. lU.. Mookerjee
is, we believe, both a practical and scientiflo agricniturist,—
perhaps the only one in Bengal.
Tna ropresentallYe of the BepubUc of Guatemala at Paris has
been endeavouring to introduce into the Old World, some of iho
less known natural products of tho New; and among them be
specially recommends a spooies of sago {^salcia chio\ which is said
to be Idghly approciated for its medicinal qualities, as well as foi
its aromatic flavour, among the inhabitants of Guatemala, wLer.
it is known as ohavo." It is an annual plant growing in tem¬
perate districts, and flonrlshlng, without requiring any attention,
by the roadway or on tho edges of ponds and pools of water.
Its chief characteristic is in the abundance of seed which it pro¬
duces, which affords a material for making a Vtry rofrushing
uon-mtoxioating beverage. Tho seeds are exceedingly mucila¬
ginous, and when mixed with water, tL '. fluid is easily extractod,
forming a deliclnns liquid which is much sought after as a popular
drink, espooially during very hot weather. The seeds ai'o valuable
also, as producing a quantity of clear, and almost colourless, oil,
which dries Very rapidly, and which, it is suggested, would be
useful for the mixing of oil-colours, iiittle or no attontiou, how¬
ever, is paid to tho culdvatson of the plant, or to tho extraction
of the juices and oils which are yielded by its seeds. As it is
readily propagated from seed, there should be no difficulty in
testiug the praeticabiiity of its growth in this country.
What has become ^ Dr. Heifer’s model plantation at Morgui ?
He and his wife some yearn after tho first Burmese war mado a
tour through the Southoru portion of British Burmah, Dr. Heifer
having been commissioned by tho Oovernmeut to explore and
report upon the newly ivoquiiod territory. Iu those reports, a
translation of which has been recently publlshod, ho spoaks’highly
of the natmal resomces of the province. He was tho flrst who
discovered coal on the bonks of a tributary of tho Tenasserim,
and loadstone at a place near the Salween river, believed by the
Karou>: to bo haunted by guumos who permit no man who
intrudes upon its sacred faummit to leave it* No pari the
book surpasses in iutoroa tuo account of Dr. L model
plain lotion at Morgui whlcli Madamo Heifer strovo with c^rao*
iOiitsUo apirit by tho help of her brotW to keep
Tns results of the analyses of some of the Ceylon soils made by
Mr. Hnghos have bean published, including those of Kaliagalla,
Wiharagalla and Kalupalaui iu the Haputale district, and a number
of estates in the DImbula district. In the case of the Haputale
soils some disappointment is felt by the planters iu that disiriot at
the results of the analyses, and at Mr. Huglioa’ remarks thereon, no
cause for the dying out of cofloo being given, but Mr. B. G. Harding
writes to the (kylon Observer^ suggesting that the dying of trees
even in such rich soils as those in Haputale may be accounted for
by their roots coming in contact with some poisonous substance,
I tiuoh as peroxide of iron, and that deep draining may prove oflec-
I tual as a cure. The rosulls of the analyses of the Dimbnla soils
have also given surprise, but of an agreeable nature, for they turn
out to be some of the richest in Ceylon.
P'iioM statistics boforo us, wo tind that the acreage In Bengal
under jute this season exceeds tho amount last year in the district
of Biickergujtigo by 40,000 acres, in Furroedpore by 41,000 acres,
m Uajshaye by 27,000 acres, and elsewhere by 10,000 acres ; whilst
in Pubna and two or three otiier districts on tho Pudda river, there
has been a doorcase of 37,000 acres owing to want o£ rain, and tho
transference of laud hitherto employed for jute to the production
of cereals, __
Mo. B Hxmueu, of Queen Charlton, Keyoeham, near Bristol
writes of fiomo important experiments in a letter addressed to Hr.
Kastmoad, of tho Crowle Charring and Condensing Company, on
the naturo and value of charcoal as a basis for manures I am
fully satisfied that as a basis for manure charcoal will be
greatly appreciated when it is more generally known. I am
a great believer iu charcoal myself, having taken a bint when
<iuito a lad working upon my father's farm at stifle burning.” 1
noticed how much better the ashes wero when burnt black, or
only charred, tiian thoso that wero over burnt or burnt red.
Those black iishes saturated with the runnings of a dung heap
or stable used to be a very favourite garden manure, the results
SM'iug so much bettor when the *burnbake,’ as wo used to eatl
it. was used, than when the liquid alono was used. This gave
m v a geat idea of black burn-bake, which I considered a species
ot charcoal ; and for eighteen years I made artificial^ manures
foi my own use, and the last five years for sale to customers.
I h>we used charcoal with the very best result. I could relate
mary srrprising results from mixing charcoal with artificial
monu.us, and you will find you have much to learn yet of the
good eifects of charcoal. 1 am trying experiments every season
on my farm, wliich is 8Q0 acres, so that I have an opportunity
of judging of its oJSects upon the diflerent ;crops, and I carefully
note its effects upon my customers’ crops, Most of them tell tne
that they never saw stioh results from any manure, and that they
could not beliovo that any mauure whatever, could make such
a (liiferonco. I attribute my success entirely to a suitable admix¬
ture o£ charcoal. It is a groat cleanser and storer of ammonia,
and there is more in it than any of us know of yet. Many objeo-
tionablc plants will bo found to disappear entirely by a few
appltoations. it will quickly rem<ive moss and thiugs of that
kind ; and, from apx>earanoe, X believe it to be proof against' smut
and blight in corn crops. I do not sow or prepare seed corn in
an; way* but sow it simply OS it is, and Ido juot me any emot or
TIB
Id
bl^t^ ol ax^y DStamire flftomei to hato $ great deaU'*
etog and toTig<>ratliig effect/*
Tai! Sangom OuzeiU Bays that the Teungoe Miseiooeriee are
abcat to try their hand at shoap farming among the Karena. If
ire are not mistaken they tried the etperimeot some years
ago« The Gorornment made over a number of abeep to one
ol the mieslonaries for distribation amoung the Karan villagers,
but the result does not appear to have beau soccessfal. Sir
Ashley Kden when Chief Oemmissioner took great interest in the
attempt to introduce alieep breeding in the Province. Shepherds
were sent over from Bengal and farms were eatahliBbod in the
Promo and Theyetmyo diatricisi but the project failed, tiro farms
were brokon up, and the aheap made over to the villagers ; but most
of the aheep died^ No doubt, sheep breeding would succeed in
certain places in Burmah under oompetout European management*
From a recent issue of the Journal of Applied iScfcnci, wo
obtain some interesting particulars of the cultivation and maun-
facturo o£ indigo in Salvador. This, tho most important product
ol tho Bopublio, is still classed in Europe under the name of
Qnatemala indigo. In the country it is usually called jiquilite. It
grows any where, but it is genorally sown in ground prepared
beforehand. Tho soil, according to its geological composition,
produces different results in tho indigo. Thus, at the foot of the
volcano of San Savaldor, half a pound of dye is sometimoa obtained
per load of leaf; at Santa Barbar, tho property of General Gouaaloz,
and at Santa Cruz, which ia situated at some distance fiom the
sea, thirteen to fourteoxi ouuoes are obtained. Nearly all Salvador
is covered with jiquilite, forming fields of verdure, and furnishing
rich products to its agricultural industry. The localities where
the jiquilite ia grown are called manchonee. Tho woikmen
(paeateroe) cut the plant with a small sickle, and form it into
sheaves of fifty to aisty pounds ; four of tlioso latter form a load
of eight to ten arrobas. The jiquilite is thrown into vats called
ohraka. Each pile of tw'enty-five loads lequiios two vats, and
the maceration lasts from twelve to seventeen houis, according to
llio tumperaiuro and composition of the water. When the liquid
is in a state of fermeiitation, tho colouring matter is drawn oil mlo
auothor vat, whore it is beaten by means of wooden wheels, and
then the dye is precipitated by the sap contained in Iho bark ot tijo
TiJmilate (Yonidium) of the Plotnnillo (Mi/roama JmUca, or of the
Ouaja tinta; these plants have no acid reaction. When once the
dye is precipitated, it is allowed lo settle during tho night, and
the following day it is boiled, filtered, pressed, and lastly dried in
the sun. Every bale or snron contains 150 pounds. The different
grades of indigo are specified by nuiubors. From four to six,
ordinary ; seven to nine, fine or superior. The first numbers corres¬
pond with what are callod ^'Cortes" and the second “Sobresaliontea."
Salvador genorally pioduces nearly 2,40O,0^K) pounds. With hotter
apparatus tho grades would be superior and iho product more
abundaiit. San Salvador exports annually 14,000 to 15,000 eurons
of 150 pounds each, which represent an approximate value of
1,721,378 piastres or dollars. The superior indigo is sold in tho
fairs of the country at about eight reals the pound ; the lower
grades vary between three and five reals the pound. The produce
of the superior grades costs on an average $1*25 the pound, on
board steamer ; numbers seven and eight, one piastre tho pound ;
and number six, seventy»five centavos (3i.) per pound. In the
European markets, tho prices vary according to tho crop of the
preceding year, and the larger or smaller production of indigo in
India, with which it has to oompeto.
Thr BsAar HsraZdsays ^UheSarun Irrigation scheme introduced
during the last year is of a somewhat novel financial character,
It is baaed on a local guarantee of tho interest on the oapUal out¬
lay. It consists of a canal by which water from the Guuduok will
be thrown into the principal water-courses of the distiiot, from
whence it will be distribated at the cost of the people themselves
for irrigation and manufacturing purposes. The estimated cost is
five lakhs, 4J per cent on which has been guaranteed by a few of
the principal plantofe and semindars, the Qoveiumoul remaining
responsible for the cost of maintenance, and recouping itself from
the proceeds ol iho sale pf #11 surplus water lor irrigation, the gua¬
rantors having priority of r|g]|jit to ia supply. Some progress was
made with some of the shpply-outl ildrinit iheyear, and it la hoped
that the works irtll be finished hetore the rains of Wd.**
Tins Bev. L. fit. Gyro! Dlndlgnl has for many years maintained
a very useful establishment, an Agriovltorid Orphanage, tor
native children at Dlndigul. The orphanage buildings, which are
intended for the accommodation of 50 children only, were found
insuffloieut for iho increased numbers maiataioed during t!ie famine
year, and had to be enlarged at a cost of about Bb. 1,000. The cost
of the buildings and tho increased cost of maiutaliiiiug so many
children press heavily upon the slender roaources of Mr. fit. Cyr; he
therefore appeals to Government for a graut-in-aid of the building
outlay. Tho Governor in Couuoil has replied, that the curtailment
of famine expenditure places it beyond his power now tc make
any further grnut of tho oharaolcr of that applied for by Mr. St, Oyr,
A CONTBMTOBABY draws attention to a now value for gesaniame.
In South Africa, wo are told, iho geranium has the reputation of
being proof against snakes, which it is said, avoid tho plant as
though it wore poisonous. Wo are reminded, that though tho
fiowers of tho geranium are scentless, the leaves ooutain a quantity
of volatile oil with more or less pungent odours. A mitfllooary
in South Africa has surrounded bis house with a cordon *of gera¬
niums, with the result that it is never visited by ibeee unwelcome
intruders. To tho KafiBrs ia attrilmted the discovery of toie pro¬
perty in tho geranium. It is suggested that this volatile oil might
prove an antidote to snake poison.
Tqehb appears to be some probability of a tobacco monopoly
being introduced at no distant date by the Bussian OoVerameBt,
in imitation of her Western neighbour. A form of inquiry, ooutain-
ing twouty-iiiue questions on the cultivation, consumption, taxation
and manufacture of the plant in various parts of iho Empire, has
been sent fiom Lead-quarters to the authorities in the Yortoas
goveriiineots, and it probably depends on tho nature ot the
information supplied in reply whether tho State will decide to
monopolize this industry for iho future. The uncertainty pre¬
vailing on this point is causing some anxiety among the tobaoco
fanners of the south, and especially in Xiittle Bussia, Bessarabia,
and some of the governmonts of the Volga, where the chief crops
arc giowii. Tho total annual tobaccocrop of Bussfa^ including the
small suppIioB from Siberia and tho Caucasus, averages about
3,102,000|7uJ, and its money value may be estimatod at 5,250,000
roubles.
Amoro iho uBofut substances obtained without culture in Cliiaa
aio various kinds of mushrooms, such as Soktua eduUa^ AgurUsua
cciulkf and speoios of Folyporus, Ac., gathered on trees, and which
are ouiployod as food, also tho flowers of UevaeirocallU gramtieeti
which, when dried, constitutes one of tho ohoioeat delicacies ot the
ChiuoMO kitchen. It is largely exported from the province of
Bhaulung. Various tinctorial plants also grow wild, anch aa
Jihamms utilisj and 77. chlorophorua^ which yield the famoua green
dye of China. Tho bunches of flowers of Sophora i/qpontoa, a tree
common in the north, are collooted to dye yellow. The roots of
Jiubia Munjiiia furnish the red madder, whilst in the aoulh the
bark of Pterocaipuajiav^i gives a yellow colour. In tho north a
black is obtained from the acorn cups of the oak ^ in the south
they collect for the same purpose the gall nuts of Mhua mMuJUl*
Nawab Abdool Gunny’s“A griouUural Exhibition*^ at Dacca
appears from au account published jo the local papsr to have
been very successful as a/f/e, but a failure as an Agricultatal
Show.
TuBBB are 47,755 acres under tobacco in the Oentral FroYinees,
the cultivation being most confined to the Baipur district; and
everywhere it is oonsidered of an inferior quality as oompared
with other Indian varieties, which are largely imported*
cauo (03,40G acres) is also local in character, one quarter of the
cultivation being in the Baipur district; Sambslpur, Betul and
Bhaudora having each About 10,000 acres, mad there being only
smaller areas elsewhoro. The produce in its ujiclarified state Is
generally oonsamed, and it is nowhere olarified in these provinees,
all rejfioed augm being imported from either Benares or Botxtoi^.
Flbr«i luM) Are mainly ef the two or tU^o|&iiiii o|
ifto/* tho o&d the jfu^e^
bf&t^ i»Oi^ They are used in the mahufooture of ropee
ad9 M Httlo ie O3cported.
COMMUNICATED AND SELECTED.
#
UEPOjRT on MMBOOf ITS CULTIVATION
AND oiiopriNa.
Bu Mb. Bobbbt TbomsoNi hto Supmntendontj Botanic Gardens
Jamaioat West Indies.
T your request ou my return to Jamaica Imt spring:, 1
continued to devote particular attention to the subject of
bamboo produotion for paper-makingr, and I am glad to leporl
with encouraging results.
Whileibos endeavouring to throw further light on my iirevious
convictions, I had oocaaion to visit, oilioially, certain extensive
districta of the Island in which bamboo largely abouuds, and in
which ifc*ia regarded as an irreprossiblo weed, very frequently
even to the exclusion of more desirable uncultivated products.
Amongst other points of enquiry, 1 was anxious to ascertain the
condition or degree of development in which the bamboo is best
fitted for cropping to answer youi purposes, and this 1 think 1
have satisfactorily settled. The point is of some interest, as much
inisoonoeption (vide published reports) prevails as to the proper
stage of growth at which the shoots may be most economically I
turned to account, and whereby the maximum production of those
shoots adapted for paper-making is insured ; hence a largely
increased return from a given area as compared .vtth the yield
from crude, half*'grown stems, and by the same mode of treatment
the reproductive powers of the plant itself are invigorated.
My convictions under this head wore formed at the time 1 visited
Ford Works and witnessed your experiments of converting
raw bamboo into “Paper Stock,” coupled with the frequent '
discussions with you on lUo Balqoct.
The condition iu which the stems of this bamboo (Bamiusa
vulgaris) aro fitted foi cropping is readily determined by the
yellowish sheatbs that invest the upper portions of the stems ii* ^
conjunction with the first expansion of some norms! loaves whicl.
burst at the summit of the shoot. The appoarauco of the foliage ;
in young, vigorous stems is immediately followed by tbo pi^cipita-
tion or shoddiug of these sheaths, which up to this period ,
characterised the young slcmn. The average height of these
shoots, at this stage of growth, after abundant ram, ranges from do
to 40 feel, and as the upicoe of the shoots, to the extent of a fow
f( 1 1, are quite succulent, it is neoessaiy vu remove this portion-
The stems thus divestod of the tops should bo sepaiatod into two,
pottihly three, clawf of materialf-^lc., the ligneous portion towards
Iho base to form a distinct qualny from the less indurated upper
portions, which produce, as* on shewed ,mo, finer and more
delicate fibre, and require less active ohemicul treatment for their
oofiversion into “ 3’apcr
In consequence of the unusually prolonged rainy (May) season,
which this year began in June, heavy laUs of min having been
axperienoed m the wetter districta of the i>s)and for months,
with brief intermissions of sunshine, bamboo llouiisliod most
oilkUbfiFft utily*
In the localities in which this gigantic gtaee largely abounds—
invariably in fhe nmi I wVi/cca«to—during inoiiths of August
and Septemb^, an aoundant stock of young shoots was ior the
most part ready for cropping. 1 traversed hundreds of acres with (
an equally prolific supply, which could be coiUmuously cropped for
several months in succession.
For commercial purposes, liial is to utilise the stems iu the
condition you have found most suitable for paper-making material,
bamboo baa nowhere been subjected to by<ntHm.tti(; cuUmal trCat-
meat. Data are therefore wauling in c>ru«»r to best Its productive
power as regards the yield per acie per annum and the propor¬
tionate extent to which continuous cropping may be resorted
to.
The faets which X will new relate have a direct bearing «in4lftese
points, points which exemplify the ability of .the to irepro-
dnee large and regular croos—a view of the gueri" > not hitherto
admittedly mrious mitere,
A few years ago, some 1,300 tons of bamboo weiiip^MBrtAd
frem Fort Morant, Jamaica, to the United 6inte^ for l^per-
making. AlUhe material was obtained ^^luayadiueof a tew
miles ; the gentleman vdio had the contract foreapplyi»|l»to
shipment received ;<51 per ton to the material delivered at. tim
port, The usual price paid for fellfiDg and splitting bamboo is two
shillings per cord, which, when dried, weighs about 7001bs., say
almut six shillings per ton, thus the cutting, crushing, pressing
and carrying to the pprt wore all perlorniGd, including the
acquisition of the raw material, for £1 per ton.
The kind of bamboo that was thus utilised was matured sterns^
and they were felled en masse from ovory available clump. I
Was in/ormed by the contraotor that be commonly cut down
clumps from the same stools twice in three years.
Also in another locality, some wiles distantj hundreds or tons
wore prepared for shipment; in the latter locality (four ycurs
after tlie stems wore foiled) I carefully examined many of the
stools from which the hundreds of tons were taken, and found
the lofty and vigorous stems so completely reproduced that
it was impossible to surmise that any distinction existed between
them, as regards the rank luxuriance and towering height of these
stenis, and tlio surrounding groves which had not been touched.
Niiiaeijcally, however, there was a material difference between
the stems produced by the four-yoar-old shoots, and those of
greater age, the oldest clumps possessing several times more stems.
Two iiicidhs ago, owing to the preceding period of excessive
rain-fall, as previously referred to, there was a large stock of
young Hlifjots on the clumps which bad been cut down four years
previously, qach of the four-year-old chimps, with an average
number of 40 mature stems, posscHsed from 8 to 10 stems suitable
for papor-mukiug material. These young stems wore the result of
ouo Hcasou's growth, ami there aro two soasons in the year.
The average aioa of each renewed clump was 576 superficial
feet, say 75 clumps to the acre ; each stem fit for cutting weighs
'"jl'y 20 poumlB.
'J’he 40 mature eloms had been jiroduced by continuous
snecesRional sprouting, and for all practical purposes may be
asauined as having grown at the lato of 10 uUoots per annum
dining the four years.
These clumps had, of course, e.\poriencod a treatment quite
diiforeut from Iho system which would ensure large and continuous
cropping, namoly-—ooppiemg, it being understood that coppicing
doos not imply cutting down iho whole of the stems or shoots to a
short growth (of say two to throe tcet), but that such shoots only
us are selected for cropping shall bo out at this height fiom the
ground, as a certain number ot stems must always be left, say
one-touith, to attain full development and to maintain the root
action or vegetative functions of the plant, such stems being
available at Ruiisequent cropping for fuel.
Tu a previous commituicatiun, i directed attention to the
advantages that would acciuofioiu the adoption of a Hystematic
course of cultivation and iriigatioii on laud specially selected lor
the purpose. Under f-uch chcuwBtaiJces there can be no doubt
I that the yield of shouts, as compared with lb© returns from
uncultivated stock, would be at least doubled per annum. Thus,
tlie i>jecttnou.9 seasons, and tJjc unmethodical course of procodiire,
implied by a cbauco source of supply, existing under any condition
(to say iiotidng of irrogulauty of selection and extra cost of
culleotion) would be obviated.
T waa also of opinion that the Si Catherine Plain, near Spanish
q\twn, whicli hiTs been rendeied iirigablo by the Oovcinment
for agiicuUuial purposes, would be well adapted, foi the
catabljshnicnt of bamboo plantations On further enquiiy
however, it would appear that tlieso lands aio already specially
reset vod for other objects of culture, and oonsecpiently would be
luoro cxpeuHivo and lees easily acquired than lands in most other
jf-ciriH ot tho Island.
Ill this connoctioii it may be observed that liveis for iirigation
P',.‘-poses are uvailablo iu many other parts of the Island, and if the
ihIl of St. Thomas was selected for the establishment of
pl.odtttion's, there is the advantage of procuring many hundreds of
toi ri of young shoots uunually from tbo existing stock, which
cai. be cut, pleased, baled, and delivered at port, after making
ovo y allowance, for £2 per ton.
L would be a pity, however, to export tho raw material in this
sUti, mAsmuch as groat economy results from the conversion of
it in Ik. paper-stock us you propose.
Well-managed plantations of bamboo will undoubtedly yield
annual returns of young stems of from 6 to 10 tons per acre
ta/cen as dry^ available for paper-stock.
14/i% Novemheft 1878. BOBERT THOMSON.
Tttjfi Madras Oovernmeut will make a good thing oat of their
einchona plaiitatious. The net profit on the bark sold in 1877^8 was
no less than Ks. 2,88,880. Tbo crop taken during the year atnounted
to lS8fd08|lbs. of which 132,961]i lbs. were shipped to Bugland, and
6,330 lbs. were auppUed to the Madras and Bomboy Modleat Depart¬
ments. The supply of moss is becoming a source of anxiety. Several
extensive private oinchona plaqtations have beeq opened out adjacent
to tho aovemment plantations, and when these estates begin to yieUl
crop, the aapply of moss will oertaiuly fail, unless a sqbstitnte is
foundt w coppicing is resorted to more than hitherto. SSic dUUeoUy
la prooaiiog laboar is Also yearly^lacreaslag,
INDUS AND HODtomBMi
mi be bet little doubt that the ptufe^IlKm uf tudUu
**• Pemiuea depeude^ in « great tJieesttre» upon the imiMrovement
of the egret^ o£ agrlculttire pursued in the ooQutr 7 .' This system
has sometimes been described, in the words of Iiiebig, as the
** Bpoliation system of agriculture/^ It is said that tiiie soil is not
deeply ploughed, and that there is inoessaot cropping without
returning anything to it. Bad culture, it is argued, has au
exhaustiye effect on the soiL Those who hold this view, would
make us believe athat the increasing frequency and entironess of
failure of food-crops of late years on the oocurrenoe of drought,
show that the soil throughout the country is becoming exhausted.
It is not our present purpose to determine whether the soil
is aotoatly becoming exhausted or to oousidor the cause of
that exhaustion* We, however, think that nobody will havo
the hardihood to deny that the method of tillage pursued by
the Indian cultivator is susceptible of considerable improve¬
ment* The question is, how this improvement is to bo effected ? I
The Governor-General in Council, in defining the duties of the
Famine Oommission now sitting at Simla, observes It is
apparent that the improvement of the practical agriculture of such
a population as cultivates the soil of India is a jmk of great
^mooUy. Of late years, some attempts havo been^ade to promote
this object. _ Their suecess, however, has been questionable, and
measures, giving an effectual stimulus to this class of improvement,
would be of tho greatest value to the country/'
The attempts referred to here, ns having been made to* promote
the improvement of Indian Agriculture, are, no doubt, tho
establishment of Model or Experimental Farms in various parts of
the country* These farms have now been in operation for sorno
years ; and we should see what results they have so far achieved
When the Imperial Department of Agrioulturo, Revenue, and
Commerce was organised by Lord Mayo in 1871, it was said that
tho new Department would greatly promote tho introduction of a
better method of tillage by tho establishment of Model Forms
Those farms were to aocompliah wonders. Mr. Allan Hume, who
was selected to be the first Secretary to the now Dopartment
clearly explained his views on tho subject. Ho wrote; —
“ Biiefly, what Icontemplato is at least one largo Government
Model Farm in every district of the country where all existing
staples shall be grown at first in tho most approved native fashion,
and year by year on improved and over-improving systemB, ami
from seeds yoai by year iuiproved by solootion, and, where
lioceasary, by intordiauge with other similar farms, whoro cattle,
sheep, poultry-breeding shall be cautiously, but porsovoringly, oaniotl
on, and where locally unknown staples and breeds ehoiild bo
gtadually introduced, acclimatized, and popularized. Tho whole
of those farms should be closely coimocted with each other. Their
Bupervisers oucouiaged not only to vie with eaoh other m rosuks,
but to visit and communicate with each other in tho freest manner
possible. Liberal prizes should be offered for those supervisors
who make their farms pay best, and, besides these, provincial
exhibitions should be hold with the numerous prizes for cxcellouco
ot produce, whether agricultural or animal, equally open to the
farms and to thp agricultural population generally. A speci.-il
Agricultural Journal should be started for iJio lecoid of all done
at these larms, all experiments, all failures, all successes, so that
all might know what all were doing, and so profit mutuallv by each
other's experience."
Directly it became, on the whole, an acknowledged fact amongst
the people of any district (and tho people havo eyes as well as we
have, and can appreciate good crops and bettor methods of till.ttro
just as well as wo can when we see them) that their Model Faria
was really growing better crops, oi growing crops similar to their
own, cheaper, or breeding better stock, or turning out bettor seed
than they were themselves able to do ; sons of well-to-do cultivators,
peasaut-pruprietors, and the like, who concern themselves pcraoiialiy
with practiow agriculture, should be allowed and invited to reside at
the turm and familiarizo themselves with the system there follow¬
ed, and the methods of caring for the stock there bred. All that
fihowed capacity and intelligence, and deserved it, should be
furnished at cost price, with improved seed or stock lu start with
on their own lauds.
Each form should, in fiiot, become at ouco a practical school of
agiiculture, and a source of supply of impioved ‘material,’
whether vegetable or animal.
This was a gran'd scheme ; and its ambiiiouH author, Mr. Allan
Hume, took care to assure the public that it was “ not an
Dtopian idea.” Tho project, he contended,if carued out, would
even directly and fully repay its own cxpeiiHeB, Now, after the
lapse of sovou years, the public is in a position to judge of the I
resttlta achieved by the Model Farms. Wo have no heaitation
whatever in saying that these farms have proved costly failures.
Bo for, they have not exerted tho slightest iufluonco on the
improvement of native agriculture j and the reason is obvious.
Lord Mayo spoke with uncommon good seuso when ho remarked
that theestablmhmeutdf Experimental Farms would be altogetlier
usttlees^ if attempt W«m» made to teaoU native oulUvators cither
such things asihe)*^ already knawv ^ »uoh imjfrovod mioms U
agttouUure as they could not practise. Miv AUan lame
}8 also quite right when he sayMkat the people of this country
nave eyes, and that thev. can Aonreniate arood rtrnna m*u1
Auwan cuiuvBior msy ne lauoteo wwa unwimugnoss to depart
from the waye of his fathers. Be is, however, a shrewd observer
ana understands his interests thoroughly, The Model Farms may
nave shown him that better crops tnight be raised by the adoption
of Buporior methods of tillage. Ho might have even learnt how lo
do likewise. But what good is the poor fellow 4o derive from ids
knowledge? He foete “that he a poor man, cannot afford to
grow crops as the Sirkar does." For the improvement of Indian
agnculturo what is wanted is not knoilrledge of improved tnetiioda
of husbandry, but capital. The ryot knows, as well as a
Luropoan agriculturist, that deep ploughing ami adequate manuring
would lead to the production of better crops. But he cannot
afford to reiluce his knowledge to pracllco, lie has no money
wherewith to pro vide himself with improved agricultural implements
and a superior class of cattle ; he must burn the mauurial substances,
because the puichase ofliiewood is beyond his meaus. So long os
the Indian peasantry remain in their present abjectly aud hopelessly
poor condition, to expect any improvoment in Indian agriculture,
would be to expect an impossibility. Experioaoe has demonstrat¬
ed the utter usolessnoas of Model Faring; tiioy might be oIosckI
to-morrow without any injury to public interests. If the Govsrn-
mentiB really anxious to improve Indian agricultUTe, it eliould begin
with rescuing tho ryot from the clutches of Iho village-money¬
lender, by tho establishment of Agricultural Banks, aiioU os we have
frequently advocated in those columuH.—/ndtan Tnlfune?
SOME FACTS ABOUT LIMB.
S EYEBAL correspondents ask for information concerning the use
of lime on laud, and all of them contain ovidonce of several
commonly acoeptod, but false, theories. First, lime is not plant-food t
or rather it is so common in most soils, and iucidontally comprises
so laigo a portion of many fertilizers, that its application as
plant-food is unnooessory. Wo have not soon a soil analyais from
which this constituent was missing, aud there is nearly always
considorabJo of it present in aviuiablo form; all true super¬
phosphates aro composed of one-fourth part or more of Umo,
and it is promlueiit iu I’uruviaii and fish guauo, iu nearly or quite
all manuCaclured fortihzora, as well as in baru-yard manure.
Luno, hawover, lias an imp3' buit eltocl aside L' rom its action as
plant-food. Freshly burmvl Imio (kuowu as “ caustio lime " and
“quickliimt ’'J h.is a Ntiooi; alffiiiiy tor carbonic acid, so that when
il and oigamc nrittur (which always contains a largo proportion
of oarbooi^'aoifl) are mixed togeiher, the lime aud carboiilo acid
unite, promoting the decoinpoeiiiou of the organic matter. Newly
“ slaked lime "—which is hmo united with water-—has an 'Effect
BiiuiUr to quioklimo, though slowei, aticl hence is belter for farm
use. Fiesli, undoeomposed organic Hubstances, ospaciatly dung,
Goutaiii tho most valuable iugredieatof plant-food, nitrogen, in its
simplo form ; but it is very soon oliaiiged into ammpuia, which
iu turn uiiitos at onco with carbonic acid. Then When lime is
brought ill contact with the mass, it at ouco combines with the
carbonic acid, aud the valuable ammonia escapes and is lost.
Wheu howevut, iho lime is applied before the amruouia is
formed, the niliogou is osydized lo uitric acid, which uuUos with
tho limo to produoe iiiiraie of lime, and the nitrogen is aavad.
Thoroforo, limo may boused in stables and house privies, or iu
oomposliiig caroussoH of dead auimnls, to advantage ; but if mixed
with mariuro a day oi two old, the runnlt is a loss of valuable
material. Tho above also shows why, when lime is put into a
compost, it has such beneficial action lu hastoniug decomponition,
and why it is necessary to use plenty of freeU earth to absorb the
escaping ammonia.
Free acids, aud those in eaaily decotnposible substances, ore also
readily taken up by hme, aud many injurious compounds, as of iron
in wet lands, are rendered harmless. In some soils insoluble sili-
cates of potash, accumulate ; but the action of lime will break
up theso combiuatiotis and set the potash free for use as plant-
food.
The above sfcatoinents show that tho main action of lime in tho
8oU IS in inAking fivailable, plant-food what was beforeiioavatlable.
Theiefore, wlule it may inctease tho oro{>-yield of poor Und, it will
tend to bring «bout its early exhaustion, unless plant-food ia
added, lu heavy olny soils, the above mentioned ohemical -
reaction of hme, destroy their tenacity and makes them friable
aud poious. Soils contaming a Urge proportion of organic matter
are benefited by its application. Wet lands aie less benefited by
limo than tho same when drained, on account of the water. Light
soils aro improved byit when accompanied by a liberal application
ot luiick or other organic matter; clays eiioiild also have the same
trentmeut. As the best effects of Ihue aro not apparout until
iiie second year, it is best to apply it early in tho fall; then, if
tho laud is not rich enougli, manure or other fertilizer pul on tiio
following spriiiff will help to produce a good crop, other conditions
being ei^oal. The amount used is from 10 to 50 bushels per acre,
aocoiding to tho cuoumatanooBi the ogndition of the soil, &Qt
T’sSte matob aiitp3« malerfat for ridioale, «ud ^i^wplB
cppc^fm^ity fbr^^vlUing at Uie whole ajatom of agrionltural odttoa*
tfpn werpprwettUcl. If ho had ever aeon Bngliah ploughing match
hoioeuld hardly avoid making a mental contrast in which the dress^
the manner, the implement and the performance of the competitor
would form Important features. The contraet would not, we fear
he complimentary to theSydapot Farm, iris not however from any
wish to make the institution ridiculous, nor in any captious spirit
that we desire to call attention to some of these features, not as
professors of agricultore, hut simply from the point of view of an
outsider. On entering the field the spoclator is probably pleased
to see numbers of such a respectable class as that to which tho
student competitors apparently belong, condescending to drive
a plough. It is gratifying loJearn that snch mainiat labor is not
regarded by them as an indignity only fit to bo performed by menial
servants : but the feeling of gratification is cooled, when note is
taken of the dress in which they equip themselves for their woik.
Tho Eoglish laborer and the Madras ryot alike tmdoratand how to
Buit their costume to their taste. Each in his way dresses himself in
n maimer most fitting to the circumstances, and least calculated to
impede fils eicertionB<^not so the student of the Uovoriiment Farm,
Farsee or Hindu. Anything'more ridiculous and Incongruous
than their costume under thecircumstancoa can hardly be conceived.
One competitor was clad in the ordinary dress of a Madras servant
elippers and all. Another had hoots with high heels more fitted
for the pavement than the field. All, if wo remember right, had
on white clothing; none had either bare foot or the fiat broad soled
boot, which if o man is to bo shod at all is tho only sort of shoo in
which he can move about roadily over rough ground. Shod as they
were, Uioir gait was naturally unsteady, and the only wonder is that
there were no dislocated ancles. Wo should have th <'ght that Mr. |
Bobertson having overcome the prejudice against labor, which is so
common in this country, so far as to induce his pupils to handle a
plough, might have gone a step further and pcisuaded them to
cast aside the ornumontal parts of tuari aud appear in the field
cither in the simple costume of a ryot or in other suitable
dress. It looks as if the agricultural student, like so many other
people who have given up the substance of an idea in practice,
were determined to bold on to the fringe, so that they should still
be distinguished os amateurs, and not confronted with the ordinary
mombem of the ploughing class. The matter of <lresH serves i» <
point an observation which wo wish to mako gencraliv, wiiit
regard to the whole iifgtitutiou au 02:hibited at the pioughing
match. What strikes an uninitiated observer, at least, is that the
students and lyots want example more than precept: they need
to see good work dono in a good way with good implements. We
would ask of Mr. llobertson, whether be or any of bis subor¬
dinates has ever put baud to plough atri piacUcally illustraled to
them, bow a farm ought to be turned over. Wo doubt not that
etlU, turn ronudV go at'pk 06 « white
ploughman is powerless. The^ patlve koughman with 9m
ipshlement is not etpesed totueh trhatm^t^he Commaii^e me
nf hla bollocks and little «* hie work Is In the eeenlt^' it ie at least
dono at a decent pace. One or two men Word werking wi|h hybrid
ploughs which seemed efloiont and tothe
objection of weight; but even of thetn.itiAlglit h,e ohjeai^d that
they threw the plougUtuau too far back fmm hmhullooksaod
therefore necessitated the presence of a driven €l boitfse
are too heavy to be carried about With the facility with Which the
plough of the country is carried. Altogether wq fcav ve,iry mlicb,
that there will be no real improvement In agricaltui;e until th^Cireis
materia] improvement in the draught cattle. The saddle must be
fitted to the wearers' back, aud it is useless iutrodaoing English or
Swedish implements, before animals are forthcoming which oOn
draw them. If tho Government Farm is to be eMoientfor good,
it is we thiuk by way of example: if the Hindu is to bo draggoa
out of tho groove in which he works aud which probably dates irom
a time anterior to the infusion of the Aryan race, it must be done
by showing him domonstratively, that better results may be
produced by better means. Example, is what rather appears to' be
wanting at this institution; wo cannot believe that we should have
seen the incongruous costumes which we saw at the match, if Mr,
Kobertson^s ^ European sabordinates wore sometimes in the habit’of
descending into the arena, and showing in their own persons how
good work ought to be done,—Jfari’ms Athemuin,
j rriHE.groat mass of vegetable matter is composed of woody
fibre (colluloso), which consists of carbon 44 per cent.,
ozygon 49*62 per cent., and hydrogen C'38 per cent. Nearly
one^half of tho vegetable growth of our forests aud fields is, there¬
fore, organised carbon. Tine substance is known to us in the form
of charcoal, though the diamond is pure crystallized oarbou. lu its
uncombined form, it is not soluble in any known liquid, nor is it
fusible in any heat we have been able to produce. At red heat,
it combines roadAly with oxygen in a brisk oombustion, without
I fiame, and tbe product is a gas cotnposod of 27 per cent, of
carbon and 73 per cent, of oxygon, and commonly known as
carbonio acid. It has a fcohle acid reaction, and forms salts with
alkalioe. At tho temperature of 60 degrees, water will dissolve and
hold in soluUon its own measure of carbonic acid gas; but it parts
with it all at a boiling heal, in this form all ilio carbon appro¬
priated by plants is furnished, and it would bo a very natural
inference that to furnish a supply of carbonio acid would bo the
first care of the farmer. But this would be altogether an erroneous
conclusion.
From various sources, tho air is always supplied with carbonic
acid in sufficient quantities to answer tho demauds of plant
growth; but the chief interest of tho farmer is to place his crops
in a favourable coiidiiioii to appropriate tlin carbon brought within
i(f( roach. An animated dispute has been carried on for several
years between two schools of vegetable physiologists-^the one
celltending that all tbe carbonic acid used by the plant was
there has been plenty of iocturiug, but we doubt much whether
there has been any practical illustration. It strikes us that it
would have been a useful feature in tho ploughing match, if along-
mde of the struggling lotteriug'studenie there had been a really
oompetont plouglimau, or, at least, if alongeide of the waving
luirowB executed by them, there had been sumo good straight deep
furrows ploughed out as a model. Nothing is more useful in all
sorts of training, tliau to establish a good standurd whereby perfor¬
mances can bo moasured. At the Governmeut Farm there was no
standard by which cither spectators or labourers could guage tlie
work dono. Leaving the men, we have a few obscri atious to
make on the cattle ^uid the implements used. Two things afo
poitectly clear with ega'-d to them, that thoro is no compamon
between the Europea:; .p»d the native plough for effloiiJncy, and
tliat the former is not ««ioied for general nsu in this oodUry. For
the most part tbe students worked with European, chidfiV wo'
believe Swedish, ploughs aud of course the results they pro¬
duced wore far bettor than those produced by the native
iinpiomeat. But those tesuHa wouM not have boon pro¬
duced except under the favourable circumafances in which
they were pl»i^. the hu\laeke o£ the ti ivormneut l?«nn ere uot
fwt repreeeuUUveaoi the olaHsbiiUocli, they .re n&iaraUy abeva
tie awage m avory reapeet, auJ therefore booaaw tlwy could
draw Eur^ew plouglu u daa. uol £oUew tb.l tho ordmary caX
oouM. Clearly the ardiuary p«,r o£ bulleolts would Buuuui/b under
the strain i but oven the superior unim«ls do not amm vmv
effldonl and oortamly need ft driver. Standing , l^unM^J^not
jnat over his cattle ns with a nativa plough, the .i;uina“s uta
great disadvimtAge, and aataaalM m armed with h icead whLh
would be difficoit to wield, is eompistely at the his
absorbed by the leaves, aud^lho other holding that a portion of it
was supplied by tho roots,) being held in solution in the water
absorbed. The question, however, is onCg of but little praoUcal
iMpcrtauce, as both parties admit that plants derive all their
c. rbou.from carbonio acid, aud that the docouiposition of that gas
U ':ti5 place in tho loaf.
The importaut matter, practically, is to understand the oouditSoas
under which vegetables appropriate carbonic acid; for this is the
soLict oL their growth. These conditioas are chiefly two t first a
,Jiea {liv condition of the leaf; second, a full exposure to sunUght.
The nrsfc of these is that which chictly concerns us. Leaves
absorb carbonic acid in proportion to tho amount of gfeen
coiouriug matter they ooutain. This, as I have always said,
depends on a supply of nitrogen in a form,,that the plaut can use
it.
Aniinonia dissolved iu water aud absorbed b^ tbe roots Is the
usual form m which the supply of nitrogen i« obtainedL This is
decomposed in tho leaf by the agency of suoUgUt, and the
nitrogen, set free, immediately eaters into a new ootmimatiou, and
the green colouring matter is the result. But this change dsmands
lUe presence of aud phosphoric acid; in very minute
quantities, indeed, but still essential. A dofieionov iu any one of
iUese conditions will give a pale or yellow loaf; and every farmer
knows what that means, though he may not be able to explain
why it is so. But plants absorb no food, by the leaf, in Uie aark,
and ths^e is no chemical action in the absence of sunlight. Xt is
true that plants grow at night; bat they grow by osing the
materiel prepared in the light and by its agenoy«-««& JT, Jmwnt
i/k (ks ChfiUharn'i ^ v '
to twito'* fnlli' hWitwy ot the« ridi plontitioM, bnt we have j
lhIm «!Z Ki-b. • ”'. .“Tt: ;
mikv not perhaptt' provo oniiitweatlnge At any rate
?j:S^tbi w*SIcLirP«-« ‘l*** ‘he h*“
in»de»neieellentipT88tmentitt creating them, wbile tU p
S »eaUy beeelltted by being allowed to purohaae «*« t mbet
■ j XU TST* fill bavo hoard of tUo fitMJCosa of tuo
ptrodnoed *h*^ QoTernmont is oondncting on the d«
KirXbut o* ^ 0’^- undertaking-the teak plantations in
_Se hear but little, although they arc in our to
M vast an importance os the Jfirst mentioned. We be hero the
*® . , a-«^ their eBtobliahinent was ultimately to BOCuro fa
noi^ane’s DoLyard at Bombay ; but sinoo the tune tliey weie 8
wi^lorethought displayed by those who first advocated the
creation of ttfeae foreete, and it is not too much to say that they ^
wmindeedpubliobonefcotors. We bcUovo they wore first com- a
msneed^ about forty years ago under the auspices of tho lato Mr. b
C oDolly tho Oolleotor of Malabar, who waa murdored by
Moplahs. It may bo remembo.od by our older readers that ^
tfio murder of the gonlloman named waa the immodiato cause of ,
So paseing of tho Moplah Act, tho atringont moasares provided
hvitSaving been put iuto force on several oooasions, and so re- i
oLtly if W» ■“ “®8hom whou ^
Itaf ^nsorvatorof Forests for Madras took hvely lutoroet in tho
f aiifi wa believG it waeat his BUggestion that thogeii- i
SrS k" .ttw r'-.-'” '
tleinan, country. This gontlomau has met with but
Sfti, .1^ '■ W t
wiiicb has attended bis labours and tho Binall pay ho
Bu^sswuii-n which has attended tlie outerpnao
BtiU "<=?"'“• moasuie to bw constant and arduous
18 duo m R .„,n aitoitivrecf'ive his due reward. Iho
labours, and we tmt he w l
pleutatiouB at ^fyra^porvisiou workin^^ charges
hundred acies, ami ha c t ^ ^
‘^®>f{Camoaul, hikhaud Iwcuty-hmrthousand
rupees. Of this am 1^ tbimmigs, so tliat tliu
rupees have been 1 ecu ^^.^ y plantations is
a“« E -a “a“wa“
Atlm(eutth _
I, aocordancojah^a^^^^^^^
“ epS e“iMaotory ai h.tba.to heiias not been sauguino as to
‘^aCNdmlb^ erZision is divided into fifteen blooks, and,
no^idi.Trrrv;y moaeuremonU, their aoroago is asfollows
ArRKS.
Plautsd •«* • ie,i83'7X
Uftpbttted ... •« 2 -
Total «. 18,809*69
The Planted portion is farther divided aooording to its antici¬
pated yield as based on iU present conditiou:—
/j AcnfiSe
. :;: :;: ‘S
:• •• •••
"r ::: :
Totsl Ht 8,436*98
T:hnfl oa ftcrai or iftow than l/7th of
po^w the gtowth Imno poor tha^ iho Ooawmtor thwks it eafeat
to ont« oou8l4oi» «tiiew
Is ratjoh tb^t bi8 JtA
ITjo followibg Rbkfcriot ®hargoi w
receipt# far the T^c34di^i4owltattk 18774ft :-‘-
CaABoite*
ESs
AfK^nifiiUon of land, &e.. 1 , 00,840 t *
Kitatilifihinonl) .. 1 , 47,005 x 1
(Mrgert on timber ». 4ft,lU 19
I’lantatian oliarjsoB .. .. 1 ,M ,800 14
Ploatinu operaUoua.. .. 41,003 3
1 , 00,840 I * TlmbM!^ *. .
1 , 47,««5 X 11 Bfuftbeoa ■
4 ft,lU 19 8 fiapitogii .. -
i,M, 8{)014 0 lUsooUanooti^!
41.009 3 3
., 4 ,T 7 , 3 U 5 5 11 1
as. A.1?.
1 a
10,76s 0 8
1,90,913 18 e
. 3,68518 1
. 8 , 00 y« 03 Xl 8
ruX^arcnbicTool W ^ and the piioe the timber wfil
^"cSlonol Beddomo believes ‘bat the trees !u the pl.ntotio^
whicbsirtyperacroaretobol^toraato^^^
“sr s."sr .’“i: ^ftAhafc ^daoefrom
of JI net profit of 10 tlmt from So 2,484ii ftorea
Fromthotorogomg cUUitis^ 14,906,108 cubic feet of
wbicli are expected to ymld a inn » »
timber vviU b^’n'llk "L^be to Mand for fifty
It IB Btatod that toftk trees may
years after “atmity^ and tb t tl
tations need This makes the average yearly
fes wtUTHO aaMnst^^^^ Us. 261,11,960 similarly calou-
*'‘&«olBeddomeoonc!«d»Msrepj^t^
„ftho «>®n«ou ot P^ys P^oonoho oouoidora it ihiaoSobta to
reduced to tboir b"®* a,Jt it wili not bo nocossary as
KS?,S‘'a”'r/fiVBh,. to tohltotoh. rtototo
plauting. . - ,i;mrtiiU\T and further diBOttftWOii iu
Tba iroove^ ‘o it®, “wiaiaa- At
in the upmio i „ utates thcr»i would not bo a lUftikot Rt
present tho ^ teak of tiio extent oxpootod, and
grto';;iBrrS toT;s»,.ta.ttoto to.toto..toh....r.
KANS GRASS IN BUNDBLKHAND.
’ mr»et P«r«. X and 2 of AUaUm Cnmissi^s Wa. 803, dafsd
8146 AvifUttt 1878.
. X* sinnirtMA 4 latiiGr in otiffinfll from the Bnfctlflinout
T 329 anted 34th initftut, with enoIosuMS, cooMnfiig
1 Officer of Ewdft, N • ^ ^ Bohrottky, gtviug the result* of hi#
“alyini’mileiaspeciBons of m<4r Bundolkhima sells isleetei with
”f™Mr*'c^°oC^“b. conclarivsly sbows thalf tbs Mudjels arfo of
*■ ..joo. uiiiaisinooinBlotc, and thatitis4eii«Wo tohavssuaUar
“ Zs^Uirt martl* be gi«n to tho anMysU of toe seilx and that
itcrtier expeaditoro of (say) Bs. 800 may bo wn^on^i m
B*rraot paras. 1 to 8.Sand6,0/-Band, flst««w»f O^rar-,ffo. *», daW
2ith Avguit, 1878.
I have the honow teenoloio pe^cotsd
d, guMMlniiMlitttd to MB«t y«« mstrastwiw on tw pouM «» »«
)t with it*
54
THE INDIAN AGBICDLTURIST.
Wlien y 0 nt prod«ceR«OT was >u BAuda Usi Attgtlat, I gp^k« t6 him
regarding tbe of Baadeikband soils, and be agreed wttli mo that
it wan desiraible to bare analyeie made. 1 aooordiugl;^ entered into corrM*
pondenee with Mr. Bohrbttky, aud at drat intended to bai^o a fuller inventU
gtttioti made than'waa eventually aiiderfcakea. But 1 waa restrained
partly by the expense, and partly by Mr. Flowden telling me that the
Geolofi^ioal Bnrvey Dopartmeni was about to make analysis of our soils.
8» t accordingly asked Mrt Schrottky to rosUioi hb analysis to three
specimens of soils, ati mdr
(i.)<MSoiI not affected by k&ns within the memory of man.
(ii )«»8oil nnder Itdus and noeaUivated. *
recently under kdns but now again brought ondor oultiva-
tion.
6. As to tbe report itself, I think the remits obtained by Mr, Bchrottky
smst be held to be inconolnsive, as the lavesiigaUon ha» not exieadud to
hdbar and pauia« Ur. hcbrottky^followtug the statement of Mr. Couit.
that k&ns grows only in mar and kdbar, and overlooking, I ihmk, my
ooutradiotioo of tbat statement-, aHSumes that kaua is mikaown i/i parua,
whereas it IS iroquently met with in that soil, and is mote prevalent in
kdbar than in any other soil. Until, therefore, a stmilar analysis is under¬
taken with reference to kdbar and parua. tbe investigation eaunol, 1 think,
be held to be oomplete, or tho conclasions based ou tbe investigation
trustworthy,
6. From his analysis of Mawai mdr Mr. Schrottky comes to the eonclu-
Bion that the growth of ItAns is owing to the supcrabimdance of hme and
idUeai and to tbe deficiency of potash and phosphoric acid.
But there^s indr (soe No. 2 in the GeologioM Survey Assays) in whioli
there la but Utile hmo ; and miho kdbar Hpacimens (9,) taken fiom the
most kdns-growu neighbourhood, there is very UUle. while in No. 12, patli
r&kar, there is more lime than in any other soil. These assays do not givo
the proportion of sillea, bnt tbe deficiency of hme in kAbar and parua is
enongh to suggest that assumptions based on ib: mdr of Muwai alone are
eery probably insaffioionUy supported. Bo far from hlawai being a fair
representative of all Bundelkliand soils, it is not a safiioient representative
of BundeUchand mdr j and, interesting as Mr. Sebrottky^e report is. more
and mors widely selected instances ate required to justify the oouclusions
at which he arrives.
'ihe only other analysis of Buudetkhand soils of which I know arc those
ertraoted from Medlioott's Cotton Haud-book, m pages 48 and 49 j Mr.
White’s report on pargaoa Kalpi, and those made by Dr. Murray Thoxison
for the Beiwa Canal Frojoet/giveu^ialthe same report.
Those analyses, if they show nothing else, siiow that the excruoriinary
dildereuooB between diderenl spocimous of soils of the same olass given in
the Geologioal Butvey Assays have been observed before, and iboso of Dr.
Unrray Thomson, tlvat in m&c the perceutage of hme is sometimes less than
inordinary loam.
For my own part, I have never been very hopeful that chemical investiga-
iioQ will lead to the discovery cf any practical remedy for kutts. The weed
seems te be always ready to spring up, and its presence, is. so far as can be
seen, accounted for satisfactorily in very diffeiont ways lu different villages
and tracts.
But it seems tome to be none the less desirable that the ohemioal aspects
of the question should be thoroughly investigated.
If there is a practicable remedy it should be ascertained. If, on the other
hand, chemistry cannot help us, it is well that we should be assured of the
loot.
The fluooeiiful administration of Buudelkhand is a problem of suiTuieut
importance to justify the expenditure of a few hundred rupees upon an
imestigatiou which, if it does not supply a leinedy for a very seiious evil
nxsy at least put au and to these doubts and questiooH which periodically
atiso and divert atUmtion from what, 1 am afraid, is the only lomedy for the
ills to which Bundolkhand is liable— that unproved rovenuo admmistration
which shall render tho people mote prospurous than thay have ordmaiily
been during the seventy-five years of our adiuinlsira^ urn, and therofoio more
able to contend with the difiioulties iu ih^ir way,
uVo 5, Middleton Street, Calcuilaf Mh Jm9, 1S7S.
Tun SPUBAD op KAMS; Its CiUHES AND URUEniES, WITH AVALlSiS OK
SOILS AfiO PLANT.
To—A, Cabell, Bsff., C* .., BedlmMt Ba»(Zo, TT. P,
BiE,—Befturring to your letters k i vc* 19th January and t3th March, 1878,
requeatiog me to analyse several sainpfo/: of soil from fields in tho Banda
pargaua iafoslod wuh kdos (a wood very prevalent in Bnndelkhand}, and
hkowiN lample of soilB from fields on which kdos never appears, with tho
object to ascertain whetbor chemical aualyais of tho diIforont soils can
throw any light on tho cause or causes to which the appearance and
disappearance of kAns is duo, 1 have now the honour to hand you my follow*
iiig report and the results of my analysis.
1 confined myself to tho analysis of vl) a sample; of soiliinfoated and
overgrewn with kAns, (2) a sample of soil recently grown with kAns, (8) a
aample of eetl on which kaos novor appear*, and (4) the ashes of the plant
Itselfi
As the enbjecb appears to be of coneidcrAblu importance, fit w:’» u rl be out
of pltpe if i preface my report by*a of what is knawu &.. > k&qs.
The remarks in brookotB ate mine; the rest is condensed and based npoa
iBtm'BAtieii OerM tcQm Ur* Maytte's «sd Hr, Coart's reports on the
Pebfliary Ij 187$,
published m the lleveene Reporter^ North-Westam FrovlaceSi New Series
Vol. ][J[, No. 1, and from the vent-rate report of patgana Uaunha of the
Hamsipar district.
KAns is a weed very prevalent in Bandelkhand, Bohilkbatid, And the
Doab, but, on account of the pecnllar notare of the soib is most destrnotive
in the first named distriot,
Its botaoical name or classification seems to he anknewit] It is'oiiledi a
grass [and looks very much like one]. Mr, fidgswortb desoiibes it as
SaceJiommspontaneum } but then, sgeiin. Hr. Court states that it prodnoes
a white flower [and therefore it cannot well bea iSSEicoharvtnDor can It
belong to the Cframivaoiai]^ The plants sent to me were without flower,
and I could not therefore positively determine to what family of plants this
weed belongs. «
I would recommend a flowering specimen to be sent to the Curator of the
Calcutta Botanical Gardena for Glassification, os likely to throw fiome fuvthev
light on the subject.
KAus is a perennisl weed, springing first from seed, but sproadlag aftt^
wards chiefly by tbe roots forming a regular and thick network, which
efibotualiy chokes overy other plant and stops completely all coltlvution.
If kAug is once permitted to take hold of a field it is almost impossible to
eradicate it by auy ordinary plough, as the roots'strikc downwards to a
depth of oight or ten foot and are very thiok and strong.
The plant itself is some four or five foet high, and its stems and shoots so
hard and thiok that a man or horse can only with diMcuUy walk through it.
KAus IS poouliar to certain soils, chiefly kAbor, mAr, or the wet mAr soil
representing vafiolios oi a heavy tenacious clay, full of kankar or lime in
small pieces ; it never appears in light soils, nor in virgin soils, nor in well-
manuxed or natnrally rich clay soils.
It has never bei^n known to take root in these soils [though its seed
undoubtedly must hove had access to it, Pat fulled to genninato on account
it may be rurmised, of the absence of some pecuhox condition of tho soils
essontij.' loT its development].
If kijn» has token possession of any field and is left alone, it exhausts
itself after ton to fifteen years’continuous'growth [or rather, as I would
prefer putting it, exhausts in that period the peculiar elements in the soil
which support itj. If, however, tbe soil isdistnrbed or cultivated, knos
will last longer [that is to say, when atmospheno clttnalio influences are
allowed to act upon Iho soil by stirring it up. and sets free from chemioal
combination some more of the pconliai* elements kAos is partial to ; the
additional nourishment thos furuisUod will prolong the otisteuoe of kAos
beyond the usual period.)
So soon as kfias has oxhaustod the land, after its ten to fifteen years'
continuous growth, it dies out, and iho land is again fit for the cultivation
of agricultural produce.
KAus never makes its appearance again in the same soil for eight to ton
ycus [during which time it can rationally bo assumod the action of
moisture, heat, and atmosphorio air upon the cultivated—thot is to say
coutiuuously sUi red—'Soil sots free sufficient of the peculiar element or
elements essential to the growth of kAus. KAas seed will then again
grriU' late in such soils, and unless at once cheeked, the land must bo again
ahct.dvined and given up to the growth of kdas lor a similar period.
Thot e are, it IS stated, some old men who have seen kAus appear and
disappear two or three times within their own memory.
[Those peculiar circumiitaucefi under which kAus appears au^ disappears
give a groat sciontidc interest to the subject of this enquiry, and must be
my excuse if I dwell at some length on some points which to many persons
will apjir ar at first sight as itrolevaut to the main question at issue.]
The only efTeotive means known at present to prevent kAna from taking
possession uf any land fsvourablo to its development is to turn up tha
young weed year by year by frequent ploughing, and to sow for crops as
usual, 'riiin requires of course strong ploughs and bullocka, and the fields
must bi* continually and carefully attended to, fur if once the roots of this
weed gel >;elow Gie depth of the plough, all endeavours, withm the reach of
tho ordir iiy ryot, to eradicate it are futile, and the laud has to bo
abandoned tor ton or fifteen years.
OvoTcroi ping is said to be one great cause of the appooranoo of kAus, but
beyond thiii nothing is suggestod whioh could give a clue to the discovery
of the real direct cause to which the appearance of this injurious weed is
due.
It is univ T)«'>liy admitted that at certain intervals the soil is more
predisposed to grow kAus than at others, and large tracts—nay, whole
viUngos—have to be abandoned and thrown out of cultivation on aooount
of it if at any time unfavourable seasons impoverish the ryot, reduce the
number of his ploughs and bullocks, and thus disable him to give the land
the extva cultivation leqoired to koep duwa the weed at first appearance.
Passing now from these general remarks on what is known about Uits
reed, end what oau bo deduced from it, to the results of my analyses Which
are appended, we find on comparing the different items ef analyses of soils.
No. X [novor affected with kAns], soil No. II. [overgrown with kAns], and
of Boil No. Ill [leeently grown with kAns], first a large excess of orgaaic
matter in No. II sod, occasioned undoubtedly by the aocumalation of roots
and Stalks of kAns in tbe soil. Potash and soda as well as phospherie
fteid [all three important elements ofminerAl plant food] are present in
much smaller qnontitiee in Nos. II. and III than in No* 1 soil, and the two
fitsl must, therefore, be classed as much poorer soils, giving support to tho
observation that kAns will never grow on virgin or well'inanured lands, oud
that iDjudiatottS exhaustioa of tha soil is one of the oaases of its apFOimoa
^lioip|u9a^» ii«^ pwcMni In tbeie
&;ib Ip €oi«t^i»atloftg m to be iniokbte ie bydMlilodo
ibid. Wdii«b%tur ttiuel b&i m beeii i4|»iKet«fr M^btidi buii 1«
ittbladfd d»|ei? city* ' ^ \
Tbi' diiterebbe of the qtalrttily of theo^do of iW |«id,etuttiue between
the three epeolttfios of eoiU oea be dlsregerded«i not effeotittg plaot life to
tillable to aiotrtide how mndh btbdAhle mineral plant food there le in any
ipartlcolftr soil, or how mooh of eeeh eonetitnent. ,
Ordinary cUemlOftl analyiie oaHnot diittiagnieb between pondered gijaaite
and arable eoiband itb. thereiore, eatifmely heeardone tp fodgo of p toil
and report Oo Ua pooullaritieii eimpl^ on tl^ blMte of ip ordinary
analyeia, *
nny^ extent
Btttttubhiefdiffeienoe between theie aoUs« whleh ibrowa soma light
upon the canae why kdna will not grow in No. t eoil. while it flonrisbea in
Koa. II end 111) ia evidently the proportion of lime and aolnble ailioa,
TheamonntotlimeinNo. Hand Ko.lll BoUsoioeedB that of Do. I by
60 and 63 per cent TespeotiTely» and* Ufeewiaei the amount of aolublo ailica lu
No. II and Ko. ftl oaceeda that of No. I by 128 and 156 per cent, reapeotively.
Judging, tbereforoi from the chemical compoiition of thOso aoila, it would
appear aa if a oert^a eaoeaa of Utne and aoluble alUea. and poverty of the
foil in potaabiooda, and phoaphoricaeidi were eaBential to the dovelopment
of kdas.
But) wblio giving doe weight to iho resulta of the oidiuary chemical
analyiia of these aoili) it muet be borne in mind that such an aaaljeia ehuwa
ni, indeed, what the aoil coneists of. and how much of each element of
mineral plant food, aoluble in hydrochloric acid, ia present; but it does not
meal to at how much of each of these elemonta is available to the plant.
The ndneral plant food in arable soil, such aa potash, soda, lime, and
magnesia, snlphurio. phosphoric acid, and silica, is present in two different
states of combination, vie., in physical combination with the soil and in
water in insolnble chemical combmatlons with each othef.
To make this point clear, a piece of granite 1 lately analysed consisted
of siUca 72*66, oxide of iron 7’li alumina 8'95, lime 2 82, maguosU and
alkalies 5% phosphoric and sulphuric acid U’28, water of combiiuitiou and
loss the remainder.
All the elements of mineral plant lood are there; but if we wore to
powder ibis piece of granite and try^ to grow any plant m the powder, wo
would foil in our experiment, as the plant cannot absorb a particle of the
plant food which is present, it being in chemical combmatious insoluble lu
water.
In oouieo of time the constant action of moistuie, boat, and atmospheric
mt severs these chemical combinations; the granite powder will become
gradually decomposed, the different elements of muioral plant food are
sot free, become soluble in water or in water containiug carbonic aotd
and are then ayailable and can be absorbed by tbe plant.
Precisely the same process takes place coutmually in the arable sod of
oui fields, with the difference that us the different elements of mmeral
plant food ate set free from their oheroioal onmbinationc and become
soluble in water pure and simple, or in water containing oaibouic acid
they immediately enter into a kind ot (ihysioal surfaod combination with the
porous particles of the arable soil which proveiUs them fi'om boitig washed
away and removed from Uie surface soil by rniu and draitm^'o.
If water contoiiitog m solution a certain quantity of poUsh, aodo, Jirne,
phosphoric acid, silica, Ac., is allowed to perookto throi gh a sfcratiira of
arable soil, a certain quantity of these substances will be retained by it,
entering with it into a physical surface combination; and the soil will
continue to abstract such soluble mineral plant food until its ailinity for it is
•atisded and saturation lakes place ; after this, all soluble mineral plant
food passes through without any absorption taking place.
Now the physical adluity of the soil fur mineral plant £o id in a stale of
solution .in water is greatest for potash and phosphoric acid, the two scarcest
and most important elements of mineral plant food, while its afhnil.y for
hme and silica is smallest, these being, so to speak, tbe coomioncr elements
and generally preaent in abundance. Deep well water, therefuro, always
Qoutains them, the soil permitting them to pass tluougU nuubsorbed.
Now, the rootlets of plants come m contact with and proas agiuast ibe
particles of the soil which are enveloped by the mineral plant tood that
entered into phyiioal suitaoe oombiuation with thorn; a oonstaut cliaugo
ia going ott between the cells of the rootlets and the moisture witiiout ;
osmose and exosmose oome into play, which, combined with the vital
power ef the plant, overcomes the alliuity the soil possesses for eoluble
mineral plant food; the Utter becomes again soluble in water, and is
thus absorbed by the plant.
We speak, therefore, of avavlaJbU and unavailahlo mineral plant food in
the toil—the fomec once soluble in water, bat bound by the physical
affinity of the soil; the latter still in insolublo chemical uombiuatjons with
each other, and, while tbns, unfit for plant food until by the action of mens*
tore, heat, and atmospheric air these combinations are seveieU.
It follows, therefore, that we have reasons to believe that germination and
the development of any particular plant is dopoudeul upon a oertain excess
of lime and silica, this excess mast consist of availabU lime md siUca.
U by oidinary chemical analysis we find that a soil in which kdas never
gmwa oontains 6*5 per cent, of lime and 3*2 per cent, of soluble silica, and
another eoU peonUdily favourable to the development of kdiis and over*
gtovrii wiih it is found to contain 10*6 pec centu of lime and 7*32 per cli t.
pf soluble Silica, we may reasonably suspect that this excess ot lime and
ultoa has something to do with ,the presence of kdus*, bat we canu >t
spekk positively until we know how .much of this lime and sUica is available
as food and tuduences tbe plant.
NoWiUgnomtucilohenU^y has not yet diseovoved any acd or solving
medium whleh exactly correlpetids in dissolying power to the force of
osmiMo and esofffiose oomiduod vritb yosotahla tltaUtyi U piaoUcally
I have gone into great length in expli|Suinglthe difference between avaiU
able and unavmlable plant food, as it has imporbsnt bearings upon tbe
vubivet submitted to me tor report} for on the basis of Uke rosttltsof the
experimenU detailed below,I have come to the conclusion tbat on ovsvsdturu'
itm of ihe soil with Jvatlatlc Ijrmc amjt silica, and notably latter, is
essmlial md nec€s$iiry for th$ germwation and dmlopit^nt of hdn$^
1 percolated 1,000 grains each of soils Nos. I, If and lU with very
diluti'd [ I in 100] aodtic acid couUiulng half per oent. ot hydroehlotio aidd
and 2 |.>or cent, of carbonic acid [the lavt by volume]. Having found after
many experiments that this mixtnie has very little effect upon mineral p^ant
food in chemical combination, while it dissolves nearly all available piawt
food, t do not claim this mixture to bo the exact equivalent of the force of
osmose and exosmoBC combined with vegetable vitality,! but X have every
reason to believe that the results are approximately correct and saffidently,
so far as genera! couolusiona.
The ordmaiy chemical analysis having given me the cine, 1 only estl*
mated lime and magnosia.
Forty ouiiooB of the above dcsoribed liquid oontaiuing acetic, bydrochlorfe,
and carbonic acid, wore porcoluted through a thousand grains of each
of the soils and dissolved out of** '
Lime
ililica
Soil No. I.
(Iraius.
12-2
4*1
Sod No. 11.
drains.
30-3
12*6
Soil No. 111.
Grams.
28»5
11‘9
1 farther peroolatcd 10,000 gtnius of each el those soils with two pints
of distilled water, and fonnd it abstracted from-*
Lirao
Silica
Soil No. I,
Grains*
0*6
0*13
Soil No. IJ.
Grains.
10*3
2‘d
Soil No, IlL
Grains,
11-3
2-8
The results of theae two experiments lead to the eonclnsico that there
exists a distinct peculiarity in sods No, It and No. Ill, this peculiarity
consistiog of an cversatarati .n with available lime and silica | and this
peculiarity not being shared by sod No. 1 points to such ovenaturation
as an essential and necessary Ct^ndition for the development of bdos.
This excess of Itmo and silica in soils No. II. and No, III i^ however
aocompnnlod. as auaWsis shows, by great poverty in potash and phosphovie
acid, two most importantoleHicnt!i of mineral plant food lor the majority
of our ngrioultnral prodnoe; bonce ib can be rati' naUy ooncluded that if
tliesc soils were oversatumted aV well with potash, phoSphono acid, do.,
kil’iM would not bo abb^ tooxUi iu thorn.
To favour, thoreforc, tho davelopinent of kdns. the oversatiimtion of
the soil with available limo and silioa must be aocompauied a oorres-
pouvliiii; want uf avuilablo potash and pliosphorio acid.
The analysis of the ashes of kdns shows that it is ao esseniially siLioeous
plant, silica and liikio being the olilef cunstitaeuts, ihq a^Uea oontaiuing—'
of tbe former 7b ot the latter 0‘3 per cent. The specific character of the
plaut would have comn out sharper under analysis if the jfotcsrifip plaut
lood would have boon scut to mo, as only at that period the plant eontoina
all the olomotilB oi miueial plaut food in the proportions essential to its
dHVclopmeiit and propagation, and the safest doducUona oau be made from
all analysis of tho plant ai that stage of existence.
To sum Up. kutis i-i a siliceous plant, fiouiUhiog iu soils which contain an
excess of avaiUblo liinu and silica, notably the latter, and are at tdie same
time poor iu available potash and phosphoric acid.
it will develop in such suil to an exteui precluding all oultivatiou, and
ils principal luiuoral food being lime and siltca, will take up yearly a cun-
Bulcrablo quantity oi these two Bubsbauces in their available state, and fix
them in insoluble oombmationa withm its cells. If the decomposing
action of moisture, heat, and atmospheric air is redooed to a mimmnm by
not stirnug up the soil, then very little limo and silica Will be set free to
and to tho exerss already existing} aud under these eircmnstances the
continuous growth uf kilns will absorb every year a oertain proportion of
this excess of limo and silioa and exhaust it, as (observation has shown
at the ond of ten to iifteou yuars, sootier or later, acooi>(lmg to the nataro
ot the soil.
As soon as ihis excess is exhansted, the condition essential toihe develop,
meat of kdus has ceased to exist, the weed dies out, and the land is again
fit fur cukivatiou,
If, howavtii, the laud occupied by kdns is stiived up, more lime aud
silica is reu ered available from their chemical combinations, and the
ponod duimg which kdus exhaueU the excess of those two elements of
plant food will be prolonged.
As said before, after kans has died out, the land can again be cultivated
for the ordinary crops. CuLlmtioa exposes all particles of tho surLice
B‘dl to the decomposing action ot c imaiio influonoes; limo, siliou, potash,
pbosphofle aeld, Ac., aie sot free, and rendered available to vegetable plant
Uto. The land being either altogether poor iu potash aud phosphoric acid,
or containing these elements in powoiful ohomical combiuotious not so
cagiiy decomposed as the iunc and silica combmatious, prepouderatmg
fimrnkii llil iti «xe««a df ir^
oi^ryeroi^MiawttHbi liilll Ih» mdeittd airail»bl«,
JoMber of «» of Hmo ana »iUoa m to midtoil
of kOoii^
Wtok Witt immbor of yo«n«-Mid to voiy between lii and elttbb**
wftt' iipMmilbdf WbAt otobf Ofo grotm on it.
If i4iat Of otbex elUeeotti pteote are growa* wbieh in addittoa to
pottibi pbOfiMtoriii Mid, 40., abetraet tikewiee a ootuidemble qaantiity of
tbo^eaioe Mfr free year by year, then a greater interval will elapse before
tbe land beebmei again fit forkfiait bat if noiMilieeoaa planti, aooh oa
joOr, gram^ 40^ art ralaejli trtdeh reqdre lor their growth large quantltiee
olpotaahaad^l^ioettbtdO aoid, bat very amalt qnantitiea of silica, then
tbO Und Witt become sooner fit for k&na. Mr. Mayne'e etatement, that
•omb people lay **tbait kdas followi judr with greater foroe,” adde conaider-
afatwwoi^ to the above abatraot dedootiuA.
^ OP AxaiYiia' 4r'^ Alfittf ^ ^
WOT »W|«‘^
9^ whole plaot wee oafolaliy inatiieratbiL ^ .
iOO grains of the aehaa ooataiaed-’
potash aad soda *•« ,»• d'tt
liupe •«, iH •«• b'b
Magnesia ••• ••• '•f 4
Chlonne ^ «. *.» *<* o*J'
Snlphatio acid m **• *•* ••* £,
Phoephorio acid .<< ... •« .« 8*1
Oxide of iron and alumina ... ..» ••< w 8
8 Uica <•• M« •!• *** «•* *b*o
loTo
( 8 d.) EUGENE a
NEW OOMMEHOIAL PLANTS.
The dieeatoeaeei, to whioh the appearanoe and disappearance of kdna is 1
dao il OBoe* reeogoised, the remedies are simple onongb and shcaid prove
efilofeot.
1 know nolitiffg of the lay of the Mnd on whioh kdiis grows; bat if
there was a good natnral subsoil drainage, experimonu have shown
oonolosively tliet no oversatnration of the soil with available lime and
silioa can take place. The soil possesses but feeble physical amaity tor
these two elemonte of mineral plant food, while its affinity for potash and
phosphoiio amd ia very great; and if there was a good natnral snbsoil
drainage, any exoeu of lime and silica would be at uuoe removed from
the upper ooltivatod stratnm,
1 would recommend, therefore, aa a remedy against kdns, to di am the
soil by draina 4 to fi feet deep. 2 fool wide, and 30 to 00 foot apart, and
mtbsr leave them open and then with embankments, so as to prevent
surface drainage, or cover them up with soil after having previously half
filled them toowty with stouee or brushwood.
All these drains must of coarse incliue to the open drnuiage of the country.
The soil must be loosened BO as to enable rain or irngution water to run
tiirongh it. not ever it. It may cither be hoed, or, it tho great strength of
the roots ox kdns maire that iiiipraetiusble. it should be slraight-hole l, six
or nine inches deep and six or oight inchos apart, with a crowbar or similar
•traight implement.
It IS not nacessar| to dig up the kdns, that will die of its own accord as
aoon as eabaoU drainage aotivety aets in and removes the excess of available
lime and lilioiu
Tlws opera^on sbonld be aided by spreading over the soil newly>burut 'iid
slaked lime at the rata of one to 11 ton per uore.
Any kind of kankar or Umestona can bo burnt for the purpose.
spreading the oanstic lime over the soil, it should bo lightly dug iuto it.
The greatest effect will be obtained if the land has a good lutuval or
artificial watering immetUately the lime is dug in.'
Lauds thus treated will giro doable and treble the average j udd for a
number of years, and this will amply 00 vet the extra cxp^uditute of
xeolaiming them from kdns.
It may appear sttattve to reoemmend the addition of linio to a sou „ i^ch
ia kheady too ribb in it, but in this case it is not used as a manure m ihe
narrow meaning of the word, but it is used on account of its powei fat
chemical action in its caustic state. Caustic lime will burn up tbs kiius;
decompose rapidly, and to tho benefit of succooding cro]>s, the cxcotis of
organio matter acoamnlated in the soil by the continuous growth of tho
weed; it Will set fiee from tholr chemical combimitions potush end
phosphoric acid, which are greatly wontod lU those soils, and combiuc .vitb
the available silica to an insolubto silicate of lime; while auy excess of
lime will be removed by subsoil drainage.
1 lemember an instance whioh came under my personal observation
a field in Germany being for years covered with thu oninmon scuunug rush
(ecfutaetumj to such an extent that eyuisetum seemed to bo the crop, nud rye,
which was grown ou tho field, an adventitious weed.
I may mention, u also a weed requiring largo quantities of
available silica for its sastcuanoe, its ashoa fli'guisclum kytjmieJ haviiii;
bten found to contain no less than 97*5 per cent, of silica. 1 s<av thii
field subsoil* 'raiued, aud the equuptuiu disappeared lotdlly, .is if by a
luirable. withm one year.
Appended are the results ol my au.ilysla of the thioe soils aud oi the
ashes of kdas.
1 k.ivo, &c.,
(Sd.) I'rGENE C. BCliliOTXKV.
RkBIiLTB Oy aNALYSlS OV SOILS VRIiJi Mauza Mawai Buzurg,
Paboaka Banda.
fSoil No. I, a rich clayey soil No. 11, calcareous clay soil, poor lu potash
and phosphoric acid, aubsoU cousiMtingof clay aud kaukar; ^ull No. 1X1
same class of soil and subsoil as No. 11 . No subsoil was seut of No, 1 ).
100 OHAINH CONTAIN OB
Wo f.
P^tld^■ <.1*1,
never atf> octd
with kAua.
' Wo. TI.
Field Wo, 410, not
ciiltivatod aud Ja
overgrown Vrith
kuus.
No ni.
Fit'ld Wo, 438,
niWi:xiti>' groviu
ita ktius.
Organic matter and wa*^ of
cutnbliiulion
1-tO
8'J!1
6'SO
Totasb and Bo.iA os ohloratea
&ud aaiphates
)-^'8
o*»c
0'88
UiQb oarbonalo .* ..
0^60
10 rw
S'OO
JgagiMsSa do. .« .. «•
QSO
uso
0‘60
I'hu^phono aoul . • •» •
OiS
OlJ
OIS
Oxide of Iron and (damlna •.
(.'18
8 iO
102(1
Soluble »iUca .
Clay and Bond tuaolnblo in
bydroclurki acid ••
8*20
T82
8 20
tS'Sl
«4M1
08-53
lod'oo
lOO-OO 1
l0‘j ^
M b. THOMAS OHUISTr, F. L, 8 ., is indefatigable in brlngfog these
to public Dorioc. In pamphlet No. 2, ho gives an aocoant ef
Gyuooardia Odorata, the Chaulmugra tree, the seeds of wbloh yield ap
oil(Uhaulmugra oil), which has long been known aud valued in India
far the ouio of leprosy and allied diseases. We ace told that
Ohaulmagra Oil is now being used in Bt. Peter's Hospital, Bernsvi
Street ; the Infirmary at Margate ; in tho Boyal Hospital for diseases
of the chest, City Bond; in St. John’s Hospital, Leicester Bqnare, and
other lloapitals, and by several leading members of the medioal
XiTofession in London.
Next we have an account of ^ogePs African robber tree, Ur0itisnna
vogeln miq„ of'Which we are told
The tree will grow near the sea at an elevation of 50 to 60 feet above
sea level, b it does not flomish well in marshy ground.
The eastf with wbicb the plant is propagated, its hardiness In sea afr,
aud the excellent quality of the rubber whioh it yields, render this a
desirabSe species for cultivation in the lowlands of southern India and
Ceylon ; also in Java, Snmatra, Penang and Siam.
The mahwah tree {Jiassia Boteti) forms the snbjeot of the
next article. From time Imtuemurial. an intoxicating drink has been
made ill India from the flowers of tbia tree. More iuterestfug Is it to
know that the sugar which leads to fermentation makes the flowers
valuable for food. Listen
The flowers are produoed in enurmous quantities in March and April,
after the old leaves have fal Ion and before the new loaves have appeared ;
the crop rarely iaiU. The fleshy flowers fall off and cover the ground
beneath the trees,and are gaihered eagerly by tbe natives every morning
during the floweriug season ; a single tree yields from 200 to 100 lbs.
weight of flowers. These flowers are stored as a staple article of food by
the Bheols audotbei tribes, and so valuable do they consider these
trees, that m time of war the threat of cutting them down generally
reduco^ them to submission when nuruly.
The iiowers when dried have somewhat tho odour and appearanoo of
Buitttoa raialna. Lately examined by a French chemist, M. Petit, they
were fuuud to coiituiu half lUeir weight of sugar, aud ore therefore very
nourishing.
Ia a paper recently read before the Linntean Society by Mr,
Lockwood, that geiitlemau stated that wild auimals of many kinds
troop eagerly to the mshwah trees during the seasoQ to feed on the
flowers. He was therefore led to experiment upon domestic animats,
and it was found that tho flesh of pigs fed upon mahwah flowers in
this country was much improved and acquired a delicate flavour. The
animals so ted rapidly came iuto condition. Again
The tree thrives m poor stony ground, and might therefore be
cuilivated on land not available for other crops. 80 regular is the yield
of flowers, ibat it is said a bad mahwah harvest has never been known
ill India. I'hc flowers when dried will keep for almost any length of
time, and do not appear to bo attacked by insects.
From the ^eds au oil is extracted by the natives } it is used for
lighting par ^oses and for soap-making. The smoke arising from the
burning of th<^ oil*oakc, after expression of the oil, Is said to be polsonoas
to rats, Ac.
The mahwah tree, then, affords a means of obtaining an
almost unlimited mpply of food, both for man and l^asi^ a food
which will keep a great length of time m any natoial temperature, and
which requires no trouble to procure, and no outlay in cuttivatien*
The tree readily propagates itself by seed which, iu lodia, la usually
self‘Sown,
Aa of special local interest we quote In full the notice of cacao
TlmhrovM CaOM,
11 ia not generally known that the flavour of cocoa depends upon
two thiugs ;--flrBt the nature of the soil, and secondly, tho pre«
paratiou of the alb after it ia taken out of the fruit.
The finest 0000 a in the world is grown ou one farm in Gaatemala
but the natives pay saob a high price for it, that tlmro is only a smalt*
quantity exported for experiment or. occasionally, as a ouriosity. 1 am
informed by a geutieman holding laud withm a mile of this farm, that
they cannot grow such a fine quality or anything approaching it. Beed
obtained from this farm has been grown in oth«ii localities without anv
better result than from ordioary seed. ^ ^
The Triiiidad cocoa commands a high price in the market; iild att
aoooiuit of (he mode of preparation of theaih idlLthvM«e, bi of
inimcikteoil growea. . * ,
- 'I - Usti^K^ u'mli^i^i l*^ UmiP
ii^f<^l»»M^itWlitod<»^Qott9«%iip«i^^ fk^ nibs
«rtJ^^blEiitl P9{liottlid pile and dried Id the edn; add dteeraardi
‘ld«akt*i^<^tl<lkdedrdiee, Tb!^ treattqent baakee % dptrence ia the
:||^(d6iM0ii« between 60#« and l<]^s, pec owt: Ordidatjr qooba ii only
wmwnied for three daya The fermeutatioa take*' aat the belter flavor,
i^wpaafarda #11! pay every high price (or epeelatty cured cocoa.
Fhor aud email eebda oanooi support the aame amount of fermentatioa
that largt; Ht, round uibs will. Tua fermeutatlou deetroyt Ota geim oE
refetatloo, wud premia the uib from growing muaiy.
I tovehad great aaooua with the live aead collected lu Trinidad and
oh Weit Ooaet of Afl'ioa, repacked in my own warehouBe in Londoui
and re*fhlpped to Ceylon and Batavia where It haa arrived in good
orderi p^kea in earth and moss In Wardian cases.
h will be eeeu that the Quality o£ Oocoa, equally with tea, depends on
parethllermentation. It remains to be seen whether the kind of bean or
properties of soil have greater influenoa as to goodness of results.
SBensseganBaaesan
OONBITION OP THIS MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
append an extract from the Foreign correspondent at Madras of
*' the Ji^rMtural Gazette, of December 2;)rd, 1878, which may
be found interesting
That the agrionltoral condition of this TreBldenoy is in a deplorable
State, no one who has studied the returns of cropping and stock
which are available can donbt. From the former ft may astound you
to hear that of the area of crops raised.
76‘2 per cent, are cereals.
fl'2 „ pulses.
12*8 „ induHtrial crops.
2 0 „ garden crops.
The garden crops are the only ones which are regularly and
systematically manured; a small portion of the corcal crops also
oocasionally reecivela small quota of fertilizing substance, besides what
paddy crops get in the shape of the silt, Sec., brought to them in the
water used for irrigating them. The industrial crops may bo ctassifled
as follows
Cotton 46*8 per cent, ofithe area occupying them.
Oilseeds 43*6 ,, „ „
Other crops 2-4 „ „
If we classify all the crops as oxbanstive and resiorativi', nuppoaing
that they arc properly need, the resuKs will bo something as follows *—
SxhauBtive crops occupy 98*4 por cent, of the culitvatod area.
Bestorativo crops occupy 6*6 do. do.
There are, howoror, about 6,000,000 acres of land left idle, •* waste,”
annually ; the total area under ciop being about 23 6 million acres ;
this land is not fallow, but eimply left uncropped for a time. There
is, besides the land left “waste," about 1,000,000 acres of land rolm-
qulshod by the tenants annually, which will no longer produce lorauuera-
tive crops j the area annually relinquished has boon rapidly luureasiiig
of late years, and in this is to be seen confirmatory evidoaoc of the
belief in the exhausted condition of our Indian soils, which has, of
late years, been gradually growing so universal.
Bogatding the live-stock of the ^ountry, it may not be uninteresting
to note the follow mg figures for live-stock per square mile of terri¬
tory j—
Cattle. Sheep and goats.
Great Britain
... 06*G
3250
Belgium
... 109-4
08*9
France
... 67-2
1.31-3
Madras Preaidenoy
... 931
76*9
If wehlso take into consideration the diminutive size of Inlian stock,
the small number maiutsined is very striking. If the total nnuibei
of livestock in this Presidency, aooorduig to the latest roturus—those
I?'fit®'.*’/ .liMp «.fqu»l to
one bullock. It will be found that for every 100 aores of arable laud
there are only 44 head of cattle to provide ploughing power, breed-
ing stock, and manure. The stock per aore deoreased in the 15 years
befoTO 1872 by over 10 pet cent. During the same time the average
area tilled by the plough decreased by nearly IG per cont..*-very
probably owing to the deterioration of the ploughing cattle The
area ^ the ouUivated land, ou the other hand, durlog the'same
period, moteased by over 17 per cent, showing that the natural ffrazmu
ot the country were reduced by "nOar‘y
of ploughing catde increased during tho
7? cows decreasod by nearly U per cent. Whether
Iftt following years has been oommensuraie Ido
quinquennial returns, from
llghiof day! ^gwwfor previous years, have not yet seen the
JSS.*** In Indian agriculture to
«*<»*-** I*** lo to* imkm
\ ApropQ$ o£ trees/* krrltee n' dp^epohdeut tu, ilm botitkem
presidency, there is pne whi^ I ougUt to bo plant^ in
every garden in Madras. Itiethp a native of
Balt swamps on the coast of Malabar ahd eommmt In ,ibe Maldlve
and Laccadive Isles. It flourishes «xoeedin{(ly well in Ma^ruBy end
I think, nothing epn be more refreshing than the whitoi fragrant
flowers with their deep, shining green leaves. SUrttbs Of the wax*
flower plant also grow easily eud well liere ; ito flowers are of a
wonderfully pure, soft white, are goneralLy double and flragrmit
during the night. The large flowered Cryptostegia, a fine twtomg
shrub is doubly useful; it makes very think high hedges,aod yields
a fine, strong fibre, resembling wax. It is ornamental too ; X know
nothing prettier than its large, soft, rose-coJoured, bell-ahaped
flowers which Jook exceedingly well with a hack ground of deep-
greeij near tlio snowy wax plant, and the cool white sprays of the
(krbmi Odalhm, All these three species I have mentioned require
httlti coaxing, and iiourisU with comparatively little oare,. which
is a great consideration. They can stand rain, dry heat and hot
winds wonderfully, and the stormy, chaogeablo weather we havb had
lately has little eftcct, as far as 1 can see, ou those sturdy growths.''
Ktkawberry rLANTs .—a supply of strawberry plants, of a new
spocios, was lately rooeivod by the Doverumont from New Bontli
Wales, and ordered to be sent to the Buperlnteudent of the Botani¬
cal Gardens, Ooty.
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL
BOCIETY OF INDIA.
Tfm usual MuaWy Qen&ral Mmitty ioas fin TAttrsday, the IM
Daecmber 1878,
The Hon'blo L, B, Juokson, O.l.B., President, in the Uhalr.
Thd prooeednigs of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen wore elected Members
Messrs. Waller Euaggs, Edward fioarlb, Baboo Grija PrOtunnO
Mookerjoe, and the Hon'blo Mr. Jaatloe Wilson.
The names of the following gentlemen were submitted as desirous ok
joining the Society
T. T. Leonaid, Esq., Bangalore,—proposed by the Secretary, seconded
by Mr. W. H. Cogswell.
The Manager. Lailacherra GardeD,Oacbar,— proposed by the 8eore-»
tary, socondud by Mr. J. E. Macblachlan.
W. St, Clair Grant, Ksq., LaLipore Concern, Bhaugnlpore,—propose d
by Mr. G. 11. Grant, seconded by the Secretary.
Manager, Paikpara Estates,—proposed by the Secretary, seconded by
Mr. Cogswell.
i.'tyiH/ufd—Msjor W. Franklin, 2-Hih Begiment, Laoknow.
CONTIUBUTIONS.
1. The hidian Fvrt'stt!)*, No. 2, of Vol, 4. From the Editor.
2. Piooeedings of the Agricultural and HorticoUural Booiety of
Madras for past three years. From the Sooiety.
3. Kupuit on the lutetnal Trade of Bengal for 1877-78. From
Govorumeut of Beugiil.
4. A Wardian oaso of plants. From the Acolimaliaatlon Societv
of Queensiaud. ^
Oardsk.
The Gardeners monthly report was read, of which the following are
extraciB
*' Tho work done has been somewhat similar to last month. Koad-
xnakirig, and repairing, tidying op flower garden, 4cc. The only two
lemuiuing Vi.aUis we have, have been engaged amongst the roses,
piopagating house, and potting.^
Jiesolwd, that renewed ellorts be made to secure (he services of at
least six good tiMlaes, though it may be diffioulc to do so as the demand
lor lliia class appears to exceed the supply.
. Mr. Gieuaou submita reports on the oondif ion of (wo Wardian cases
of plants looeired from *kio Boianlo Garden, Singapore, and from tho
Gnutiusiaud Aoclimatisatiao Society. Of the fotmer (40) nine have
died : of the latter (69) seveuteou have died.
It was resolved that the Annual Exhibition of flowers aod vegetablee
be held on Tuesday, the 28th January, and the details eui/mitted by the
Council were agreed to. Due notice to be given by advertisement
early next month.
In respeot to the provision of vegetable and flower seeds fpr next
year, il was resolved that the orders be oonfioed to England and
America, aa those imported this year from France end Germany, have
not beeu generally well reported on.
It WAa foriher agreed that a cot lection of bulb# and tubms bo Im¬
ported to due scisoa from England, to be disposed of to Members at
coat price} also orumaental plants and fruit grafts ou due security
biitig |iv«n by applioaats at to the emount of edit of iht aautti
iS8
THE
Ee^rutiry 1, l$tf*
The Ooaoell euhttitled the malt ot their eo^eevonrs le tha peit tero
yeere toirefdli the eagegemeet of a praotioel eatomologiit la ooaeee*
tioo with blight of firtoef kladi aff ictlag tea ptanta. Sararat refereneea
both bj oiroaUreed periooal applioattoQ bad beao made to raHoUf
ageata ooaneeteil with the tea Iniaatry. Soma bad readli/ promleed to ^
Bupporttheaohemet providid oihen wjuld agria to do ao. Aa bow-
eveff mae/t though apparently well iuoUtiel, would not oomi to any
definite oaderetandlng, the OattnoU now aeggaaied with regret, that the
projeet be abandooed. JStsolv«4f that tbe recommendation of the
Oouaoil be adopted
KOTIOg OV A PSJULllR PXNS-APFHK F3QU tl*
The Beoretary read the following extract of a letter from a lady
correspondent on the abore snbjeot
I enoloss yon a very hasty itcetoh of a molt peoahar pine apple.
It was grown iomewhero In these parts and brought in a dike to onr
Ooltector who gave it to me. 1 was inoliuo l to think it wai a Lumr
in vegetable itfor bathe said bo thought n<Tf, anl subieqatsat
eaqolrjr eeems to confirm this. We bear that one year iereiiteen were
brought from the same piaoe, and another year twelre, and 1 ha ire been
promised a plant of this peculiar pino'beariag species 1 bare not
exaggerated one whit, the centre pine was much orer a foot lung,
iapormg downwards and terminating in wbat looked Jike three fingers.
These were nothing but the pine itself extending a little way. (the
upper and thicker part of the fingers so to speak) the thinner part being
embryo leaves tetminatlng in a lUtIa tuft. From the top sceen smaller
pines projeoted, each terminated by a tnft of leavai. 1 would hare
Bent yon this had it bean possible; bates I feel aura yo'i would be
gladto hear of it, 1 have desoribed itas well aa I could. 1 must tell
you that It poasesstd tbe full scent of the pine, and when one of tbe
smaller ones «hroko the juice literally ran from it, Hare you ever
heard of sneh a species? Pines are so oommou in the surrocadtug
districts that thsy are used for making bedges. We are going to plant
alt the tulta from off the little pines, or shall 1 call them pmelets ?
We bang it op by the stalky hence my desoribiag the stalk end as the
top,”
The Secretary added that he bad oommanloatod with Mir. John Scott,
in reference to the above letter, and he had obligingly recorded the
following remarks
** 1 have ocoasionally seen fruits ot the pine-apple very si miliar tu
that of which you send me the sketch and desoripliou from yo ir
correspondent. The gorosU form of fruit (as reprosduiei by ihe pine¬
apple, the bread-fruit, and mulberry) consists an you know of a
shorlecad spike or raceme in which tbe tracts nod fioral envelopes are
more or less snoouleot, united, and converted into a fleshy fruit.
Now, as in the ease above referred to, some varieties have a (en^ieucy
to become proliferous, and tho individual flowors form separate' md
indetiendent fruits. X may remind you of the Chinese variety, kuvwn
AS the many*headed pine, in which the individual flowers are all
converted Into miuiature, but perfect fruits, each, as well as Ibo l eDtrai
axis, boariug a terminal leaf shoot.
'’Yont correspondent’s variety differs considerably from this, as
would appear from the sketch and deaenpUon. It would be well worth
addiug to your colleotion."
CUWOUS nOBTlOHLTtrCAL ClJtOUMHrANCB.
liead the following note from Colonel W. 11. Lowther
*'For some years past X have been eadcavoiiriag to hybridise that
beauitiful OanvoviUmf Ipomosartilbfo mrutMt (the true blur) with Us
white variety, 1 obtained the seeds of the latter while I was at JubbuU
pore, and have for several seasons sown the two mixed tugether, Vrithoul
any results m variegation, or tho origiuai:atioii of any ranetiou : this
cold season to my astonishment, tho produce of these repeatedly usho>
mated colours, has ended in tho whole of my stock being pure whua!
The plants are very vigorous, and are growing lu all uRpeois, sunny,
and shady, and in the same noU quality of soil. The ilL^wers are tull
sized, and are frequently mistaken by Btrangers for tho “ MooiiUjwer”
ilpomcsa grand^ora)^
** Is there any reoogmzed law of ' Vegetable Physiology’ whioh can
show a to\ lenoy to tuo ‘ Albino Type V
Note by Hr, John, Scott ,—*' W.th referciice tir the results of Culonol
Lowther’s experiments in the annual mungreil/iug ot the whde and blue
flowered varieties of Ipommcirubro cenruira, 1 am not at all surprised,
Both in the animal and vegetable kingdom it is well known ; that
albinism isstrougly inherited, lu treat.ug of miioiUanoe lo piaucs Mr,
X>arwin obserros. that it is a sia>^,uiar nu.mmstauce that white
varieties generally trausmit then colour much more truly than other
varieties. This fact probably stands m close relal.on with one observed
by Yerlot, namely, that flowers winch are normally white rarely vaiy
into any other colour.' *1 have found,' continues Mr. Darwin, * that
the white varieties of tho Larkspur and the Stock are tan truest, It
16 , indeed, sutfloieut to look through a nurseryman’s seed-list, to see
the large number of white v^^ieties that can be propagated by seed,”
" These remarks of Mr. Darwin's have, however, mainly lolatiou to
natural variatioos, while Co’ uel Dowthei’s case is ij result of
luongtoliBtu. Now, in this as u hybridism, there ib nearly in every
lUMtaucc IpomrsA rubro a strong u.udeucy evinced in the successive
progeny oi such uuloua to revert to one or other pareut, so the oteruka
case goes to show that as in tho iuheritanoe of natural albinism, so in
that ot moDgrclism the albino form is tbe more strongly luUoritabie,
As an analogous caie, 1 may observe ihei Jpoturpa purpuiea, which has
given rise to varieties varying from blue to dark purple, crimsen and
white, there is a great teudenoy, when grown togptu«r tor sueoesJve
seaBons, iu the wnite variety to predominate, and indeed attctuately
displace all the others. On the other hand there is no difficulty in
keeping up the several varioUes when grown separately, so that the
former reiuU is no doubt largely attributable to iateroroBsmg by
insects,”
FiBktS OH HUbAOHBA OArrT.VTA.
Head a letter from J. N. O’Conor, of the Department vonnh*
forwarding a sample of hmw the
«t Malwir m4 MU to Uu l»jr l>t.
Agriottiture and Commerce,
Malavhrtt capMa pret>«rfid
(Mr. O^Oeoor's nates ou ttiU fibre are iaiertod in the lilt pnbUkked
number ot the Joutual, Vot V., Fart ^
The Secretary intimated that the Membtri of the Fibre Odmiaittee
had exemiuod the above sample and suhoiitud the foUoiviag ttmarke
thereon;— ^ .
hfiitttkby Mr. S. B iZiWar ia,—” t havenodbflht this fibre would
prove a god substitute for jute for m'wt purpoies (q which Jote.ie
applied: but it seems rather mire hvrsh ant its spltming qualiUei
should be tested in cue or tW3 Juts Mills before gifiug a very deoistve
opiuiou. To ascertain whether It wodtd prove emuomteally a puhtM-
iube for jute, wa should require to know the yield of fibre pw heegah
or aera and ths cost of caltlra^ion and manufaetuve/'
Minute by Mr, W, H, This sample Is heautlfolty bright
and oleaa, fair length and goo I Strongth of staple, hnt somewhat
harsh. 1 doubt if it would make a gool warp yarn in itself, hut mixed
with good jute U would do so. The fibre for apinnlng !• not so valnajhio
as jute, it lacks the Corked ends, when broken, such as the latter posses¬
ses, and partakes of the character of the fibre known as' Mesbta.'
whioh, when broken, looks as though it had been out and left with
square ends.”
" Before its value as a apiualng fibre could be fairly assessed in com¬
petition with ]ute, it would ba neodful to show oost of produoUop, out¬
turn per baegah, Ac,” Letters were read—
BVoot Director, Department of Agrlunltara ond Oimmsrce, N.-W. P.,
sabmitcing for an opinion a small specimen of oolored seeded ootipo
raised in the Etawah district from seed brought from Maoda. This
specimen being too small for sfitUfactory examination, a farther and
larger auantity has been applied for. The seed has been sown iu the
Sooioty^a Garden.
From J. F, Duthie, Bq., Siperintendent ot Botanic Garden
Baharnnpore, forwarding seven different gpecimoni of cotton raised in
the garden. Riforred tu Cotton Committee.
From U. L. LiMasnrior, Esq., Minister of Publio Works in Kgypt,
applying for seeds of jute and notes on ouUlvation thereof, Complied
with.
Mr, LeMosdrier Applies for seeds of various other nsefal plants whioh
he wishes to introduee mto Cairo. This request is receiving attention.
From '.0 Assistant Director, Royal Girdens, £ew, rotarnmg thank,
for bac’i numbers of tho Society’s proceedings.
From Liio deoretary, Agricultaral and ilortiouUnral Society, Madras,
Returning their tnanks for Journal, Vol. V,, Part 4.
For the above cummnnications and presentalions tbe best thanks of
the Sooioty were accorded.
BOTANICAL GARDENS AND PARKS IN THE
NEILGHERRIES.
W B make the following extract from Mr. A. Jamieson’s intereslaag
Bepott on tiio Progress and Condition of the Oovernmont Botaaioal
Gardens and ParL'^ on the NcilKherncs for the ycar.l877-7g
Dm mg the past yen. r 740 fruit troes, timber trees, 10,084 ornamental
trees, siirubs aud budding out plants, 5,063 packets oi vegetable aud flower-
secds, GU bouquets nud 111 baskets of out-flowers were sold from the
gardens.
Attcution still continues to bo direclod to the cnltivatiou and
iiupn^vmneut of potatoes OM tho Hills. The notes compiled and published
by m iiuguat last have been widely oirculated among caUivators, and
it is 1 . 0 t>od that by adhering to tho simple rules therein laid down, soihe
good mav rdsiiU. Upwards of 50 maunds of healthy seed potatoes were
distcibatod from tbe gardens gratis among European and Nativo onltivatocs
in quautities varying from ono to four maunds. The OoUoaiaand Mooigar
foportoJ that those supplied to him wore a total failure. A report to the
same offec. was received fiom a planter at Kulhutti who was supplied with
a similar quantity, but thurf can be no doubt that the non-sucoess in the
first lustonco was enliroly die to llieir having been planted ou unsuitable
laud. Tbu unosually wet autumn of last year was also much against the
produeli'^n ot potatoes of good quality. The entire crop on the llllls having
been mor or Icjs affected by disease, especially where planted on heavy
low-lyma ianda, sixteen maunds of the most improved kinds wore imported
from Ausi.^diathis spring. Theae arc now iu ths ground and look exceed¬
ingly prou.isiug not having shown the slightest sign of being affected by
disease. T leir produce will bo plautwd again in October, so wo should
have at Icsrt lOO maunds of sound seed available for distribution in the
spiing of ne year.
J-tdder PI lu November last SO lbs. of seed of Serghum Saceharatum
and 2 ) Ibs.o’ PuT.ter’s fnend (Sorghum K'tpj.riwn) were rocoived through
tho Commi«io«ot of tlio Ncilgherries from tho Saporintendent, Goverument
Faims, Madras. This seed was distributed in quantities of I and 2 Ibis, to
planters and others on the Hills and m Wynaad interested in the cultivation
of fodder-yielding plants, eomo of whom have reported favorably on it as
Will be seen from the annexed extract from letters received from them. A
small quantity of each was sown in the Ootacomand and Kulhutti Gardens
and in Sim’s Park, Ooonoor. Tuat sown in tho Ootacamuud Garden djd not
thrive, the climate being evidoutly much too cold for it; that which was
sown at Kulhutti and m Sim’s Park has thriven admirably, and is now
boariug a heavy crop of gram. This acclimatised seed will be distributed
or further experiment this autumn.
Cuseo Afaiee.—About 12 lbs. of seed (raised in Sini’a Park, Ooonoor) of
this valuable maize was distribnted last year. It has proved a great
success on Uie Nailgherries when grown at elovations varying from to
fl,0c0 leeti but when grown at lower elevations, it fails to pzoduoe grain, and
is valuable in Wynaad as a green fodder plant only. Being kich in laeokarioe
ttuittifs tt U gNedily bg all khidi of oatUei
IfWy i] U70.
A^EICtJETCfl^lST.
50
S^tnUt^ ym » quarter ot «u Aar« <!l tlu narsenoa
WM^evoUd tothf jpirodncUonof seed of tbb V4dd»lii« Wa 5 e 6 d
kM boeveti^GiifdvolydlafnbutedtandAllwIio hftTeroeeiTj^U (with bat ono
o«e 0 |)tioo) ipOAk ci it in th« highest torme both M t table vegetable and
Af gveea oattie^fodder. The native gardanere aibond Ooteoemund are now
growing it largely and geom to End a ready tale £09 ii ui the local warkoi.
There ie not the eligbest doubt, but it U the heaviest oropping and most
Vslnable cattle«fodder jet iattodne^ to the Neilgherriea*
trUU^ Cmjnyj^k piece ol welLmanared ^ound, 80 yax’ds broad and
40 yards in lont^th, wae plontod with Prickly Oomfrey in Juno ,1877, but I
regret to eay, that the foregoing remarka on Suutaog cabbage cannot be
equally applied^ this plant During the wins and on highly •manured
land it yields a fair quantity of fodder, but during the dry weather (or'when
fodder is most valuable) it ceases to produce leaves. It [seems to mo to
require a long season of rest and even irrigation, and any amount of good
treaimmit will not induce it to grow during the dry season* Many planters
in Wynaad and on the NoUgbortiee, who at considerable expense imported
and planted it largely, have now abandoned its cultivation os a total failure.
The following few extracts from letters received from planters on tbo above
aabjects may be interesting.
From J, Byan, Esq., Plantor, Cherambndy:
*The Cusco znajse seed you kindly gave mo was sown on the 28ih Decem¬
ber and germinated in five days. It grows luxuriantly, but bears very
sparingly i the eats seemed.fuU, but consisted chiefly of fibrous coveriug.
1 have preset Tod the seed to sow again. The sorghum w'as a great success
and boro a rich fold. 1 hope to plant a small field ot* it this season. TUo
Santung cabbage grew freely, but with all my care X could not succeed in
keeping the ants and insects from it. I shall be thankful for any hints
regarding its onUivation you can kindly give me'*
From Mr. £. J. DeMeder, coffeo planter, Kartary:
** Tbo Cuaco maizo seed you snppiied mo with last 3 ear was all put
down in my estate at Kartary ; every seed germinaLed to perfection, and
the plants grew to about 0 feet high and the cobs were about a foot long
and quite full. I had every hope of seeing a fine specimen of maize, and it
was my intention to have sent you a few of the cobs when they were ripe,
but nnlortunately they were all stolen by some of the coolies and 1 could
not got a single cob."
From £. C. Q. Brace, Esq,, Planter, Kotagin:
*' (a,) Cuzco MatVe.'—X sowed tl>o first lot you gave me about the middle
of last year. It grew remarkably well, and T have an average of two good
cobs of seed to each plant; unforlnnately they nponed their gram m the
midst of the north-cast mousuou. Thsio is no doubt but it requires u well-
worked aud lieavily> 4 nanured soil, if it is to be grown to advantage, and 1
think if sown so as to oome into tassel at the commeuoement of the dry
weather, then out, dried aud stacked as oholum stalks are in the low country,
it would cut with au ordinary chaJl-cutting maohine aud aiTura n largo
quantity ot most nutritious food for cattle during the dr}'^ months ol Liio your.
X tried a small sowing witli the twu sorghums thm spring, batPudaga oatllc
got in at it aud never gave it a chance while there was a blade left; they
mould nvt touch the sorijhum growing alongside. It struck mo as resistiug
the drought better than oommem lUAtze, 1 tried a sowing of Sorykum
saoefutiOtUM^d Sorghuni hijjiarium in early iipring; though constantly
wateiod they did nut make any satisfactory growth until the fall of tUo
spring showers, and of course having been stunted at the outset, never runic
to much ; at favorablo seasons, say from April to November, and vUh deep 1
oulUvatiou and plenty of manure these ioddcc plants will giow well, but
Guinea and MaunUus gross, ordinary Lucerne, or the new American vaueby
will do mutih better at a far loss cost.
** (bj New A7amcan Lucerne (/D/al/a).—1 put down a small patch of
this with the very Hist showers in rows 9 Luchos apart and G inches iu tho
rows, lu spite of being constantly fed down by stray cattle it is dotog well;
when 1 groit it again it will be in row Id ruches at least apart aud i foot iu
the row. It appears to mo to bush ont far more than the ordinary variety.
“ fc.) Santuny Cot^oqfi.—Witli Cuzco maize grown, as I huve above
suggested, the most useful and the heaviest yielding plant yet introduced.
Eaten greedily by horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats nod poultry, 1 told you
last year that 1 had grown them to 5 lbs., at 2' X 2*. Tins spring 1 gicw
two rows grown 18 iuohes apart aud 1 foot between the plants. 1 pullod
two average plants growuig side by aide and thuy weigheil Q\ to 8 & lbs.
respeoUvely} not the slightest doubt but that it sbuuds dry woathpr butter
than any of the maizes or Sorghums, and will give a remuuetjtivo yield even
on unmmured soil, I am quite certain that m a single year heavy crops iu
succession of Buckwheat, Bautung cabbage and Cuzco maizes could bo taken
off a plot of fairly well-oultivated land with ease. Buckwheat grows
remarkably well with me here. I hope this season to commenco the cultiva¬
tion of 8 at any rate, but 1 hope nearly 20 acres ot nsariy flat land with
fodder plants of all kinds, and in this cose 1 shall be glad to havo a little of
yonv wheat-seed for trial. 1 should be very much obliged if you would got
me a few sets of Ream Imunant for trial.** A
From J. Cameron, Esq., Superinteudeut, Government Botanical Gardens,
Buiigaloi^e i
have the honor to submit brief report ou the results obtained at
Bangalore from the eulUvation of the ** Bantung oabbage" of which you
were good enough to present me with a packet of seed on the S2ua August,
1877, BmaUpaekots of the seed anppUed ware again distributed by me to
Messrs. Kagapah and Moohesairmy, FloicUts at Mangalore, tor trial iu their
gardeas. My se^ were fowa bteadOMt shortly lafterjtho date,*;of, ihoir
Frceipt, and they germinated iu about eight days very profanely. TUr
Bubsequent growth of the seedlings was r 4 piil and vigorous, exoocdisg thal
of either lettuce or cabbage at the same stage. Tbe young plants werf
transplanted into drills 2 feet apart to be finally tested as a culinary vegeiu^
hie when full grown, but it ooenrred to toO while this was in progress, that
if the young tender plants wore bUnehed ih the same manner as Endive ol
sea-kale, an excellent salad would be produced, t rogrot. however, tba
more urgent work prevented me from ooiryiiig this expOTlment into elfoot
When the Bantung eabhage were full grown (an^ they were very large
reeomhling a giganti^ Cos lettuce) we had them cooked in the same wa^
as spinach, niincod up and boUed for a much longer period thai
cabbages generally are. X presented, specimens to a few of the leodiui
residents lu Bangaloro with directions to pook them like spinach, and the^
Without exoeption pronounced the vegetable a success.*'
Now ffanfr.—A considerable number of new and valuable plants hav
been added through exchange and purchase to the garden coUection duriuj
the past year f the most important being a collection of upwards of sixty
species and varieties of New Zealaud forus. These were purchased through
Captain Campbell Walker from a nursery man in New Zealand, and Witl
the exception of some tree ferns arrived bore in oxoelleut order, and are uov
cst<tbiishod and growing well in the gardens.
A small packet of seed of tho true Cinchona Calisaya var i Ledymanu
wad received from Major Beikelcy ; from this seed 12 plants wore raised
These have bqeu increased by outtlngs to 57 ; a portion of these have beei
promiBod to Major Berkeley, bub 1 hope to increase the stock largely bj
cuttings, BO that u, good number of plants of this valuable cinchona may bo
available for distcibotiou next planting season, *
In tho spring ul lust yem a gentleman resident in Wynaad sent me a smal
ease of Liberian colfec. As ho had no experience m the raising of this ooffot
from sood, bo asked mo to gormumto them foi him m the gardeu propngatini
houboa. This I agreed to do, and succeeded in raising 410 plants, 350 0
which wore sent to the owner. Of tlie lonuimng CD, 80 were plaubed n
the Burliur Garden, 17 distributed to planters in different parts of IL|
FroBidency, aud the reuifunder are now m the propagsUng-houso m thi
garduus.
As directed b y G. O., No, 8,0C0, dated 2nd October 1877, four Wardian casot
coiitiuiiing ocouomic plants, and one case of seeds were forwarded lu March
IttMt Lo Messrs Nmol and Co., Bombay, for truusmissioa to the, LiringBtouni
Mission in Central Afiion. Tho cases oontzmed^
Cinchona Bucoirubra and C. Condominoa
Tea ABsun Hybrid
Coffeo Arabica. ...
[ Orangti ...
Leechee
Nutmeg ...
I Ciunumou ...
Jalap tubers ... ...
Ipecacuanha ... ... ...
in addition to a large parcel of ciuoUoua and lowmountry seeds sent by
Df. Bidio. The gardens supplied seods of twelve varieties of A natrahon
Eucaljpti and Aoacia Jalap Taraxioum, Digilulis, Cuzou Maize, Sfintuug
Cabbage, firaZil Chm-ry aud the Hill Guava 01 Goosberry. The pj.iiits and
aoeds weio securely packed, end it may bo hoped tUa tho greater portion of
them will reach Africa in good ordoi.
A casQ of Nuilghcni oichids, ludigonoua tree, and shrub-soods, was sent to
A. Lascelics, Ksip, Welliuglou, Now Zealand, in oxchange for Arancams
nud New Ze<*liiud plants aud seeds.
A purcol of outUugs of Uheea (JJo/imeia ntvea) was supplied to the
Madras Municipality lor tn.kl on their Bewago Farm.
Monsicui' riene. Director of the Botanic Uardeus, Btiigou, visited tbo
OotaCcimuud Gardons lu Dooembor last, and was supplied with a compute
collection of spocimens of tho diflercub speoies aud varieties of cinchona
cultivated on the Noilghorues, aUo with u number of spccimous of tbe
indigenous shola trees.
A case of scions of the finest kinds of apples, pears and plums, cultivated
in Australia was imported this season for tho purpose of graftma stocks in
tho gardens, but unfortunately they wore ail dead when they arrived hore,
having been packed iutoo green a state. Another attempt wlU he made to
introduce them this season.
Tho catalogue ot rimltor trass, shrubs, aud flowenng plants, Ac., foe sale at
the gardens has been ctirefully revised aud 200 oop.oa printed. They can be
had gratis ou application at the garden oflico.
ifeiliomal Gardens.—Uorly iu 1877 proposals were made to Government
by tho Burgeon-Gvneral, Indian Medical Department, pointing out tbo
de»iiability of esiabiishing & garden for the cultivation of such medicinal
plants 08 wore likely to thrive ou th3 Neilgherries, wilhaviewbi reducing the
Home charges for dregs. Under G.O., Ho. 432, dated Brd April 1877, funds
were allotted and meosaros taken to start an cxperimeotal garden. For
this parpose a piece of land adjoining the cinchona planlatiou at Dodabetts
was taken up, fenood and drained, and is being planted up us fast as
plants are avedlablo.
Operatiottfl were commeflosd by propagating tho hardier kinds* v.-;.. Jalap,
Peppermint, Digitalis, Ebub.irb. Taraxicum, Lavender, iioamuty, and
IpeegQuaaha, tire latter being propagatal in tbo hot-Uouso m thcGotaca-
ifiuad Gacdeoi imd plauted out at Buriiart
Plants.
... 228
... m
... 100
ts
2
Q
12
60 TUfilUm&H'iyeKlCtrLTTjaiST. F^«yl,|879.
(<ij ]>ro|>iijB;ftltpii of Ui« JaUp plopt hAi been OATdis)^ ofk
rApidJy. At opU«t Ui« stock wa* BmAll, cc»n»«tipg‘of a
Imndved Urga tkat wore gronroiii the gardens for thdr flowerA (hity,
l^heie plaa^ Wire lifted ^ <?ut over, and the cattiugi pat In pots uader giaes,
wherathiy rooted rapidly. The nuoiber of young plaute now planted ont
in t^e garden exoeed fi|000, and J iiopo to hare at,least doable that number
planted out by the end of this y&Av ; 800 pf the plants pat oat in June last
have tubers areroging 1 lb. each in weight The original tubors, one of
which weighed Ibi. ,< cvere siloed and dried. A sample of this dried root
wassent to the 8argeoin<^Oenera1, Indian Medical Deyattiiient, for trial In
the htadraf Hospitals, That gentlemen reported that the root was adminiso
tared in the form of aoomponnd powder, and in the dose prosonbed in the
Fharmaoopcva for the Mexican Jalap root, and in twelve caKes in which it
was tried prodneed preoisely similar effects. A 41b. aamplo of the same
root was forwarded to London in Jannaty last, and has been most favorably
reported on* There oan be no question that the ohmate and soil of the
HeUghorries is most favorable for the production of this inedmine, and if a
SuRloleutiacreiige is brought under cnltlvation we will be able to supply
ilia whi/le of India with this drug at a inuoh cheaper rate than what it oan
he purehased at in the KngHsh market.
(IhJ /pccacuanhcu'—Tho propagation of the ipecacuauha Is being saoeess-
fully oontinued os will be seen from tiio following figures. At tlie
commeneement of tho year under report the entire stook of plniiis and
cnltings itt the ptoi>agaiing-house iu Ootacamund was 2,C98; these have
been now increased to d,95fl, vie.
Flantetfoui in the Burliar Clarden ... ... 2,900
rianle in pots at Ootacamund ... ... ... 8,000
Boot, stem, and leaf..cttttiogs in do. m» ... 1,056
Total ... 6,956
which shows in InOrease in stock dering the twelve months of 4,268 plants.
The plants at Burliar continue to make a satisfootorj growth, iiotwithstaad-
log their having suffered from the extremes of drought and excessive
moisture experiemoed during tho spring and autumn of lust year. Tho
plsnls pni out this season are b^iiig planted m the warmest am] most
sheltered parts of the garden.
(e,) Peppermint.-*Tho area at presout under poppermint is not so large
as 1 expected, in consequence of an error having boeii made at the oafcftr^t In
the propagation and planting of what was beiioved to bo the true pofn> r-
niint, but which turned out to be another variety of mint. Piauts ol the
true Menihfb pipenta having been seonred, upwards of 2 acres have already
been planted with it» and as it oan be rapidly increased by division of the
roots, the acreage under it will be largely extonded during the year.
(d ) it;/(wbaTb.—Our stock of this plant Is still very liuiitod. lUo older
plants not having yet produced seed, the propagation has li'ca C' «flp-«d
entirely to of-sets from the parent routs.
{e.) Digitalis ooi Ilaraaicum.—Two plots of ground have been planted
with Digitalis and Taraxicum sufficient to supply the nunual demands of the
Medical Dopaitment. These plants grow very freely in Ootacamund, and
require but little care or cultivation,
(f.) ffoA’woryawd Atwottflor,—'Soveial thousand young pkuts of each
have been propagated in (he garden nurstiies and Will be put out in the
medicinal gai den iu October next.
Drugs supp^iod.—Sixty-five lbs, of Berbens cortex and 62 lbs. of Digitalis
folio wore supplied to the store«kooper, Indian ftledical Departmeitt, during
the yeir. Of theso drags we have now in store 15 Iba. dry Jalap root, 60
lbs. Digitalis foUc, and 5 lbs, Taraxicnm root. yargoon-Major Bidie,
M.B.,waB 8n’^*>lied with small samples of the foUowiug drugs grown in the
Ootacamund Garden for transmission to the Fans Exhibition/—Digitalis
IWoxicum, Feppormint oil, Bhubarb, Jalap, and Berberis oortex.
A large number of leccntly imported Anstraban and Now Zi^aland trees
and shrubs have boon pub ont in the Turk Many of these thrive much
better in Coouoor than in tho Ootacamund Gaideu^. Fifty plauta of the
valuable cinchona call say a reoeived from the Assistant Bupormtendont,
Neddivuitum Plantations, will be planted in a eUeliered cornor of tbe Park
in October next. As enzeo maize thrives splendidly in Guonocr, a amall
quantity is grown HQUiially to raise seed for distribution.
BuWtar Garden.—The nurseries in this gsrdeu have reoeiyed special
^attention, and are now large euou^ to admit of a constant Supply of young
spice and tropical fruit-trees beiug raised to meet the increasing demand
fiom planters and others lor such pi v ' plants of various kinds were
sent out, aud the nursoiics ooutoiut'l 1,213 seedlings on the 81 st March
last. This uumbor wlU he laigely augmented daring tho current year.
To picveub over*crowdiug, several large Jack trees were out down and
replaced by oooou, mangostcen, and other more valuable plants.
The West African ooffuc plants continue to grow luxuriantly, and ore
evidently qn te at home iu the clmialo of Hurliar. The krgest pliot is now
upwards of S feet high, aud is bcariug a good c(op of plu.up, healthy berries.
Thirteen plants were raised from some seed yioUed by this plant last year
From information I have received 1 believe Liberian uoilee has not hem a
success in Wynaa.d, except where it has been planted in warm, sheltered
looslities. That it will not grow, much loss thrive, m the elevated dintricta
lu which tho coffee Ara’.#ica flcurffltee, is a point now full^ t. II
leqniruB avert* much warmer climate than that variety, and m iu> .] it ion
cannot be grown sacoisgfully in douthern India at an elevation over 2,&90
ft Pi <liir ttUnta were badlv attaoksd bv leaf rust in the autumn of^ dost
yiir» but ihif diieaie does not steal teolEiiot the health of ihit plant to the
oame extent as it does the eommeu vmdety.
ffome hundreds of yottng plilnts of PHkstcioUum saetmt or roia triee hu
been raised from « packet of seed received Item the doniervotor of Foreets.
The Mahogany plants pirt out kit year ore making hhdoHhy growthi the
kfgest plants now being over 5 feel high.
Cocoa (Theohroma Cocoa). In oonseqmiiioe of light erop* and a inceewioa
of bad seasons in the eottee districts ol Sonthcfn ItidiSj^ltif noleaspHsiug
that planters and others are now Xurnlng iiioif attention to the eulUvatioii
of cinchona, oocoa. and other plants that many prove an equally xemdner.
ative and less preearioni investment. That imcoa will fiourish in maay of
the coffee estates at elevations from 2,000 to 8,000 feet in Wgnood ondGoerg,
1 have not the least doubt. It might be planted with advantage between
the rows of ooffeo bushos and in avenues along estate roads* In the HWiag
of last year, 1 disiribused grataitously a number of plants and seeds to
planters, who Aud it thrive and are now anxious to obtain large supplies of
plants. Already several thousand seed have been sent to estate proprietors
in Mysore, and 1 have rogistored orders for the whole crop of seed that the
trees at Burhar wi)l yield this season.
Tho niaugosteon trees blossomed very profusely last year, and are now
bearing a heavy crop of floe fruit, a small proportion of which will be
reserved for seed.
KulhitUy Gardsa.—The garden at Eiulhutty was visited by the Baperiuten-
dout four times during tho year. His Assistant (T. Burrows) was also lent
out several times to inspeot work, sow seed, and graft fruit-trees. The
privilugo of collecting aad.selhng the fruit in this garden ft cm August 187L
to Slst March 1878 was^int up to auction at the OommissioneFs Office and
lealised Bs. 602.
A good stock of young fruit-trees has been maintained in the nurseries
throughout the year. A few pounds each of Sorghnm, Banters' Friend,
English wheat, and barley have been sown iu tills garden, simply to keep
up a supfly ihese grams for distribuUou.
The jalap i.abeM,fnabarb, and other medicinal plants planted last year
at Knlbnity have not thriven so well as at Ootacamund ; tUoir culfcivatioo
Wilt, therefore, not beoontuiuad.
The applo, pear, orange, and other fruit>treos have become so badly
affected by parasites that they will soon ceaso to 3*ield fruit, if it is ooiisi*
dcrod desirable to maiutain a fruit garden at Kulhutty, the whole of the old
trees shonld be np-rootod and healthy young trees planted in their places.
But as uU the truit-troes and plants cultivated at Ifnlhutty can be grown
equally well at Coonoor, would rcspeotfully bug leave to recommend that
the former garden be abandoned and sold* 1 have no doubt bat it could
bo readily dispoHcl of to one or other of the planters whose coffee estates
adjoiu the garden. The amount realised by the sitlo might with advautago
be expended on the erection of a purmaueut fvuoo and tho formation of
nurseries in Sim’s Park al Coouoor,
FORESTRY.
S OM 1C months back the Inspoctor-Ooneral of Forests under the
Goverumeut of India, forwarded to England through one of
the Calcutta agency firms a supply of woods, the residue of the
collections propaied for oxhibiLion and other purposes to test
practioally tho value of theso woods for carriage building, fur-
idture, tuiuiiig and other woik. Mcbsib. Mackenzie Lyall 8k Oo.
uudf^rtook iu send the supply and signified their willingness to
send fiirthct shipnaouts cither from Bangoon, Moulmeiri, or
Kurrnclieu. The woods were offered for sate by Messrs. Churchill,
uf London ,md some of the lots realised good prices ; speoimeue of
boxwood riMlised as high as £7 por ton, and if there had been
competition, higher prices would probably have been obtained.
The Inspect ir-Geoerid of Forests is of opinion that the Con¬
servators of Forosts iu tho presidency towns may, with advantage
make selections of woods for transmission to England.
We learn from Bangoon that the Forest Department oontem*
plato estabiishing an office and an experimental garden to be
coadnoted on the samo principle as the Magagyee plantation at the
now liead-qaarters of the Thermwaddy diatriot. 4n Assistant
Conservator will be placed in oUarge as soon as the services of one
are available.
The report for the Tenasserim circle of the British Burtnah
foreats oontalnB an iuterestmg acoount of the Akyaw or eagle-wood
which grows on the islands of south Tonasserim, the produce of
AqtUlaria4i0<Ukcha, a large tree with a white soft wood* Tho
eagle-wood is fctfnd in old tranks, tu the midst of deoayed wood,
forming lrregularly*s)taped lumps of hard and scented wood* It
is ,1^ tjbe Belungs, ohiefiy between April and duly, and ia
sold to Chtoeie ttAdeWf ^^he (juautity ooUeote<i[ annaaliF i«
esUmaM at 2,000 viw, Vftla«4 at 10|0(OD. 4aatraotion ot
tliaea tfeea ia aott^iderable, and it has i^ot yat ba^ poaaibla to
taka atapa to protaat tbapi.
©Bffraucmos of TaaBa Bt FTjH(sn.-iTha lollowiBg ouggestive
paragraph oooora ia a lettor oa Conttnaatal Soiaooa in tlio Madrai
ta the Oevennes, tTppar Italy, fiayonoe, and even the Azores,
the olleatnut trees, which are veritable ** bread-fruits ** for the
popttlatiou, are dying off ; the most vigorous iu the course of two
or three yeari^ The branches wither from the tips, and a dry-rot
eats inwards towards the trunk. Around the roots is a kiud of
humid gangrene, giving off a liquid whioh blaokens the soil ;
this inky color, however, may be produced by the taunln, which
the tree oontains, coming in contact with salts in the soil. On
tlose examination, a fungus, or mushroom, will be found to have
entwined itself round tho roots, stretched its filaments in Ibe new
wood of the trunk and bmiiahes, The malady is contagions and
ro-oalls the mulberry disease of 50 years ago. Now all those
^mptoms ooiuoide with the premature death of the trees on the
lloulevards of this city ; and beneath the grating, whioh runs
around the trunks, quite a bod '* of venomous mushrooms are
even to be found. The usual explanation given for the perishing
of the trees in Paris is. the gas pipes and the shaking of the ground
by the passing vehicles. •
It is stated that the newest financial project of Russia is in tho
form of a ooncessiou for a term of years of all tho Htate forests
to a joint stock company, who will have the exclusive right of
cutting and selling timber from those sources in return for a stipu¬
lated royalty, to be paid annually to the Qoveniment. Among
other conditions of the concession, the Company is held bound to
re-plant woodlands that have been already denuded by injudioious
forestry or by theft, and to conduct their own felling operations
with due regard to the interests of the future.
MAHOGANY SEED.
fpllfil following letter was addresssd by the Conservator of Poreets
JL to the Madras Goveruoient on tbe IGth November last I
have the honor to inform you that 1 am of opinion that the Mahogany
seed should be forwarded direct from Jamaica or tho Bahamei; it should
be removed from its capsales and packed iu perfectly dry sliver sand, or
In perfectly dry saw-dust and obarooal-dust mixed ; there should be no
unavoidable delay m its Iransporl. The box should be addressed to
the Ounservabor of Porests, Madras, and bo labelled JUahoffatij/ tieed,
and there would be a better chance for a greater retention of vitality
if the box oame vid Bombay Instead of Madras. On a lormor occasion
a large box was sent, 1 think, from Jamaica ; the targe round fruits or
capsules had been pacKed whole with tho seed m them, and when
opened were found to have quite rotted away, and 1 afterwards heard
that the ^x had been detained many months in England. It would
be too expensive to think ot getting live plants down from Calcutta,
and far preferable to procure the seed direct than to indent on supplies
that had gone first lo Calcutta, llis Excellency the Governor of
Jamalea will be addressed in view to a supply of Mahogany seed
preserved and packed iu the manuer indicated being sent direct to
this Government by Mail Steamer md England and Bombay to
Madias.
MINERALOGY.
A CORRESPONDENT of a Madras newiqiaper has been making
a tour of iuspoctioQ through tho gold fields of Wynaad, and
in the course of bis travels was introduced to Mr. Brough
Smythe, and his practical miner, Mr. Laing, who he says camo
to India to determine whether payable gold is or is not to be found
in this country ; and they have settled that question beyond
digputOf ** There is gold and rich gold, but India will never be a
mining country like Australia, and for this reason, it <um never be
properly prospected. It may be asked why it can nover be
prospected ; the answer is very simple, it Is broken up into too
many proprietorships. What with rajahs, zemindars, and planters,
men whose profession and livelihood is gold-digging vdll never
Qome out here to proa^eot, because there are no mining reguhtione.
One of the first things Mr. Laing said to me was India can neVe”
belike Australia beoause there are no ihiuers' rights.** That has
been .my impression all along and 1 told him so. If tho gold
indusiry in India is Intended to be developed for the benefit of the
many instead of" the few, then mining rules should be drawn up
and copies forwarded to the ** Mining Departments" in the various
oelonifi lor publi0«Uoii« Ol neorM liikdliojdkpi will do «U iu their
power to oppose this, os tliiey will say tlie mining rights are
already theirs. B^it they wlU dud ^ diffiouU to raie®
capital to work mities in IndIn than it would be in any other part
of the world. Doth Mr. Brough Smythe and Mr. Laing agree that
some of the gold that they have ff>uud Is far richer than anything
of the kind they ever saw in Australia and they showed roe tome
enormous quantities of very rich speeimeixs. l^ey neither of them
believe much in Wytiaad as an alluvial digging except on Vellera
Mullah, which I mentioned in my lost sd jiving good indfoations
of alluvial gold."
PnuVBSSoE Moodleeff disputes tlia accuracy of tho view generally
held, tliat mineral oils result from tho decompositieu of orgsuio
substances, on tho ground that no Devouian or Silurian deposits
are met with in Pennsylvania, and that oonsoquenily snbh oils
must have been formed instill older strata, whioh contain little or
no orgauio remains. He believes that in the centre of Ihe earth
there is an enornous mass jof metal, and especially of iron, more
or less carbonated, and that these metallic carburets are decom¬
posed under the iufiuence of water, heat, and pressure, giving'rise
to the formation of metallic oxides and hydrocarbons.
A MANILA newspaper announces the discovery of a mine ol
Amianthus, or oarth flax, in the island of Lnxon. ^veral specimens
of that mineral have been sent to Manila and shown to different
qualified persons who have pronounced it to bo Of excellent quality.
THE IRON WORKS AT WARORA.
A n article that appeared in tho Pioneer some weeks ago
contiastcd tbo success attained by tho Bengal Iron Works
Company, in the mauufacture of iron on a commercial scale, with
tho complete failure of the Qoverniueut Works in Kumaon, and
with the not very suoceBsEul results of Government enterprise In
the same lino at Warora iu the Central Provinces. We were Ihea
inclmod to attribute the partial failure of Mr. Ness's experiments to
the fact that ho was a Goverumout servant, and therefore probably
to some extent hampered by official rules and red tape ; whereas,
the manager of tho Beugal Works had only to do what he oonsidorod
best, aud render an account of his ate Wardship to the oOmpany
that employed him. This theory, however, appears to have done
iujiislj'co to tbo Oovernmeut of the Central rroviucos ; for, on
eearclmig through the notices of tho Warora Iron Works, that are
publisbod iu the official reports of tho Public Works Department,
we find that ovary facility haa been given to Mr. Ness to pursue liis
experiments in his own way, and that his failure to produce pig
iron by tho usual jprocoHs must be attributed to tho imperto^
nature of tho materials ho had to work with, the want of expeiionced
asHistants, and ihe ciroumstanco that his whole lime aud
attention could not bo given to the iron-smelting experiments
alone, the management ot the Warora CoUiory being also in his
hands.
Of tlie three law materials required for the production of cast-
iron—ore, limestone and coal or cokc---only the last is of a poof
quality iu tho Central Provinces, tho limestone of Bailgaou
and Kundalla being very good, and the oro by all acooimtf
only too rich. The following tables give a comparative view
of the ouuipositioue of tho iion-ofe and coal employed in two
places where cast-iron has been successfully manuhotured, and
at Waroia, where the manufacture of this foym of iron has
been a failure. No. I repreBeuts Derbyshire clay ironstone
(calcined) and Derbyshire coal as employed before the introduo*
tiou of high furnaces and coke fuel ; No. 2, tho raw
materials employed in tlie Raueegunge coal field ; aud No. 3, the
materials employod at Warora. The limestone nsed may be ootisi-
dered nearly equal in quality, that employod in Bengal being tho
worst
Oro
No. I
No. 2
No, 3
Oxide of iron
GO
60
95
bihca '
... 20
10
6
A’uiuma
... 7
7
traoei.
Lime, potash, Phoepho-
no aoiil, earbor le
aolU, icq, ...
... 7
17
*
—
100
100
100
mmmm
MM.
Coal
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
Fixed. Oarboa ...
... 67
50
60
Volatile oomhoatibls
mattes
... 23
23
30
Water
... «
4
10
Ash
...* 2
17
11
■ !.■
100
100
100
It Ib oVIdoiii; l^otd tii^M fi^fiires thftt the iron^oroo^ LoWft «Qd
PS{)alfik^Af i>«ed ni Warortt^ i» imm«n«iely Duperior to oite ol the
other two, H toot, noorly povo mftguetio oxide, whilst tho oosl
Sssuporioito that ol Kaueogunge, io-as^mocU as it contains loM
A$h« Tho worst quality about the Warnra ooal is the largo proper*
tbn of WOiarit oontaiuH ; but in Mr, Nosers opinion the greater
part oi? this is only held uieobantoaUy, as in a sponge, and will
"disappoar when the wine is better dramod,
Ooneiderintr the oxoeUenoe of all the materials employed in the
Warora experiments, to far as can be judged from their chemioal
composition, it is natural to inquire why itron has not been
snooessfully obtained from them on the large scale. The answer
would appear to bo that the Warora coal has one groat defect that
does not appear in an analysis table-^^when heated it decrepitates
and crumble to powder—and that possibly the assistance of an
experienoed furtiaicshmau in constant attendance would have
rendered the experiments successful. Another point to be borne
in mind is that the blast furnace in its present form has been evolved
from the experience of goncrations of iron smelters, who workod
with the poor clay ironstones of the ISnglish coal tneasuros, and
that, therefore, in piincipfo it is presiiinabiy better adapted to tho
reduction of poor ores like thoso of lUneogiioge, than of the rich
oxides found in the Central Piovinces. Mr. Ness's furnace was a
little one, twenty-five feet high, with three twyers or blowers.
The blast was heated and driven in under a pressure of about thrcje
pounds to the square foot. Tho coal with which the furnace was
j^harged was found to burn away rapidly, and the ore was reduced
4lo metallic iron at a comparatively low temperature. Tho mass of
metallic iron, instead of combining widi carbon from the heated
coal qr the furnace gases, to form the fusible mixluio called cast-
ircMb. settled down on the hearth of tho furnace in the solid state,
though the temperature lu iiont of tho twyers was
raiaod to the point at which the firobiicks began to soften,
the mass of iron refused to melt. Now in a discussion
oftbese experiments, it appeals to have been the opinion
of u distiiiguiehed Euglish ironmaster that success would
probably have been attained if a somewhat larger furnace had
been used, with a blast pressure of twelve pounds or so to tho
srpiare foot, suifioient to force the air up through tho mass of
materials filling the furnace instead of allowing it to be wasted
about the twyor holes, and if the furnace hid been charged at first
mill a poor material (a mixture of clay and limestono with very
iilUe ore) so as to form a large quantity of fusible slag, thr>
which the spongy iron might descend slowly, absorbing carbon on
its way.
It would, however, bo almost an insult to the pare ores of
liObara to treat them in this way, and we therefore think that Mr.
Ness was quite right to abaudou tho attempt to make t ast-iron
and go in for tho production of lualleabio iron and steel by a
direct process. That ho has been perfectly successful in thm. ho
far as metallurgical processes are concerned, our readers are
already aware. It remains to be seen whethor tlie manufacture
will pay commercially.—
e iL i i j > w.ax ■»iw "> wwffBgwiaa9i
THE WYNAAl) GOLD FIELDS.
M b. BROtlO E SMYTEE has submitted to Government a iuriher report
on his explorations at Devalah and other purls of the Wynaad, lie
writes :—" As early us possible after the date of my last report 1 caused
mining operations to be curried on in an adit near Wright's level, norlh
oC and, about SO feet below the point whore the lieh aurderous quartz
ooours, and ' a sinking about 3 feet, stone has been obtained in whicli
much gold is visible. Quarts from this adit, In. which no gold was to
be seen, has yielded at the rate of 2o». lldwt. iSugrs. per ton. The
old adits made by the natives in one portion of tha cavern reef have
been cleared, and gold is to be seen ni the ' easmg' of the reef
(''hanging wall') The yields lately obtained from ihis reef have been
as follows
OZ. DWT. QKli.
Quarts, no gold visible ...‘,0 11 16*6 por ton,
* Casing/ small particles of
of gold to be seen 0 H 16 n
The native miaori appear to I we taken stone pnocipally from the
' foot wall/ This reel will be I tber tested in sections. A vein of
qnatlzneax theFrinoeof Wales’leei has been opened, and the only
paroel of qaeria yet treated has yieluei at the rate ol 17 dwt. 11*77 grs.
per ton. Further trials of the stone from this toeality will bo
made shortly. Quarts broken out of tho Korumbur reef, the outcrop
of whioh is about tweuty-two ohaius north-easterly from the cavern
reef, has yielded at the rate of 1 oe. 0 dwt. IIQ grs. per ton. A
reef oonth of the road from Nolakotta to iSaUau’s Battery has been
partially explored, aud some of the stoue has been tested, but only a
ininute quantity of gold was found—not a weigbume button. All the
soils in the vicinity of the reef yield gold by washing, and it is
certain that if mining operationa be pursued, the'run' of gold will be
found ia Che retl. Other reefs In the JueighbonrhiKid of Devatah and
north atut east ol Bevalab are being opexted. Ou the 0th November
] went down the Carooor Ghat.* At a point about 1.900 feet hetow
Devalah, 1 found a thick reef in the jungle j and at Karambaui. I he
Kuleikapoya, About 2,600 feejb below Devalah, there is a jtrea
which hMlm& woxlccd by the aatlree j and on the hills, for a distance
of a mile or mote, there are btoeki of dnirte iodleatliig the oooarreuee
of a reef of enormous thickneM. Mceu from the banh.ol the
stream was washed and geld was found, and,the Kortunbarimade a
stuioe (not down to the bed-rock), end they also got gold, fiubse*
queotjy 1 had stone tiroksn out of the reef at various points j and on
returning to the camp Mr. thoznas Lalng washed some of the brohoo
quartz and found gold. The yields have varied from a mere speck of
goldto9dwt«, ll'iagrsj 17 dwt, 23*36 grs.; and 1 oz. 4 dwt. 14 «fA
per ton. Near Murads, about 2,760 feet below Devatah, there is a
large veld ol quartz outeroppiog in the stream, and there are two
reefs parallod to the moia roof-tho one abont five ohi^S end the
other about seven ohains north-easterly from the Stream. The main
reef is traoeable for more than a ratleHSud-a-half. The Korombars
iaform me that these reefs have never been worked bv the aaMv^ei^
nor have they washed the soils for gold. I took samples of atone
from each of the reefs, and, I found a few minute specks of gold in
each, A little less than one mile south-west of Bddaourre, more than
2,800 feet below Devalah, there Is a strong outcrop of quartz. The
etone has yielded a little gold. Oa the road from Eddaonrra to
Nadakaui three large reefs and numerous small * leaders' wercisseo.
Not mudb progress has been made vvirh the survey of this dfstrlct
during the past mootb ; my visit to Bddaoarra, the testing of quartz,
and other urgent work haring occupied a great deal of my time.
With the pormUsion of his Grace tha Govrtiior, t propose to visit
Chararabadi and Vellirymalia next week, in order that 1 may gain
some knowledge of the rooks and veins in the western part of the
district; aud on my return I shall devote myself wholly to tha com-
ptetion of the map and the examination of the reefs in tbis^rea."
IKON IN THE SIMLA. HILL STATES,
TKON is found chiefly in the British tahsU of Kotekhale, and the native.
A Btdtes of BUsahir and Jubal.
In KoLekhaie tho mlues are situated on two different mountain stmrs
close to other.
The firAl— {mown as Moltxnn is near the village of TroU, about G miles
N. E. of the ddk bungalow at Kotekhale.
The second-called Tuvbxbax ia at the foot of tho village of Dogwan
Jubal.
At the former there are throe extonshre subterranean galleries from one
of which the natives draw tbeir mineral, whenever they can procure charcoal
for its manufacture. Tho non is procured in grams, (like sand) from n
micareous schistose matrix thickly encrusted with small (imperfect) garnets.
Though the surface schists are ferruginous, they are less so than those
extracted from the interior of the hill, which are much softer in composi¬
tion aud are more easily reduced to powder, duo to thei r being porma nontly
exposed to damp which greatly ossista iu their disintegration.
The ores yield magnetic oxide of iron as follows i—
Moltsnn ... ... ... 19'33 per cent.
Tumbaran ... ... 28'47 „ „
This difference, though, does not prove that the latter is rioher than the
former, but more than Ukcly is owing to the variableness of the specimens.
The II mifl smelted iu April-May, after tlie snow is melted, and again from
Soptembor-Novembor. Dating the rainy season the mauafactnre is stopped.
The mines are worked by running a horicontsl shaft, only 3^ feet m
diameter, into the side of the moanfcain: the schistose matrix, conttunlag
the iron grains, ia brought out in skins, reduced to a fine powder, washed
in the slrcain, and ike grams of iron smelted. When reduced Into small
pigs, it id ogam put into the fire, and hammered until it becomes malleable.
All these processes are porfolined ou the spot. The furnaces are nofiiing
moro than largo clay crucibles, about three feet high, not unlike two inverted
cones the diameter in the centre being about eighteen inches. There are
two holes at the bottom, for the insertion of the nozzles of two bellows
Tho cmcihlr. being placed over an ash-hole, is filled with grams of iron
(ore), fire .applied, and the bellows worked. When saffioientiy fused, an
iron rod is Ft'ruck though tho bottom of the crucible, upon the withdrawal
ol which, U' 1 impurities run into tho ash pit, leaving the iron io the
orncihle.
Tho tools nnployed resemble somewhat those sketched in Colonel Yule's
Note on the i 'ow o/ the iCusia IJilli, iu vol IX, page 857, of tho Journal
of tho Asiaiii Society Bengal.
About threi hours walk Irom the foregoing mine, are those of Snazb
in the native .erritory of Bissahtr, Here the ore occurs in taley
schists, it IS the same as the Xiotekhaio description io all otfier respects: a#
also the mounfacturo.
There are about a dozen small smelting farnacos, worked to suit the.
oonveuienoe of the work peoxde (who are also small fiirmsrs), thougti for the
Ihqah’s profit.
lieret most of tho tools used in construct lug the Hindostan and Thibet
road, were manafaotorod nnder she superintendence of Captain D, Briggs,
About two thousand maonds (891 bs, to md*) ol iron are exported
annually irom the mines of Kotekhaie and Bheel to Biinla and tha plains)
some to Thibet nd Itampore,
Another three hours walk from Bheel farlogs the traveller to the small
rest house in Psora, in the native territory of the Bans of Jnbah
lu this terniery.the iron oocurs in three hills named Jachelii Pauati, and
Fraonti. Preosedizg from Peers in the dirsction of Kotekhaie, and about six
miles pffiaJaoaow on the right, of the road, on the leit ti PaaOKti, vrhUe
,FxiiAn Is On the slope fkeing Jacholi,
AORiout^TOtisiiP'f
A At WAAitillg tamm$ AWlAg to a
(ftUtl tlie/A^ woiM At inegolair jbitervAli^ ' ^
^ oteA ^iM aiUHSiiAldc ozitle of iron as follows:
JaciiAii . 4 . .M M« 10 to 30 per oeiit.
FrAOAil !*• ••• *«• <(• ID » S 6 '„
•tl !•• ••• lit IT I, *2 „
BeekoaUigtwoiaAuAdAofoliArcoAl as being neoeMary to the prodaotion
of one A^aand of pig iron, it gives an annual oonsuaiptioa of ^»0OO mds. of
chaiooal foi the ptoduetiou of the 2,000 mds* of iron before alluded to :
4^00 mde. of charcoal fepiesent 20,000 mds. of #ood» eqaal to 2,000 trees—
at nhich rate per aunam the distrleta ate being denuded of their arbores¬
cent covering without anj means being adopted to leboise them. The ibrest
revenne is almost nil, and the supervision (in Kotehhaie) oorrespouds. With
a good system of forest eonservanoy, notably a proper course of felling by
rotatloo and rest, and a resident European Forest official, these ferruginous
diitriots would yield a large quantity of iron, and could thei. be proUtably
worked noder skilled European soperuitendonee.
The Bajuh of Sirmoor establiabod, sometime ago, a large iron foundry at
his capital of Eahun, but owing to a want of judicious management it has
come to nothing. It soems to have been treatod as a fog with the ordinary
remit of such treatment. Under proper supervision the foundry and work¬
shops could have become of great benefit tu tho uoighbouihood tor many
miles round*
The pig iron costs from six pioe to two annas a scor (2 lbs. av.) at tho
works* About one-third loss ooours on working the pig into tools or
in reiluing. The hire of a mule carrying 2^ uids. ( 2 UOIB 0 ) eoits 12 annas a
stage. Tools for digging cost from 5 to d annas a seor.
Tho mines ore situated d^-dd^miies E. of Bimla ; the maiches being Siali
to Faou* 11 miles, d&k bnngalow ostablishmont and provisions} ISaiDj, 7
miles, no accommodation; Koi kkuaie, 14 mdes., dak buugaloAr, but without
any establishment; UsoBA, 11 miles, rest-houBo.but no establishment: pro¬
visions and luggage coolies procurable at ajl tho stages.
G P,P.
flantfrs'
TEA.
T he importSi stocks, and deliveries of Indian tea fruin 1st
January to 30th i{ovombor, stands as follows for tho years
I'capeotiYely inenlioned :—
1875, 1876. 1877. 1878.
lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.
Import ..22.806,000 3.1,841,000 28,453,000 30,239,430
Delivery . 21,362,000 2 i,732.000 25,533,000 31,1811,050
j3tock . 8,190,000 10,280,000 14,406,000 11,142,280
Thus the inoroased import in London sinco 1873 is 7,933,420. It
will be soon that whilo the deliveries showed an increase m 1878
over tho previous year of 33 per cent., tho imports givo only an
increase of 0 per cent., and it is hardly likely that ilio subsequent
sbipmeuls will bring stocks in hand up to as high a hgure as tho
previous season's returns showed.
NATIVE TEA GARDEKS*
W E are extremely glad to see native enterprise spring up in the
cultivation of tea. We have heard of several new gardens
being opened in Assam and Cachar by natives, and we personally
observe that a good number has been started and managed by
natives in the Darjeeling district. Amongst them we fool groat
pteABUre in noticing to-day the plantation of^the ** Hindoo Tea Co.,
Ld*," v^hioh has been opened in the Terai by 0 number of young
and energetio Hindoo gentlemen. In the last season an area of 00
acres was planted, and tho Oompany has arranged to extend 40
aores more in the coming season. A plantation of 100 acres is of
course of some worth, and'it will be a credit to tho Company if
they osa manage it with tho present number of paid-up sbares*
For eome time past we heard a complaint against the manage-
xhent, but we are now glad to see that the past management has
beeh ^ne^ Away with, and the butiiness of the Company is now in
the bands bt a Secretary who is an intelligent praotioal man and
has taken up the worn in right earnest The present Manager is
said to have vast praotioal experience in tea. The budget of
expenditure |or tbeeomiDg year framed by the new Secretary and
Hsnager which is now in onr jPress,>efleots much credit, and shews
how eoonomioaily the n^ves eiAn humage euoh.affiairs.—
.Yew*
TEA STAW6T10S, 1S76^77,
(RXUOLOTlOlf BY Tan‘iSviRNKCNTOF iNPtA.)
N 1872, the Local Government aii4 Administrations were asked
to prepare statements illustroiive of the position of tea
cultivation m India. The staiiatics which were fornishod in reply
to tho request then made were so mnoh delayed that, having
regard to the rapid development of the industry, itiey were of but
little value by the time tho whole of tho replies nad come in* Tho
Governor-General in Council considered lalt year that it was
desirable, iu view w£ ilio great extension of this industry, that the
Government and the pnbtio should be possessed of statistics
showing its actual condition in each province of the empire from
year to year; and, accordingly, a circular was issued in May 1877,
requestnig that.the tables circulated in 1872 (the forms being, how¬
ever, materially simplified) might be hlled up for the last two offi¬
cial years. A similar return for coffee cultivation was also asked for,
2. The replies to this circular have been greatly delayed, but
are at hist complete. The returns from Assam for tea, and from
Madras for coffoo, wero particularljr late; and as tho production
of Uvt in Assam, and of coffee in Madras, is larger than in any
other province, the delay in both these cases is much to bo
regretted. It m hoped that, in future, earnest efforts may bo
made to tranaiiiit these returns within tho time prescribed, vis,,
iu lUreo months after the expiry of the year to which they relate.
3. The ligiiriis furniahed by Ijocal Governments have Ween thrown
into two general coiuparativo returns for 1876-76 and 1876-77 : one.
relating to tea, and the other to coffeo cultivation* Cepies of thoso;
returns will be forwarded to her Majesty’s Secretary of State for
India, in compliance with hia Lordship’s request, and the returns
will be publianed in the volume of miscoUaueous statistios relating
to Brittah India, which is about to be issued by this department.
Oopios of the returns will also be forwarded to the Local
Governments and Administrations, through whom the figures
from which they have been compiled were furnished.
4. The returns are deleotive iu several points, as shown in tho
foot-notes appended to tliein, and in the returns tberaselvos. The
Governor-General in Council invitos the attention of the Local
Govcmmoiits and Administrations to those defects, and will be
glad if they will correct and complete the returns, so far as may
bo possible, excepting in regard to columns 13 and 14 of the tea
statement, the information given in which is not now required.
5. It has been roproBentod tbat considerable difnouUy has
boon experienced in obtaining from planters the informaiion
required for the preparation of the tea return. Tliis difficulty is
possible caused by planters not knowing why tho inform&tion is
wauled, and not being assured that the figures they may furnish
rcgaiding their own eatates will be kept private. Tho Oovoriior-
Genenil in Council desires that tho Local Governments and Adminis-
traiiouB will bo good enough to cause it to be explained, in future,
to all planlers from whom information may bo soughr, that the
staiisticB are required for the preparation of returns for the
whole of India, similar to those which have now boon pMpared ;
while all information given as regards particular plantations will
be regarded as strictly confidoiitiol, no uso being made of it except
as mnlrrial for the compilation of the general rotmiis. Copies of
the returns which accompany this Besolution should be sent with
a copy of the Resolution to each planter from whom mfermaiion
has boon received, in complzanco with tho requests made by Local
Governments, and copies should bo sent regularly to all those from
whom information may be obtained in futuro. with this explana¬
tion of tho objects sought by Government, and with the omission
of the columns above specified, it is hoped that any objections to
tho communication of iiiformaticm which may have hitherto been
entertained by planteis will no longer bo felt, and that they will
cordially assist in rendering the returns aoenrato and complete,
and iu enabling the Government of India to issne them promptly
and punctually.
6. In letter No. 1,183, dated tho 28th March 1878, tho Govern¬
ment of Bengal ask for further instructions iu regard to the
preparation of future returns of tea cultivation. The points on
which instructions are desired relate to the figures to be enterod
in columns 6, 6,13, and 14 of the return. As regards columns 13
and 14, it has already been said that they may bo omitted fiom
futuro returns. In regard to columns 5 and 6, the way in which
these should be filled up has been defined in letter No. 448, dated
the 26th October 1«77, vis., that tea plants should be considered
'^mature” when throe ydars old, and ^^immature” before they reach
that age. This dofinitiou should be adhered to.
7. The Government of Bengal also state that it is inoonvenient
to prepare the returns for the official year, and suggest that
they should iu futuro be mado out for the calender year. Tho
Government of India have no objection to this being done ; and
future returns, for both tea and coffee cultivation, may be made
out for the calendar year.
8. Returns of tea cultivation in the North-Western Provinces
and British Burma, and of coffee cultivation in Ooorg, for tho
official year, 1877-78. have been received. Returns of tea culti¬
vation in Assam. Bengal, tho Punjab and Madras, and of coffee
cultivation in Madras ana Mysore, are still due; and the Governor-
General in Oounoil requests' that tlioy may be furnished at the
earliest possible date* Where information has^ already been
collected for the official year, the letums may on this occasion bo
made out for that perioa.
64
FUbmUiy l,:167j9i:
SUtwi«o»,ii]w(ntir»«f tli* oDltiTstiMk ia BtitIA ladiit, bluing the offl«i«l yMn^ ted
Autom itWb
Nomhar of plaota-
PvottooeittdBIttiiet.
tiOBCt
Appro23ni4to;
avnraM ale.
vatina,
tltsaer tnatore planta,
Under Imniature
pknCa*
Total area nsder tea.
iMiM
ld75<76.
_ _
mt.77.
1676.764
1376.77.
1875-76.
i«7«.7r.
mm
twtt.
t
»
* 4
6
0
6
Aatotrt
TiE»r,
AOELne.
ACRKB.
AORBS*
AOSBB.
AOltBa.
ACRBa.
ACRAC.
aoitM«
Oaohat »• •». m.
162
162
1 f
24,662
23,837
'1
21.662
29,837
117,207
121,074
ayitet .
11
25
2,267
6,621
2,207
5,621
4,860 '
21,683
Ctoalpara itt *•« •••
7
•
79
112
79
112
75
1,086
Kamrop *.* .h
53
72
4,089
6.078
4,099
5,078
13,717
13,440
Darraog .
«6
90
,
9,615
10,935
'i Included with j
* mature plants. )
9,615
10,985
41,078
40,191
Noirgong.
49
61
5i929
6.593
j
6,919
0,593
U,S69
u,o^
flihiagar' 4t* ••• •••
161
172
27.438
28,690
'
27,483
92vl59
85,446
ladcimpur ..f
109
112
12,783
16.086
i
1
12,788
80,341
7WS7
Klhaai aod Jatotia Hllla ...
8
5
J
1
435
804
J
485
804
278
463
Total ...
640
703
.
,
87,807
102,711
...
...
h7,3l)7
102,711
361,393
872,819
Bbsqal.
Darjeelingt .
121
182
300 to 0.600
14,954
15,395
7.208
9,3913
22|I62
25,028
79,m
81,609
Jttlplgorea .
3
13
500 to 600
...
23
289
795
288
818
1,453
3,393
Dacoa «■» ...
6
6
13 to 21
29
29
8
2
3i
31
...
Mymeaaing .
2
2
Ito 4
54
63
...
...
54
63
...
...
Ohittagongf ..
19
SO
40 to 500
933
826
699
1,073
1.635
1,898
21,724
13,497
Noahholly..
1
1
40 to 50
16
15
1
1
16 *
16
8
8
Chittogong SiU Ttacta ...
4
1
30 lo 200
439
220
618
230
450
286
2,106
Baiareebagh .
3
s
2.177
047
G6S
72
60
719
718
...
...
Lohardogga .m
11
2t
«
340
320
180
f)I0
420
1,230
1.251
2,276
Total ...
170
190
17.81^
17,
9,064
12,393
26,878
80.S42
106,818
102,891
NoBTH-WKStlim
FnovwoBe.
KnmaoBH k.. ... *»
13
19
3.000 to G.400
1,456
1,467
765
765
2,211
2,222
1,609
1,689
Garhwalll .
1
4
C.OdO
13
1ft
...
...
15
13
...
DBhra Dun .
13
10
.
1.649 to 2.500
1,687
1,874
452
COO
2,139
2,474
1.949
1,7JM
Total ...
27
09
1,349 to (j.400
3,ir>6
3.344
1,207
1,363
4,3C3
4,70#
8,048
3,469
Punjab.
1
Simla 1.*
1
! *
«
120
120
...
120
120
...
.H
KanKTA 1 ..
860
! 910
8,969
2,579
2,789
1,547
1,822
4,126
4,611
1,201
1,773
Total
851
9Tl
••••••
2.699
2,909
1,547
1.822
4,246
4,731
1201
1,773
MAPRiB.
Nillgiric ... .
•IS
44
1.514
1,614
878
1,638
2,392
3,142
641
2,341
BaiTisB BuRiiiU.
8,600 to 8,000 ^
Akyab ««. ...
1
2
60 1
120
120
80
30
150
150
too
100
Totfd Bvitiah Inilia ...
1,727
im
*i( 11.
n*«
eee
...
-
UM**
145,035
473^801
48.^423
* No iDfonnotion avaiUble.
t For 165 plmtotions ia 1875-76 aod 14C m l«76.77 thb flgaroi aro moialy eittoatea, bo Mtum* hiving booti rocoivat from the maaagort. Tiw
figuroa in column 12 are not traflt«voriby owing to want of complete flgttfca for the gtoa of land andcf matrtro pUuti.
t the flgntea from thu district are lor the oaleodaryeari 1875 76. , ,
i) NcKliaiduding come plantatious eustaag in 1676«77 wfc.ch ng ^^meUavit hioB Moelfed#
I Tht%ireafi)r W647 are eaolaei^ of 6 pUatatione iu liv. Kimvm DiaWot Uarhwal makriot,
&gm» to ookH&n 12 do not to ail mwetoonpaepoiid o1»toiaii4 (ly 4tvi4iBg fioUnmi 5 into oolnmn \U owing toarrota in mi tonal
rntafflflfrom which this Uble Use hieit do|ii$^ V ^
I, jm fM Aca»cuiittii!ST. ’
Btit^O^liit^Ure of tb«,«to^or to ^riUidt Indi*, daring th» OSiolnl jew^ 1878-76 «nd 1876-77-(«««imM<J.)
4k)prAi^l!t4SPIB m.
proyjm t&d Bufcrifit*
Oo#t of tintttvfttion Cbyt of maiiatM.
^ pot lb.
1875.76. ia7«.7»; 1878-761870.77.
a
* SnfaifOiittaitkift Aif ttllfM a,
t For m< pla^tKte0 ia 1876.70 wd 140 la 1876-77 the %ttrM ai* merolf tt© The
figitroi ui,i^niaii m pol owing to want of oomplato figowa for fb# *if*a ^ Uwd asdot matmo t^oUb
Qlbe figiM for Uuadlatikt am fEWtbbwioBdac year* 1676 and . . -
yi4itlmi«Sa« «Mb» lA 1870x77 lot irbioh no
$ha d|im fir 1876*7t liaffiiSRiSva^ Oj^tetions a tb« Kamaoa. Pia|4a^ji||d (Moa 1^.1^.
I ^'ha fi0m ^ 167^*7t ila Oj^tetions a
flgavet in oolim 18 do not in alt owaa eoiim
k4l mttitti itm irbiab im liUo tun Ma oottpuai
(bwbiiai Dtaldob
glMioO.into «alanui4l» owiag to tirotv a fbo
Tflfe iNpmif
i/iirV'
IiBAir-DESTEOYINa OATEEPILLEBS.
W rrBr«tW 4 n{Mtotli«r«markaiao(irr Jtn&arjifliae, on iba taa-leal
4a0troyitig cftterplUarif tlio loUowlng vtli ba d lateratft
To,
Xba Secretory Board of Berenue.
SlBf'^’WIth reforeoce to tba Board'# Procoeedioga No* 2956 of 4tb
No?«fiib»r 1878» l^avo the honor toroport that the catorpUlara from
Oootioor aeot to me are the lam of aonae moth belonging to the
Tortiicida or leaf»rollera
2. Some of the i^iea are very deatrootlvo to the vine, oak, roees,
end other planU, and the one now exiBiing near CoQUoor might becomo
aveijaertouapeatoiiteaoatatoa, wereit to inoreaae to any oon eider*
able extent.
6, I regret to be unable to offer any suggeation with a view to the
deitrnetiou of the oaterpUlara. Their natural enomlea, the blrda, will
sto doubt dewtroy many of them, and cUmatio iuhaenoei may alau help
to rednoe their numbers.
1 have. &c.
(Signed) G. BiDib. M. Surgeon
Sopdt. Govt, Central Museum.
Govt, Central Kluseum, 1
Madras, 19th November 1878, )
LAHARDUGGA.
(li'BOM OlfB OOBnBSPONnnNT.)
PaittjnoM?, Neid^yeartt Day,
T Ufii whole of the jungle and youag sfil trees have been frost-
nipped and areebeddiug their leaves, as also plantains and
omameutal shrubs around the bungalow. Fortunately, tea bushes
are not so delicate and havo stood out tho frost fresh and green,
save a few of the delicate pure AHsain ydi. OE these the oldest
leaves suffer from the frost, but, stiaugo to say, tho tender shoots,
left from the last plucking, remain intact. To guard against
of woather—for heavy hail fatls hoie-^toasoodlings
shoiimir^ WMQ£fld.ffitU. ^cone of thatch. This is not expensive,
and makes certain of the plant being protected from accid^n fs of
any kind till spring arrives, when of course it must be roj)^.,ved.
It seems strange that those persons who have ventured into tea
OiH^rations, should oonfino themsolvos chiefly to the vicinity of
Kanclii. Tlie lease-hclds about there are not pucka, and present land-
hoidors may probably find to their cost that when the gardens
become valuable, and yield a large outturn, the rightful owners will
luruup to claim the whole. In this sub-divi»iou there nro IhousandB
of acres of Government waste lands which cun be leased fioin tho
Crown, and Chota Nagporo is tho fountain-head from which pours
the stream of the host ton gurdori coolies.
Tho whole country is covered with s&l forests. Why Government
should reserve extensiVO tracts of them, decimate whole villages
and turn the ** reserve ” into a wilderness, is puzzling indeed to
the uninitiated, bHI logs cannot bo floated down the mountain
Btrearas, owing to boulders and caacadee and to carry them out of
the “ reserves ” by cooly labor would not pay. Tho villagers, bomg
ousted out of their old homos, emigrate to the tea districts ; and
from these they seldom return, owing to the high rate of wages.
Should they return, it is merely a run homo *' to spond their
Burplus cash, to astonish their relatives, and induce thorn also to
emigrate to tlie Eldorado. There are, however, thousands left who
beuefit b^ farming the absentees* land, and tea planters need never
trouble their minus up here on the score of labor. The pay is
from two to oi^ht pice accoiding to age, and to the work done
per diem. No riskfl are run by largo advances or epidemics. Once
the confidence of these semi-wild peop'e is secuied, you can do
anything with them ns regards tartory v ork ; they are a» im¬
pulsive and confiding as children, and become attached to tho
employer and garden.
ipproval,aTiawottia recMvs ^ wp|K»t, 'af leytrid ptof^feiors, bat
apprehend It is not acodptable to sB* W# prsjianis it vroald by Wcatt
even for the “Aaiatie Society ♦’to traw oad find a tsmedy for Bus
growing Borions evil, in a way that weyld be approved of by every planter ;
and hence vhe evil is perpetuated. Jt were better perhaps, then, fot a few
earneet men to carry cut such an nndertidcliig. even though laany holdbsfek,
than to left it fall through. A very few maunds of tea would ropwseot
Bs, 1,000, and Ks. 15,000 is we believe all that wiU be tequired
to support such an enrjuiry, and carry it through foe two sueeeedtng
yearB,->time eufficleot to exhaust the subjeet thoroughly, and probably lead
to a comprehensive system which would return, even to a dodsn ^utri*
bntors, if they each had 600 acres of good Garden, thu oost of looh an
onquiry by the gain of the first season.
The planters as a class hold varied views regarding these pests. Some
hold that the mosquito cannot bo destroyed until the lorronitdlug country
is thoroughly droinecl; and consequently they see no remedy: others dread
tho proximity to forest lauds; whilst others argue that mCiqUltcs
migrate, and are capahlo of fb'ing in a briof period a distance in search of
food. But tliose all, earnest men, appear to lose sight of the iapli that the
mosquito is a pest that was unknown until within the past few yfaie, and
tUatii is now becoming more destructive every season.
Wc believe, however, that the evil may be remedied, and wo trust, for
the sake of this largo industry, that the few who can inliaenoe the many will
unite in organising and carrying out this soienliiio and pracUoal enquiry;
and, if possiblo, endeavour to stamp out this growing serious eVll.
A correspondent sends us the,following memo,| on tlie sabjoet of Blight*
the result, he says, of considerable exporionoe by a prootioal man, on a
badly bhghled garden
bpIiL dry ^bamboos, make into convenient siso bundles, set fire to seme
and apply in the following manner One coohe at either side of the bush
to hold * he lighted bamboos or torch underneath, and shake about so as to
distorl) .' he insect, but at, the i^ame time not to injure tho leaves or bnshes;
anotiier coolie to hold jk torch over the bush, which will be found to singe
the inapci in its endeavour to escape ; every blighted loaf to be caretully
plucked immediately after, and what is not -fit for manufacture, to be
burned or otherwise destroyed ; and should this course not prove quite
eiTuclive the fii’.<4i time, tho blighted bushes might be gone over again m a
similar manner.
Having requested one of our managers on a bhgbl-affeoted garden in
Oachar to carry out this plan to Uie loiter, wo havo the following from him,
dated Oachar, 5th November 1876
** J had the piooo of ioa affected carefully gone over with blazing
bamboos, and the following day I bad every leaf that wan in tho least marked
by blight carefully plucked as directed. 1 found that for nearly six weeks
there was hlUc ox no appearance of blight, but after that it made its
appoorancG again and is now noaily as bad as ever. 1 foul oerlaiu
that if the plan were carefully oarried out, and comm&oood when blight
makes its appoaranoe on small patches oi tea, that a great deal could be
done lu the way of checking blight. " ^
Wl.'^' wo nndoistand by this is, that the exporimenl was so far suocesfful
but ihut the re«appeataace of the blight wai duo to its presence on patohes
not operated on in the manner dosoribed i and that, to render the cure in
every way effectual, it must bo begun before any alvancud stage of disease is
reooUe 1. This is true, no doubt, auj it is tar bettor to essay a remedy in time
than to watt till the blight has got too iiiin hold of a gardeu, when it is difii-
cult it uv/t iinponhible to cradieatu it. It would be far bettor to saorltico a
patch of cuHivatioii at aneaily stage of tho appearance of blight thau to per"
mil it to spi‘i*ad, as, for want of precautions taken mtime, Is too often the ease.
Blight amduin attacks ai one aud the same tune, or at all equally, the
whole id a garden, aud there is good reusou to believe that, were vigilout
care uscvl lu discoveiing tho earliest ludiflatioo of blight, and prompt atkd
decisive measures adopted for stampiag it out when il first appeared, the
oxiensior ol the evil might be oousiderably dimnishod.’'
COFFEE,
MOSQUITO liLlQHT.
rpHESK insect pests, it is known, are increasing in th.di rlestnicl ve
A efforts on the tea planlii of Assam and Oachar. It has been argued
that their presence is tbs result of .xbouated soil; and whore yonng estates,
opened out on rich virgin soil, ha^o suffered, a cause has been songht for
iu the seed from which the plant was raised: impoverishinent of the soil
is the argument, and doubtless the conscientious belief of rnahy able men,
whilst others seek immunity by a more careful selection of seed. A remedy
is also sought in extra cultivation tind in u«ing manure; still the pest js
present, and we know many promising estates where, though soil, i»e6d,
and position have been all that could be desired, and labour superabundant,
yat nevertheless Ui« Garden has boon almost blaok, and thr crop of the
eeasoo ruined by this dreaded mosquito,-^devoaring wood as well as leaves,
and sucking out the very core of the young stem.
IVe were much i&lerosiod scuie tlmo ago id learn ihut tb Aslatio
Boolet^'* hod tkis matter under constaoratiou, aud that n $jVft<qjdaal
entomologist would prolsably be brought out from home to mke a
lengUiened tour throughout the foa districts with a view to study
the subject of these iuscct^bligfalsA so os to better uuderiBaad
dud ddout of A mads bstug adopfoA Wi know thli
W E loai tiiat tho Chief ComriiiBsiQUor of Mysore has granted
til; po'-ition of the Muiizerabad Planters’ Aasooiation to
permit Mr. Uarman, ilto Superiuteudeut of the Bangalore Experi¬
mental Farm, to visit tlioir estates to invostigaie leaf-disease.
A oouxtBsroKDKNT Writing from Peermed, Travanoore, in
December Bays:—
Crops of coffee up here are turning out as much and more than
estimates; very little light floating coffee, in oomparison with the
last two years. New clearinge for ooffee are being felled in spite
of the leaf-disease appearing year after year. Borne tea haa been
planted in forest soil and promises better than on grass lands,
although the value originally ofthe forest was fie. 1 per acre against
Bs, 2 now for grass laud. The land, 80,000 to 60,000 acres that
hds been taken up by Messri Muuro & Oo. in north Travanoore on
the O^dan^oa,Hills is being opened in ooffee, .tea, and oinohona ;
11 belMi|ad to » poUy Sojob who paid a toSw Kobarij* of
V** " ' ,
THjS
AGRICTJLTttR|?t «
67
ttBtn«iwifAetaTe«f ohicoiyaDd inAuitrii Iim made
great pioififaiB, and toow waoiifla abont 250,000 tiuintafe
annainy. Bobamia stands at the haad, where large establlshmehta
carry on the manufacture; 6tyria,Heravia, Vienna and its environs
Carniola hndthe l!^rol may also bo mentioned.
Wm believe that a planter in Oeylon has offered to settle down
in Burmah with the object of cultivating coffee and cinchona, if
the Government will offer liberal induoemonte.
Tug coffee leaf disease has brohen out badly on the plantations
in five districts on the west const of Sumatra, and in four other
distriotiia different disease sMd to be caused by inseols, and which
attacks the roots of the plants, is doing much damage. In parts
of Java the sugarcane has been attacked by swarms of rats, in
such numbers that parties of natives offered rewards for killing
theuii bringing in from 600 to 1,000 tails daily.
agriculture foe coffee planters. j
Bt a. C, Dixos, V.C.B.. u. B. B. Ho. & Boi. M.n., (London.)
A LL matter is organised or unorganised, The latter ooustltutes the
mineral kindom ; the former is subdivided iuto the vegetable and
animal kingdoms. The vegetable is formed of the elements of the
mineral re-arranged Inlo forms of greater complexity. The animal organ
re-arranges the vegeUble into still more complex forms ; but both at
death resolve back into the simpler oompouuda from which they were
derived,
Now man la altogether dependent on the vegetable, either directly or
indirectly, hence it is of vast importance to him, so to work the soil to
produce vegetable matter, aultod either for hia own sustenance or for
that of anlmala with which he works, or upon which he may feed.
Nature has clothed the earth with vegotatlou which may yield sufficient
food for a time without trouble to a small population, but with incroese
of populatioa wo must have increase of food material, and bo it baa
become necessary to onltlvato systematically the most suitable forms of
vegetation. This oonstitutos agriculture—it may bo for the production
of plants chiefly for aoed, or for roots, tubers, bark, flbre, leaves,
herbage, or forage. In Ceylon we have iustauoes of all those. The
seed crops, however, predominate.
It ia not Buffloient to find that a’certain area of the earth’s surface
vielda n certain crop m abundance without much trouble, and removes its
Dioduoe from year to year, without returning any equivalent to the soil,
u such a oourao be pursued, wo may soon expoct to exhaust its power.
In order to maintain it, wc must return certain moombustible elements
to the soil, and In order to fully understand the life, history, and the
ittBaipnlatlon required m the rawing of various crops aacoesafully, wo
most consider the bearings of several branches of natural soionoe. For
xample, geology to give us an Insight into the oharaotors and capabilities
of thewlliitt different areas; chemistry, to tellusaboutthecompoai-
tions of the soil, plants, and manures with which we feed it; botany
and vegetable physiology for understanding the laws of growth and
development of plams; beat, light, and eloctricity-how they
Infiuenoe plant Ufej meteorology, to give us an idea of oUmate;
animal physiology for the proper treatment of animals employed ; and,
lastly moohaulcs, to guide us in the use of tools, machinery, iso.,
Lon^tod with various crops. From this we see.that agriculture, la not,
many soppose# a mere mechanical art, but a oomprehonalve soionoe,
embraolog the prinmples of many departments of knowledge, all of
whtob have rendered important sarvloes.
The cansss which have operated to retard Its progress are numerous.
Thoaereferilngparlicttlarly to this Island, we shall not dwell upon at
nresent The soU with which we work la somewhat complex. Chemistry
STVeeolved all matter, whether aoUd, liquid, or gaseous, iuto an
^habet oonsiitlng of about slxty.flve elements. Now, out of thesa wo
have to deal mostly with the following ;-Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
carbon phosphorus Sulphur, ohlolritte, slliooto, potassium, sodium,
caloiuffii mAgbesittw. nlomlninoi. and Iron. These occur In the soU
la varlowi cemhined forms, of which we thaU have to say more
hereafter-
runts are generally regarded as ternary oomponnds, consisting
mainly oi^ earbon^ hydro)gen, and oxygen. Nitrogen, however, is one
of tlmireiesatial elemehU and'mfsral others 0 ^ small quantities.
are maklf quaternary, oonslittug of eorbon, hydrogen,
oxygea, and nitrogen. That whk& remtUts after bprulog a plant is the
jjmiganiooriWBtbaitibleooi^ the dthat. portion passing off;
Sseds which eontalii the gmm of the yoang plant, when surrounded
by suitable eonditioos, pis. moiftnrOi A oertalit amount of beat, knd air,
germinate or begin to grow, sanding forth tap roots as In coffee, or
advoutiUoua roots, as in paddy^ into the earth, and astern into the air.
It continues to grow until it reacbet maturity* or ontU its parts are no
longer able to perform their fuacticuA Its period of life may be less
thau a year, as paddy, or it may belong lived, qp eoffeA The food of
the piaut must be in a liquid or gaseous foruu The liquid is taken up by
the root hairs, Thls^ la aooompllahod by the joint action of several
foroes, Bueb as eapiUarittf, where the liquid food ascends tubes
oousiituted of narrow cells, by the eame force that ink travels along
blotting paper. This is assisted by a pulling force due to the evspore.*
tion of the watery part of liquid food from the surface of the piaut, so
iuducing more to ascend ; and this is still further aided by the force of
p»maig or mterohauge of liquids of different speeific gravities, when
separated by auy orgauiaed membrane. When such ts the case, there Is
always a tendency to establish an eqailibrlum of density, and toprbduoo
this, the external liquid must receive a portion of that within, and so
we have a double current, the one inward, exiled mdotmta^ the
outward eaosmo^a. The liquid taken op by the root hair is of less
spooific gravity than that already in the cells, which has been thickened
by loss of water duo to evaporatioD. By the combined action of these
forces the crude food Is carried up to the loaves, there to elaborated
by the action of light and heat, and so made fit for its growth and
nourishment. As long as these root baits find sufficient food, and there
is troedom of olroulatlon, the plant will oontiuoa to thrive, hence we see
the importance of having the soil io such a condition as to allow these
root hairs to traverse It easily.
As every cultivator should be able to act the part oL doctor to his
various crops, he ought to have some general knowledge of the structure
and functions of the principal parts or organs. Just as words are
composed of syllables, and syllables of letters, so plants of tissues,
and tiBSues of cella^ A ceil, therefore, is regarded as the most
elementary part of its structure.
The stem consist of various tissues, each having a certain duty to
perform. They are built according to two groat plaos, the oue with its
woody lissocB in rings, os In the coffee, the other irregular, as in the
cocoanut palm. Lot us take for illustration the coffee stem; Wo
have a soft tissue at the centre called pith, surrounded by a woody
tissue, which iucroasea from year to year in ring-tike fash loo. Thte
iiBsuo ia succeeded by the oambiuni or iormalive layer, and that by
bast. From the cambium region, wood Is added internally, and layers
of bast, (a very useful product in many plaals, e. y., for inekiug gunny
bags) are added externally. This bast is surrounded by the ejderinis
ur outer bark. Tiie duty of some of these tissuos is to transmit, that
of others to secrete.
Next wo come to the leaf. This is a flattened expansion of the stem,
having corresponding parte, Its purpose Is to expose to the greatest
possible extent the amount of crude food taken up by the root, and
conveyed by the stem io be exposed to the action of light and heat,
there to be ussimilntod. Leaves are provided With stomata, or UlUq
pores, through which they can take in or give out gasoous mattere.
They take in carbonic acid gas, given off by animals when they live,
and they giro out oxygen to carry on the life of the animal. We have
thus seen that a plant may be said to absorb, breathe, assimilate
perspire, aud excrete.
Flowers, which appear at some period of life in the higher plants,
and when ripe become fruit, are tor the purposes of reproduction.
In many cases wo often reproduce from a catting placed in the
ground, or upon another stock,
A complete flower consists of four series of organs. The outermost
is the calyx or cup ; the next the corolla. Tbese organs serve to
protect the more delicate organs within as well as to attract insects
which aid fortihaation. We next come to the stamens, or mule olement
of the plants and then the pistil or female portion. After fcrtiliuetion
is effected by the pollen from the stamens, that part of the pistil called
the ovary, contaming the need or seeds, increases aooordlng to the
nourishment supplied. It ripens and becomes fruit. These lest organs,
when the flower is in bloom, ate easily injured by wind aud raiu, and
BO affect the crop of fruit to a greet extent. These iojurtotts influences
may be absent, and yet, although flowers were ahundant, the freit
^,iaay he small, owing to the tendency of a plant to make wood or leaf,
from which Us attention may be diverted In some oases, by pruning
the etoms, or in orkers the root.
Now'let da consider more in detail the soil, or decomposed outer
portion of eruit of the earth, as well aiihe groat ma^s of liquid water
upon its surface, and the air by which onvelopetl. First as to its
origin t this takes us far back into the history of the earth. How
formed in the ffrst instaueo, we wlU not venture to say at present.
The gfekt ohinges ol the throe great masses ofmatter, the storms of
68
THE INDIAN AHHlClJDTURIST.
Pebraary 1,1878.
land M eartiiqaaktoi tlia atarma of water and those of the atmosphere,
hare played a my important part in maktog It whatltnow is. Jaat
as the animal, vegetable, and mineral are neoeseafy to keep up
eqniUhftumof aotion, so two great antagoolsUo loroes in the earth,
the levalUngand elevat{og--*keep it in o<iullibrium. Asoneoonutry
Bttbtldes, another is np*bear^ slowly ; as one tract of land sinks down,
and may be entirely lost, as islands at the present day in the Faoiftc
ooean, eo another is up^heared, or it may be a new is&nd appears oat
of the water. Constant change is going on. The aqueous and
atmospherlo agencies tend to plane all down to a level, the volcanio
ngenoy, or that resident within the earth, to produce unevenness. The
rooks here have been thrast up by volcanic agenoy. No doubt, Ceylon
was onoe nnlted to the main land of India, that the laud subsided and
left this an island, and that we are now slowly rising again. We have
plenty of evidence In proof of this. These vast masses have been
oarrJecI onfi by the action of water in the form of rivers, carving their
way through the softer portions from the higher grounds to the lower.
The hard or soft portions of the earth, whether exposed to the air
or deeper seated, are cither of vplcaaio or stratified orlgie, which last
may have been greatly aifeoted by heat, and so become metamorphosed
or changed, sometimes so mnoh as to be coafusad with strictly volcanic.
The stratified are BO called, because they have been deposited in strata
or layers by water, tn a somewhat uniform manner, just as strata are
now being deposited in lakes and oceans of the present day. In many
oonntries, these dlffereni strata, which onoe formed the beds of
ancient seas and oceans, and of which we have but little knowledge,
save by fossil forms of plants and an«mals that found a resting place
there, may easily be made out, somottmos oooupymg a flat area, in
others, out-oroppiug and forming ridges or bills, li. is somewhat
difficult to make out the slratifioation hero, though it can be seen
in a few places.
The hard rocks so abundant in the hill country or uaderlyiog the
the cabooks in the low districts, are known to geologists by the terms
granite and gneiss, with other names denoting rocks near akin to thesv,
Tbo three elements of granite are quarts, felspar, mica, of guoiss the
same, bat in the latter ease the minerals are ia<>re m layers than '
arranged promisouously* Passiug through the country, wo see these
vast masses, some stauding out more promineat than others, namely,
those whioh have had the greatest power of withstanding disintegration.
On looking at many of those, we may notioe how the ram is guttiug
them on a minor scale, just as the whole mass has boon gutted by our
great rivers. Those disintegrated rooks on the slopes of the hilU form
the soil of the planter, while those of the flatter rcgious form Koil
adapted to various other forms of vegetation. All have a use and can
be turned to praotioal ocoount. In some oases, we have the surface suif
composed not of the decomposed rook upon which it rests, but of matter
transported from other iocatiUes, from which it has been washed, suoh
as great alluvial t-raofs.
As vegetation has flourished upon the surface, so the rocks, whether
bard or soft, have become decomposed, m bomo cases to a oonsiderabN-
depth. This action continued through long ages, and aided by decaying
vegetation, has formed what we call a virgin soil,—soil wbloU has had
all its own way up to the timu the cultivator takes poasoasion, then to
be directed anew into a fresh line of action.
The soil therstore in the mam depends on tho rocks from which it
is derived. Yet the soil here must not be pronounced bad or
Dondertile : many of the soils are good and capable of very
great development : they require proper handling. The Keglish
soils were not brought to the state they now are in ^ brief period,
The rivers to ublob 1 referred are gradually sharping out the
land at a slow rate, and transporting thousands of tuna df good soil
per year,las well as large quauliiies of good plant food, more especially
from the slopes nf the hills, where the water falling acts as a scoop to
convey the virgin soil, or the rich oarboiiates pii'^duoed after a barQ>*.
hence the wisdom of breaking the force of the ru'inlag vsabera and tbeli
contents by .terracing and giving it a good chance to be absorbed by
deep euUivatioo, just as we Lave a puilUig force acting on the leaves
inducing the crude food to ascend so we have on the face of these
terraces a pulling force, the sun tending to pull the moisture tUiougb,
and the air after it, thus inducing a frec.oiroalation.
According to the steady action of the internal heat of the earth,
and preNure to which the strata have been subjected m long
periods of time, we get strata of liflereot detisieies. Here wo have
a denre one of gneiss or granite and o her kindred rooks whioh by
dibintegratioD have yielded a soil baMoy properties dependeut on Its
oimpouent minerals, modified by decayed vegeiable matter, oalied ?iuinm»,
Ibe color of iho soil depends partly on this humus as well as on various
cxiJes of metals, notably iron, which gives tediish hues similar to rust,
bo we, have black, ohocolate, reddisli, and yoiiowisU red soils. Tho
color too aSecta tho power of absorption of heat a dark soil possessing
that property in a high deitroe for. tue same reason the floor of the
barbaohe is made hluok m preCerenoe to any other, in order to absorb
the heat readily.
As to the ohemiosl o imposition of the soil, ftuartt is a cbemtoal
compound not a more meebanioal ralxtnta of the elements, silioon
and oxygen. It may be while as foniid on some estates, or of a
yellowleh tinge as soi sind, or other colour as jasper, agate.
This is a very insoluble substance, and is a great agent in
keeping the soil open. IVispar, a mineral of various colours, is obletb’
of two varii)ties-»notash and soda. Tne common form here la, potash •
felspar. It is chiefly composed of siliolo acid, potash apd alurnima.
The alumtuia is th^ great retentive agent tor molstare : mloa is a
gUsteuing minetal, aoaly or in plates composed of allioic aeldf alnmlng,
potash and iroo, smaller quantiiieB of other miuetale such as hoin'.>hvUc^
epidoie, ooew here ami there,
a doable earbonita, that U, i catboha^ of cithlnmi (Dm
base of lime) and magnesia, is also found In iarge manes Sn some
of the Island In a highly crystalUne form.,
Oa^Mk met with abundantly in the low country, is of iba same
oompositlon as gneiss, from which it has been derived by decomposition.
A Ume forms';ion, a sort of breccia,*-ooears in the Northern Province,
Sinoe the crops here are of a permanent oharaeter, not io much
attention has been given to the preparation ot the soil previous to ite
being expeetoil to do dnty for a number of years. In aotne eases, the
idea is to get the portion olearcd and plant into the ground at onoe,
forgetting that it oaanot be meddled with, to any great extent, fn
after time. It is neoesaavy that there shooid be a frae iotetnal
circulation in the shape ot drains, and the soil in a good phyaloal
condition, and that to a good depth.
Now with respect to the physioal state of a soil. Xt Is composed of
particles of various degrees of fineness, some as fine as floor, otheii
pebbles, and in some oases large boulders of nndeoomposed rook. Now
the fiasr tbe state of division,*—provided it be not too much so as to
form a sort of paste when moist—the more work U Is capable of doing.
The deeper we go from the toil to tbe subsoil, the more compnot we
find it. The more open it is, the greater the surface exposed to ^
action of air and water and the greater the absorbing power for gases
brought down by the air. We gel a similar idea of this great absorbing
power of gases from charcoal, when wo use it, say for absorbing tbe
gases resulting from tbe decay of moat, or Cor absorbing the coloring
matters from sugar.
The soil must ha seme what of the nature of blotting-paper, and the
ingredients—potash, phosphoric aoid, nod others—<magt oconr in the
sell in two diSeront forms of combination ; the*oae chemical, the other
physical; the former being ready to bo acted on, and brought into
solution to take up the latter state, and so distributed, physically,
through the soil ; dn this form only can it be made use of by tho plant.
Henos the diflerenoe between cultivated and uncultivated land ; and
just in proportinn as these matters occur in a physical state, so will the
soil be able ^ j nourish the plants placed upon it. In order to bring the
other portion into use, we must have tho presence of moistuio, a certain
amount of heat, and plenty ot air ! ^
Tillage, or breaking up the soil, moltiplies the surface exposed to the
aotion of air ; and this requires to be done to prevent a maximum of
sueh surface, just as the stem is spread out into leaves, to be exposed to
the action of air, light, and heal.
The question as to how muoh of the nutritive substances a soil must
have to yield good crops, is a very important one ; but difficult to
answer. The nutritive power depends on tho quantity of such in
physical oomblnatiun ; and if chemical analysis cannot distinguish the
ohemioally oomUinod, wo need not expect a satisfactory answer. For a
long time, cultivators and chemists thought that by analyzing a soil,
all tbe difficulties would bo solved ; but experience baa shown, and is
still shewing, that in may caaos it docs not assist In improving the soil,
nor yet tell why oortalu crops tail, such for insbauoe, as the recent,
amilyais of soil on tho Kaluphaua estate. We have apparently aimilar
soils as Kahagalla, producing good results. This plainly shows that
tho analysis of soil, as usual ly performed by chemists, docs nut always
afford a suffloient gui de to the capability of the soil ; nor yet to tell us
the kind of manure par tioularly wol I adapted for crops required.
The detailed analysis of n sod, gives only the proportions of its
different co ksiitumls. and these, without any roforenoe to tbe state in
which thety are combined,
8uch analyses are often disappointing in their praotioal bearings ,*
hc'^oe the need, not of a obomist, pure and simple, but of an
HgncuUnrai chemist; and by this I mean not one who can only
estimate the elements in a soil, measure, or produce, but at the
same time who has studied the effoot of difCeront manures
on different soils, and their different modes of action, jnat as a
doctor knows that what will do for one person, will not bo suitable for
aii_therQ are oonstitational differenoes in soils, as well as in hulnaa
beings.
Yet chemical onalysls has done muoh, and furnished reliable
information ou several pomts. It tolls us what kinds of artificial
maanres are best suited for soils differing in composition : whether
special manuren or lime may bo applied with advantage; whether
wo may burn i lay. and use it with profit, whether non-oompounds
produce humus whether some valuable ingredients ate in tbe soil in
excess, whioh m' ght be beneficial in a more diluted form ; and lastly,
whether any give i element is not in sufficient abundance ,—Tinm
A17TIDOTES TO LEAF DISEASE.
Udapusellam, Novemyr Oih, 1878.
I noticed, in a late issue of yoar paper, your aliusiona
to experiments with sulphnr, as a core or antidote for leaf
diaease, 1 should have pro ferred to remain muia on the aubjeot tor
some time longer, until 1 oould sprak with absolnte certainty on tbe
subject.
What made me first think of sulphur, was seeing ihe French peasantry
industriously dusting with it every leaf of the vineyards in tbe neighbour¬
hood of Mentone as a cure tor oi'dium. That diieam is marvellonily like
that whioh we are endeavouring sneoesatully to combat: indeed, 1 fancy
that It requires the mioroaoope to detect tbe difference; to toy nnaided
eyes they seemed identicali y the same. On uy return from wintering in
France io Blagland,! sought for informatinn regarding the progress of
^eo oumvatlon in other countries, and asked partioolarly if leaf diseaao
had boon noticed. In Fiinldad,; Mexico and Guatemala a ver^ superior
poffse is grown : (i^eed the finest sample of coffee, h regards length,
compaotness, and regalatfty of sice of bean, whioh 1 hare f vir seen, was
grownou tbesletraa ot Mexico. I am satisfied from aliihnu Ihaye read,
; Febrowy THE INMAK AGRICtJLTURIST. 69
frdbi ftU that 1 leant ln>m reaiaaatiia loitta of t^toie ooantrieei
tlwt Oiiittal Aioorifia ii» at yett/rae from the dleaate.
' , Sarly tbli y^v> I met a Dutch ge&tlemast who it l^t proptletor ol
a large oaflfee aeiate la Jara. He had been op a lanr through the coflee
dlatrieti* Hie rematke shewed him to he a ge&tlemaa of great Jatelli-
gtaee and • close obMrvcr. He was poiiUfe thatao leaf diMsee bad
been eeen in Jawi, and also mentioned that the finfat eatatea in that
iilaAd wets in the neighbourhood ot extinct Volcanoes. Tbia helped to
^ ecsflrm the idea that bad been for some time in my mind, that volcanic
ocnntries are free from leaf dleeaiOt beoanse their soil ie impregnated
irith lulphar. If it is a fact that the pest has appeared in Brazil, it
would only confirm the likelihood of my ibeoryf for 1 believe that
empire is ^eologioally similar to Oeylon. with a primitive formation of
granite and gaelss. In April last we had a slight attack of leaf
disease on this estate, lhad only a limited supply ol sulphur at
the time, but applied what I had, liberally and freely dusting the trees
and mixing a handful with the soil round the roots. The disease
completely disappeared within a month, but unfortunately for my
theory. It also, a little later on, left the coflee on which there bad been
no application. The effect, however, on tbe disease was very markedi
1 am now prepared with a good supply of sulpbor and am watching for
the first incipient signs on the leaf, which presage an attack, to try again.
1 am satisfied that If the application will not prevent the disease, it is
at any rate a palliative that hastens its departure. Lately, one nursery»
about five acres, was attacked and in a short time was as yellow as gold,
■0 bad that I thought a portion of it would be snafled out altogether.
1 applied the sulphur when my stock arrived, and now it Is as green,
and healthy a lot of plants as one would wieh to soo. The difilculty
was, In this case, brushiog the sulphur in amongst the leaves, the plants
being so closely packed together.
1 consider It proved, beyond a doubt, that fu small areas as a nursery
the disease oan be banished, with ordinary care in applylug sulphur, in
time.
Whether it can be driven out of an estate is as yet ** Hoi proven
On our nine hundred acres of^cullee we have not at preseu t a diseased
^oaf, but if the enemy appears 1 am prepared to fight liioi. Uutil 1 have
had more experience in this matter, it would bo foolish to speak post*
lively, or ooufidontly; but if 1 gain the victory I will not fail to let my
brother planters know.
Another point, which others as well os myseii should try to determine,
is whether sulphur is an antidote to the disease; whether a timely
Bpplioatipu, enabling it to permeate the system ot the tree, will give
immunity from all atlaok. The field that suffered here last year was
bearing 10 owts per acre, and ripened it, nearly all, although it lost a
deal of leaf.
1 presume that the gorms of the disoftso are there amongst the falloii
leaves. 1 inteud giving this field a doso in February or March just
before the timo when luxpeut the disease to appear, if it appears at all,
1 am as yet an oixpurer and do not arrogate homg the diaaoveror of a
positive cure. 1 am groping in the durk, looking for light, but 1 think
so far, there Is no reason to be discouraged,
Hinco Messrs. Mathcsoii A Co. began to work the Itio Tinto mines m
tipain, they have discovered literally a mountain of sulphur. They use
it for smelting the copper pyrites, yet have sutheieut to supply wants of
the world,
Flower of sulphur costs abont Its. 5 a owt, m London, hut in a
crude form could bo shipped, at the port of Ferrol, for probably leas
4han half that price, should an extensive demand for it spring up in
Oeylon.
This Government should follow the example of the B'rencb, by passing
it free over the Ceylon Bailway and dcularmg it free of ail import duty.
^Ceylon Ohmver,
a. A. DICK,
T QB Ckylon Obtereer has received from the Secretary to the Tlanters’
Association,;the letters we reproduce below
Dbab Sm,—A s I understand that it is not improbable that some
attempt may be made to arrest the ravages ot Uemclia 1 shall
feel obliged if you will lay the following suggestions on the subject
betoro the Oomrnitlee of the Planters’Association. At the same time
asl offer these suggestions, 1 wish it to be distinctly understood that
they are only Buggestions, and as such must commend thomsolves to the
oommon sense of planters generally before they can be adopted.
Shoold any or all of them be adopted, it must been the responsibility of
planters themselves, and no rcsponsIbiHly must attach to mo if filter
ooasidemble outlay the results should, not bo what were hoped for. .u
what follows the gmmnl habit ot the fongus only is treated of.
The disease, it is believed, is convoyed into the leaf during wot
weather, when* the stomates are more open than usual. After
remaining there for* some wesiho^ ^ weather causes it to
produce fruit ou the ontsldii this fruit forms the oraoge«oolotuea
blotches by which disease Is readily recognized. In districts with
wetLmarked wet and dry seasons generally, the ehief outburst of this
form of fhe phefc is shortly after the rains have ceased. In the Pnaaollawa
district, where the rain# mostly eease about the end of tbo year, it is
generally I believe, abont the end of January or early In February,
There will also probably bo similar but less prononneed ontborsts when
the dry interval between the B. W* and H. B, monsooDS is very decided*
This being the oase, the boat time to attempt to arrest the spread of the
disease it, whilst the dry weather fruit Iscoiaing to maturity {for it ig
evidently impossible to save the leaves that hpva one# become infeoted
end the only reasonable plan is to destroy them as soon as possible
I 1 have reason to believe that the sporaoges (orange dust) require to be
Bomotime exposed in a dry state before they become capable of germi-
nation and that they do not germinate readily when quite fresh from
the tree and retaining their bright orange tint.
To destroy these sporanges ought to be the ehief objeot, before they
become scaltorod; as they will be, whan ripe, under the infineuceof the
wind. 1 would therefore suggest that:
(1) All diseased leaves that may fall trom the trees bo at once care¬
fully gathered ui bags and burnt—the bags should bo made of some
close matenal to prevent tbo escape ol the eporaogos, and bo disiofeoted
frequently,
(3.) Where proprietors can afford it, the diseased leaves abOnld be
oarefolly picked from the trees aud burnt, soon after the attack has
fairly manifested itself.
(3) Ail pruuingB, whatever the time ot year, should be oatefuUy burnt
at once.
(1.) The stems and larger branobes of the trees, ^ought to be well
washed in the middle of the dty eeason with a suitable solution for
destroying the parts of the fungus that may bo eUnging to tho hark.
Kcrosme, oarbolio acid, Oondy^s fluid mixed with water or a solution of
lime or sulphur, would, t believe, answer the purpose.
(5.) AH tho ground in the neighbourhood of the trees, roadways as
well, should be spriukled with quicklime, in the middle of the dry
Bcasou,
(fi.) A second sprinkling of lime a week or two before the end of the
dry sosHun or between the two mouvoous would iuereaie the ohanceof
killing thesporauges.
(7.) All decrepit trees that do not pay for ouUivation and onlyoerve
as .1 breeding ground for the pest,should be cot to the ground*
(8.) An isolated valley like Maskcliya or Pandalneya is favorably
situated for trying these experiments, which can sosroely be tested
fairly in loss than two years,
(b.) Keep on manuring as usual.
(10.) Notice carefully the patches on an estate where the dlseaso
is worst, aud find out the reason for this in regard to sitnatioDy Ao.,so
far as possible. Notice if tbo disease is worse near any partioniar trees
or plants, decaying Umber or vegetation of any kind.
(Signed) a. Aubay,
Little Bromley, Manuingttee, Nov. 5th, 1878,
To the Secretary of the Oeylon rianters* Assooiation.
Little Lromlay, November 31st, IgTS*
DEXit Sio,—la my letter to you of November fith in reference to the
trealmciit of coffee estates and coffee trees in order to get rid of or
mitigate Uio of WmeUih mstainjo, 1 suggested the use of
korosine as a wash for the trees. It has occurred to me ainco then that
tho iuO^ramablo nature of this liquid would render it dangerous if used,
especially m the dry season, No doubt the same objection nas already
occurred to practical men. I would therefore substiiuto for kerosme
tho words “ urine from oaf tic establishments, especially when fresh."
Will you also udd to ray suggestion abont picking Uiseased leaves from
the tiecs tho words '• whore spaclally practicable,”
1 remain, Ao.,
(Higned) E. ABBaY.
To the Secroiary of the Planters’ Association.
Apart from burning with fire aud quicklime, it will be seen that Mr,
Abbey recommends certain washes. Amongst fchoso was kerosene, but
he recollocled its iufiammabiUty and advised tho subititution ot a
enbstaucQ which is in reality^ apart trom its posiltde effect on fungi, the
beat possible form o£ liquid manure, Tbo truth is, however, that kero¬
sene has boon already widely used by planters as a wash for the stems
ot trees, with reference to tho attacks on tho roots by white grnbs,
mealy bug, and fungi not allied to leaf disease, which Mr. Ahbay has
told us is swi gencru. But, ol course, the kerosene was used in a highly
diluted form, as wo suppose it would bo by any person applying U/or
leaf dUeoao.
NEW METHOD OF HOLING STEEP LAND.
CORBESPONDENT of a Ceylon cojutomporay write# concern-
iijg au experiment as carried out on about throo acre# of a
steep now clearing; ou tbe Uva aido of Nnwara Eliya. It wa# planted
up during the last sontb-wnst monsoon witl^ coffee and oinohona.
A man aud a boy take a line botweoii them. Tho formor with
his mamoty knocks the peg well into the earth aud then procoedet
to cut away the soil all round. When linished the cutting consists
of the followmg dimensions, nis., about 18 inches on the upper and
2 i feet on the lowoe side and 2 foot in ^ width ; tho depth will of
course depend ou the slope of tho hill. Tho steeper it is tho deeper
the OfiHiug.
, ^ Si*« l)9X aUmgo oy piokf^e (w^itboqfc tli^^haidlft)
^8j«ki|^ ^ cwi^re U iocbep 4eflP 6 wi^e i th»» ^
^4^I^,up ^NfJ^(ittr|5i08 B^U and is tl^euieady tU rep(^fcIoii ,oJf
tlia them <li« two oooUoB otit a, Uuutod bol®B,
^beQ!pptta®rjoColrBi8mUcb tbo eamo jm ordinary lioliog. HSfow
Uf a oompfudBon M^roau the two metUoda*
' At ^tOBBot, holoB are cat for the etpfm purpose of fOrPiag oa
plaats, after wldch to eay^the least they ate uselesa. ’ Indeed there
ii reaeon to heliere that in Bome bo!!b more harm than good is
done' by Iiolia|r. For inetahoe in clay lands a^tor the young roots
have penetrated the soft Boitaudoome into contact with the outeide
^ of the hole, they receive a sudden ohook which must prove hurtful
to a tree just at the time il wants most nourishmon^ for it would
then likely he abont 18 months old.
In the new methods we have firstly a deep narrow hole
surrounded with a cleared Space which hereafter can onaily bo
loosened up ns the plant grows “ tUeroby gradually introducing
the roots into the soil.”
Secondly, the soil is opened up to the bouoficial action of the
bun*
And, thirdly, the ledges or terraces, while the clearing is new, will
bethenisansof aoouoialattnga part of the surfaoo wash*, and
eventually constantly falling leaves. They will furthermore
do duty as manure holes. But euon^li has been said to show
thW whilst in one case an expensive work is undertaken for a
single and donbtfol object, in the other wo have fora similar
otttlayi work which will not only be bonoficiai at first, but will
roniain a lasting benefit so long as the estate exists.
do much attention has been directed recently to the future of
coffee oUUare in Ooorg, that Mr. Bevvia Rico, the Director of
Public Instruction, Mysore and Ooorg, has devoted several pages
in liis of Ooorg, recently pubhshed, to the subject. Mr.
Rice hoe Lad ample opportunity of enquiring into the present
state and future prospects of coffeo-cultnro in Ooorg and thoref ore
we must givosome weight to his opinions. Wo cannot '.dp
thinking, however, that soino of Mr. Rice’s argumouts arc incon¬
sistent. In one place he remarks “ Ooflfoo may yet succeed in
Ooorg, and the undaunted planter may yet have his reward if lUo
method of onltlvation boat euitod for each locality is carefully
adopted, and if, with the increase of jungle vegetation, esp''cially
bamboos, better seasons may be expected to return and the white
boret tb^disappesatf’' The iinpressiop. loft on the mind of the
reader—and it is the^ oovreot bue,—is that the white borer still
pursues bis ravages and is yet dreaded, but further on Mr, Rico
oontradiots himself, for we rood;—“The borer is, howovr, no
longer the dreaded enemy to the insidious ravages of which the
planter has helplessly to resign himself. Its destructive progress
has not only greatly subsided, but experience has taught the plant er
by vigorous and timely measures, to keep It down to a ininimum. ’
Setting aside Mr* Bice’s inconsistency, there is no use disguising the
faot that the boamr exists in Ooorg, and is as much to be dreaded as
over. We jvgroo with the writer, however, in urging the planters not
to giye way to despair. The use of artificial manures and increase
of shade will probably keep ofi the dreaded foe. As to seasons, the
now instruotlone issued by Government for conserving the forests
\tx Coprg will, doubtless, in the couisu of a few years, increase the
rainfall in the district. From the figures furusUod by Mr. Bioo, it
is evident that the export of coifeo from Ooorg has beea falling
ofi: considerably of late years. In 1872-73 the export was 6,497
* tons ; in 1873-74 it fell to 4,887 ions; and in 1874-75, to 4,234 tons.
The total number of estates in Ooorg is 4,235, covering an area <i
106,759 aores^ and yielding an assessment, of Be. 96,241. About
50,000acres of the whole area ^ure hold by Europeans. It seems
probable that coffee culture was mlroduced into Ooorg about the
same time.as into Mysore. Mr. Fowler was the first Buropoau
planter in Ooorg t opened out an estate in Mercara in 1854.
Mr. H. Mann, Dr. Maxwell, and others, soon followed, and the
climate of Ooorg being such a genial, healthy one, oofiee-culture
in that Province attracted,numbers of Europeaue, To the great
rush which, was made to Ooorg, may bo traced, we are of opinion
the commeucemeut of bad seasons, and the advent of the borer,
^vbral of th«» immigrants were Oeylon planters, who had not
idarnt to value shade. The evil example spread; the jungle
ruthlessly felled^ and, in consequonce, the rain-foil soon
decreased, nnd the borer, dwvon from his uativo Co tbs
bamboo, took to the coffee tree. It is only time and paUence which
can remedy those evils.
laBESsAxCookray.
. . ^ p»;\ '
HE l^t mail from Singapore brought advices from^ ?orrOf
. Ibawrle, regarding the Fetak oountry, and its iU|>pdBed
suiUbiUty as a field for European enterprise. The letter reoaived
from this gentleman enclosed a sample of coffee taken from a
Malay garden 1,800 feet above sea-leveb The bean Is welhformed,
though not large, and of a rather dark and dull oolor^ somewhat
resembling Natal coffee. The writer of the letter in questieu does
not appear to have formed such a favourable opinion of the country
as Messrs. Ohristie and Handyside entertain, and he says, that
although there are navigable rivers which enable a traveller to
obtain access to the high lands suitable for caltivatlon, the ^wyous
boat journey of three days and three nights, was in bis opinion, a
great drawback, as in the event of fioods there might be a risk of
being out off from communication with the coast jettlemenAs, imd
thus incur risk of having a large labor force starved out. For
this and other reasons, Mr. Dawrie would bo iuduoed to give the
preferonoo to the low country where there Is an abundance of good
soil suitable for tropical prodnee of all kinds, and, where the oUmate
is favourable for health. As regards this part of the country, the
writer, says, ha will be prepared to furnish a full detailed report
of the localities he has visited touching soil, oltmate, capacity,
Mflt of production, &o., Ac., if he can find twelve persons suf¬
ficiently interested in the matter to subscribe Rs. 100 each for the
results of his experience and opinious,
THE OOIMBATOBB COFFEE WORKS.
O Nfit .u Lhn largest Ooffee Oaring Establlshoients in Southern India is
at Coimbatore. Tue Firm of Messrs. Stanes and Co. commenced
boBinesB jn 1861,and hashed a moat prosperous career since. At the
present time it onres and sbfii^ 1,500 tons of coffee annually, and
numbers amoog its constituents almost the enllre body of Neilgherry
planters, European and Native. With the growth of the busiaess,
Messrs. Stones and Oo’e premises hove iooreased. Hhey are replete
with every oonvenienoe, and machinery is largely employed. The
amiable head of the firm, Mr. Robert Stancs, will readily permit an
inspection of the various buildings by any one desirous of making him¬
self acquainted with the processes through which our coffee passes before
It la fit to bo placed in the Home market. Wo, however, proceed to
describe these works for the benefit of those who cannot make a
I potsoual intpeolLon. Xu a line with Messrs. Stanes and Oo.’e offiaei is a
senes of godowus, luto whtob the crop of each estate is received as
I delivered, and preUminary to exposure on the barbaoues to be dried* On
the arrival of a consignment, a careful oomparlson between the invoice
end the delivery is instituted by a responsible oilioer of the works in
the piesenoe of the man who goes m charge, who, after measurement,
obtaiUi^ a receipt for the quantity delivered. When dried, the parch¬
ment coffee is conveyed in bags to two circular peelers, worked by a
stationary engine. Tueso peelers are fed at the rate of about eight
bushel.i each, per every three minutes, aud between them deliver from
sixteen to twenty tons of peeled ouilie per diem. The husk, which
ultimately goes to Coed the engine is removed by a winnowing machine
adjacent, after which the coffee is emptied into a rough sixer. From
the sixer it is carried up an iuclined plane to a spacious upper-storied
room, In which from 200 to 600 women and children, seated at dwarf
tables, aic bniily employed picking out the broken coffee, The people
are paid it cm a few pice to about two annas and a half, according to
age and vsperience, per diem, aud some of them have been employed
upon the works ever since they were established. It was iatetesting
to learn t lat girls who acoompaoied their parents to the works, fifteen
or sixteen 3 ears ago, were now themselves mothers, and led their infants
in like mat ner at the present day. On the same floor with these people
is the final ii»nr, which delivers m the lower story, in five assortoentit
classed A., .1X , 13., 0. and Feaberry. The coffee is here packed in
cases, aud is ready for shipment. The arraagementB lor storage and
safe onstody, seem to be as satisfactory as it is possible to make them,
andarc well oalonlated to guard against tbeft or misappropriation, A
European patrols the promises during the night, and the people
I empluyedupon the works are every erening ohaUenged by a Buropean
porter and, if necessary, searched by a female attendant, Aconpleqf
watch dogs are now on thetr way out intended for this firm, and on
the arrival of the dogs, the property of its const ituents will be as safe
as the firm can possibly make it. The experience of the past year bas
shown that the natural ehriakage of the coffee on exposure on the
barbaQUoa at Coimbatore has given rile to some doubts as to the
efficiency of arrangements for the safe eustody of ocop sent ^ thf Werkp
to bo ebaaod, and some seoriminatory eerrespoudenee haa,b^ the '
cestthybuHift will be seen from what we have said thali Mdsirif JliMiai
and Oqi do theiv best for their eonutUaenU In this respaet, and Uiat tim
(te‘mi)MAeiiroi7LTiJBisT. •
in
> k m th# reiaU of tiatarM ^tiBas* OOuir
jm dutlQji crop timia, tliat oo« plikWMd Mtia wai
optlfiad to Coimbatore from are to six knt of patobmeutf per
aireoiil/ tfm the rata. It waa, ol ooorie^ imposalble for
the^ 06 ailirhtaea 6 to be the nme to bulk when driOd M when deUrered
in, a folkkiE atate«—dbwf A of India Ohomor*
SEEICULTUEE.
I^BWSoomeii from Japan that the ailkworm eeaeon haa been
^ a very dUastroua one for the growers.
fiamn/rcraa k rapidly progressing in the SoatUoru States of
Ameriea. Only three years ago Mr. Samuel Ijowory) a coloured
lawyer of HuntsTille, commenced tho raising of silk worms, which
prored very healthy. Mr. Lowery has now. a number of mulberry
trees planted, and will have for sale this spring from 4,000,000 to
5/)00,000 of eggs, worth about $<j- 60 per ounce, or $1 per 100.
He ihiuks that the cost per acre of silk culture would bo about tUo
same as that of cotton, aud eatimatos tho pro duct as from 150 to
200 lbs, of silk per acre, worth from $4 to C per lb.
TflE exports of chttssnm (waste silk) from Calcutta since tho
commencement of tho official year 1876-77 have been as follow
Quantity
Value
LfiS.
ns.
77 f To Foreign Ports
18 * 6 . 1 7 J Const Porto
669.756
78,618
447,602
74.626
ift 77 7 A Foreign Ports
1877.78 J ..Coast Ports
. 822,640
4C.11G
604,876
30,673
April to Sep, f To Foreign Ports
1878. i „ Coast l^orts
890,948
22,144
300,017
16,309
Tho exports of all raw silk including chuBsuin were<—
1877.7* '
Apri^ io Sep, f To Foreign Porta
1878. 4 „ Ocfoat Forls
... 1,410,872 77.48,84.1
872,01)1 17,61,851
1,491,950 70,20,881
034,888 41,91.882
... 090,886 71,04.547
... 247,790 14,12,298
Tlie difference between tho value of ordinary raw silk and
chnssum is so groat tliat, having regard to tho extent of the tiado
in the latter article, it IS possible that wrong inforon'cs may bo
drawn from tho figures iu tho trade voturns where tho exports
are added together, undititinguishod, under tlio head of Haw Silk.
The Governor-Qonoral in Council has accordingly directed that in
future, ohuesum and cocoons shall bo shown separately iu the
returns of the sea-horne kade.
THE WILD BILK INDUSTKY OF INDIA.
T DSSEB silk has long been known and used by ibo natives
of India. They have exported it iu considerable ^piaulilics
of late years, but from their imporfeot mode of manipuialing it
in Us earlier stages of manufacture, and fiom the difficulty of
dyeing it well, it has made but little way iu Europe except for
ladies* and ohildrou*s drosses in an undyed state. In Bengal aud
the adjoining provinces from time immemorial the nativos have
manufactured this silk into cloth called Tussor dhooiies,** which
is worn by Bralimius and other soots of Hindoos. In 1858, Dr.
Birdwood brought the wild worms under the notice of thiH country,
and urged their utilization. The silk is found from the north-west
range Of tho Himalaya, south as far os Midnapore, in Beugal, aud
through the north-east tango to Assam, and southward to
Chittagong, and probably further. It is found also in tUo Presi¬
dencies of Bombay and Madras, and is said to be abundant in
Bhagulpore in Bengal. It abounds ohieffy in the eastern districts
of OhAttisgiHth, namely, Baipore, Bilaspore and Sambulpore, iu tho
Chanda district of the Nagpore province, and the Loono district^
The natOfAl ooknr of the silk Is a darkish shade of fawn, muoh
unlike the golden and white coloui's of the mulberry*worm silks.
It has mnoh lets affinity for dye atufE^s, especially for those which
grow in Zndlai and it has not autil recently been much dyed. For
aavetal yearn 1 have beati staged with op&siderable success in
improving the methoda oi dyeing} and restilts afe shown in a
ease at the Faids * Bxhibktloh, / These improvements in the
mimefactttreaad^djekgareMy^t^ great khaence
on the oulliva^ott of this i&k,^ and \ptehably al«o ol ethkr'WHd
silks, tho demand tor whteAr easy W tt few years be only memmeed
by the quantity which can ^rednoad* Thajafvm of the’Tnsser,
when fully grown; are about four inohes k' length i they hate
twelve joints or ortkulatlons, hesidca titadr extromlkies. Their
colour is green, resembling the kaveden whkhiheyfeed i and
they are mathed with reddmh «pok amit a reddish ^yeHew baud
running lengthways. They feed on eeveial pftati 4^
Bhizophora oaloeoletis* Liph,
Terminalia alata glabra (Ascum tree),
Terminelia tomeiMOBa (the Sa} tsee).
.Terminalia Oatappa (Oonnjtry Almond tree),
Teotoua graudis. (Teak tree.)
Zizyphus jujabA (Ber tree.)
Bhorea robusta. (ml tree.)
Bombax beptaphyUuro. (Bemul.)
Careya sphterica.
Pontaptera tomentosa,
Pentaptora glabra.
Riciinus oommnnis (Castor oil plant).
Cassia laucoolata.
In six weeks from tho time they are hatched they begin to Spin
their cocoons, which they most ouriously suspend from the
branches of the trees by constructing a thick hard oor^ or filament
of silky matter, which is mado to grasp the branohes. As noon
OB the worm has spun its cocoon it takeO the .form of Ohrysalis or
pupa, and remains a prisoner in the ooooons for About nine monttis,
or from October until July. At the end of ihis time the ohrysaUs
assumes tho form of a moth, and whilst its wings are in an
imperfectly developed state it softens one end of the oocOoos with
an exudation which onables it to separate tho fflatnents of dlk and
to woik its way out of the cocoon, This it efEsets daring the
night Tho weight of tbo ordinary Tosser ooooon, with its pupa
enclosed aud tbo cord by which it is attached to the branch} Is
about ffvo grammes. The Tussm moths ore known under tho
following names
Autheroa Paphla (Linnseos).
Bombyx „ (Hhbnor).
Baturnia „ (Heifer).
Phalmua Attacus aWUtta (Drury).
,, Paphia (Roxburgh).
Boinbyx Mylitta (Fabrioius).
“ Boghy" of tho native of Burbhooa Hills where the silk
(which the same people oaU ** Tusesh **> is maoufactured.
Tho male Is of a reddish pale brown colour} and the female much
yellowoi. Mr, O’Neil iu his report says The moths aio
particularly rovored by tho people engaged in the ooUnre of the
worms, the ooculili on their wing being considered as tho * chakfa*
ormaikof Vislmu. These people also pretend, to observe the
greatest purity of life during tho time they are in tho junglee
rearing the wonuH, and do uot oat ffesb}fi8h or spices, do not shave
or out tlicir hair, do not woar wasbod clothing, nor anoint their
bodies with oil, and do not touch any person of whom a telaHye
may have recently died.*’ Organzino and Tram Toseer ate shown
of tlie quality and state of manufacture now used hi Bnglmid lor
weaving, aud a good representation of the present state Of its
manufacture which gives a size of 255 deniers (15 drams per l,Q0O
yards). The sizes of the Tusser eilk generally used in Sogland
ruu from 152 doiiiors (o drams) to 265 deniors (16 drams). These
aro very coarse sizes and must neoessarily bo unfit to produce such
fine textile woik as tho mulberry silk which is manufactured into
Organzino aud Tram of 21 deuiers and upwards (1^ drams) and
from which aro made the finest silk fabrics The want of fineness
and quality is owing to the imperfect and unskilful mode of
manipulatiug it from tho cocoon upwards in India, and the want of
better mAoliiuery to prepare it in the raw state. The improvement
in quality, fineuess, and oloann^ss in the Organaine Tomer
manufactured, &a, under uy own inatiuotions and aupenntendenoa
will be seen to be most marked; instead of the coarse eizea Of
Tusser now used, of 152 to 255 deuiers (0 to 15 drams), there may
be obtained by proper management, Orgoaaine and Tram of
ozcotlent quality , from the same cocoonC of 51 deuiers (3 drams)
and upwards, which can bo woven into a great variety of stuifer
for which untU now duly,the mulberry sfiks have been available
The attentlen of all interested in or connected with silk maun-
faciurO} cannot be toostiongly drawn*tothis fact, nor Its value be
overrated* There is a facet important future in store for the
Tuiair aiik industry} and as groat improvemanM will take place aa
tbol# wUch rtmUicdCfon inirodnctimi proper tnacUmiy
tjipi til*,
Wwdfcotarsd to mwU “f
^!^£2t 52 S«« 0 ^ 1 .X «ia Tr«“
Tiuaw *Bk o«n b* diwoeiafttUy mad to* w«M damtslw, cottri ,
(imiitare ooYWiogii, tamgtoga, woman’* and
gMa**ffaOk,wdl would dt.w tbo ottaniionot nphoUlarew wj
Lad ritk mwntaotarari to tha apacimana ^
fabriaa mad# of Taawt ara rary atrong, moat darablo, m P . ,
“tH
Sr"
SSL. a Wttd rilk-worm of lodU, ptodaoaa tU. ailk known a.
Erior B»«ko£ Afuam.
It is slscTknown under tbe following names :
Phal»na Oynthia
Bombyx Oynthla (plivior).
Sarnia Qrntkla (Hubner).
Satumia Oynthia (Westwood).
The ArS^i'or Xnnnli ellk-worm moth
With tWat moat on Iho
gives the followinf? 5 j - ft apinsitfe i '' oon
eating the ohmalie. cannot wind tho silk, but
‘i’S'sSi "£. -si’s'iv" ;r.
tlS»oa«bU ! ‘‘ Unf
cloth, of a seemingly, loose texh ^ garment
‘JSde srira# wto^in^rf th^Koooo to h«vo boon
g,? Sid ‘W ;s
apiimmg ma^mwy ^vapwad
•“,?^*"S?;!?^nm™™^ 1 v baXin"a,an.lI wilUonturo to pro-
and weaving ptlrpo^ ) 4 Xfl,*%*.A{inr‘rt of all i^iWindab)® silk-worm
that Ihow kinda which cannot bo woun.i ^ui
nnA tuaro is at the present monuml a demand ou tuo pari oi mi
lor a larcer supply of IWer sUk of ooons and TaHflor si k
t'SSto f« apiimtogputpoio, and no doubt otUct
tagTadly to.ugUt uLr/'"'"®''
^ to M
Hunter, Of liIortimof*hiU, whose
jsfffjrsjns!?
”5irtio» o?MvSr.uhn«a«a r-m-tw*
y«»-. MO town from « omp of M ogja
0
year, and drawn from a crop of M aores#
seen and tho whole crop is the hesviert Md «op on rseord, w
weights will show ;-^atton’a wsmMolJ long red, Ug ms ^
.evfnMrlo, Sotton’. goldon tented, *« ^
nritie yellow globe, 77 tons per aorej and Sutton s yellow mwmwMwp
77 tons per acre. . , , ihm
Cabbages are shown weighing over B61b.
enorrooul weight of 1621b. Tho winners of ^e chief ^
mangols, Sir I’aul Hunter, Mr. B. Bnrn-Blytb, Sir T. Smyt^, Mr.
WobV koMirf. J. and W. H. Cl«te wd Sir ftrtoriF, Bn^, loM^
■uid tinjlM,Mr.J jr.BorroIUMr.H. Midjnotjn. Mr. J.B.WvM.
I.oyd.bteL,,V.O.,_M.r.. M^W.
W. Beale, and Mr. Thomas AitJion ; lor caoDagud, «. ^
Paul Hunter j for white carrots, Sir raul liunter “d Hw. W
Among the eoUectiona of potatoes the most superb shown that of SUWon*
Magunm Bonuin variety. _ ^ .
The iudges wero-Mr. .1. Brebner, her Majwty»s
Mr. W. Briginflliaw, hot Majesty’s Bagahot Park larm . Mr. Jaw
liuokman, Professor of ^riculUito ; Mr. J. Chalmers Moi^n . Mr.
SimmoiiH, Bearwood Park Srm, Berks; and Mr. H. Tail, her Maje y
Slaw Farm, Wind«or—fur root.; Mr. 0. Penny, gatdmor t^ho Fn 0
Wal™, Saodrmgliam i Mr. J. Tegif, tedonor to Mr. Welter,
Bearwood ; And Mr, Coombes, gardener to Mr. ,B, Benyo!ii-*foi pots
uud vegetables.—TiWktii, November 25th.
ADVEkTISEMBNTS.
TIE INDIAN AGRICULTURIST.
Eatos of Subsoription-
Jn Ono year, moluding postage ... H** 72 0
In iPiiro/jif.—One year ,i h »* 73 3
Advertisements.
Front or Baok Pago .B«. 64^
Ordinary JVgo *• ** "
i Page ••• »• ”
I Pago ... "* '* 71 i>
H) per ce 7 it, reduction on 12 months cotitraol.
Agents in London.
GKuUaRSTUKEr, Ebq., Cornlidl,
Al.OAR, Kfcsc^.t ...S, Clevv7iis Lane^ I^nion^ B.0»
NICllOLI.S A 00,, ...li WhUcfriarB^itrect^ h'leetxtiTdtst^ A?.
BATls.3 HKNDY H OO., -..4, (fUJewnj, London, E,C,
UwAu OKFioa—3, Ghowringhbe* Calcutta.
the royal BERKSHIRE ROOT SHOW.
grown by oomtrfuiv^oro Viacount Eversloy,
*5Val«s idalsoin Boottana. Mt. P. WrougUton.
Colebel Lovd-kudsavu V.C.^P I M ^ m Uiukr bn-e, Oxfoid-
H. l&dUudod,. Oomm...tenor from
%!Sri.XtEw:™?n*»mr.ii«ou for ‘K rrU^,. .nnonnl^# te
SK«f B« 8.’ a! oriit, sro,
the 47onuti^ ^^Twbo g * _ ^ ^ g. po^i Hotter, Kit C|^*
M. to”P?A&tSLi!fJSVv. a:, M. P-, Mt. w«!trr. M. P.; «!J»
Mt. W«ltvT, M. P.» «Sp
TIIK
STATESMAN & FRIEND OF INDIA.
BATES OF SVBSCBIFTIOK.
Including Postage.
Advanoo, Advance,
y, \y .Be. 36 0 Ks. 42 0
Half-yearly ... ». n 78 0 n 24 0
Quarterly ... ... tt 7*7 0 ,t 12 0
Oaah Sales at Office, two annas per copy.
Oath Sales in the Streets, two annas per copy*
BACK NUMBERS AVAILABLE AT 4 ANNAS PER COPV.'
ALL BUBSORirnoNft UNPAID WITHIN 15 DAYS OF A TEaiK WlLli
BB OllAUCIDn AT TUB AQBBAB RATBS.
Agents in London.
GBOBOE STRRIfiT, KsQ.,... aitnhill,
IT. Ali&AB, BsQ., •** 8, OlsmetUs Lane, Zondon, MO*
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BATI&S HiflKPy & Oo.i ... if Old /suii*y, Londonf B* (X
EbaD OFnOB-*ea CilOWBUieilSia OAAOmAi
JOVMAL OF INDIAN AGRIGULWRE, MINMALOOr, AND STATISpCS.
VOL. IV.] . CALCDTTA ; SATURDAY, Ut MARCH, 1679. [No. 8,
NOTICE.
THb Iuwan AGHKULitElBi mil gujtplted h all SckovU and
MutiomiM If! India at half
K KNIGHT,
Calcutia, l«t
_ n
CONTENTS:
Taok
TTfcBS-
TiMtuf Silk
FAttmne
De Ommbus .
Mr Routledgo on Bamboo ...
Bamboo in the fioUmcal
Garden. Caloutta
ljfcA»I*G AtTIOLBa—
CofEee Leaf Disease ..
£^ilg«.Their Ongin and! Di£*
ferenoe ..
The Diaiiess m the N -W. I* .
BDiroauL Noisi ...
78
74
74
75
76
77
79
81
82
C'O^JIUNMATBD AND BnutCTSD —
Agnenltnre and Ibo People m
Bndaon .
Kbandeah Ooiorument Farm 88
Bdmeih Cotton....
American Honey •«
Xhe Agnealtural CondiUon of
Mjiore .98
I xpenmental Faims . .. 00
Piofeaeor Wilson on rrencli
Agricaliaie . ... 02
I oot Crops as Food and
Manure «. 02
Manure Bxpenmenta with
Oats under Qlasa.93
Gauus.!!—
Notes 94
The Proposed Botamo Garden
at Ganeah Khmd.. . 94
I Iauit*
' FOKBSltt^— .
Notes .. 06
The Difflcnltieiof Iree Plant-
mg •* ... ... .1. 97
1 roe Planting in Amonta . 97
Tree Planting m Southein
India . 97
British Bnitna Forest Bepoits
for the year 1877-78 ... 98
Tar PLAMrERs’ GA/snR—
IFA 99
Tea Sorting final Firing and
Pack mg m ( olombo its
advantages and disadvan
tagLB .. 99
COFFEe—
The Pulneys as a CoBlo Dis
tllCt M . 100
Libeiiitt Cjfteo in I a^ancoro 101
< otTee Loaf Disease .101
Bctentillc Culture of Cofleo ... 102
AgiiouUaro for Planters 101
Tobacco—
Notes . , lOj
Notos on some Foioiga To.
Iwocoa at the Paris Lxhi-
biUon .. ... 105
Sin&icULruuii.^
la«ar Senoulture tee Ml lOtt
** lu<i«rc/ in the Paris Exhi¬
bition *• I. ... 107
Cinchona—
Cmehona Cultivation lu India 107
AovnutissMiLNis.
notice to correspondents.
Ottr Ootrefipondents and ConOibatots will greatly ohUgiUb
if th€g will take the trouble, where (he teturns of calUvatwn ate
stated by them in Indian weights and mea&uret, to give their
^ English eguioalents, either m the text, in parenthesis, oi tn u
footrnede^ The bigah in patUcular vanes so much tn the di/»
ferent Provinces, that it is absolutely necessary to give the
English value if it vn all cases* It would be a great tefom
f the Oovemmeni iue\f followed the came course in all the
o/hM reports pcHishid by iU
LBTTEBS TO THE EDITOB,
TUSSUB SILK,
TO THU XDITOB.
Bin,—Silk IB An aitiole that well deserves the atio&Hon ot
goveiuments, Und owneis, mauiiEaciureis and tornineroial tnen. X
purijose ptoviQg tins upon autbontio data, and al the same time
of Hhewliig dcaily a Bpecial source oi wealth m oonnetli^n with
it that India alone possosses.
Whether from the ranio general consnmptiou o£ those products
that indicate and iuilow Iho Blandard of civilization amongst the
niiddie claBBos, or owing to the repeated blights of the mulberry
tiee, there has boon in Kuiope duung the past 60 years an
inci easing disposition to resort to foiaigu sources o£ silk supply
to loplace the homo consumptiou. Asia, especially China, Japan,
and India, has boon the most iuinod to aocount to satisfy
the iluiopean demand The Tussui, however, is one amongst
the many kinds ol cocoons, that it would bo well to study as the
possible and sound substitute £oi those o£ the mulberry tree-
conforming as it does in some of ii<i special oharactenstics. It
IS blight and elastic, while its stiiogthof tissue admits of ihe
thread being diminished in the winding oft, without losing any
of the qualities icquired by ihe d}er and the loomsman. The
better to acquaint uiy icrder with the pioduotion and oonsamp-
tiun ot Bilk thioiighoiit iho woild, X Bubmit toi bin consideration
A table compiled from tlie statistus of the Italian Govern*
incut
Protluec throaghoui the mi id of the thferenl sdk^ fom the mulberry
tno iUiouna*
) 1 * I tloa
A ton
Ot thcluojglii
siik of (him
Uicri urt 1,000,OIK)
Oiul ct tI\L
tuiAur btlliuf
iBdia . 4,030,000 Taikxy
I
PrauM
An tria
‘ 14,100,000
Total
C| aiu aiwl)
lortugal J
ClrocLO, )
BuroitiAn f
lurktf^, f, 100,000
4«,
»,A10 000
bflO 000
450 0 )0
140,000
6 000,000 nmud Total
XlBHAftK-*.
460,000
1000/*00 AMXpttngUie
AtatlrttiM o7 Mr
600,000 iKitihior tliopio
(In tion of lialy
700,000 wmiki be « mil.
|K(u<i, othem
400,000 tlM) vleld
to be 8 ml Uona
only, bat tho
Italian Omern*
imut aDkoow*
Msen to
' 8,600,000
Till mon,lia
and tanair allica
nre not maim
taotnred in
Huroiw.
44)60,000
4,700, >00 4,701,000
17,600,000 0.661,000 I
47 B —1 bo average ptioet of Aaiatic and European alike dniing 10 years
bare been respectively 60 and 66y/aRC6 tbc kvtu. Tbns tiie
4,800,000 Asiaiio i.. @ 60/. m 249,600,000 A«anot,
4,700,000 European . „ 65/ om 806,600,000
Ktlos M. 9,560,000 Franei 548,000,001
Italy does not manufactare in proportion to hei large produettou
Ihua one finds that the numbsi and disdibution of the silk
factories throughout hluropo are as foVowst—
74
fm .mw icfUictritmiST.
Is foam tu
,> Qttrittiny
^ 120,000
.., 120,000
70.000)
40,000 \ 120,000
lOfOOOj
4,. 32,000
^ Bwittitltutd
„ Au«trS» M«
fi Itely Ht
Total ol Baropean faclories ... ... 872,000
Italy holds in Baropo the first place as producer; having no less
than 4,806 fatrtories at work upon her own productions (4,355
and 46011 rajDSur); while France has not more than about
900 factories devoted to the same purpose, ot which the greater
ntioober are each fitted with 100 dimity looms {baeines). But
besides the silk from cocoons nurtured at homo, she uses a vast
quantity supplied from abroad. In the manufacture of silk dress
materials and lace there is used of
ladigBUoas prodaoe 80 per ceat. of the total ooUaru.
Of lUhaa „ 22 „ „
OfAiiftti'c M 48 „ „
that constitute fls ^e noooen to oempletely fotin^ ioS
days, and all who have Mpdvhnented oh its ouhivatioii hays prove \
that the cost of fresh ma^eriak 6f produetion wOnld not be more
tluin 14 to 15 annas per |,000 etpoeons. Bay a rupee, however,
yet it must always be aatisfaotory to produce for one whAt ihay .
be sold for four rupees. The latter price f^the one ’
accepted for the small supply of silk yet produced, hut it might he
realized for all that India could produoe^would she but encourage
the industry, it must be seen at a glance that the cultivation
would beoome no loss valuable than that of Opium, and that it
could bo adapted witliout difficulty to the jungles of India,
If more extended information be want^ regafding oHber the
nuiture and treatment of cocoons or the mode of preparing them
for the market I shall bs bappy to furnish it; or to render any
other assistance that may he in my power.
r. L.
MODEL FARMINQ.
IOC
To assure oneself that tho use of silk is becoming more general
among the middle classes and docioaemg among the upper, it can
•be nocesssry only to consider tho following iatile, ehowing Iho
proportionate distributiou of silk rnaiiufacturos in Frniico at
different periods.
daring ih« vevts ... 1855. 1802. 1871- 1872,
The value of heavy priced goode it)
miHiods of francs ... ... 8'J 30 9 H
The value of low priced gooda lu mUhonx
of francs was ... ... ... H3 101 291 308
III adilitiou to these figures I will givo tli© qnautitica exported,
as shewn by the FrotioU Oustoin House ralorns at various datos.
in millions o( francs
121
. 131
, 274
. 414
, 465
-From 1827 to 1836
„ 1837 „ 1846
„ 1817 „ 186G
„ 1857 „ 1866
„ 1SG7 „ 1876
And still further to show the changes iiadorgoiiG in in the
progress of this industry 1 give a table of the factonoK , hat have
been at work during the past 203 yours,
Ju 1684 10,000 I lu 3821
„ 1705 2,01)0 I n
„ 1788 J8,000 \ „ 1831
„ 1703 . 3,l»0} 1 1)
•> 1«'6] . I-,W| I ^ J,JU,
To Burn up, there can be no
consumption of silks of r\ciy
that go Bpecially to the
that savour of democracy.
21 , 0)0
27,003
42,000
'.0 00)
66,0 lO
, 120,000
doubt of tho alniosf boundless
kuid, but, above all, of those
nianufactuio of the matoriala
Having formed an idea of the
nearly limitlesB extent of tho total quantity of silk used^
1 invito the reader lo think of the wealth that India
might possess, would she but iucreaso tho production of tiiSHiir
Goooous. If tho industry were left altogether in native liands
the result could only be applied to tlio manofacluro of tho
couri ‘ material known as tnssur cloth. 'i he prenent outturn would
in that case be enough ; tho two lia’ vests that fall within the
year would Bometiuies even more than supply the demand. But
since we have found liie means ot winding off Mie tussiir silk as
fioely as that from tho uocooii ol the tiuilberry tree itself, it seems
to me wrung that this uatnral resonreo should bo iioglucied.
Government, in the first pUfo, and Uie land owners, in the second,
should enoourage its uurture—uat are would repay the encourage-'
inent manifold. The tea and jnte enterprises have proved the
Wisdom ot leaving in nalive hands the growth of ratural
produce-*"with tho hi p only of the needful Euiopean capital
and supervision. So as OovornmiMit is oouicrned, it might
cultivate the tussur ooc mu*, by the system now applying lo
opium, but with a tonlh or the trouble. Oousider for a moment
the multitude of trees to be found amidst the jungle that will
nourish tbt, tussur silk*worm. Oaks of all kinds—•Terintnalia
poutaplera tormeutosa, Zizyphus jnjulia, Ficus biuiaminas,
Ficus xeligtosa, Carissa, Gmdia, WriKhij i, TennmaWa catappa,
Termiualia nlata, Bombax hopihaphyllmn, Bhorea robusia, Carea
sphacria, Hagersttaaviu carvifiora, Canocarpus latifolia, Pentaptera
Arjuna, Syzyguim jambutanum, Tictora grandis. 1 will not
dwell upon the simple treatment needed by the silkworm white In
the tree,' that supplies it, with all necessary nutrlin.*^ t almost all
it neede ia that the brids sbaH be kept away duTk^^ the 35 days
I
Sin,—1 iiavo been recently perusing some amusing articles on the
attempt a made in various parts of India in model farming; they all
eeom to bo mtended to teach the native ornamental gardening or high
farming. For many years any such attempts most be failures. For
anything to be taught must be begun in its elements before big ber
things are attempted ; and what is required is to demonstrate to the
native mind that 100 acres worked by paid labor and better ploughing
would bo more profitable than 10 acres worked by hli own labor ; and
that certain crops yield a bettor return than inferior ooei. Now (ho
staple produce of India is wheat and rice. The production of (he first
in "eater quantities should be encouraged, and riue, as now planted, is
bioadrast and re-planted, coetlng great labor. An attempt tw
made to Introduce Oarolina rice. With the boe it can be iviaulcd at
ODoe, as it is planted in ridges and needs less watering than the Indian
rice, and does not require trausplantlng. And eeoondly, the natives
should be taught tho use of the American plough, with wbicb some
experiments have been made at the Central Jail, Oakuitia, with great
Buooess ; it seems to be well adapted for India, and costs a moderate
sum. The groat defect of the Indian plough is that the ground has to
be gone over five and six limes before it is fit for nse; and the inlioduc*
tion of abetter kind of harrow is required. What model farms should
aim at ie to show the natives the advantage of better tools, and the
most remunerative crops. Of course inferior crops willbe raisMi. as
they form the staple food of the natives ; but if;tbey could gel wheat
or rice cheaper they would prefer them.
THILO.
Calcutta, 23ra February, 1B78.
VE OMNIBUS,
Sir,—T he weather during the past month has been unnsiiaWy dry,
iu fact to such an extent has this been the case, that 1 much d(»ubt
whether we shall obiaiu more than a three-quarters crop of cereals.
Although if this dry weather oontiuues, there is no doubt but that this
proporiion will be further lessened. This does not mean a famine,
(ibough 1 dare say the local officials would like to have a famine for
the gust it brings to such gentry) as ibo people have sufficient to fide
them over until harvest tame, though it does mean a temporary ligbt-
nm lu the price of food grains. It Providence is merciful and scuds
** such moderate rain and showers that we may receive the fruits of the
eart'i to onr comfort, and hie honor,” the rainy season crops ought to
be . umper ones, as the ground will have had a slight rest and ffoobte
plot lihiiigs which will have given it a large supply of light and air.
Hu joined IS an abstract of some meteorological observatiuni kept
durii g the past five years.
Jasvasy.
1875,
18/6.
1877,
I 1878.
1879.
Suowy days ...
2
2
6
S 1
I
Hatly „
—
rm.
ttalny „
—>
4
4
2
Biy.
Dry and
warm.
i
KhovA 8l|
titcheS of
-lUOW,
.
Suitable
Kxoessivply dry
only aboua-^. ^
an moh of ssow.'"
The wind is generally from western qaaiters brihgfag up (he
vaponrs, wbiob fall either in snow or rain,
Themometer (Fht.) hung in open verandah about 39 at 7 A it, aad 60
at 6 P.H.
Grass and jungle burniug—those ourses of the country—progveaslog
witli tke uitttl vigour, that boruiug up ■•adlingi ml ln^ini:
AGBIdULTtfE^.
mttiiliit' tfttitft bw« 'o* TegaifUlonc ^ ymvo^
to *W* titofol l^ro^*od» ^
gtol4;^«i1Aiitli»iiili4$TAfUrili«T«tooU»gdiii|imdf Srotind
M irfopkrJy f«d iJdwo or hitvQstad^ nwdt »o Arlog^ fcod
ll to tklo point fttw gtnm will fpffng up ttOoh qoioket whnre
> ^l^atwofortet« ^niUonibATi been onrriod oat tboa on tfao latt«r.
f^« i»p. i
Oirfaig to tbodryneai of tbo MEion tbo ootonifoliom tooteug apple and
obnrry twee bate not yet come into bbteom. The bade of many twee,
mob u the willowi peaob» walnut j rhododendron are now swelling.
Should they come out too early and oold sharp windy weather set in
attorwa^, great loee will be tbe resalt. The ohekul {Primepia utUis)
with ite wee white flower* the wild oleander olnander) with Ite
white wa»-llke, (tbongheo pretty, nearly every part Is poisonous) are
our prfnelpal flowering ebrube : of wild flowers we bare a few ojstus
wichibelr yellow petals, violets (scentless at low elevations and in
eipoied situations) and buttercups in sheltered and moist situations, there
are a few ferns.
Tbe sportsman can now obtain stags Cral nm}i>hn)\ musk deer (hatHra
ktna) ; barking deer {hhahkar) ; chamois {gural pij) bare (hhargm)
poronpine (jthahai) wild pig (jungli gur) bear (halu rikh) leopard
(hragh) flying squirrels (tin) bill fox, pine marten, lynx, jaDgle<0Bt,
wood otter, Jackel, most of these require careful stalking, and for tbe
sportsman to keep in Ibe neighborhood of the snow just below wbioh
point most of the animals birds also, live or come down to, In order to
obtain food, others are found about tbe fields and ravines; the bears can
be kilted in their dens with proper preoantione.
Of birds we have pheasants, the argus (ikahi) mauaul (uiittaZ ) long-
tailed (cAif); ohookolate breasted (koklagplaeh) silver breaeted {khUeg»)
partridges^ olive (JbantUr) black (titr) ; chakore {chikor) j quail {haters)
woodcock ; pigeons, green, large blue, winter white breasted, and
mottled breasted ; all now in full winter, plumage. While down by the
bank Of tbe river there are tbe wild goose (Jttngli raj hans ) wild duck
and teal. Fish, the mabsir and a small kind of trout are caught in tbe
river.
Tbe orops now growing are wheat and barley.
Price of wheat 10 seers for tbe rupee.
Oardening operations confined to carrying out manure, transplanting
fruit and other trees, digging and preparing ground. Mignonette,
nariciasni, red, pink, and white roses, petunia now m blossom ; among
vegetables areoabbages, turnips, carrots.
Q. P.P.
Ketegbur, 1st February 1870,
MB, ROUTLEDGE ON BAMBOO.
CJo the MAtlor of the EngUghnMn,)
6ZB,-«-Ia your paper of 2lBt January, you printed a letter from Mr,
Thomas Boutledge, in which be comments on the ill-suecess of the
experiment in cropping bamboos described in the report of tbe Botanic
Garden for 1877-78, Mr, Boutledge attributes the failure to my having
followed a faulty system with tbe invention of which ha appears
desirous of oreditiog me. How nobody can have a poorer opinion of
tbe merits of the system wbioh was followed in this experiment than
1 myself have.
Tbe system is not, however, of my invention, but was suggested in a
liamphlet entitled *' Bamboo oonsidered as a paper-making material,”
published daring 1875, by no other tbon Mr. Boutledge hlmsolf,
In bis letter to you Mr. Boutledge objects very strongly to tbe cutting
of all theaboots of each oinmpof bamboo, and says my results were bad
beoause 1 did this. In his pamphlet just named, Mr, Boutledge des-
oribed his scheme of growing and cropping bamboos in the following
words
** Tbe stems of tbe * bamboo,’ out young, as 1 propose to use them,
contain from 60 to 76 per omit, of moisture; it will be obvious, there¬
fore, that toensare a regular and continuous supply under economical
conditions, to a central factory for the manufacture of ' papor- 4 tock/
plantations #oald have to be formed contiguous thereto, as praotised
with * BUgaroane,* or In a similar manner to osier beds in Bogland.
e A * a * *
*'Wlth plantations of * sugarcane/ to wbioh plant the 'bamboo*
aomewhat aMimllatei in oharaoter and growth, U is neoessary, in order '
to rtpon the canes and develop saoubarine, to allow free ventilation to
tbe growing plant, and thus tbe ground is not fully oeoupled. This
would not bo the oaso with ' bamboo,’ wbioh should be planted and j
grown closely together to favor the stems shooting upwards, as practUed
with ' bemp* and * flax,' where fins staple of fibre is desired,
♦« By following such a aystioi. the stools or roots once established, a
lyitemaitcal and tegular woppteg, or cutting, wonld ensue, the stems
beifig ftll out down tlmUltaneoasly, by sections or beds, in regular
snegesiUm, niimirotLS eropi>ings suwnally would thus bs obtained, aud,
wb^ nsoessaryi fmib beds iould be logmed, the older growth being
avli'able for fuel lor the mannfaotory*
" Ibe sogereane from tbe time of pliDiUog to eutting takes from nine
to twelve months to grow and msturs \ but even thus grown, tbs
produce of canes (resdy dressed for tbe mill) gensrslly rsnges from 80
to 35 tons to the sere; it sometimes exceed 40 tons} allowiog ssvsral
crops and outtings anuoally for the ’bamboo,’ It may fairly be aisnmed
that at least this Istter quantity wonld bs obtalnsd per acre.
" Allowing 808 feet square to represent one acre, divided into twelve
beds, each 96 by 26 feet, w^h twelve paths 96 feet, 8 feet 8 Inohss wide,
and one intersecting road 208 by 16 feet wide, leaves a space for
planting equal to 2,496 feet, or 29,962 feet in the twelve beds ; allow¬
ing the stems to be 2 feet apart, and say only 12 feet high, we have
7,488 stems, which at 12 lbs. each, equals 40 tons per aote.”
It appears to me impossible to understand anything from this extract,
but that the writer of it intended all the shoots of eaoh clump to be
cut, maemuoh as in his calculation of tbe annual outtura of an aere be
in eludes the weight of every stem grown on that aere.
The plan of cropping thus propoied'baf always seemed to be psrfeotly
Utopian, and 1 have expressed my opinion of it freely enough In mors
places then one, For example in a parsgraph of the report of the
Botanic Garden, in which the experiments were described 1 wrote as
follows
" Mr. Boutledge'a expectations imply a very somplete obsnge of
habit in the bamboo ; for it is pretty well known that bamboo wlumps,
entirely out down, yield for several years but few and small suooulent
shoots, and in fact not unfrequently die.”
However, as Mr. Boutlcdge’s project for cultivating bamboo in the
way described in his pamphlet was being pressed with some persistence
on Government, 1 felt bound to put it to the test of actual experience.
I did so with results that have so vexed Mr, Boutledge that be now
tries to throw the discredit of them upon me. I am quite ready to
accept Mr. Boutledge rs an authority on the probable value of young
shoots of bamboo as a paper fibre, and to admit that paper stock
derived from them may one day booome an article of export from
India. Bnt I hardly thuik the latter result is likely to be any the
sooner brought about by attempts to deny tbe paternity of an inappro¬
priate scheme so soon as its lusppropriateness shall have been
practically demonstrated,
The plan of cropping which 1 understand Mr. Boutledge now to
recommend is that only a few of the young shoots be taken from a
bamboo clump each season, end that tbe other ahoots, both young and
old, be left uncut. So far as ibo plants are concerned there wonld be
no objection to this system. But 1 fail to see bow it could be carried
on to A profit in this part of India. According to Mr. Boutledge, five
shillings per ton is the price which ooold be allowed for yoeng bamboo
shoots delivered at a paper stock factory. Ho doubt bamboo grows in
enormous quantities in remote districts where It could be had for little
more than the cost of collection, and where there is excellent water*
carriage. But, UDfortunately, bamboo shoots at tbo stage of growth
required for Mr. Bout ledge’s process are of higher speoiflo gravity than
water, and could not be rafted without more or loss expensive arrange¬
ments for floats. Tbe cost of boat hire from these remote regions to a
factory stationed in a civilized place would probably in most cases
bring the raw material to far more than five shillings a ton, while
cartage is out of tbe question. There remains Mr, Bontledge's planto-
I iion scheme in its new form by which only a portion of the annual
BhooU are to ba out. This means irrigating, manuring, and paying
rent for an area of land of which only a part of the annual yield can
be cut BS crop. And those are by no moans trifling items in Bengal.
Moreover, mature bamboo sterna are marketable at considerable rates in
civilized districts, and it would probably be more profitable to growers
to sell tbeir bamboos mature, than to dispose of them in their succulent
stage to a paper stock factory. Lastly, in putting down the annoal
yield of snoouleut shoots at 40 tone, or even at half of that per aere,
Mr. Boutledge is unwisely sanguine. My own belief is that from ao
acre of BambMa Bidcooa. (one of the oommon species in Bengal) it
would be difflcult to collect auDuallj as much as from 5 to 10 tons. 1
look on all proposals to bring this kind of raw material to a factory at
less hopeful than the proposal to fske the factory to the raw material;
and if the prod notion of paper stock from bamboo is ever to become an
Indian industry, I believe- it will be by fitting up floating mills and
moving them about on rivers In the banks of which bamboo naturally
abounds.
If Mr. Boutledge would but direct hfs inventive powers to the
problem of uiihzlog mature bamboo stems as a malarial for paper fibre,
be viou'd in my opiuioo be mure likely to attain nsefnl results than In
ron<inuing to propose schemes for the cultivation of a plant with the
peculiar growth of which he seems to have bad so little opportunity
of acquainting himself. Bipe bamboo stems are the most buoyent of
all forest prodoots, and a praotioally unlimited supply of these could
n . THE DroiAH iORrOUEtlTiaSt Hflxcti!.
At ft low ooll b« flofttftd I7 rirat from Aoutmi the OhUtft$0Bg HiU
Tfftuti« and otimt diftrloti. 1 am told that In Japan and China, papar
is iqada from mature bamboos, and, it auoh be the ease, 1 auppoiethe
same could be done in Bogland.
GEOEGB KING.
Botaolo Qardeo, Howrah, Feb. 3,1879
BAMBOO IN IHB BOTANIOAL GARDEN,
CALOUTTAf
{Remrlu ia ths mmal r^otfjor ihi year 1877-78.
T H EBE is, unfortunately, Do oontromtiog the fact cbronfoled in the
Beport abose referred to that the experiments on bamboo, in
relation to its enlilsation and oroppiog for the proposed manufacture of
** Faper-Stook,'* oonduoted by Dr. King during the past two years, hare
resulted io otter failure.
The oaoees^ howerer, of (his failure are not far to seek ; indeed, the
aystctn adopted during the first year rendered such a result nearly
inetitable. It is now my desire to show how. with more recent
investigation of the subject and more knowledge of the habit of the
pisut. more faronrable results may not only be looked for, but, in
suitable looallUes and climates, and with judicious management,
eusure*],
At au early ctage of the question, in January, 1875, when 1 first
brought the suitability of the bamboo for the manufacture of Paper*
fitook " under the notice of the Secretary of Stale for India, H was
soggeated I ahonld address Dr. King on the subject. This 1 did m e^Un 80 ^
alatmg wlrnt 1 proposed, broadly giving him my views, but, being neither
hortiouUufist, arboriculturist, nor soientfio botauiet, 1 did not profess to
lay down any hard and fast line, but '•onfined myself to describing the
oondiiion of the bamboo stems 1 had found best suited fur my purpose,
requesting Dr. King's opinion upon certain doubtful points bearing
upon the best system of propagating and cropping the bamboo,
inasmuch as at that timo. but little being known of the plant m England.
] could only glean very scant information ; of course 6 very body knew
bamboo abounded in tropical countries, but 1 could learn but iitlle as
to I Is habit, and still less as to its cultivation, if indeed it ^vor bud been
Cultivated,
A month or two later 1 published a pamphlet on " Bamboo
coosideredaa a Paper-making Matetial printed on paper 1 bad made,
at our Works here, from bamboo stems 1 had received from Dcmcrara;
in it embodying my views and generally stating the manner in which
I judged, from analogous herbaceous growth, plautatiooH to supply the
young stems might be formed under irrigation.
This pamphlet was extensively circulated in India, (brough the India
Ofilce. 1 also, by desire of Lord Salisbury, scut out to Oaloulta a box
containing a selection of samples of atoms of bamboo cut at the stage of
growth 1 had found most sniluble, as well as some for oomparlsoa which
were too old and woody for my purpose.
This was followed .in July, 1875, by a printed Momoraudum, issued by
Dr, Brandis, the Inspector^Gooeral of Forests (who appoudad there to
extracts from letters 1 had addressed to him), admitting the importance
of, and generally treating on the leading features of the question.
In February, 1876, a eecoud Memorandum was issued by Dr. Brd.ndiB,
iL shioh he directed aitcution to the mala points to be determined by the
miperimental plantations thou ordered to be established by the Govern¬
ment of India, From this Memorandum 1 extract the following : —
*• A method of treatment must U possible be discovered by winch a
** plantation, or natural forest of bamboos', may be made to yield a
**suocessBiouofoomplete crops of young/sheets tbrouglout the year.
Our present experience is that a largo proportion of old stems Is
'* required in a bamboo clump to produce tull-sized shoots, but it may
" be that different species behave differentiy mthat respect, and that a
*' larger proportion of full siasd young shoots may be p-oduoed by
'* certain species, or ^7 covering the roots witu earth, manure, or
** leaves, or by plentifu ^ watering. Duder ordinaty olroumstauces, if
" bamboo clumps are ou^ over in the forest, all malnre stomi bemy mt
" doTva at one timet the 9 ttthU u a crop c/ dendtir stem. It requires
'* no experiments to establish this result, * e e « The experimeuts
*' undertaken shouXd as tmoh as posubk he eoaipamtive. Of a number
" of clumps of the same ageaud species, and growing under (he same
*' conditions, sonie theuld he thinned lightly^ otheve h&aeilp^ and the third
group theuld be out over oompletelg, loanne enlg a fere old tteme on
the gr&undt.
«* Again, arporimants ahonld be made in order to determine whether
A atftiing bamboos at different seasons has any effect upon the produo-
e BMttbeo oousldwsd as a rsper fiMking Molsrlal, by i Aontlulge,
S. A r. K« firoH, Loadou, 1871^'
»tion of young shootA And ^thetthaproduotion of yooAgjdiopIs aan
^ be stimulated by eelcotiiig the stemi, to Im ent aooording oertalo
wprlnoIpteA Irrigation, tnaanrA nod hoVertng drtih 0 layer of ptoist
“earth, must in all oases he employadt with the view of todnelng K
“ possible (be bamboos to form a large crop olfnlUsised ** ghooW’
How what occurred in the experiments oonduoted at the Botooioal
Gardens, as described in tbeBepoit ^
“ Bix clumps of JBiMtbusa baieooa were cut down at the bjeglonlng of
“ the rams, Utmm the Mh and SOih Jme^ i87d, when the hods
“ of the youog shoots of the season had complidntjr formed and
were nearly ready to burst through the soil, Boon after the entiing of
“ the old stems these buds developed into Bbo 6 tA which grew with
" characteristic rapidity. These were allowed to grow nnUl (hey began
“ to show symptoms of becoming hard, and on Slti July they were all
“ cut down. In (be beginning of tbe rainy season taet year (1877) the
** brushwood of thin woody twigs whiob bad been produced by each
“ clump ftae out off, but amongst tbe twigs there were none of the soft,
“ succulent shoots proceed ing from the underground stem whldi are
“ nvjnired for Mr. Houtledge’s prooess. The clomps have just again
“ (loth July 1878) been cleared of every twig prodnoed by them since the
“ previous cutliug. The result is that, just as last year, the most of the
growth consists of hard woody twigs, which proceed from the bases of
•* the stems out two years ago, the total yield of materials being 120
“ pounds, or an average of 20 pounds per clump.’*
Under such treatment, as Dr. King correctly remarks, “ the prepoeed
*• nem industry does not present a hopeful financial aspect.^* Verily it
does not.
It is to be deplored that Dr. King did not follow tbe plsm
Bet forth by Dr. Brandis by treating each of tbe several clumps
on a separate and comparative system, instead of adopting the
' ^i^roio operation of cutting down not only all tbsatems^ both old and
yfft/ng, but even tlu' young t>v^Qs, on every separate clump, (bis being the
more fturprhiag as Dr. King himself remarked in his report published
fur 1876 : for %t w pretty nidi known that bamboo clumps, if entirely
“ cutdonm, yield for seittral years hut small shoots^ and not unfreguently
die!* It would almost appear that the system adopted was to make
assurance doubly sure, and prove a foregone conclusion.
The first intimation I had of Dr. King’s experiments was by (be
publication of his report for 1877 in the Journal of the Society of Arts
of the 2ad November, and 1 commented thereon in two letters also
puhlkhed in the Journal of Novembor IGtband 80th.
Having uovv disonesed cairn aud effect, 1 will proceed to show bow,
under a different system of cropping and treatment, the expetimonts
conducted by Dr. King wonld certainly have shown a mere favourable
result, and this by quoting the opinions of well-known botauioal author¬
ities well aoquaiuted with tbe habit of tho bamboo.
The accepted text book on bamboo is the Monograph of tbe
Batnbusacesc by Geueral Muiiro, 0. B„ published in the trausaotions of
the Linueau dooiety. General Munro did me the favour to reply to
queries 1 had transmitted to him as follows, September 8 tb, 1876 :
« X have never heard of tbe bamboo being cultivated for successive
“ cropping, but I cau see no reason why a regular systematic cropping
** could not be carried out.
Jiambum vulgaris would in my opinion be the best species to
cultivate, as it grows very readily from oattiogs, so does Dendreeolamua
“ giganteus, which thrives remarkably well and grows fast in Trinidad,
“ and would, I think, produce the best fibre ; Bambusa tulda would
be a good species in India ; Dendroeatamus strietus also grows fast
*' and is easily propagated. The ordinary bamboo very rarely seeds in
the West Indies; 1 only saw it once in Jamaica ; it is always increased
*' > 7 cuttings. 1 do not think these should be put in at a less diitanoo
'* iiian five feet apart : a fair sised bamboo will prodnoe from IQ to 20
** 1 loots a year in moist countries.
' With reference to cutting and cropping, 1 should think 6 or 7
0 ) 10 shoots might he eat yearly mithoat causing any serious barm to
" the parent stool; tho older slsms might be cut down in their isoond
“ yea* .nd serve as fuel. 1 should think the stooD would oontinns to
“ produce fresh stems for about 30 years, about when the plants would
“ be likely to come into flower, and then die,’* ^
The late Mr. Bulpiz Kuis. of the Botanical Gardens, 'Sambulpore,
whose most interesting papers, " Bamboo and \t 8 Use," were pabliehed
in tho India7i Jf'orrester, replied to queries 1 addressed to him>~ ^
<’ Begular cropping can be made only in so far as tho shoots of Avery
“ raiuy season can be cut down. U nil the shoots be out down, (he stock
will be Impoverished and ultimately die off, hence a certain per centage,
say one-fourth, of the whole of tho stool would have to be spared.
«• The most common way of planting bamboo by natives is by taking
“ staootSi or the lower piece of the balm, with a part of the rhlaome, and
plaint during the rains; tbe iutsrvaia between the onttihgi being
regulated by the siee of the bamboo. T#elve to fifteen feet would
I U a dense growth for the larger kinds, 60 feet and upwards In height.
77
« «iiteb «i»H m fwm « to J0.I1OO**,»>'«-’» w 10 Iwt to».B>U«»m»m
*' i4t lk0 : imalJ^rlcini^fwtii^tMOoVDipaiend*
i‘ *bW*
j»A« x%il«li, fttK>tAol«l frolUneqaaliiM with Bfivmi ao^ tlia Te&acserioi
Profinow, w»ta me October, 1877 j—
K ** tba ebboia jboald nof ail be oot aver/ U thie were doae the
root-itcok would die—only about haU tbe oluittp should be out yearly*
** The iMiiaboo oooe establiehed as a atroug root^stock, you oan go on
** cutting annually. As to iho caloulatlon of 7,488 stews per acre (vidti
** ay paapblet,p, 8 ), I should think that it only halt were cut, a much
'* greater numbei could be got oil an aoie.'*
Kuaerotts other correspondents have written mo to the same efCeet as
the loregolog, chiefly, howerer, from the West Indies.
Sir Joseph Hooker was good enough to send me a copy of a letter
addressed to him by Mr« Bobert Ihomson, Qovernmont botanist and
superintendent of the ettcoessful oinohona plantations in Jamaica,
which, with permisaon, I published In the Journal o/tho 6ooiety o/
JrtSt January 4 th, 1878, as also, March 1 st, another letter 1 had
received myself from Mr, Tbomson, to whom 1 bad written for more
detailed information. These two letters 1 append to these remarks, "
as also a farther Report from Mr. Tbomson recording bis later iuvesttga-
iionsof existing growth of bamboo in Jamaica, detailing its ooudition
after a course of severe cropping. Having sent the of Arts' Jour*
nal containing.Mr. Thomson’s letters, to Dr, Berthold Biubentbrop,
Conservator of Forests, British Burma, requesting bis views thereon,
under date, August 8 th, 1878, he replied
There is no doubt that in fire-proteoted plaotatioua a much larger
’ *' crop can be obtained than in tbe open forest exposed to constantly
recurring jungle flres. The bamboo jungles near villages on.the Pegu
cboung prove that constant cutting does not inatonally affect the
•* leprotlaction, and cutting tbe stems down within a couple of feet
"from the ground maintains a perfect unimpaired aotion of the roots
as may be observed on tbe bamboo hedges in Uangoon. At tue same,
time, 1 cannot agree with Mr. vTbomson that a bamboo plantation
«< may be kept up inUeflnitely in regard to time, at least not without
** re-stockiug, This hoe been tbe case with the arlifioiai plantations of
“ Bendrooalavi'm Jirmdisii hero in Burma, tbe original stocks of
which diQ after about 60 to 70 years; others would doublless be ,
shorter lived. The Dondromlamus lirandisit plantations In Burma
**are kept up by iuLer*plantiDg with new stocks. Mr, Thomson's
system la doubtless the correct one. To grow bamboo like sugar-cane,
*' and to ropiaut after cutting tbe crop, seems to me impracticable, the
o maturation of small bamboos taking at least two years, that of the
larger kinds flvo, six, and tea years.”,
In Beptsmber, 1876, instructed by Hr, Bibbenthrop, Mr. H, Whittall,
Assistant Conservator, visited the Pegu forests to invesilguto the
bamboo question, taking with him epooimeas of the stems similar **
those 1 had transmitted to Calontia, and he reported
*• I repeatedly showed tbo specimens of suitable
** cxperieuced bamboo-cutters, to decide the agp which
" they bad been cut. Without hesitation, and qui** “^ao^taously,
“they prononneod the stems of suitable |.mboo to be
the kind called in these parts ialagUt"
“at from six weeks to four months after^***‘"“**“ 8 “*^*^
*' sprouted at the commoncoment of the unsuitable speoimens
“ they equally pronounced to be v"" 7®“*’ fhe
others. This iu my opinion qui^ f
“least for the present. Bamb-V *‘**®“»
.• able : and bamboos of
“purpose. The large h^mhoo^ seems to sprout at
•Mho commenoemer '®^^**® during the mouth of July, but
the presence bamboos, which is by no
’• msans seldow^®^*®**^' sprout all through the rams.
„ am able to state fioin my own observation is, that there
,1 gppeaiA to be a far larger number of bamboos oj the year, ou those
4 , iig^ot scrub bamboo juogle so often found in tbe vicinity of
«« tiurmau villages, which are oonstan^ly being out and hacked about,
* than in tba unfrequented bamboo regions of (he forest. 1 do not
** mean to say that tbe more bamboos are removed the more
numerously do the ne« ones appear ; but tbe faot nevertheless seems
''to point to\ but not too heavy or exhaustiag ooUing, giving a
u larger num^^'^ vigorous shoots. *'
^), 0 lf,i.\iw{ng extract from a letter I received from Dr. Bibbenthrop
^so an important bearing on the question
** Alt »y observations regarding the growth of many species of
** bamboo tend to prove that you are perfectly correct in your views, and
•I that by artiflcially irrigated plantations wo oan force tbe producilv i
*' power of bamboo stocks to a very great extent. On the Pegu obouog
“ and the Beiogdat the most luxuriant growth is found elose to tbs
** water-courses, whsps tbsy nre most severely out lor the bamboo trade.
^^pHTbaftkaoIttie Altaian river are lor npwiisde of 10 miks fringed
by a brood belt of large* dense-groTVing. but for general purposes
useless bsmbooi,*'
Major Seaton, the Oonservatot of SbrestSi for tbe Sonihero Division of
Burma and the Teneiserim Prorlnoes, has also iufonned. and written
me to the same effsot as the foregoing | and Dr, Brandis kindly sent
me a report by Dr. Sohlfob, writing me ae follows
It will interest you to learn that there are about 1,800 square mites
” of almost pure bamboo forest in tbe Arrakan division of British
” Burma, within a moderate distance from the coast, tad nil aooesHible
“ by navigable etreams. Tbe following is the sabatauee of Dr. BebUoh’a
“ Report” «
“ The bamboo forest covers by far tbo greater portion of the area of
“ Arrakan, extending over thousands of squaro miles. It is composed
“ of JDamlvsa longispathtt, Hambma tulda. Ail these bamboos have
“ flowered several years ago. and the ground is now covered with
“ seedlings, which makes the forest impenetrable. The writer of this
“ report had to travel in it for days, at tbe rate of half-a-mlie an hour,
'• baviug four men (alternately two and-two) in front employed
“ in cutting a passage just wide enough for a man to pass
“ through. In many places this bamboo forest contains no trees at all,
“ but, as a rule, there arc isolated trees scattered "over it. The trees met
“ with were those of the green forest, as well as those of tha dry forest,
“the former, however being far more numerous. This forest is green
" throughout tbo year, and jungle fires do uot visit it except at tba
“ time when bamboos have died. ”
1 have quoted thia last report to show the enormous abundance and
prolific nature of bamboo iu localities and under olimalio Influsnoea
suitable to Us development. Mr. Thomson's istters, etpeoially ka later
Report^ singularly coinoide with, and corroborate tbe views expressed in
tbe foregoing extracts from other auiUoriUee.tendiug to prove tha* under
judicious inanageineut there oan be but little (if any) do*»i»* ibat the
bamboo can be produced both abundantly and ecpi*‘'"** 6 ^lly I** piSnta-
tzDus which, once established, little or no qoit^'Stioa would bo requited
1 may add that I have been fnd“^'* ^ publish these remarks to
qualify in some degree, by I kava quoted, the sofnewhat
prev^oture ooucMons that otherwise might be deduced from tbe
Calcutta Garden Report, paWicadou of which, as it has been dis-
semmated^ffloially, deterient on those proposing to embark
mthe New Indor-y ^ endeavouring to introduce, which I feel
assured ere ^oiu oseume promiuont proportions, as the diflToolUea
and pce'Qdtccti generally altaohuig in a new and oomparatlvely
gradually disappear.
^rongly ImpreBsed with Us importance. 1 am wishful to Induce the
{A’st investigation of iKe subject, as should my views prove correoT,
not o'ily will a fresh ohanool be created for the employment of native
iudustiy in ludis, but an important branch of Bugtish manafactnrers
be materially bouclited.
mOS, BODTLBDOB.
Noth.-D r. Kita' lia* Ktaiocl in lita Reports Uuit Aameeio ihovta jr 4 too fuuoy
to punt:* I luaj inriitiou Utat Dr.,EibiK«it,hryp h»i.ooUwteii tor mo thin aeftfou noma
UioviHamlAOl yoang Iroiailio juukIls, usMch haw hc&i rafttd dmen to HahpooH
f(»i' cruifiiiih', (bi I liO rolU uoiit. out Oj? mo tor Guvurnmouti prcpaietory to being fcriuw*
mlt toil 10 mu liere tor ummituotiiro mio PajKjr, anil “ i'apur Stock.'*
The above t** the preface to a pamphlet ou “ ItatniMo and its treat*
merit " that Mr. Routledge <8 now preparing for pubtiQst]on.-- 4 B:p, /. A,
®l\c Jiidian g.J9i[ii[nllttni3t
CALCUTTA, MAIIOH 1, 1870,
COFFEE LEAF mSEASB.
death kuoU of JJmileia vasiatrie is, we thinks
sounding, and this great scourge of the coBee planter has
after so many years of unchecked reign, at last been firmly
grappled with. VVe publish elsewhere a paper by Mr, D.
Morns, the Assistant Director of the Hoyal Botanioal GardeUi
Ceylon, wliich embodies the most important information
that has as yet boon obtamodon this subject. It was during
the course of experiments, carried ou at the \7aUaha Ooflfee
Estate, iu January 1879, that Mr. Morris with the aid
of the microscope traced t)io fungus definitely to its first
stage of existence on the coffee tree. It was generally
surmised, that the fungus must be present in the growing
tissues of the coffee plant in a diffused form, and thus produce
the stains that have been observed on the bark of young ftemsi
but it had,until now, only been detected in a definitely oxganised
form in the celltUnr tissue of the coffee leaf, and It wm reserved
78
THE J^^aiGHtTtrRIjST.
JfftKh 1,1479.
tat Mr* Mofri« to f&m Isov it got thore. It bad t>eea ebowiii
by earyeiligfMwti toiado a year or two ago« tliat if tbe mature^
ora&ga aporea of <b$s fbngus are laid upon cbarcoid, kept con*
tinnonaly moiaty they eooa germinate. The eporea awell np
eonaiderably into gelatinous translucent masses, and develop
into ^laments which grow veiy rapidly and become more or less
branched, IToder such, so to speak, artificial growth, there
are no orange spores formed, but at the termination of some of
the branches secondary spores are produced, in the shape of
radiating, necklace-shaped, strings of small spherical bodies of
uniform siae,closely resembUng the fructification of
At the time of the year, Mr. Morris* experiments at Wallaha
Estate took place, the existence of the fungus on the coffee
plant is not apparent to the naked eye,and it has been generally
supposed that the spores remain dormant from, say December
to March, This theory has been definitely disposed of by Mr.
Morris’investigations. Ho found and detected by the aid of the
microscope, the fine filamentous threads of Hemeleia vastatrix
covering the stem and branches of the coffee plant, and, as their
growth is very rapid, covering them, as well as tho loaves, with
a fine network of branching m^celinm. Mr. Morris finds that at
this its irzi stage of existence, the fungus has no injurious effect
upon the tree, and he is undoubtedly correct in stating that
StMh nourishment as it re<][nires at this, filamentous
stage 'is evidently drawn from the moist shaded atmosp hero
in which itgrona. These filaments are so minute that they
cannot be detected by u ,3 ,naked eye,and their extreme fineness
is more vividly brought betoi^ the ixiin(j by Mr, Morris* state¬
ment, that it takes nearly 40,000make up an inch diameter.
The filogus commences its work of dfc'truciion, when the fila¬
ments reach the leaves. The uppersidethe leaf, covered
with a parchment-like skin, is impermeable nearly so, and
the filaments ore unable to penetrate it to any extant, 1 ut the
lower side of the leaf, containing the stomata or opt., pores,
throngh which the plant absorbs carbonic acid and ^ er^alos
oxygen, offers noresistaoce to tbo entrance of tbe filamt^ts,
more especially during wet weather, when the stomata a©
wide open. Once tho filaments enter the stomata, ‘^hey branch
and ramify among the intercolluary tissues of the loaf in all
diceotions and begin to feed upon the juice of the cells.
Thus the fungus begins the second stage of its existence.
Under the stimulating influence of tho nourishment, it thus
draws from the juice of the leaf, tho fungus soon Looses its
filamentnry character. The filaments instead of being long
and slender and moderately branched, as they appear on the
stem, branches, and on tho outside of the leaves, assume, once
they begin to feed upon the intorcelluary tissue of the loaf, a
thibker, more branched and corol-like appearance. The term»-
uath ^ 3 of each branch may be seen in contact and often
penetrating the walls of the cells, and gradually tho coll con¬
tents are absorbed and taken up by the parasitic fungus.
The presence of tho f ungus, or rather its action becomes
then apparent to the naked ey e, for If die leaves are held up
to the light, a number of semi-transparent dots are observed
here and there, revealing tho oontros of attack. The fungus
gradually spreads throughout the tissues of the leaves and
disables them to perforin the important alimentary and diges¬
tive functions, nature has assigned to them. Tho fungus now
reaches maturity and,witl third and last stage\of existence.
The filaments again push to the outside of tho loaf and develop,
each thread, a single sub-reniform, orange-coloured spore,
attached obliquely to the base. These spores are innumerable
and the lower side of the loaf appears, consequently, covered
with an orange-coloured powder ; a great many of these
apores fall off, when mature, and may get blown about if there
ia a strong wind, but the greater number of them remain on
the leaves until they aw shed. The heavy, oily character of
these sporei» iuoljhes Mr, Morris to believe that thf^v are not
carried far from beyond the itew 4j^ey deVelbped, and
he refers to the secondary spores as the chid danger
of disseminating the fungus over wide and distant areas*
development of thesscondarysyiam, to which we have above
referred, instead of that of the mature orange i^res^ seems to
depend upon certain ciroumstances the chief of which probable
is the wont of proper food (ue. the juice of the living leaf). Mr.
Morris, therefore, and we think rightly, surmised that leaves
which are covered with the filaments of the fungus, and which
dropoff before the fungus reaches its third stege of existence,
are a source of greater danger as infection carriers, by develo|Hng
an innumerable quantity of secondai'p spores, than tho primary
orange-colored spores. The secondary spores are so miante,
and of such light construction, that they are easily carried
away by the wind ; and as this dropping off of leaves, before the
development of tho orange-coloured spores, is espectally
notablo in abandoned estates and on coffee trees cultivated by
natives, it will be necessary, if Mr. Morris’ surmise is borne
out, to adopt legislative measures to remove what would
always remain a fertile source of continually supplying secondary
spores and Of infecting estates, that by measures, now in course
of adoption, may succeed in getting rid of this direst of
enemies to the Coflee Industry.
Mr. •Morris passes on, to- consider the remedies that
can be adopted for stamping out the disease. Sulphur and
lime, jointly or separately, are the chief substances that
npjvtiar adapted for the purpose. Sulphur has before now been
suggested as a possible remedy, by several scientists in
Europe, but with great diffidence and hesitation, as only the
dry leaves had formed the basis of their investigations and
they had not been able to detect the filaments externally.
The discovery that tho fungus in its first stage of existence
is entirely external and that it, so to say, climbs up the stem
and branches in search of the loaves, is important, and intro¬
duces an entirely new phase of the subject. It is, of
course, at once apparent that tho only chance of destroying the
fungus exists during tho first and external stage of its existence.
As said before, it can then not be detected by the naked eye,
‘‘‘d it is necessary therefore to treat all parts of a coffee
estaj. niike, if it is resolved to battle the enemy,
Thcro .VO ^ groat number of substances that will destroy
fungoid paru^iog adapted
lor practical Ub ke futile to discuss their
respective merits, remedy used extensively against
fungoid parasites is ^ j^^on proved to be very
efficacious. It is largely Kent as a remedy against
mould on hops, occasioned by v, Spaerotheca castagnei,
allied to the fungus that cans, vine-disease known
commonly as didium. This formerly one of the
greatest plagues of the hop-cultivatorsVa caused, especially
iu uwist years, heavy losses to the growu, - but since the
univt sal application of sulphur this disease ha. been checked
to a ^ reat extent.
Tht sulphur is usually applied before the hops are in*»barr**
or bh'om, with a machine tailed a sulphurator, drawn
horse I'cfwaea the rows of plants^ an illustration of whic*.
appears m No. XXVIII of the 0 / the Royal Agri¬
cultural Society of England, from number this
description is taken. Two separate applioatiq*., aulphur
are usually made ; the first when the « bine, ” as »*„ shoots
are called, is just over the poles, the second just
the “ burr ** or bloom appears About 601bs. per acre is
put on at each application, at a cost of about 15s. per aore^
each time. The sulphurator may be described as a wheel¬
barrow that when wheeled along turns, by a second smaller
wheel attached to the axle, a fan that blows the ** flowers
of sulphur with which it is fed, evenly and minutely
' -'im-'INDmN A^RICTOTCEIST. • .-79
V'T" 's ' r ^ ^ *
*5i« ^ fsettloii and covw^ iiae
J)mc!t«s aad l^ares of tlio liop-plant, and
jooynra i« wili the groand^ and deatroye hy its ohemieal action
4 he fungoid pattWite.
• Mf. M^iftris has ascertained, by the experiments carried
on at Wallaha, that when snlphu^f comes in contact with the
filaments and spores of Hemleia, it completely destroys their
Titality. This with the experience gained by the Kentish
hop-planters, ought to be sufficient indncement to the Coffee
Indostry of Sonthern-lndia and Ceylon to take the matter in
hand in right good earnest.
The sulphur must, of course, bo applied when the fungus
is in.its first stoge of existence, invisible then to the naked
-eye, December to March, is given by Mr, Morris as the period
during which this stage lasts in Ceylon, and he recommends
the mornings and evenings when the dew is on the leaves,
as the most judicious time of giving the coffoe plant its dose
of sulphur; and he states that with an abundant supply of dew,
the sulphur blowers completely cover the branches and foliage
of the trees with a thin uniform coating of i^lphur, which
remains on them for several days, even after heavy raui#
Soon after the sulphur was applied, Mr, Morris noticed the
peculiar pungeut smell of sulphurous anhydride or eulphurons
acid, generally known as the smell of burning brimstone.
There can be no doubt that this Rulphurous acid,
generated by the action of ozone upon tho finely divided
sulphur, is tho agent which destroys the open and soft
structure of the fungoid filaments by its great attraction to
oxygen, while it is cpmparatively harmless to tho firm and
close structure of the coffee plant. As daring this season tlie
coffee plant flowers, it bad boeu feared that the application
of sulphur would check or prevent entirely the ‘‘setting”
of tho blossom, but this fear, we arc glad to say, was ground¬
less, as the blossom that was on tho Wallaha coffee plants,
while they were sulphurated, has sot most satisfactorily. As
the action of sulphurous acid during its foTm.ation from
sulphur and subsequent conversion into sulphuric acid, has
properly been recognised ns tho true agent in destroying tho
fungus, advocates for threcl application of sulphurous * acid
are not wonting. “ Why,” say those gentlemen, “ should W(3
waste such quantities of sulphur when its whole action is due
to the sulphurouM acid which is formed from perhaps only its
hundreih part, will it not bo much better and more economical
to burn tho sulphur among tho trees, and let tho resitlting
sulphurous acid act direct upon tho fungus
Wo have strong reason to believo that this view is
fallacions, the action of sulphurous acid in its nascent slate, is
very different and far more powerful, thou when it reaches
the fungus, after it has been formed and has comblnud with
?iihe moisture of tho atmosphorio air. If x\\Qjuuies of sulphurous
acid had the same effect, as tho nascent sulphurous acid
resulting from the spontaneous combustion of tho sulphur in
actual contact with the fungus, the hop cultivators of Kent
would have adopted tho fumigating process long before this.
We are assured that coffee planters cannot do better than
follow tho sulphnrating process, which has been so effectual
in cheeking the former ravages of Spaerotkeca caatagncL
A letter in the Ceylon Tims^ by a young medical man,' Mr,
W. Q, warns against tho injurious effect of sulphurous
aoid gas upon plant life. Though, as said above, wo do not
'hfliiovothat sulphurous acid jinnes will be found as efficacoous
as sulphur itself, those who are determined to try it, need not
be deterred by this false note of warning. Mr. Wait is ouito
C^orrect^ in sayiug t^t* sulphurous aoid will seriously injure
plcnt Ufc vfKon luUaM, and the results he gives of placing
^ ..plauts undar glass shades^, in a confined atmosphere in which
4 sulphurous aojd is diffijtscd, are quite in aocordaoco with our
knowledge of the. action of this gas^ but it has escaped Mr, *
Wait that, under the oiroumslouces ho relates, the plaut is
inhaling the same Volume of air o W and over again, there being
no movement in the air around it,Md the want of carbonic acid
has probably as much to do wlth^the withering of the. plant
as the snlphurous acid, Coffee plants in the,open, with a con¬
tinually changing atmosphere around ihtei, will not be affected
to the extent, Mr. Wait fears. As a fact, we kaye. seen trees
and plants in the iiopiodiato vicinity of the sulpiiwt furnaces
of a chemical work, flourishing in health ^d vigt^ir for
years; though, night and day,tho presence of sulphurous aoicl gaa
in the surrounding atmosphere could be detected by its smell.
The use of lime as an alternative or an adjunct means of
destroying tho, fungus is also noticed by Jfr, Morris, and,
while strongly advocating its use when the diseased leaves
have fall<M) off, and the ground is covered with the orange^pores
ho deprecates, and we think with some good reason, its^ use to
destroy tlie fungus in its first stoge of existence.
But we would draw prominent attention to what is
not generally known, that the presence of caustic
lime incieufioa manifold tho action of ojsono upon
sulphur, by its powerful affinity to tho* resulting
product, BUlphuric acid. A small quantity of sulphur
mixed with caustic lime will iUerofore be equally, if not
mere, oflicacious than a mneU larger quantity of sulphur, used
by itself. We would therefore recommend to use in the snlphut
blowers, eulpliur and caustic lime mixed in equal proportiou.
The lino should be tho best procurable, it should bo newly
burnt, freshly slaked and finely sifted. A general applica¬
tion of lime by itself, Ml*. Morns recommends as a destructive
nirency in the third stage, when the trees and ground.are
Btrowu'' with tho o«Anee.oolaured aporaugia, and it sbouhl be
plentifully distributed ovor the wttma and branches of treoSt
and especially over tho withered leaves lying on- ilto ground*
The benefit derived from tbo application of lime will bo two.,
fold, its manurial projiortios being well-known.
That the onormons quantity of bulky, organic manures,
that has boon used in most estates, has facilitated greatly tbo
(l(^\ulopmcllt and fruitful propagation of I/ein^hiU) by affording
a genial goruHitaliiig nidus for its spores, is undoubted. Wo
wiiined, lastyeai, against the oxclosivo use of oil-cafces, ftesk
caitle-mauure and other .similar organic nitrogenous matter in
permaueat plantations, such an cofieo and ton, and pmntod
out what u fertile ground tho presence in tho aoil of a largo
quantify of organic matter, in a state of deeonqmitionp offers
to the breeding and development of vegetable and animal para¬
sites. Wo are glad to see that tho Ceylon Observer is coming
round to oui way of thinking.
Mr. Moms’paper is certainly not only the most inioresting
that has as yot been published ou tho subject, but it is tbo
most important, as it reveals to us the stag© of existence
during which wc can effectually battlo Coffee Leaf Disease,
The happy result o( Mr. Morris* investigations should
encourage tea planters to take some action regarding its
special enemies—Mosquito-blight and Rod Spider,
I SOILS-THEIR ORIGIN AND DIFFERENCK
irN (ravelling tliroiigli ony country which presents diversities of
A lake and river, mountain and volley, ploin and down, any on©
who hfw any iuleiest in agriculture, cannot fail to notice the
differences which tl a soils of different districts invariably present.
On tho inaigin of some rivers and on the shores of many lakes
you have the ricli alluvial soil, black with decaying organic
matter, which .under proper treatment is sure to yield profit¬
able teturuH. Then there is the hungry, dry, sandy Soil that drinks
in everything, and seems to retain nothing. Again wo have cky,
])uro and simple, which requires special treatment at the hand ot
the agricuUnriftt Wo have colcareots soils, loamy soils, maiJy
soils, peaty soils, garden soils ^ei> each repairing a treaXmpnt
more or lass special.
iweat thwJBelve®
. (iBti.) Wkiit ls tfaB QAm of those diiO^erences of soils ?
(Sad.) Whit is the otteia of soils ?
The answer to th« first q«esk‘o« is implied i« tw second* If
we di^ through the soil, irOcomo on what is called the snbsoil, this
frequently, though >wt necessarily, has some considerable likeness
fa lb0 soil prop^^ desirable to restrict the term
soil to tfai^^fOrtion of the earthy coreriug which is stirred by the
implsMsnta used in agriculture, although, of course, the roots of
«jbe crop grown, may reach much deeper. If we accept this
dft&aition, then, that which lies immediately beneath the lowest
portion disturbed by tillago operations would be subsoil. This
subsoil may difEer in no respect from the soil proper which lies
above it; or it may bo clay, tough, friable or plastic ; gravel more
or less ooarse or fine ; or simply sand. There may bo no subsoil
even, and if we dig deep; enough, we will at last come to hard
rock, rook which may or may not have some resemblauoo to the
subsoil and soil overlying it. No matter what part of the earth’s
surface we dig through, wo oome at last on hard stony rook. This
rook, or some part of it, ia the sourco of all our soils nud subsoils.
Hore correctly speaking, the whole mineral conatitutenls of soils
ave derivej from the disintegration of the rooks which form the
earth's crust. This can be easily shown. If a spade full of noil
be washed with water, and the water ponrod off as long as it
oontinues muddy, the mud kopb, and oUowed to settle, then
burned to get quit of all organic matters, the residue from the
washing also buroed, then what we have left are a few simple
minerals, it may be ohiefiv quartz, mica, felspar, hornblende, some
compounds of lime, alumina, oxides of iron, iS:c. Now if wo t,.«
a piece of undeilyiug rock or ratbor if we analyze the rocks ti. vt
are found coming to tho surface at different parts of the earth,
(notably the primitive rocks, from which all others have been formed
in the geologic past) we will find, though the nuiiiber of diutfnoi,
minerals known to mineralogist is very yat the rock^forming
minerals are very few—lelspar.mica, compounds of lime, &c.,
being the most abundant. In fact tho very rniiu i^ls we found in
the soil, arc here stored up in compact musses all over tho Qlubo
It does not nacwDarily follow however, that tho soil is identical
in mineral coiaposiUou with the rock immcdtatoly underlying it.
This may be bo, in some cases ; but iu (.ihera there may bo no
or little resemblance in composition. V.uious agencioa moy have
been at work, glaciers, ice-bergs, ioe-floes, chatige in elevation of
surface, rivers, &c., to transport soil-material fiom distances that
at first sight might seem incredible.
Tho agents, that have broken np, ground down, and 6ca^t ''od
the mingled oonstituonta of the rocky crust of ibe earth, ov-'. tho
world may be classed under throe kinds, Ist atmospheric,
aqueous, 3rd organic. It should be borne in mind tnat each of
those ageucioa oxeroises u chemical, as well as a mochamcal
effect.
It is one of tho objects of Geology to unfold in dolail tho
varlcus changes that have taken place in tho oarth’s cnwt in the
remote pro-historic past. At presont it may bu BuMcioiit to say
that in Britain, the Continent ot JEurope and America where these
changes have boen longer studied, and by a greater number ol
observers than lu any otlior part of the world, tho changes iu
the elevation of land havj boon considerable, that a climate of
Arctic severity proceded the present, that this again was preceded
by a climate and a vegetation almost if not quite tropical.
At a still eailier period those lands, then in tho course of formation
lay under a vast and deep ocean, still earlier it was covered with
great forosto, interspersed with wide marshy plains over which tho
great sea again . id again asserted its swa;. There was a time
in the far away pa^ of which Geology alone can toll us anything,
when no soil covet" -ho hard rocks, when an enoircling restless sea
dashed itself to foam and spray against their surface ; and when
the electric trump of imiuniorablo volcanoes pealed tho prelude to
frequent and gigantic upheavals aud i'rupi.ioas. Then came at
intervals pauses of lest, broken only by the ioar of stormy
tumultuous seas, rain dashed in deUg.*.^ uu 'oca and v^coan, and tho
rushof many waters leaping to then ioveU No sound of human voice
was there, no song of bird nor cry of t oast, m>i any hum of insect
filled the hot sulphurous air, uor did any plant, however humble,
lift its head aud shed its perfume o’er a world, barren, lifeless,
chaotic. As time rolls on, the sweep of (Me aad iWeuts, aud
i: the:dashteg^ of lb MTayim ikVbokK'that ■
icmgetheahore. Ths Irsfimaiklbi
sidiutered, and rolled, and groui^' j whiih^^
Boever tbs swelling waters drouUte* The < larg^ ]&«gmentB lie
near the shore, the smaller further out at sea } and avray far out in
depths, unfathomable fine particles of mnd strew tlnf bottom Of a'
vast central sea to which no ray of light ever penetrates. IHle
, niter pile is added, tbe mighty weight of ^nterpresBwgnh down,
and the internal heat of tho earth cryBtalizing\and solidifying, till '
again in tho lapse of ages they asaume a solid l^orm j and it may
ho are again uphoaved to perform the same round.
Tliou again, far away inlaud, rain and vapcAr carried by the
atmosphere and deposited on the hard rocks,, find their way into
innumorablo chinks and crannies (produced by (the same agents)
cailying with them gases of different hioidai, oxygen, oarbonio
acid, &c,, and compounds of nitrogen n^oduoed by the electric
decomposition of tho air. Tbese acting ^n tho mineral ooostitu-
I cuts of tho hard rocks formed oxides,M carbonates, nitrates and
compounds innumerable; and so eating way^tho rocks, which are
fiirtlior biokon to pieces and disintegrjated by every frost, for
water iu the act of freezing expands in bi^alk about ono-tweUth and
thus teaiB iu fragments the hardest ininer^lg^ with a force, which
nothing material can resist. Bains waeli the fragments down to
lower levels, livulots of water, stre^nas, brooks and loirents
carry them, still grinding thoin smalMr, and corroding, round¬
ing and crumbling them, lid portionitfare carried down to rivers,
and borne on, till wbete they join tfto saa and the strength of the
liver's curieut is lost, and the partiulAg of matter carried with its
tide settle to the bottom, tho lurgei* month to form deltas,
the smailor further out to foim banks ghoals. Where however
a cm rent of the sea sweeps past the nlouth of a river, no delta can
bo formed. 'J’iio particles are caopfij|^ up by the stronger sea
cm rent oarriod to whore itsjflrciv insufficient to hold them
in suHpousion. Along tho banks of riv„,»rs th"**
at their mouths, and iu lakes and seas into which they flow,
we rind all the minerals, all tho materials organic and mineral
which now compose our soils. The power that these agencies have,
in changing the wliolo physical aspect of the world can only be
ifi.tbzod by being stucllod. The examples that occur to us at the
moinoiit aie the Coast of Spam, the Table Mountain of the Cape of
Good Ho[>o, and tho Ghauts of India, In iliese iuslances whole
uiassoH of table land havu neon carried away, and left hills and
ridges to mark the original level of the land.
To clotormino, wlien or how organic life first began to play its
pait on oui globo is no puit of our purpose at present. It is out¬
side oiu piQsent object to endeavour to determine what were tho
beginnings of life, and along what lino dovolopment proceeded. It
is guillcieut for our prosout purpose, that life did appear, and began
to exorcise its iufluouce amongst the other forces already enumer¬
ated, in tho formation of soils. Wo know bow a barren coral
reef becomes a fertile islet, and if wo postulate life, the same oausen
muut have operated iu tbo iemote indefinite past of our earth’s
history. The choiuical action of the atmospheric gases, and the
operations of ram and sua water, mechanical as well as chemical,
break up the rock and cover it with a mineral powder more or loss
fine, wliiuh may be swept luto hollows and behind projecting
points on tho rock’s surface. Tho fine impalpable dust shot out
into the air from volcanoos settles down on its moist surface.
Fine atoms of organic and inorganic matter revealed only by the
olootac light are borne on every breeze even to mid ocean; and
washed down by the rain and watery vapour of the atmosphere
into the plastic mineral compound, which the other agonoies have
broken up ready to receive it. Vegetable forms of tho lowest
kinds are developed on its surface, and decay, thus pfe-
pating the way for higher forms of vegetable life. The
Boa water loft by high tides and atorms iu Sliallow pools
is ovapoftttod by the aim’s rays, and loaves its deposits of various
kinds, iodides, bromides, chlorides, carbonates, &o., which are again
transported by rain and vapour and air, and mingled with the ^
forming soil, fioeds of varwus kinds are borfte by ocean ourrente
to tho shores of our islet and cast up on its beach, some of them
to Blriko root, many of them to decay; and add by the gases and
corapouada liberated in thoir decomposition additional material
(6’w i>arwjm’a Joumal 0 / a JVuturalisi, page 454 et ), Here the
wondering sea bird rests its weary wing, or it muy he makes its
home; and migiatory birds of various kinds huffetted by wind ,
AmovmvmT.
n
OP id tnik^r droop
AH A U(f^$0f i>t op^Aoio
madtor to growing aoiL Tlio groat Ma thrown up U«
opoil with eyory wavo, molaako tbat haro boon omobod in its
roiaorioIoM jawOr Tho carcases of creatures that batiut its depths
and shallows,'ihro tossed up in its wild woods, and left to swelter
and rot and supply the elements of new lifo.
Tear by year the soil deepens and beootnes richer, vegetation
of a higher kind oovers it, this in turn gives way to others, each
iuoreasiog tho aocumnlated stores of the other ; and so the varied
processes of death«aDd life, renewal and decay go on, till trees of
stateliest kind clothe the surface ; and fruit and dower and insect,
Aud bird and beast, each in their varied order possess it, and clothe
our barren rock with life and beauty. Last of all comes man, the
Lord of this fair world.
This, very hastily and imperfectly sketched, is an outline of
some of the mechanical and chemical agencies and procensefl
which have formed soils. Other agencies, however, havo played
their part as well in the same groat total. Far cut at sea, in
depths dark and still, to which never reaches tho faiiitewt hum oC
warring wind and water in tho fiercest hurricane, creutures, down
in tho deepest depths, liie and move and havo their being.
Curious and wonderful are they in structure, insigniticaiitly littlCi
but like the ooral insect, that builds miles and miles of fringing
barrier reef and compassee a continent, tiieso creatures
(Fommim/ircB) live and die, and in their decay are adding little
by little, otom by atom a now deposit to the eaitft’s crust.
Creatures of a similar kind in a former ago of the world formed
all our chalk cliffs and cretaceous deposits. Tho inicioscope revouls
the identity of the oosse of the Atlantic and the chalk depo^ils of
theteitiary formation.
fitless amusement; and the law forbids the sale of the bnly
property which the tenant possesses, namely, his plough and
bullocks. In Irutb, it is for ether reatons that these decrees are
THE DISTRESS IN THE N.-W, F.
rpHE effects of a year of drought and famine do not end with
oL the breaking up of the last relief ^woiic, or closing of the
last poor-house. In the North-Weslem Provinces, the losidumn of
starving pauperism bhows no iuclinaliou, in these bitter winter
nights to leave tho shelter of tUo Goveinmoiit sboda. Put even
when tho last dregs have boon diaiued off, tluire will hIiU rf*iuain,
uuforlnnatoly, very plain iind uvidout marks of the p<isl Uine of
afllicliou, io those whoso oyos aio upon, and whu have time to
think over what they soo. One nmnistakablo and mournful
symptom, ia the number of suHs for ammr.s of if'uL Tlio land-
lords, as a rulo, did not do bitdly by tnoir tonants whilo iliu
pressure lasted. There wore oscoplions, and these too, often oC the
most inexcusable kind, whero wealthy landowuors refused, until
urged by tho district ofllcer, to assist thoir helpless tonauts with
food and sood grain. In utiiking contrast with thcKi. wuie ibo
imiuerous instanoes of small resident landlords, thomsulves too
commonly in cironmBlauooa of gioat omharras.sineut, who mnnfully
etood by thoir tonantiy to tho fnil extent of thoii moariH, koojniii^,
tbo village in comparative safety through the vvoisi d.i^s id' dcniiti,
On the whole, wo arc glad to record that Ilia proprietors of hind,
were just and generous to tho cuUivators during thr harvest year
from Juno 1877 to dune 1878, wliich may roughly be taken u'l
oomprising the days of sharpest distress. \Vhoi\ the year onde<l
aud matters began to mend, the landlords set thomselvcsto recover
as much as they could of what they had advanced to their tenants.
Seed aud food they could not sue for in the rovenuo courls ; but
arrears of rent are recoverable by process of law ; and it mukos no
difference, from a purely legal iK>iafc of view, whether the harvests
of the year have been a failure or a success. The cultivator, in
nine coses out of ton, has been unable to pay. lie has absolutely
nothing to saiisfy the arrears duo on account of the lost autumn
crop of 1877. His spring crop of 1878 was an unusually goofl ouo ;
and there have been no complaints about the aiiUmiQ crop lately
harvested; but each of these had to pay its own rent, together
with the not incoasidetatde addition duo for tho laudloid's
Advancea. Thus there is no moans of making good the uussing
rent; and the revenue oourts have no option but to grant decrc-js
Against tho ouHivatore, reserving only, us the extroiuo limit of
mercy, tho right to throw tUa costs of tho suit upon the landlorcl.
Having got hU dearesy the landlord can execute It by putting his
Unant in the civil Jail, or by Aelling him up. Neither piuoesa is
ifforth the attendant e:^enfe. ImpriaonUtent ot a pauper is a pro-
sou ght. A decree for arrears of rent is valoabJe in the landlord’s ©yes
bocauBo it breaks the tenant’* right to ocoopanoy of his laud.
Xu the technical laognage of the law, it converts him from an
occupancy tenant to a tenanl-at-will, with this difference only,
that ho can regain his occupancy rights by paying Up his arrears
within a cerla'in time from receipt of notice* As payment, how¬
ever, ia out of tho quosliion, this privilege is not one of any great
account. Occupancy rights, as everybody knows, are acquired by
tho unbroken posaesaion of a tmUivating interest in land, not
dopoudont upon a lease, for a period of not teas than twelve years ;
and a tenant who has acquired this right, ie thereby protected
against ejectment, so long as he pays his rent aud does nothing to
piojtidioo the owner's right and interests in tho soil. Indiott
landlords are perhaps not much more short-sighted, in the maiier
of tenant right, than landlords everywhere else. Irish tenBut*
Lave for years been fighting for ‘fixity of tenure,’ with very
partial suoucas. But it is in India, whore the tenant is incomparably
moie liol|doR8 than in Iieland, that the hardship of iiielastio land
laws IS most sti ikmgly seen. It would, indeed, be unfair to blame
tho laws, or tho fiamers of them, as if they had neglected to pro¬
tect the weaker side. On tho oontrory, tho Rent Act of 1873 was
drafted by u Coinmitteo of officers, inferior to no man in the
piovince a« regards knowledge of the ciroumBlanoas of the cul¬
tivator, and actuated by the siucerest sympathy with him, aud the
strongest desire to protect him by all means in their power.
Nobody can read the Act without seeing that it makes signal aud
beritiiiceut provision for maiutaiuing the tenant in all his vested
rights. It might be dangerous to go farther, and to tell the
landlord that it must depend, in the ultimate resort, upon the discre¬
tion of the revouiie court, whether he shall or shall not bo allowed
to cufoice the procesHos granted him by the letter of the law. And
yet, if revenue officers had loisaio and opportunity to make
themselvofl acquainted with tho state of tlio agricultural population
in poRBosBion of occupancy iightB,Ruch a discretionary power would
in all piobabiiiiy be exercised to the real good of both parties. It
is somotimoa poesiblo to biing the parties to a oomproiniae, by
sumiuouing them before the court, and giving them good advice
from the judicial chair; or tlie suburdmate revenue officer may be
inutriioted to do this and leport tho result. When every
ox}H (l«out has boon tried, it stiil remains too often the case that
tho landlord iuRista upon ejecting the tenant, au 1 succeed*
in obtaining hio desire. Btit it were useless to blink the
fact that in a largo propoitiun, if not, indeed, in the majority of
inBlfinces, no mitigatory expoflients are tried at all, and the order
fm* ojoctmont 18 givon aa a matter of conrse, upon proof of an
uusatisficd docroo for rei.t. This I'a only one of many examples of
thf* HI lent aud unnoticed operation of our laws iu changing th©
economiCLil coiiditiun of thomass of tho people. Tho failure of a
siiigloliai vcRt may thus be followed by the wholesale annihilation
of rit^hU wdiich havo been growing lip, under tho special protec¬
tion of tho logwiftburo, for half a generation previously : and the
chances are that the inconsiatoney between principle and practice
will escape unobserved. The dislriot courts have neither time nor
method to notico it ; aud tho central revenue authorities lose the
vital fact in a crowd of annual figures. TIio fact, peverlliolesB
remains that ouo consequence of tbo past famine has been the loss
of tho tenant-right enjoyed by a largo proportion of tho cultivators
of the North-Westoru Provinces.
Occasionally this process presents itself in a lamentably startling
shapo. A widow, for example, will suo to recover possession of
her deoeaued husband's land. He was a cultivator with oeonpancy
rights, holding a number of fields in common with his two
brothers. Iu the midst, of the drought, the whole family emigtAie
to tho Teiai, and, finding no means of livelihood there, returned
home, where the three men died of want, while the women went
back to their parents. Meanwhile the land lay idle till the autumn,
when it was given into other hands. The spring crop has been
reaped, and the now autumn crop sown, when one of the widows
emnus forward and olaims possossiou. Of course, to dispossess the
.mtual teuant would be cut of the quostion ; but the hardship lies
in the faot that even after his interests have been saved, the
widow has no right in tho land. Ferhap's it would be equitable to
'jtcknowlodgo her right to the land, if she could till it, but no such
. I i m 1 1 i<D!ii
aimg«Xtt»tkt bcmidr be undor the The eaee i« ooly
«tuii but of meof. Bobiettmoi it is tbo oeoupeifioy tenant blinself
^bb letitYbi exile, ami claims Xu every es»e ibe
reiiiltlstbeniime; tbsiaudlord coiiieststhec/aim, and defeats it ;
and one more specimen of teuaut rigut disappears. The TiotoHes
to be reCsorded on the other »ide are few iudeed. The truth is that
in oontending with his landlord, the cultivator is terribly handN
capped by the fact Ihat the village aocouots, to which the revenue
courts naturally look for the best evidence, pro kept by a man
who is the landlord's bumblo servant. Much has been done to
impreve the system of village acoouHl-keeping; and nobody
erohidwishto withhold credit from these oitorts, which may
reasonably be expected to boar valuable fruit iu the future ; but it
Is imposatblo to deny that the village records at present are a very
impetfeOt safeguard of the rights of the peasantry. A crucial
instance of this is sometimes a^orded by this very matter of tenant*
right At the time of settlement, some ton tofifteon years ago, laige
nombbrs of cultivators were recoided as tenatits-at*will; they
have oOutlnued to hold the same lands ever siucu, and have
oonse<iuently acquired tenant-right in them ; but the village
accountants, whether through nogligonco or design, liave gone on
recording them as mere tenants-at-will, to the manifest danger of
a failure q/f justice whenever the nature of their tenure shall
happen to be called iu questiou. Again, there are special
provisions for relief to the tenant and the landlord in the case
of destruction of the crops by sudden calamity, such as
holh Bents are remitted and revenue is roraitted in pio-
portion* The remission of ruvauue is dependent upon tiie
remission of rents; but while the former is o matter tliat cau bo
effeOted by a single order ot ihe colleotot, the latter is one which
needs constant vigilianoe to prevent e^oMon. If (ho village
accountants did their duty, nothing could be simpler. They have
merely to deduct the amount of romissiou fioiu the looorded
rental of every tenant entitled to remisHion, and to let inm and
his landlord understand that the remaindor alone repressnis iho
amount of rent which cau be collooted. l£ the rents of thr < nvnod
harvest, as not nufrequently bnppons, have wholly oi in paittioeu
oolleoied Vbile the State machinery of relief has boon oUberating
its conclusions,'—and delay in these circumstancen i'm ulwa^^
inevitable, and not always tu be deprecalcd-"thrt xioocssary
deduction should be made Irom the routs <if nojct hai vest. One
would think that if the village account systoin wtre gowu for
anything, it should avail fur tbis purpoae. And in fact it w
quite adequate, if only care he exeivisod in supervision. But
unless this oouditicn be fulfilled, there is a fair chance that relief
will never reach the clasu for whom spooially it was intondod, that
is the cultivators. With such inflnencos in loaguo .igainsl themi,
the tenantry are ill prepared to moot calamilics of any kiud.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
E NGL.-ND imports 130,00') tons of esparto grass and simi¬
lar paper making inalenals o\(jry year. Many new
materials from which paper of exco)lr>nt quality cun ho lundo
have lately been brought forward ai homo, as subatilutoa for
espai-tograss ; but inmost cases thoh gioau^r cost, as compurod
with any of the materials in general uso, has been an obstacle to
their adoption. Eeoout researches iu Scotland have slrown the
common grass of that country to possess valuahU prtipertios
lor the purpose, and the fact suggests the probability that
0 ome of the coarse grasses of India, a nuisance from an agri¬
cultural point of view, mi( ht be found to conlain fibrous
qualities suited to the mfl;i> facturo of good paper. Largo
areas of land, over which ff'ody grasses grow with pio-
voking pertinacity to diminish the value of the laud for arable
purposes, might turn out to be worth cultivating. The TypJui
aug\t»tifoliay a largo kind of tussoi k gras^, known as ranpo to
the JSlew Zealand natives, who use it foi Ib-itrhuig their hou/?oS,
which grows in enormous quantities in tlie v;wauipy flats near
rivers and lakes, may, like iu Hcighhour, tlu ^^horinium tennx,
prove ft worthy rival to Uio esparto grass of Africa. The WMj
another kind of grass, ctwrse, wiry, and apparently useless,
growing principally in the interior of North Island, New
should be experimented with for the same purposes. In Nm. .Sciith
#a]cs the *tgraee-oloth plant^^
received some attentioni being used jfor ^the manuf^ttre of «
fine kind of matting.
Tbsr£ is an anxious article in the Nor^ BrUith Agrieut$itrii4f
on the prospects of British agncidtttre. It oalls att^ion to the
generally recognised fact, that farming at home has for long been
uuprosperous, and that its failure lias not depended, as usually
believed, upon bad seasons. During the past year the weather in
Scotland has been favorable, and bumper, harvests have resulted ;
yet the farmers' position has been iu no degree stfiangthened; and
it is concluded that if prices of fat cattle do not increase during
the spring mouths, there is bound to bo a heavy deficit this year
again on the majority of farms; and there is not at present the
remotest prospect of any such improvement.
But attention is justly called to the fact, that the landlorde
throughout Kiiglaud have shown practical sympathy with their
distressed tenants, as the following statement of rent reductions
will prove :—
Numo«.
Amount rettumsd.
Mr. H. Sarile, Kniford Abbey ...
. IS per cent.
Etvrl Manrers ...
... ... ... 10 i,
Duke of Newcastle.
•«. I.. 10 ,y
Mr. Foljambe, M.P, .
... ... 10 ,y
Mr f}. B, Bnstowe, M.P.
*.* ••• ... 10 ,,
Eai] Covrper ... .
... ... ... 10 1,
Hon. E It. Cupt.
... ... ... 10 ,,
Mre, Cbltoti, .South Scarle ...
Itev O, C Rolfe, Hailey.
. 10
Sir J No(‘l(l, Uaroiiet ...
. 10
JV), L Pyke, homerford Magna, whole of half-yoav'a
luUt
Ah. M Bid'hilpU, M.P. , ,
.10 „
Ml, l^sman Uicardo, Ledbury
.10 ,,
Kail Portebcue .
... lO ,1
Sii Hugh Cholmondloy, M.P.
, 10 „ '
Alarquia of Hertford .
... >. 10 ,1
Ml. AMopp, of Hiudlif
.«• 11. 26 1,
In the latter case the reduction took the foiin of orders to the
tenantry lor bruised cake or decorticated cotton cake.
The Paris Exhibition was w'ell illasti'ated with samples of (he
many variolios of mamire sold throughout France, and wo are glad
to find that a first-rate display was also made by English firms as
recognized by the awards given to Biitish exhibitors. Messrs
OhleiiJorfi* and Co. and jVIeasis. E. Packard and Co. earned off gold
medU'^ ; CiUhs and Co, and tho Nitro-Pho,sphttte Co. silver medals'
foi laanuies. A Loudon periodical gives an illuslratiou of the
E.\liiLilio» stand of Mosmis Ohlendorff and Co., with samples that
for tblity-fivo years have now been employed throughout Europe,
Amciica, and tho Colouie.M with universal satisfaction. Tho total
weight of guano oxpoiied from the three Chiiichas Islands is
staled lo amount to 8,000,000 tons. Tl^e following countries absorb
about 500,000 touB yoariy England, 140,(»00 ; Franco, lOO.OOO ;
BHgmm, 70,000 ; Ucriiiimy, C 0,000 ; various Euiopoan countries
take 50 (iOO, Ti>o Eastoiii United States of America, 35,000 ; West
Indies, 15,000, Mauritius, 20,000. The number of testlmouialB to
the val' mA dissolved Peruvian guano place it beyond controversy*
and ma' ufaotories at Hamburgh, Antwerp, Emmerich on the
Bhine, h ‘ttordam, and on the banks of the Thames furnish the
world wii ii the greatest of fertilizing agents. In tho Paris Exhibi¬
tion, Mes'irs. Ohlendo^ff and Co. exhibited in the English sectiun.
Pages of ioscription have been written relative to the several
chemical operat'oiis to which the imported guano is submtUed
before it bt ^rnes tho article of commerce which Voeicker iu
London, Barral in France, and other well-known experts have
tested in thoir laboratories. Wheat, barley, oats, rye,buckwheat,
beet-roota, potatoes, tobacco and rape plants, severally welcome
this stimulating and fertilizing manure, which is always guaran#
teed. Chemistry and agrioulturo are now in partnership all the
world over on the best farms. Taken collectively the exhibition
of manures at Paris wah a very satisfactory one, and formed a
very tasloful scries in thoir ranks of glass cases. Notably in all
of them tlie various elements and processes were displayed with
foatloss contidenco. Farmers no longer believe iu ^uocib artificialiii
and the exhibitors did well in oalliug a spade a spade, and in
labelling every article. Messrs. Ohlendorff and Ce. exhibited« '
series otsamplcf of raw guano firom the variema depoidtSi induding v
u
AGEfCtTLilfftteT*
tb# ^ OWobbswi; ii fntereatJng colleotJbtt o£ the raw
maWibla, baing a^ojmana of SpaiiUh pyrilea^n^ uftrate of «oda
os«d itl tha manofactaro of sulplmrio acid, with apecimews of ultra
catea, pyritea duflt, the respective refuse of tho raw matorfala. A
ooliectioti bf tweuty medals Love been awarded at different agricul¬
tural exhibitions to the lirro, and to which Will now be added the
gold medal of the present exhibitioD. From the circulars in
different languages distributed at the stand, the visitor may gather
the advantages which Messrs, Ohlendorff and Oo., claim for their
dissolved guano, and which the special jury consider to merit the
highest award in the class. Aa is well known, the raw guano is
variable in quality and faulty in condition, owing to lumps and
stones; in*tho dissolved guano these drawbacks are removed, and
the dissolved guano is delivered in a fine, dry, powdery condition,
with a guarantee of analysis, bo that the farmer is sure of getting
exactly what ho pays for. About twenty years ago Messrs,
Ohlendorff and Oo. commenced, at Hamburg, the treatment of
raw Peruvian gunno with sulphuric acid, and the piocess proved so
satisfactory to the farmer after practical exporieuco, and was so
thoroughly in aocordanqe with the teachings of science, that the
demand for the dissolved Peruvian guano grew vapidly. Wo are
told that Messrs. Ohlendorff and Oo., now supplomout thuir
dissolved gnano with phosphatio inanuros, which will doubtless
sustain the high reputation of the fum.
C0R. D, Van LennRP, Swedish Cvinsul, at Maliazdi, near
Smyrna, writes as follows in a lato issue of the TimesThe
cultivation of the willow is recommended by ono of your
coirespoudeuirt for districts affected with malaria. Ills statements
r>t! the subject being fully borne out by my own experience
in the well-known malaria regions about Kphesiis, I bog, through
youi cohimus, to call theroto tlio attention of tlio authorities in
Oypuis. Before 'the encalniftw^ was over heard of m Asia
Minor, I had seen the haik of the willow used as a fobiifugc.
I had itnuuked the onsy and inexpcnsiv'' rcpiodiicliou of tlil.s
tree, itsfinick growth in damp placon, its excellent (luulitu-s foi
fuel and fm agricultural implcmeiilH, and its great nihaiitagcs
for stiongthemiig the banks of cfipiic.ous streanis, ami bad
1 hence Ukoii every oppnitunity .'iftor the wintei floods to ttlick
willow cuttings along tho banks oi streainK and in oilier damp
places ill my properly; also to sjattei piano irco seeds in
rimrshy spots. Tho itmuR has been that, wlioroas twenty yeare
jvo tho full-grown trees in this iicighbourliood might have
l)POii coimtod, a luxurious growth of willows and piano iioos
marks my place, fuel is abundani, fever is sloadily dporeaaiiig
tbo meandering propensities of my streams aio chocked, my
neighbours have to come to mo for agiicultuial iiiiplemcnis, and
I Ua^e not far to go for timber for all rough puipoaos.
A mSKASB which appeared iu BiiUsh Tlondiiras some years since,
and caused much injury to sugaroanes, has re-appeared tliore
this ycai*» and serious results aro anticipated. It appeal a that
the disease first shows itself hy a whlio froth above tho roots •.
that ou opening up the roots there i« tho same froth amidst an
abundance of moisture in the roots, and this in dry wealhor and
under a tropical sun. Maggots aro bred in this froth, which
develop into flies. Those flies, wdiou moving about tlio loaves of
the cane, exudo raoistavo from theii bodies, leaving stains as they
progress; and where such is tho oaso tho loaves witliPi. Tho
loss to crops ou a previous occasion wlion this plaguo appeared
was in Bomo iuslaucos iu excess of 5i) por cent. No remedy or
preventive from this aoourgo id known, or so far as wc .are aware,
has been attempted; and if, from tho moagro deHcuption given,
iaformfttion c^nbo obtained as to any or what steps can be taken
ou the appearanco of thodUeaso, a groat boon will be confoirod
on the sugar planters of British Ilonduias.
ACauao planter in Trinidad states that ho has ireos winch
yield him A5, and evou in voiy good yeare 18 Ihi. of clcni
dry cacao, at a galhering. This is a groat, but pot an
iucredihlo yield, aince Purdio got an average of 11 lbs. at
ono gathering firom «omo old and neglected, but re-tiimmcd
and properly cleaned tree in tho garden, and Xjiman—
1814—rolying probably qn Blume—lfJ72—says the annual produce
in Jaftiaica’o cacao period, two conturies ago, was gonorally
estimated at 20 ll)% a tree, and averaged, gpod oud bad soasuns
together, 1000 lbs. per acre (equal to 8 lbs. a tree, at 18 feet apart-*
the usual distauoe there, at that period), aUhough in poor soil, and
under bad management, the yield per tree rarely exceeded 8 lbs,
a year. Cacao ouUivatlon in Jamaica died out in consequence
of tlie oxccBsivo duty then imposed oft it at “homo,” and the
wretchedly small consumption of that day, partly owing to that
fiscal imposition j and only now is painfully audjvith ©ffortslmg-
gliug to I ogam a place as a regular cultivation. It is very far
from, being worthy as fei of coming under iho title of a Staple
of the old Colony. * t
Most crops aro more or leas exported to the deprodalions of
insects at somo stago of their growth, add the cultivator haa
to be constantly ou tlie alert to devise some means to entrap
them. In nearly all cases tho insects are different-—that is to
say, different insects on different plants—and tho same
traji is not availahJe. For example, tho cotton plant is prayed
upon hy tiio army worm, tho laivm of tbe night-flying moth
(Lcuciuiia uuipuuctB), and tbo cotton worm, the larva of aii
olivo.biown moth culhul AleUa argyllaooa. From the well-known
nocturnal habit of these moths, and tho certainty of their being
destroyed by a light, a cheap and effective mode of destroying
tliem has boon adopted in America. It consists of*pa&8 of
viscid inaticr placed upon posts at suitable distances in the
cotton fluids. A block of wood is placed in tbo centre of tho
pan, upon winch is soated a lighted glass laittorii. The moths,
boing aliracted hy tho light, dash agairiHt tbo lantSrn and fall
into the pan, and nro llms doBtioyod before depositing tbeir eggs
upon tbo tfjndcr leaves, of the giowing plant. The army worm
IS arrested in its migrations hy plonguing a deep furrow around
tiio field, and making it mnooth by drawing a smooth log of
wood along thu fanow. The woirns fall info this, and are
unable to ascend Die sides. A safe and novel method of killing
tho woims has roconlly been invented. It consists of a abeet^
iron lurnaco, having the form of a half cylinder, tapered at
tho ends, in which a lire is kindled, and this heated furnace
being diawn along tho furrow destroys the worms. Previous to
this invention it was cuf^'t.omavy lo strew dry straw along the
furrow and net fire to it, hut this was often attended with
danger. _
Tfiii ramhiG Comroi>8ion has been making enquiries for itself, we
heal, in tho Centrnl JVovinoes, but out olHcers aro so nnacous-
toiued to Hiicli enquiriflB, while tho Biibjoct itself in Burrounded by
HO many pitfalls in India, that it will not do for them to trust very
1 implicitly tn the answers they may receive. The results of
j ccitaiii enquires bo made iii ouo dintnot hi the Central PiovinceS)
are now bei'oio us. Tho enquires are said to have elicited the
} following faolH, coneeining an area of 1,4.'>8 acres, occupied by S.*)
' faniiUcH, coiiHisting of 170 adults niid 00 children. The block,
! lor such we presume, il was. seems to have comprised four villages
; of 277 acrcfc, 441,413, and 324 acres respectively,
/l I’i}')
Cultivaiefl hj
diduHs
Cnitdrm
Tofal
277
, , ti families
... 4;;
19 —.
03
Ail
... n ♦
... 5«
yg -
85
... b „
... 6G
... Ji2 -
88
'Sii
... «
... 24
1(1
34
- -
Mb
mm !■
1,46B
... m
... 179
... DO
2GD
Tliufl each family saetiiH to have averaged 8 porsonfl, while the
proportion of adults to children is as G to 3, very different propor¬
tion fiom what prevails in temperate climates, where children
remain childrou up lo 10 or 17 years of ago. Again, the average
holding of cncli family is returned ii( 44 acres—J,4.'i8-t-33 farm'-
lice-^-44 notes—Are we to understand that this is the average size
of tho holdiugH, in the district? If we aro, the fact ehews bow
radically different is the economic condition of tbo Central pro¬
vinces, not only from iba^ of Bengal only, but of nearly all India,
Mu. JuLASU DANVKRfil, Government director of tho Indian rail¬
ways, observes that it would hardly have been thought pifJSBlhle
twMiiy yccus ago that a granary for Faglaud would have been
found in tho va'.Ioyfl of luo Gauges, Jumna, and Indus. But wo
havo Been during the last four years an increasing production of
grain in the provinces watered by those nvors, and a largo export
trade springing up. In 187X tho cxpoit of wheat was 248,522 ewts,;
In 187fl it was 5,.58.3,338 cwts., which was sent chiefly to Kagland.
Mr* l^onvers saysWhen tho fibres oi llubsia were denied to
84 , TEE miAN AGBICELTUBIST. Umh 1 ,
utt (luring Ibo Crimean war, Indi/i afeppod in and supplied us witb
jute, and lias continued to do so to an increasing extant over since.
The eame may now happen wiih renpoct to wheat, barley, 4tc. A
country with a noil and oiitnato capable of producing corn, tea,
and tobacco, as well ne ooiFec, opium, sugar, indigo, and cotton,
must possess powers which, with the aRsistance of regular and
cheap transport, will bo roady to meet any demand that may be
made upon it.’* ■ With Home charges of iIlG,000,000 sleiling a
year to »noot, and with England the great cansumer of the surplus
harvoBls of the world, India is the most legitimate held to which
she can look for her suppUos.
Wb ()Uote the iTufiaUk Daily News
■ “ The experimeutb of the Government in view to agricultural
refoim Bometlmes have amusing retuilts. in one experimental
farm, superintendent of which wan dnoply attached to fowls,
A fmo sioc|c was obtained, and taken such care of tl»ai the birds
died of liver-complaint (in lucdioal language hejtaUUi)^ caused
cither by excess in eating or in drinking, wo are not quite sure
which. In another, the suptnnntendenl cultivated a quantity of
saiHower, without kiiowmg anything of the uses to which the
howci of the plant IS put as n dyo. lie wanted to try tho seed
as a foosl grain. The last biilliunt thing, which has come under
our notice, is fioia a furin, called a model fartn, in Kcinde. From
this farm, flourishing occonnts have come for some time past of
the wonderfully heavy yield of a particular kind of indigenous
cotton, to which the farm superlnlcrident scorned to have taken a
great fancy. Moved by a spirit of enquiry, and, perhaps, by
some other spirit, a luanagm of another farm got some of the se(^<l
of ibis famous cotton fiom hm brother farmer, and grew it. llis
report on it is that it is a vety prolific, but veiy infeii )r vurioty,
-—a variety so liad, iudoed, tlmt, twelve years ago, the Govern¬
ment spent much tnno and money in eradicatin:? it from the
district of KtiaiuUihli, ond in preventing agriculturists from grow¬
ing it. And it is this stiitV on wLiioli a model farm m .tvugor has
been epeiidiug his lime, Roasou aftet Be.ison, for year^ past. An¬
other of these gonllemou has been experhueutiu;'. m oidor to
aBcertaiu whether ‘one or a few trues’ liiivo any (dUot in increas¬
ing the quantity of lainfaU. Those things arc not ^okoa ; they are
wulton in Govoumout repoits, in which one haidly looks fer jokes,
intended to bo iBucli, though one often tinds theicln tlimgs which
move to laughter. It has been said that a foimer (Jotiori Com¬
missioner once was in doubt wiiethor if seeds wore cast into tho
earth bottom up, the plants would not grow with thoir branchoB
d()wuward8->-stariding on thoir heads, in fact, That '^rory, how¬
ever, we utterly refuse to believe, and wo are ronvinccd it is a
base calumny. But, coitainly, if one wishes to look for “awful
foolishness’' of the kind that distuiguihlied the Amoiiean
humoiuist, when he temporarily edited an agiicuUural journal,
it will bo found in the leporls of Government agiicultiiriats
managing oxpenmoiital and rmdol farm*?. Not tliat they me all
ulilf however : tlieic mau.igcrH ii.L-i malingers. Ouo or two
of tho farm supeiiutciuievils, employe I by the ShUo, do credit to
tho prolessional truimug tliey rr*or;v'cd in England, and have
proved thcmsclvon compel,out to ,id apt themselves*, and liio prin-
ciples they have leaint to .<i diil K-nt climate, and different systeuis
of agricultuial practico.’’
The Ci'hI object of the new Kent Bill now bolmo tho Bengal
Council is to piovide a summary proceduio hn the locovery of
routs, similar to that by v.'hich piocess ou disiioiiored Bills of
Exchange*, is now g Mod. Whenever a lauil ud is abb to give
certainprmirt/acie nroo' that rout is leolly due, tho Civil Court
will compel its paymcnl, u.. lei* this Bill by summary prooess.
Leave to defend will be given only on tho dofendaut's paying
into Comt the sum deinandcd. or ou his satisfying tho Court
that ho haa adelenco, and ou -uch teims as ji s\cuuly,/inming,
and recoiding of ismicp or otherwise, as to the Court may seem
fit. No nppoAl will ho fiom the summvy ,hoieo, uoIohs tho
ryot deposits its amount with costs, tijougli (Im Court may, under
special circumstances, oet aside its o^v j •locreo .and go into tho
wonts of tho ca«a.
This provisicn, or tf^mething equivalent to it, is abfifolutely
ncoossary foi the protection of the landlord, in i\v , ’’estances of
theao provinces. Wo compel tho landlord by aamiu ^ process to
pay tho rovouuO) aud are hound to provido somo .^^ummary
to enable him to recover his rent from tho ryot, who oonktantly
refuses it from more oontunto^y. The judges will be our native
moouBiils, cotioernlng whopi Hr^ Maokonaie generously testifiee
that forpolity of motive, ability, and hard * work, the moon-
“ sifts of Bengal will boar comparison with any^otber aimilar
“ body of judgcH iu any other country.”
But tho Bill lias another and more important object, namely
to securo something like tenant-right to tho occupancy ryot,
Tho dispute has practioally reduced itself to the simple qiietUou ;
Bhall the ryot he allowed to sell hia right of oconpanoy ? And
the Bill proposes to rinswor it by saying, ” Yes: but an actnal
cultivator of tho land only.” We are diHposed to approve of
tho compromiso thoioughly. It is the fruit wo may fairly
presumo, of a sugfrestion made some years ago by us in the
Indian Fconomisf^ when we wrote—
“It depends upon the State alone, whether we permit tho
cnltiviitor to clear himself of his liabilities, by selling his part*
uership in the land to an outsider, who is notoriously unfit to
diNtharge tho duties and rosponsibilities attaching thereto, and
who has no (daim whatever upon any consideration at our hands.
On the contrary he is ilio h'gHiiiiRto object of our aversion, for
tho extortion which \ve know him to have praebised upon Uie
cultivator, to his ruin. Wo will not have tho usurer as our
partu(}i in tho land. Neither by custom, nor tradition, nor toste,
nor cultiiie, iiur by any of tho rpialitics we look for, is he fit
to bo (iur partner in the administration of the laud. What wo
want 1$ a liushanul of tho land, which the sowoar can never
h..
' Itaviiig onstod tho ryot under the cast-iron proasiiro of onr law
conrt.s, the sowcar proposes to mako him discharge all hia duties
us of old, while ho the sowcar tttko.s the profits. Stated in this
phapo, wo think there will bo but ono auswor to the demand. Tho
sowcar shall mt he allowed to enter the State firm as partner in
the room of tho cultivator whom ho has mined by hia extortion,
and whaso partnership rights ho claims to have bought. Ho
cannot buy those partnership rights without our consent, and that
we refuse to give ”
tao tho ryot is to bo allowed to sell his hohlinj^, but, riays Mr.
Mackoii/ie ;—
Wa hold that it is only the ryot who actually ciiUivatos his own
In lids with his own Inind.s, or by means of birod labor, who is
entitled to ocriipanoy rights. We have no desire to see the money-
' mdei coming in and taking possession of tho land, rodneing tho
actual cultivator to the position of a serf, Nor do we wish to wee
!lirt cuUivaler following the example of the xeraindar, and
converting liimsolf into nn idler by sub-lot ling bis holding to a ruck-
lontod cotUor. We believe that an infinity of mischiof is boing
riono by tho Giiconragemont given to wtibleliing owdng to the
cmistrnctioii put bv the Civil Conits upon the law ns it stands. It
is bad enough to hare botvveon the zemindar and tho cultivator
putiiidaiv, durputiddarw, Heputnulars, howladars, and so on, to the
Ujnlh degree, without allowing the oiiginal cultivator to begin tho
process over again on his owm account. We propose to reemgniae
n^- pub-letting and no anb-dr.isiou of a cultivator’s holding
w> limit tho consent of tho zemindar or other ront-roceiver. And
if t lO lattor consents to subletting by his occupancy ryot, he inuft
ace. nt tho latter as a niiddlemau, and the actual cultivator under
that middlemfin will begin to acqaii'O prescriptive occupancy Tight**.
TI-g Bill evidences an honest freedom from bias, that promises
well m it 3 auceoss. All this part of the Bill as to sub-lotting, will
reqiijix careful conaideiatiun, and tlieso seotious are to bo regarded
as tentative only,
' ^
Last year’s report ol the Model Farm at Nagpore is net so satis-
faet cry as we could ha VO hoped. Tho monsoon rain-fall was iin-
nsnally heavy and it v as almost impossible therefore to wood the
jonng cropsi. The cotton crop it is estimated will not exceed a
six annk one, and the jowari a twelve anna one, at the most. But
perhaps tho most, important para, of tho report is the last one i—
“ There is no doubt that tho farm is capable of great improve*
ment. The site was originally selected beoauso it woi near Nagpore
ftud near the Ambajhari tank fioni which water for irrigation, it
was thought, would be obtainable. Water is now obtainable, if
ia smallor quantity than it was at first expeoted, still In sufil*
oteui quantity for small experiments. Bat the site was not chosen
85
March 1,1879. THE ETOIAN AGRIOUITtJBIST. .
beo«ii^8o of iho of tUo loud. Oo tUe conttury tho soil ia
f(»r IdbB most port vory poor, tho fields were for from level, and
moch Uoobeen dune to improve them artd tbe laod is very
mtioh mow voloftWe than it used to be, BtiU very mttoU remains to
be d 0 D 6 » and that can only bo done gradually as a large grant o£
money oanOiOt be made available.
Wb notice from the last report of tho Board of Revenue,
Madras, that the area of land under indigo cultivation in that
Proeidency has inoreasod during the past year to the extent of
nearly 50 per cent., lit the official year 1877-8 the extent of land
diseased was 02,&00 acres, while iu tho year 1878’9 tho assessment
was upon 143,OCK), The asHossment increased proportionately from
2 to 3 lakhs* These facts are worthy of notice in view of the
degree to which indigo oultivation is decreasing in Bengal. Tho
growth of cotton, we observed from the same report, considerably
diminished. Tho area in 1877-8 was 560,000 acres and the assess¬
ment 6]^ lakhs, the figures diminished in 1878 0 to 520,000 and
0 lakhs.
CONOERNTNQ tlio Wild olivo giovos in Bui'inaU to which wo
alluded in our last issue a Rangoon newspaper repeats tho
question;—-“How is it Iho Foiest Dopavtmont of this province
with its large staff of Europou Dopuly and Assistant ConHorvators
have not discovered the existence of these valuable trees long ago ?
Surely with the expensive European iraimng tUoao genilomen
undergo at the public cost on the Continent of Europe as well as in
England, wo might predict that no valuable trees would long
remain unknown in Burma. Wo remember somo years ago that
the castor oil tree winch glows wild all over Biuma was said in
Bomo report to produce a vmy infetior oil as compared willi tho
Indian species. Nothing as far as we have hoard has evei boon done
to improve it, although pulging how easily tho wild plant grows
anywhere, there could not bo much difficulty or ftxpouso iu
introducing the castor oil plant which does give a valuable oil.
All the castor oil used in Burma is iinpoilod just as it Was a do?:eri
years ago. The Foicst Bopaitinent might suioly endeavour to
extend and iinprovo tho cullivation of oil soods of all kinds.
Hero they would in doing so bo intorfoiing with no ‘vested
iiiteiesta* whilst helping to extend our expoit trade aiul iho
onltivutioii of oiu nullions of acres of waste land.'
There is indofiuito room wo aio persuaded for cullivaling tho
forest produce of this vast Empire. Amorioan etilaiprise has
discoveied a means u£ gottmg yet moio work out of “ the* busy
bee.*' Sets of Binall boxes aie placed iu thy upper paitoftho
hives, which can be drawn out when filled and fresh boxe.«i
jnseited, 80 that tho poor iimocU never arrive at the oud of Ihoir
labours. But the great advantage of the plan is that tho oomh
formed in these drawers, being in small compact piocos, can bo sold
in its original state by the retail dealoi ; and it is stated tliat loO
tons of such comb have just been landed in Loudon from America.
Tho bee business appears to be cniTio«l on to an enormous extent
iu the United States. Boats laden withluves aio iloatod up and
down the Mississippi, so as to constantly visit fresh pastuios of
fiowers according to tho latitude and tho season. On land, apiaties
are, planted at certain intervals in orchards, and other suitable
places, for which accommodation a rent is paid by tlie beo-maBtor.
About 35,000,OOOlUs. of honey arc annually made and sold. In
strange contrast to this, an English clorgymau recently appealed
through the papers for a market for Ins honey. Ho had actually
had to give it away, la there no honey trade iu [uditi ?
Tub list ’Af trees planted during the past year by tho Forest
Board of South Australia gives one a favorable idea of the
exertions that are being made to render Australasia fertile - —
Tasimaniftn Oiims
Australian Red Gam
Blue Guia
If fuirar Gum
«, Jurah ...
ti Iron-bark
Pinut insignis
...
roiiadumcts.
Mantitm ...
AffoolfA .
Jsifirstftt .„ ... ,
Other speeiSB of Pinut
70.400 Cedar of Iiobanon
21,001 Cjpre'^w ...
14.400 Kaffir Tfioni
11.370 Maple .
4,300 American Ash ...
3,600 Spanish Ohestnat
30,000 BriUaU Oak
12.040
7,600
8.000
1.673
Walnut
Willows.„
, „ WildOUarry
hii? Aostraliau Biiea Oak
iil80
410
U2
3,0i)0
4,LM0
4,40J
11,680
140
1,400
1,000
85
2,000
COMMUNICATED AND SELECTED*
AGRICULTURE AND THE TEOrLE IN BUDAON*
T^VEH since 1 have boea iu India, I have given considor-
able alteulion to ibid subject, aud have in a small way
done my utmost to iutrodneo improvements in the mode of
agriculture, staples, seeds, catUo, implements and so forth.
So far as my clpcrienco goes, it seems hopeless under
present conditions to attempt mnch in the direction of improved
modes of agriculture, tliat is to say in the way of introducing
wliat is termed “ high farming.” Until capital m directly
applied to tho cultivation of tho laud on a large scale, the
general level of the agriculture of the country, must remain
very much ns it is. At tho same time, I do not think that
tlio attempt should be abaiiJoned, and I should strongly nrgo
' the organisation of u strong well-ofiScorcd Agricultural
Department, whoso solo aim would be tho general improve-
inent of the agricultural condition of the country. The present
Opium Department might at first bo utiliaed for this purpose.
Aa it slauds it lias a very fairly coraploto organisation and has
iloalitiga with the most iiulnstrious clnsj^es of the Cultivators,
and it seems a pity that this organisation should bo confined
merely to promoting the iMiltivation of the poppy. With
very littlo trouble its scope might bo enlarged so as to includo
cultivation of all kinds. Tins Department could extend the
present system of giving advances to the onltivalors, so aa to
enable thorn to produce tho more valuable staples on tho oua
hand, and on tlie other hand, to cultivate tho ordinary crcp.-i
on more liberal prineiploH. Thus tho co]>ital which is indispen-
hublo to any improvement in the agricultural condition of tho
country, would bo supplied, ami a foundation wonld be laid for
further progress.
In the matter of impleinentn very little snecoss has attended
my cflbrls. For tlio lu.>*t four years I have carried
about witli me au English plough aud have worked it
in the villages almost daily, diuiug the camping season. Tho
people admit the wonderful cflicacy of the plough, but tho
price Ils. 35 to 40, m nrohiliilivo. As a beginning, 1 should
Bitggeiit that iu each district some twenty or thirty ploughs
should bo provided by Government, to be lot out at small fee
to «''ilMvator!j, I iiavo lent my plough to ciiltivators on many
occasioufj and they have fully fipprociated iiti value. Again I
introduced into Budiioii the Beheea sugar mill, butit^ superior¬
ity to tho ordiiiury wooden ‘‘kolhii” in so slight, that its adop¬
tion does not appear to bo probable. In tlie/rorai, however, this
null hua proved a great success I believe. Only tho other day,
however, L introduced a small piece of machinery, of which 1
li!i\e the liigUe.-it e.xpectation.s, I refer to Buirs Patent Sand
Dredger for sinking wells. The cost of this machine orinstrii-
meiit is Us. lOb, though one of tlie smallor si^ocan be procured
for I»s, 50, I beheve. Thirv inachino I lot out to Bomindara
and euUival.or.s at a fee of cMglit iiimas per diem, and I havo
had already a sufllcicut number of applications for it to keep it
at work for several months. 1 have not yet been able to make
a detailed expenment regarding tbo comparativo cost of tha
work done by jt and by a native ‘‘jham,” but I am assured by
the manager of the Bilsi indigo factory, who has tried it in a
deep well, that the amount of sand excavated is double, wliila
the cost is hi>lf what it would be by the ordinary method. If
this be correct, tlio saving of cost iu sinking wells by tho use of
this instrument will he considerable, aud ought to be au impor¬
tant factor in connection with tho great qne.stion of tho exten¬
sion of II rigatioii by moans of masonry wells. 1 am anxious
also to ill traduce a sot of boring tools to bo lot out at a small
fee to persons who Wish to sink a well. By preliminary
borings, the great risk attending tho sinking of a well at hap¬
hazard will be avoided, and thus I think a great stimulns will
be given to the cons* ruction of wells by tlio zemindars and
others. In such small ways a very groat deal can be done to help
and encourage the people who are marvellously helpless iu
all matters connected with the introduction of any novelty,
1 believe some sort of attempt has been mode to introdnee
iwproveiuouts in agriculture m tho estates under tho Court
of Wards, Bir John IStrachey when Lieut-Govoruor, suggested
that these estates should bo utilized iu tho way of setting a
good example of the results of improved agriculture, i do not
think that this suggestion has so far been adopted to any
great oxtanti 1 should strongly suggest that these estates bo
Sfl_ THE mm AGBICUlTimiBT. March 1,1870.
manned ai^d admitiistered tlio A^rioulfcafal Bopatfcinettt.
At pMsflDt tlie TehsiWiir p^w,^ ait nupriucipled aazaml furnfsli
tHa manAge^ent of sach estates with results which can be
easily impigtaed by any one conversant with such matters.
Were these estates worked properly by the Agricultural
D^artment, tliey would fnrniaU the very beat'ield for experi¬
ments in agnouUure. I behove that some snch scheme has
taen proposed by Mr. Duck, Director of Agriculture and
Ooramerce, N.-W Provinces, and Ihope that the suggestion
will be favorably entertained,
I am not sure that mneh can bo done in lEhis direction, but I
think every effort should bo made. The establishment iu each
district of a seed depot from which and through which zemin¬
dars might obtain improved seed, has been often suggested, and
I think the idea is a good one. Hiicli n depot would involve no
cost whatever, aa it would bo managed by one of the district
staff. Ibis officer would indent for the soods required upon
the Director of the Agricultural Dopartmont, and thus tlio
Departroottt would^ bo brouglit into coimection with the Dis¬
tricts. At present it has no auchcormoctiou and its usofuhiofis
is in consequoace very much curtailed.
Owing to the increase of cultivation, the grazing lauds
have been much curtailed of late, and in very few districts
is there much breeding of cattle. However 1 think the
distribulioq of good stock will have a good odoct in
time. There is still some breeding iu the Biidaoii District,
and 1 have indented for 6 bulls to bo distributed next season,
I have this year distributed 12 half-brod rams which I received
from Mr. Buck* The people appreciate them very much,
and I hope to bo able to report fovourably of this cxporinieut.
The Stud Department has douo wonders for the horses oi the
Country, and I do not seo why the same results should not fol¬
low fi'oni the application of somo 8 iicl» system to the improve¬
ment of cattle and sheep.
Pot some six or seven years a very successful Agricultural
Show and Exhibition has been held annually at Bnlandshahr
iu the month of March. This Show was instituted by Mr. H.
“WBlock the then collector of the District. To his enter-
rise and iuflueaoo the Show is entirely due, and to m v mind
e deserves the thanks of tho Government for having demons¬
trated by practical experiment how successful and valuable
Buch an exhibition is both in stimulating an iutere; t in agri¬
cultural matters, and in bunging tho native eonuiiunity to-
gotber. The Show is not quite so good as iu Mr. WiUock’s
tim6j but owing to the energy of the tehgU(la!\ it been
kept up wondarfally well .since the departure of Afr. Willock.
Till very recently this Show was not ollio/ally rocognized In any
way, and so far owes uotlung to tho Government, Nortli Pro-
YiucoB. The Show is supported entirely by the contubutions of
the native genllemeli. The annual income is about lli„ 7,500,
which is contributed cheerfnlly and readily by the native
who look forward to the mela as a VorlcHhiremau to the
1 slionld like to see such a Show liold annually in all Districts,
as 1 am confident that its elTect on the native community
would have tho very best results, 1 am at tins moinont trying
to organise such a Show in connection with the Kakora Mela
iu the Budaoii District, but owing to th^ upathy of tli<' autho¬
rities, X am afraid I shall haso lo abandon the project for this
year at least.
Land TiiNuiiEs.
In tho Budaon District there are practioally only two pro¬
prietary tenures, tho “zomindHti ’ or undivided, and tho pat-
tidari” or divided. Again ilte tenures may be divided into
aimplo and complex, or that in which, more or loss, one person
is tho solo owner, and that in which a set of por&mi; holds the
estate, either as a united body of co-sharers, or with a more
or less complete divisrou of the shares.
As regards the occupai^'cy fenures, the tenant with right of
occupancy has in no case . »y sort of even quasi-propnetary
rights, and so far as he is coticerned, the question of building
a masonry well, does not exist, as ho zemindar would consent
to BUch a step, for the building of a masonry well is universally
regarded as a mark of pioprietary right. The construction
of a masonry well for irrigation purposes, is a simplo matter
iu the case of tlm zemindar! tenure, when ’ the owuOr is
a single person or a small set of persons in real union,
but when there is a co-parcenury body, with their rights
undivided or imperfectly divided or again when the
partition though comiileto is on the khelbhat” system,
as is too often the case, the construction of a/Well
involves many difficulties wliicli will require uiucm rtocretion
and tact to adjust. As pointed out by tke Prosidout of the
Commission, there are almost fnsuperabte difficulties k thf Way
of a compulsory coaetruction of masonry wells^ The same
dlffioulties will exist iii a iqodlM degree under the aliai^
native or voluntary system, but if the wells are constructed
voluntarily it may bo naturally expect^ that the peraons
beiiehted will come to some agreement as regarjie the use,
mamtenance, &c., of the wells after they have been constructed.
Apvanoss,
As fur as 1 can judge, the only circumstanoes which stand
iu the way of the making of wells, &c., is the lack of capital.
In another paper I have pointed out that tbo„ existing Land
Improvement A(5t practically inoperative, and that, by a
modilioatum of the rules, tho capital required might be placed
within the roach of tho zemindars. My belief is that the zemin¬
dars would largely avail themselves of advancea for wells and
other im])roveinonts wore ailvanoCB of capital granted, subject
to llio payment of moderate interest, which would be calculated
80 as to repay tho capital also withui a certain term of years,
or bettor still, as I have suggested in another paper, not repay¬
able, but subject merely to the paymout of in tore st, during tho
present settienicnt at a low rate say G per cent. Again when
the revision of tho present settlements takes place tho advance
of capital would be ignored, and tho new assessment would be
made in the actual assets. 1 do not behove for an instant that
tho payment of interest has tho fuiutesi obstruclivo effect, but
I consider that the repayment of tho capital, unless it is spread
over a very long term of years, has a prohibitory effect, and the
experience of tho Land Impiovcmcuk Act bears out this view,
as no one can bo got to take advances under it, because, as I
im 1 ,) ^ 0 , tho capital lias to bo repai<l iu large iustalmentw
wu.bin a stated period. I have made the most earnest and con-
btant enquiries into this subject and J am convinced that with
a mouiliciition of the tanwi rules so as to admit of advances
being made at a low rate of interest, but calculated so as to
repay tho priacjp.al after a term of years, or as 1 prefer, noi
necessarily'repayable, but to be absorbed principal and interest
in the boUlement, the zemindars will come* forward and take
advances for tho improvement of their estates, and notably foi
the oouslructioii of masonry wells.
The AssKssMETqxs.
By adopting the latter proposfil, tho /.emiudar wvmld be re¬
lieved fiom any iippreheu.^ion of iin enhancement of the
revenue ui oon^^eqneucn of iitiproveinonU iniido by liimijfdf.
By the system proposed,'the zemindar would obtain half of the
prolit on the capital advanced by tlie State, without any rislt
i lii-i part. At piesent the zemindar has to trust ontiioly to
I the teuder monief' of the Settlement Officers, regarding whom
’ he is justly dilTidenl. Iho zomindar in at present not able to
ti^Kiue himself that tho Assessing tldicor will take into con-
Hideiation liiat tlio improYcmciils in the iibsots are duo to the
enterprise of the zemindar, and whatever bo the feelings of the
zemindar,it IS- almubt impoasible lor any HotUement Oflicci,
however justly inteiiUoned, to nppiiuse etirroctly after a term
<d' thirty years how much of the rise in tho assoU are due to tho
oxptMiditure of capital by the /ommdiir, .and how much to the
unearned increment of the laud. U is not to bo wondered that
thM zemindar should be dillideut as to the correctness of the
vie“-to be taken by the Settlement Officers, Circuiiir Orders of
the loavdof UcVeuue notwitlistanding.
Remibsiom Oi? Land Revenue.
In ‘lie North-West Provinces Rent Act (XVIII of 1878)
there is a section under which the suspension or remission of
rent a.id r<ivcnae in cases* of calamity arising from hail, floods,
&c., is authorised. This section is made use of annually iu
cases of damage by h.tll storms,but such damage is confined, as
a rule, to one or two villages in each District visiteff-'by a storm.
1 believe that tho theory on which the assessment is based,
is that the profits of the good years should cover tho losses of
the bad, and judging by tho experienoe of tlio past season, it is
apparently assumed that this margin of profit is sufficient to
admit of regular payment even m cases of extreme drought,
wlien the whole of the most valuable harvest has been utterly
lost. Thus during the last six or eight montlis we have witness¬
ed the rigorous exaction of the laud revenue in the face of the
total loss of tho khanj" crops, while the occurrence of a bail-
stoym in one or two vdlages resulted in a local enquiry by a
Koropean Officer, in the preparation of elaborate statements
and the euspeusiou or remission of tbe rdvenne deiottnd in the
■THB INJ:JIAN AftRrcTJITtyRIST,
of the damage dotte Co the aiseta of the
ee^te. j tomymind a |^at and ewal-
lotring WomU^ ^Ith ft rengeimce.
the ex«o(ioii of the land temue k Bndaon, and I
belieWn other dietriots as well, ioYolred a direct breach of
faith w^th the aemindars which has had the rery worst effect
on the mmds of the natire commnaity.
At an early stage of the distress the Collector, at the sag-
gestionof the higher aathorities, gave theaemindars to under-
etand that unless they came forward to assist thslr tenants so as
to enable them to tide throaghtho distress and to sow the rahi
eropi the Oovemment would show them no mercy in the ooUeo-
tion of the land revenue for the hharif. The ssemindars os a rule
their utmost to help their tenants, and an enormous area
was sown with the ro&tcrop, but to the amazement of the
aemindars, they very soon learned that the orders had come to
exact the revenue to the full, if popiblo, aud it was exacted
ruthlessly* The people are loud in their complaints of the
Wtudmi or faithlessness of the Qorernment, aud to my
mind, with ample reason.
The collection of the revenue in such a season in any case
would have been a harsh and impolitic measure, but under the
drcumstanees it must be stigmatized as a crime.
The suspension of a portion of the demand foi^a few months
till the ro&i harvest had been gathered, would have afforded the
featest relief to all classes of the people and would farther
ave encouraged them to believe that the Government sympa-
thized with them in their trials.
On the general question of the system of revenue colloctiou
in vogue in these Proviuces, I cannot do better than quote
one or two passagfts from a very able and interesting work,
lately published, called Our Laud lievonue Policy in North*
crn India/* by Mr. Connell of the Civil Service. Ho writes
as follows :—
** Starting with a tax, which is in many casos considerably in
excess of the 00 per cent., aud which in some districts
constitutes unmistakeably a rack-revenue, there is too much
reason to fear that our system is harsb, rigid and grinding to
a degree, that we ilx a certain sum as the proper amount of
the tax, and that wo collect it, turning neither to the right
nor to the left with a steady, persistent, morciloss Htrlctnoss,
worthy only of a fcShylock, and not of civilized Government.
** Our system is simply to collect the tax to the last penny
through the agency of the tehsiltiare ; a« the kists or
instalments fall duo, the latter Ollicer scatters his notices to
pay, dusta/cs broadcast over the sub-division. There are
now no jungles to lly to for refuge, and there are auction
sales which are upheld by the orm of a resistless Govorumeul,
The Oollootor knows little and does less. The laud-owners
feel that mercy is not to be expected, they pay what they can
from the rents, and they mortgage or sell their property
privately in order to liquidate any balances, for* they fear
that a smaller sum will be secured if the sale is au auction
one, managed by dishonest Government siibordmates.
There is in fact no real revenue administration. The Col¬
lector, especially in Oudh aud the Punjab, is a tax-gatherer and
nothing more. Ho is a compulsory jack-of-ali-trades whose
days are spent in inditing countless reports on all miscella¬
neous matters of great aud small importance, upon which the
local Government of the day sets, or is forced to sot, groat
store. He has to draw up portentous memos on conservancy,
municipalities,' drains and self-government, all the morning.
Hi$ afternoons are occupied with his appellate work, and an odd
hall hour or so, as leisure permits, is with difficulty snatched
for the real work of a Collector, namely the disposal of the
revenue reports. Those papers which have to do with the
future prosperity 6r ruin of villages, must be perfnuotorily
rushed through, while the proposal for ii now latrine has taken
np hours of valuable time. Tlie English oorrospondenco
and judical woi^ must bo got through for obvious reasons,
but few know or care about the internal state of a district
BO long as the revenue balauco sheet is clear. The register of
transfers of landed property may be long enough to stretch
fj^om Lahore to Peshawar, but few pay any attention to a tride
of this kind. The revenue has all been realised without
much lesdrt to coercive measures, for the mere threat of a
suffices in inust oases to drive the land-owner to the
moneyleader j and the local Government congratulates itself
that the largest' revenue ever known has been realtzod
in a year of agrbniftnral jdistreae without any noticeable
reeort to the stefn^ ooeroive processes, Those who go
among the people, and who make good ttse of
their cold weather tour, knpW how finding is the poverty
of the land-owners, who haVO been ffireed to borrow
at ruinous intereBt, to mortgage^ and to sell, in order to
meet the relentless Government demand. So the years roll
on, and then perhaps, when hall the land in the district has
changed hands, the Government wakes up^ and the reason
is ashed in surprise, A culprit is sought^ but who ean pos¬
sibly bo charged with the crime, for the head of the distifet
has been changed •every year, aud each officer hat governed
on the old priuoiple of after mo the deluge.*’
'^It is considered that as a general rule, a good season
and a bad season should bo held to cotmterbalauce one ano¬
ther. The Government takes no more in a year of abundance
than it does in au ordinary year, and therefore the landlord
is expected to be able to pay up in full in years of bad harveat.
Even supposing this is quite fair os a general priitoipk k
practice it is quite unsuited to the character of the people.
They have yet to learn what is meant by prudence and eco¬
nomy, they have no place to keep any surplns recelptSi they
have rarely, as it is, much to spare, but what they have is at
once expended on a long-deferred marriage, in payment of
sums due to the money-lender, in buying new clothes or a few
trinkets for their families. With men of improvident habits it
is absolutely necessary to take what we want from liman at a
time when he has tbo money. It is useless to expect payment
at a later period, unless we compel him to resort to tho
money-lender. Onr system, is founded on a direct refusal to
consider the habits and character of native land-owners. Wo
fix a demand for thirty years, holding, that What we collect
inthatperiod will, onthe whole, taking good and bad years
together, about represent half of the total receipts. Our sys¬
tem fails, bocauBo it will not consider that it is far easier for
a native land-owner to pay double in a year of double receipts,
and half the required sum in the following year of agricultural
distress, than for him to pay the same sum in each of the
two years.**
In other words, our system of revenue collection is inelas¬
tic and does not adjust itself to the circumstances of the people
aud, further, is not properly supervised by the European offi¬
cers. Tlic lack of proper supervision has been much aggra¬
vated of late years by the frequency with which Omcers
are transferred from one District to another,
1 have already pointed out tbo biotin the system which
excludes two out of three European Officers from all share in
the administration of a District and confines them to purely
judicial functions. This defect is especially pornioiona
in Us connection with the revenue administration. For
several years tlie local Government, in its annual review of
the revenue administration, has urged ou district Officers the
advisability of utilizing their European subordinates in the
supervision of the lievenuo administration, but so far, little has
been done in this direction,
Peisvbntiox of Famikb.
Irrigation Worhe.
It is somewhat surprising that none of the questions under
this head has any reference to irrigation by means of wells.
However, the momorandiim lately published by the FresldeUt
of the Commission sltows that the question has not escaped
tbo attention of the Commission.
1 think that it should bo adopted as a leading axiom in
ootmccUon with the prevention of famine, that every j^ortiou
of British India should be provided with the fullest irrigation
which circumstances Will permit. Oauals, tanks and wells
are each of them best’suited to some portion of the country
as a means of providing the necessary irrigation, aud X should
strongly advocate the organisation of an Imperial Irrigatioa
Department, whose duty it will ha to make a survejy of the
whole country with special regard to its capabilities for
irrigation, whether by canals, tanks or wells, or by any
combination of them,
1 have, in a separate papor, pointed out how the Bohilcund
Division of the North-West rrovinces is admirably suited to
a system of well irrigation, and have expressed my belief
that the people will themselves construct wells on a large
scale, if capital be advanced on favorable terms, la any case
it seems to mo the clear duty of Government to take
measures to provide the amplest irrigation possible, and tiie
organisation 4^ ft speoiol Imgation Department will best
enable ^hk to be done uniformly and aatiisfaotorily«
«8
JBPE tolM AGiaCDlTUBlST.
Fostsobift.
Ih 4UHiA«eUo0 irilh the of ilio impvoTomoiit of the
ogrioaUttiiiilt oondition of tho Goaatryv tho l»eat meaoa of
hrifiglng jOapiial within tho ranch of the calti?atjng clBssesi
fihoiufil, ^ if poaaible, ba dicoorered, for withont the
<^|jPpliOAtion of capital, no progresa is poaaiblo* This
qti0iN;ion attracted the atteniiou of 8ir John Straohey
when ^JUentrGqrerr>or of these Prorinoesi and he aanotioned
a entail eifpprimoiit in the way of an Agrloultoral Bank*
thoogh vidiy this term was applied to the scheme, Ido not
quite nnderatand.\ In any ease it aimed at giring money
^yaneea to the cwtirAtor on the part of Government, very
mqokitt the way the native yieuoar deals with them,
with the exception that the rates of interest were much lower.
, The experiment was on a vary small scale, and so far
nothiiig has apparently^oome of it, This is to be regretted
, as It^oontamedgeimB of tlie system, which to my mind yields
. the only .hope of any real improvement iu the agricultural
condition of the, country. As illustrating the ease with
Vfhi^ snob,traneactions can be conducted under the existing
oondlUjione of oqr administrative system, I would cite what
occurred daring tho past season in Budaon.
In the months of October and November last, the Col¬
lector Qf{|udaon advanced Rs. 37,000 for the purchase of
Mpd to,tenants on the security of the nemiudars, who were
invited to come forward and assisted their tenants in this way,
if they could not themselves provide the necessary advances*
This aum might easily have been raised to Rs. 1,50,000
hat for the timidity of the higher authorities who became
alarmed at thu D^nitudeof the operations.
Now every pice of this large sum was punctually repaid
after the rabi harvest in the months of May aud June,
without the slightest pressure of difficulty of any kind. The
money was advanced free of any charge for interest, and 1
feel oettain that but for this Jiolp many hundreds of acres
WonUhave remained unsown, ami many throughly respectable
and deserving cultivators would have iu oonseqnonce been
irretrievably ruined. Thanks to the splendid ra^t harvest, j
most of the recipients of these advances have been i^ble to
pay them back with ease, and are now very little the worse
of the calamity which befell them last year.
The moral ofTect of these advances was also most encourag¬
ing, Whenever the District Officers, iu tho course of their
cold weather tour, visited a village which had received
advances, they wore greeted with the most offusir^ expres¬
sions of gratitude, which were ns satisfactory as they were
genuine.
1 do not see why advances should not be made in this way
every year on large scale. Tho action of Government would
at once have the effect of reducing the rate of Interest charged
by the ordinary money-lenders or soucars, and, again, a groat
benefit would result from the Government being brought into
such close and intimate contact with the agricultural masses.
The constitation of a strong Agricultural Department, as 1
have already proposed, would enable this system of giving
advances to tho cultivators to be carried out in a thoroughly
satisfactory manner, and X regard the organisation of such a
department aa the first stop towards agtlcnltural progress.
T. R. WYER.
KHANDESU GOVERNMENT FARM,
(pROaRSSS lisrORT fob tbs BALF TSAB BNOING Dbcembeh 1878 .)
A t the date of last report (2l8t July), twenty inolies of rain
• had fallen, or about two-thirUs of what is looked upon as
an ample monsoon, only the early crops were then sown and those
were foil of promise which was not however altogether realized,
awing to the subseque. t months of almost constant rain which
ended on the 20th of Of .obet; making up the enormous total
of 40*89 inches.
2. Doling the past rainy season the experiment was continued
of observing to what extent, if any, the presence of one or a few
^es affect the quantity of tho rainfall iu their neighbourhood.
Two gauges were erected as usual, one in a garden well stocked
and stirroundod by Urge trees, the position of the gauge being yet
anfficioully open for the purpose of ordinary observation, the other
was located on the top of a high barn, earuiountlng Uie trees, and
Was thus thoroughly exposed on all eides. The differenoe in the
fnadidga ^Tas throughout insignificaut, the total for the year being
80*74 inehes or about one inob less thau on tUe gronnO
3. The saperakmdanoe of ralpi afeoted vatimly ihd moMor
' less, each and idl of the ffi^eranl ^ps, which mokh 0 # fStiM
of the district > ^
4* Of the two kinde of oottoa ontliivated here, ^e Efngimghat
or “gowram" was tininjored and yielded, both in tl^t and
heavy Und, a splendid crop. The American variety (Dharwari)
Buffered from rot in loamy and other rich lands, but gave gooa
returns on light ground. These remarks apply to iha district
generally as well as to the fields of the' firm. ’
5. In cases where tho ouMvator's cOtton fidled, the ground waa
cleared and resown with bajri, which geueralty Fiftoned early
enongb to admit of its being harvested and the field again
with ra5t, of course the abundance* of 4hei moaaeon done
rendered such practice feasible, thus what wa# lout 00 the/Mly
orop will be fully made np on the lute, and the har^vest from; first
to last will be an abundant one,
6. Xq the case of the jowari, however, the grain will not turn
out 80 well as might be expeoted from over watering or niannring,
this orop becomes exoesidvely luxuriant and developei an
enormous weight of straw with oomparoitively small ears,' Much
of the farm jowari was ten to twelve feet high, and the orup
68 acres makes up four square ricks each 49 feet Ipng ^ feet
wide and 16 feet high, being nearly doable the bulk of any former
year's orop, yet the outturn Will not be more acre for acre than it
was last year. The kurbi (straw) has fallen wonderfully in price,
before the rains it was selling at Bs. 8 per cart load,, the^ same
quantity may now be,bought for 10 annas ; with the,fall in the
price of fodder, that of live stock has as usual gone np, bullooks
have advanced from Rs. 60 to 90 per pair, cows from fis, 15 to 25,
and milch buffaloes from Bs. 50 to 90 and Re. 100 each.
7. Tlio tilly orop although good on the whole, suffered some¬
what for want of weeding, the gronnd hardly once became
sufficiently dry to admit of this being done, that tbe weeds grew
up along with the crop and to some extent choked it.
8. The indigo, was similarly hampered, there was also some
diUiciilty experienced in getting tho cakes dried and keeping them
clear of maggots. Indigo it may be here espUinad la nowhere
extensively grown in this neighbourhood, and always as a dry
crop. Tho mode of prepaiation as practiced by the Rnnbie is
very simple, a piece of ground is beaten hard and smooth on the
surface and sprinkled with finely sifted wood ashes, on this the
pulpy indigo sediment is dropped from the hand in small patches,
these take about a week to dry, during which time they are
frequently turned over and thus gather np in the pxooess, a Urge
quantity ojE ashes; this peculiarity although it opes not much
afieot tbe local value of the indigo so produced yet unspeakably
debases it as an article for foreign export, and with the view of
detoruiining how far the matter might be rectified, an experiment
has been in hand for several years ; the paste has been dried in
frames and out into eqnares, according to the most approved system
of Bengal and other parts, but the local merchants have not as yet
offered a eufficiently enhanced price to make op for the extra
labour, and tho loss in the weight of aehes, sometimes as much as
10 per cant, of the whole when dried by tbe ordinary method.
9. A small field was planted with the new fiamieh cotton,
wbicb germinated freely, the plante also grew well, acme of them
attaining a great height, many of them,liowaver, afterwards died
off, aud altogether the plantation has so far yielded but sparingly.
Th\» plant is oeitaiuly far from what it was represented to and
is probably only a sport, if even so much at that from the
ordinary Egyptian cotton. As this experiment was lately separately
reported upon, it need not be, further noticed here.
10. Btatemeilta showing startling returns of indigenous cotton
having from time to time appeared in the reports of the fislarn
farm in Sind, it was deemed desirable to give it a trial In this
Province, and a quantity of seed was accordingly imported when
tho crop came up, it tnroed out to be Ideniiosl with what is known
here as aid waradif a remarkably prolific but veiy inferior
varioty, formerly grown in Nhaudesh, bat wisely eradicated .by
ordei of Government in X867.
11. A small quantity of Nankin cotton seed was also imported
from Sind. None was grown on the farm, but a local oultivator
made a plantation of th It has product a satisfactory crop,, hat
tha eatou is in every respect much inferior to the kihdsgrown
here, «11 the crop has been bought by the farm to prevent
ite spreading by any ohance into the general orop, whieh Is now
perhaps the unrest stock of the whole Presidency.
12. sericulture experiment goes on very eatisfaotorily,
three bunds or orope have been matured since the date of .last
report, the variety was the iMti worm of Bengal. ,lt makes a
small cocoon of medium sUk but is hardy, and bettor sdita the
oonditione found in Kandosh, than any of the others which have
from time to time been tried. The following are pactienlasa Of an
expenmeut aa to outtarn, just brought to a eloae.
13. On tlie 1st of November. 490 seed croons were Oeleoled,
on the dtb, moths emerged, and deposited their eggs the .same day^
on the 17tJi tbe worms hatched, and on the 25th of l^oembor the
bulk ot them fbeir cocoons, twenty thonsaod.of wMoh were
fit for reeling, they aro yielding at the rate of lib. oleau ailk to
ten thousand ooooons, which will give 2 lbs, of stik as the orop.
After the first fortnight one man on Ba. 9 her mehto was
constantly employed In feeding Ac., the quantity of fimlbsTry
leaves coafittmed was one gathering of t4th wf an liers^ 4he
THE INIM|f;AfiIlIOULttrMST.
8 »
ntiaiUMffii' lovif pi(^gi oC Imei ncmiaAlty
onoruMeoiieiliM TH«
Aooominodat«#|^ feeding treys in fire tient tn e wooden frame,
the kne of tuo iw>ed, with bettomi of bemboo matting,
thfr ewiiwe 3 feet 4 by fi feet 4, and. two ioohea deep, ee^i
holds l,00d wenne of the smell monthly kinds or 400 of tho
large ennoel siook* The house is built with wells end roof of olsy
end boat Bs. 25. Severel looel gardeners hare lately Jileuted
mnlbMxles, end bring the leeros to the lufm for sale, altogether
Ihw fTSseiiti prospects of the experiment ere very enoonragiug.
\^Sin mnlhwry aUell here become more abundept in the
neighhoorhood it may be desirable to introduce improved reeling
mewineryf as nppn this process the value of the silk mainly
depends,'
14. teosmtd seed sown on tho farm produced e very
heavy crop both in grain end fodder, it grows freely and all
kinds of live stock are fond of It, both in the green and dry state.
It bears tran^antation and separation of the roots and is hkely
to pmve a useful plant where a neoessity exists for growing green
forage, a one acre plautatidn is being laid out and tho result will
be given iafignrss in next report,
15. .The seeds of the rain tree sent to the farm about 6 mouths
ago tnmed out vrell, the tree is of ossy and rapid growth, many
have already attained a height of one to two feet, and all are
Imalthy, The tree seems in every way suited to roadside planting.
16. The windmill pump has been re-orectod and worked einoe
the rainSf And continues to give satisfaotion, although the necessity
for boilding a ta^k will always be against it as an agricultural
maohlne.
17. Four new plouglis have lately been received and tried after
having failed at Abmedabad. Two of them are small TurnmestSt
one eaoU of wood and iron, these are oonstruotod for ploughing
hill sidm; so that their capabilities can scarcely bo tested* on low
land. One is o single moulding plough by the Boston Plough
Company, and would he a usefnl implement in soil to which it is
suited, a second by the same maker is a peotiliar kind of double
moulder, and works pretty well in garden land.
18. As much uncertainty exists oonceruiug the quantity of
water actually required by any irrigated crop, a series of expeii-
ineuta has lately been commenced with the view of determining
the same. A fall board has been erected and a careful register is
being kept of the water which passes over it. There can be
little doubt that the very best land may readily bo destroyed by
over irrigation and thatia particularly likely to take place wheie
rivet water can be run on to the ground with little trouble, pi oofs
of this are nnfortunateiy only too abundant in the Punjab, Sind
and other pmts where inundation-irrigation is extensively
practised, ^le Qovernment farm at Salaru too is becoming
sterilised by kdidr. One field on the farm here is the snbjcct of
experiment to determine the rate at which this process goes on.
After throe years watering from the Jamda canal, a faint
efflorescence appeared on the surface last season for the first time.
This year it is more abundant and wheat has refused to grow in
parts. 1 moan to continue irrigated crops yearly and note tho
resnlt.
19. Tho strength of the herd has been increased by one
Hereford bull, while two Arnruth malial bulls have been sent out |
in the district. The total home strength of the herd is at present |
168, and made up as follows
Bnila of difforeBt breeds ... ... ... ... 25
OoVM ditto ... ... ... Cl
Steers ditto ... ... ... ... 2L
Heifers ditto ... ... ... ... 40
Calves ditto ... ... .. ... 13
Full details of the mulls of those or^ will be available by the
date of next report.
A. fiXOBHOKT,
Qimmmt Farm.
BAUKiaCOITOS.
Fbou
To
TBB SVPUBIlfTBMDBNT OoVUmMlKT FjLBtf,
The Ool lector of Khandeab. *
have the honor tS report the resQlti, so iar, of tbs oxpsrh
mental sowing of Bamtob cotton made here under Qov^rOttest
Besolutlon No, 1267 of dth March last,
2. The quantity of seed received was one quarter of a ppnod,
A few packets of 100 seeds each were given to cultivators for trial, tb«
remainder was tuffioieni to sow about 8 quarters of an aere,
8. The ground selected bsd been prevlonsly prepared for Mgsr
oases and was rich In msntire, and In excellent tilth. Tbs seeds Weis
planted on 28tb June in lines four feet apart and lonr ibit also
from plant to plout, about 75 per cent, of the whole germinated, and 4e
plants made astonishing progress for a few weeks when they were
attaokod by aplut which oonsidorably checked Ibew. After a time theee
disappeared ancl tho plants itaried afresh and rapidly shat on to belefata
varying from C to 10 feet. *
4. A very promising show of flowers wss succeeded by a somewhat
ioanty supply of pods, a large portion of the former having beeiflSSi
to the ground by the heavy and persistent rains (which also espD^
numbers of the plants,
f). The surviving trees have yielded only s few podseacb, bringing
the entire arop, so far, to about gibs, of v^ry long, butsoi^wh^ wOali
seed cotton. The trees are again sprouting luxoriaiitly from the roots
so that a eocond crop may be got farther on In (he season '
6. Although It is very improbaWe that the Bamish oolton will be
found suitable to a soil and m a oUmate such as that of Kbandaih. vet
the completeness of tbe failure In this case Is certainly tp pome^ti.
considerable extent owing to (he unusualty heavy tains, which to
Black land damaged tevorcly even the hardy Dharwar American
variety,
7 With regard to the history of the Bamleh cotton, I venture to
think that some element of error most have crept id, fn niaklnir fhe
obeervations on which it has been framed. There is realfy little-
apparent diflercuoe between it and the ordinary BgypMao eotlon with
toe exception perhaps that the habit of the former is 4esi bushy. The
flowers, the seed, and the cotton of the two are soaroely to be dis.
tlugnifihed. , j
ot toe^offiofoTyw^ ® »pcrimeni will be available by the end
A. 6TOBMONT,
Bh«dg.on, Mth OMamtor. im.
AMFRIOAN HONEr.
20. Animals eufilered a good deal at tbe commencement of the
cold weatiior, from a disorder known as ** khnrgutti/' the parts
aFeoted are tbe month and the feet, and is on that account often
mistaken for foot and mouth ill proper, although really uotliing
more than a severe form of tbe fouls, or foul-oMoot of Bmopcau
countries. As many eni^olriea on the subject have lately been
maile, i may here state tbe treatment we have found most
satisfactory in every respect. When the tongue has become sore
and the animat refnseg food, the upper surface is rubbed briskly
twice a day with a mixture of pounded turmeric and common salt
The feet kept dean by frequent washings with salt and water.
If maggots make their appearanoe they are easily dislodged by
means of tweesers after dilated carbolic acid or turpentine has
been dropped into the aorCs. If promptly treated, recovery ie
rapid, but 4rheii tbe disease is allowed to gef into its advanced
stages tbe tongue rots and the hoofs sometimes fall off, and the
snioeal is thrown out of condiitoQ for months.
21,. The distribution of tbe farm ccopping this year is as
follows
Orctiflan grasing ground
(early ctc^'
Babi (lots ctopl
A.wi#Hgated 78 acres.
41 „
Cental Plsutaiiohs
...
...
... 623 acres.
• ••
...
... 54 „
...
...
... 857
:::
...
... 114 „
... 8
tm u
A K experiment which has been sncoossfully carried out Iw#
firm of American wholosalo grocers, is note-worthy os tho
first step to tho introduction, probably on a large scale, of American
honey in the comb. Lastycora considerable trade was done in
tho exportation of honey from the United fitales to Furopo ooa
New rork firm alone sending over 300,00011)8. of honey, principally
to Great Britain. The bulk of this, however, was sent in jars either
as pure extracted honey or an comb-honey—that is, honey bottled
witli portions of broken oomh remaining ip it. fu the United
States, however, honey, when sold in the comb, commands a much
higher price than the honey sold in jars, and the efforts of honey,
dealcm there have long been directed to the production of small
dean, compact and perfect sectionB of honeyKjomb in a form
readily saleable by the retail grocer, Tbis object bos been effected
by placingeets of small boxes in the upper part of the hives for the
bees to store tbe surplus honey in, and as each box is filled it can
be lifted out and replaced by an empty one in which the bees may
continue their labours. These boxes are now commonly made with
four glass sides and a strip of wood at top and bottom. In rise
they ai-6 a square on five inches ou the side by two inches m
thickness, and a dozen ofthem are packed together in a Crete for
shipmout. The ad vantage of using-this particular fom of hox i«
that tho bees finish off the eection of comb in the shape and
quantity found to be best adapted for sale and the seal of the heea
upon each cell is the bast guarantee for theparity of the oontenis
Moultyofexportingthe«^ delicate ,deaeB%f comb wToai
the lossoC a great part of the shipment by bmakages has hlthertd
prevented ^ growth of what might doubtless be a lucrative
b^uiin^ I>ortog^oafye^M 0 wrB, H, K.andF.B,Thurb«f and
Co., of Ne^ Yorl^ have (rlsd to get tbls^b-honey to Fnglan d
- TItE
Sq gdo4 oeodrfciott, Imi without tifccoflii. Tito Wknt of p}^|»<fr
loiohfnary for lUitjOKUllQgtheoblps fooms to hove boon the priaoiptl
oatfoo of tho^ demegOi ** X^et down with a ran" by a aUng fkota the
yard-arm. the fflaoe boxoe and their fragilo waxen eonienta were
again and again b^ken and epoilt. In November last, hbweireri
Mr, W* M* Hoge, the manager of thie firm, aneceeded in ianding a
oonaigiimeiit of ^ tons in Liverpool, and, enoonragod by the
result of tbe venture, he landed, at the London Wharf in
Wapfing, a lot ofaboutlOO tone brought ovm* fn the Chii/omin,
one of the Anchor Line of eteam ehips. There are 2,600 caaei in
tide ehiproeiit ooatainlng over 200,00()lbfl. of honey, and few boxes
have sustained any injurv in transit. Taught by past oxperience,
Mr, Hoge had his oases seourely boarded up between bulk*h6adB on
the steamer, and in uuIoadiDgemployed gangs of men to pass tbo
cases hand over hand down ttie ship’s side into the lighter and from
the tighter on to the wharf. Visitors to the Paris Exposition, where
Messrs. llmrborandCo. obtained a medal for their lionuy, as well
as one frOtn the French Agrlotiltural Society for the best honey in
the most marhetable form, may remember the exeoodiugly neat
appesranoe of the honey-comb in these patent hive boxes.
The importance which bee-keeping has assumod as a regular
branch of Industry in the United States may be conceived when it
is stated that over 35,000.0001bs. of honey are produced and sold
annually. Tlio tendency m this as in other occupations has bf»en
for the trade to be carried on by persons having large capital. The
bee-keepera have frequently from 2,300 to 6,000 swarms of boos,
and some far larger numbers. Messrs. Thnrber and ^ Co., for
instance, have about 12,000 swarms of bees. Of course it is only
by a thoTougb organisation that such large numbers of these little
workers who toil without pay can be looked after and cored for.
The system in the United States is to farm out the swarms.
Arrangements are made with fanners and those who own orchards
in anitable localities to allow an apiary of perhaps a hundred swarms
to be placed in their grounds. At a distance of three or £<mr
miles another apiary will be placed with some other farmer. For
this accommodation either a fixed rent or a share of the honey pro¬
duced is paid, and the beo>owner sends expert workmen to clean the
hives, to take out the boxes of surplus honey as they are filled, and
to deatroy the moths, grubs, and other creatures that take advan¬
tage of the bees* frugality. As showing the lucrative character of
business, it is said that a firm of shippers paid to one bee¬
keeper for bis season's crop of honey a sum larger than the salary
of the Freaideut of the United States. Tt is estimatod that on an
average one acre will support 25 swarms of beet^ and, os the
yield of a swarm is generally about 501b8. of honey, it ia evident
that this trade may yet be greatly developed. Already the firm
above mentioned, in addition to a oorps of experienced boe-men to
tend the hivis, find occupation for nine men and two steam saws
during five weeks of the year in cutting up th© timber for tho
72,000 boxes used to bold the comb-bouey. The glasa-inakers also
find some custom from Iho honey dealers, 144,000 panes of glass
being required to luako tho elides and ends of thee© Much
atteutioo has been paid in iho United States to the impiovcmout of
the breed of bees, and queen hoes have boon imported fiom Italy,
Cyprus, and olsewhere for the pm pose of improving the stock.
Some years ago fine Italian queen bees wore sold fui as much as
£10 each in New York, but by foimiug nurseries and rearing
queens oarefully selected from fine broods, queens of gimd blood,
if a term may oo burrowed from the turf, may now be bought at
prices ranging from $1 to $6 each. Side by side with impr..ve-
inents in the culture of the bee, too, there have been many
ingenious contrivances introduced in oulor to save the time ana
labour of ibo bees aud of the honoy-denlers. About ten years ago
a Cerinan suggoBted that thin corrugated sheets of wax, wiiich he
called artincial tablets,” should b« provided for the bees to make
their comb from. These, however, did not come into general use,
but n few years ago Mr. W. H. Hoge, eHected au improvement by
starting the side walls of tho cells. When those foundations,
as they are called, were presented to the bees, tho intelligent little
creatures at once took aavantage of thorn and extended the side
walls so as to form the regular hexagonal oell. The machino by
which ibo impression Is made on both sides of the wax is very
simple, and somewhat rosembles a clothes wringing macbinc, only
the iron rollers are studded with little hexagonul-hoaded pins just
tlie size of the section of a cell, so that, wheu tho
thin sheet of wax is passed through, the wax is pressed
up between the pegs to the height of about l-lCth of an
inch, thus indicating the position and ofiering thu Mubsrance for
tho construction of the cell walls. Another remarkable adaptation
of machinery is afi!ord«o i v the use of a rotating frame, which
causes the cells of the con > placed iu it to be emptied by oentn-
fugal force. The empty, <mmjured comb is afterwards replaced*
in the hive and again used by the hoes. Aa about three-fourths of
tho time of the bees, it has been oompiitod, is taken up m tbe
construction of the comb, it will be seeu that by these contrivances
a groat saving of beo labour is effected. With the rapidly
increasing supply obtained by this wolborgauized system of bee¬
keeping, the dealers iu honey iu tho United States are already
tiying to open new cbanuele for the trade «r^d to create fresh uses
for tbe groduot of the hives. With this object in view a prize has
boon offered by the Ameiicau Beo-keepciV ABsooiatiou for the
discovery of a method of converting honey into the form of a
orystaHine sugar. Locking forward to a time, not, probably, far
distoti when honey wi))*bo produced as cheaply ao r<)^v sugar—
honey may now be bought wholeeate for 7 oepts j^sr lb. iu OnU*
fomia'-4be dealers hebe to be able to providb e substitute for
glucose which will equally well serve the purpose of the cook, the
ooufeotioner, and the brewer^
THE AGRIOULTURAL CONDITION OF MYBOSE.
W E drew attention to an article in one of the leading English
Agricultural papers on the condition of our agriculture
as guaged by comparative atstistics. Wq now furnish similar
ones for Mysore, as shown in the Administration Beport on
1874-76, a report written before the influenoe of the famine was
felt. Tho total area cultivated in any way, whether as wet, dry,
gni'ileti, or coffee, may be classed as follows
Cereals funushiug food 87*S of total coltivatedl area,
ludasirial crops 0'4
Garden crops (inolnding coi^ee) S*$
Terauuial crops 3*2
Wo note, too, that in ten years the area cultivated with Ittperio r
? [rains, forming tho food of the bulk of the population, inOreaaed
rom acres 2, lD8,47fi to acres 4,064,181, showing either the land
diminiBhed in pioduotivenosa, or that the demand was intenaified
year by year by increased population and export, or that both
causes were acting together. It is diificult to classify these crops
as exhaustive or restorative in the way crops are so conridered in
England, unless, indeed, we consider all but garden crops
exhaustive, ‘ We can, however, arrive at a useful comparison by
coiupariug the quantity of live stock in Mysore, which, as far as
can bo asoer taiued, is practically stationary in numbers, with that
of England, In 1875 Mysore possessed
Cows ib bullocks
Sheep Jk gonts
For square mile of territory.
Mysore. Englaud.
29,21.962 10 B 66*6
2134.694 86 826*0 .
Oi W bring it to figu res that will give an idea of tho manure
supply per 100 acres of arable land by calculating five sheep equal
to a bullock, and iucludiug o ther stock in proportiou, we get iu
Myaoro
For 100 acres arable land*
Cows and ballocks )
Bbeep and goats, oalcnlatod to cattle V 104 head.
Other stuck ditto ditto J
or about a bullock per acre for cultivating and manuring.
Wo presume the agricultural autbprity in Mysore has brought
these facts to the notice of the Famine Oommissionors, who will,
wo fear, glean a very imperfect notion of that province by their
visit to Bangalore Even if they havo time to visit its environs
they will sco anything hut an average tract of country. Tbe
paddy-lauds and ragi-fteids Hiirrounding the town are heavily
manured, the maiket gardutis are the finest in the province, and
uutnbois of fiuo cattle used by the cartinen are far above those
usually employed by the ryot. Ocular evidence is so impressive
and so miicb more likely to bo lasting than knowledge acquired by
reading papers that tho real condition of Mysore is hardly likely
L«' be believed anless a journey wore taken, not through a selected
tract of country, but across fifty miles as the crow files. Mr.
Elliott knows much of the province, as also does Mr. Eunga Oharlu,
b‘tt how can Mr. Oaird glean tho exhaustive facts about its agri¬
culture and agriculturists that ho pre-eminently should possess
before giving a verdict ? We foar the cry “ Perish India’* raised
by the opposition to the party in power in Pariiameut, would
receive too many facts to favour it, if our agricultural distress be
brought too prominently forward; hence wo have actually heard it
reasoned, tho evident straining to show selected areas that but
too favourably represent the average oonditiou of the country*
EXPERIMENTAL FARMS,
BaSOttlTION BY TUB QOVBBNMBNT OX INDU,
I K liis despatch dated the 7th February 1878, tho Secretary of State
Q^uioed an experiment at tbe Nagpur Model Farm tn 1876-77,
where, in oonsequenoe of irrigation and manuring, Jelalia wheat
produced 1,600 lbs., and whlto>eared wheat 2,200 lbs., an acre, the
average yield par aero in the oonntry being only about 400 lbs. The
value o^ produce at NOgpur was estimated at Bs. 60, while tbe cost
of cultivation, inoludiog all expenees, was given at Hs. 10 per acre.
His Lordship desired to be informed *' what steps are taken in the above
and other provinces to impart to the agricultural community generally
the lesBone to be learnt from the operatlone of the model and experi¬
mental farms and observed, ** as in many oases these forms appear to
involve financial loss, it is the more important that their resulla ^shen
satisfactory, should be utilized to the atioost for tbe general good of the
country.’*
2. A copy of this despatch was oiroulated on the 2l8t Match 1878 to
the aovernments of Madras, Bombay, and the Norfh-Wosteru
ProTinees and Oudh; aud to the Chief Comuissoners of tho Central
Provlnoes, British Burma, and Mysore, with a request tor 4 tepori in
opuDCption with tbe formi mauLtaiued under their orders.
THl #il^r AG^KJtTLtumt
H
%" Obl^t'pommtiiJoiiw itot^n tbili fto,
y^bertg ym tubas ia ibe diraetton isdlofttadi tbd eoD4iUoii of
eba pwtliiw 4wl»g,tba t»ait two or tbirae goaia bating Ittrbiddao aoy
anob isataoriw. Vf» Harmw, tba wparlntandant of tba Bangalore
|Vi»Jti»'itn> raoantly been aotborlaed to mtta tonra Ijft'tb* protinco twice
fb tbe yew, onoa in tba aunmer when the rapi oropa are being eown,
and again during the winter montba when tba oropa ate being reaped,
in view tobii aeoulring practical eiperienoa in the natlre eyateme of
agricuHore and imparting to the ryota ^ peraonal oommnnicMipn and
fcy eiperimcnts benedta of deep plonghte aa jlw the adwntaRea
to be gained by the uaeof improved seed. The Chief Commlaf^Pjr bas
alao under ooniideration a acbeme for placing one or two ^
each dlatfiot undpr the ebarge of a village potel or other
who wptfid oultwate the land In aocordanoo with inatruoMona from Mr.
Harman *' Bv tbia mcana** the Chief Commlesioner oteervea, ‘itia
hopS that the’ryots will bava an opportunity, which the lowtlon of tbo
aoTernment 11‘a/m at Bangalare doea not afford them, of 30 dRlng of tbo
twoltaio be obtained by a better ayatem of farmtog." 8inoe Jbew
remalka were written, however, it baa beau decided to aboliah the
Bangalore Farm and to tranefer the servioea of Mr. Harman to the
^4* ^i^Bnrma,**^*he only Government Farm ia one established at
Mvottktoung in the Aracan Hill Traota for the parpose of growing and
coring tobaooo* Ae regards the cultivation of tohaooo on the low lands
Ivinff along the banka of rivers, the natives have but little to learn : the
firm was started with a view of testing the oapabimies of aoi) in up¬
land tracts, and more especially for the purpose of teaching the people
an improved method of oaring the leal; but there has not been time to
iudge of the resutta at yet, * w *
5 Mr, Buck, Director of Agriculture and Commerce, Hortb-Weateru
Ptovincea and Ondh, in reporting on the subject, refers to that portion
of themlnutorecordedby Sir John Straohoy in Kovember 1874 pro-
posing the formation of a Department of AgTicnltnre In the North-
Western Ptovincea, in which it waa enggested that a good means of
raaohlng the egricnltural community would be by experiments in the
estates under the Court of Wards. This auggeafiou, it is said, has been
carried into effect, though not to so great an extent as waa desired, m
ooDseauencB of the drought of 1877. To some estates, however, im-
proved Eugilsb ploughs, improved sugar-mills, and seleoted seeds, were
Bent : and in some dfstrlots, where the local officers took an interest in
agricultural matters, seed and implements were distributed to estates
other than those administered by the Court of Wards. As a f urtbor
means of introdooing improvements to the notice of the agiicnlturlsis,
Mr, Buck lays great stress on the advantages of agricultural fairs ;
and he proposes to give greater encouragement to such fairs in future
veare. No attempts seem lo be made by tbo Local Government to
bring directly to the notice of the natives the reaults of the experi¬
ments conducted on the State Farms. . « , « ,,
6. There are two Govdrument Farms in the Bombay Fresmency,
one at Bbadgaou In Khandesh and the other at Salaru iu Smd. At
Saiaru, nothing has as yet been done in the desired direction ; but
tbe superintendent proposed making n tour m the cold weather
months; during which he would acquire and diffuse usefnl information.
Ho is to report the results of his first tour, in order that the Govern-
meot of Bombay may be in a position to judge of the desirability of
”A*^B&dgaon,*^S^^ appwrs to liavo been attempted. The
BUDorintendent reports that tbo instruction is impanad through farm
aDmeniioes, farm servants, and visitors. The system of appreutioes.
If carefully worked, would no doubt prove useful; but nothing can
be expected from farm servants as a means of imparting agricultural
information to the native community. Mr. Siormout, the supeiin-
tendont, recently visited Mn.lrae and Bangalore, under authority
from the Government of Bombay, with a view to asoortaiu the
Bvstem followed on tbe farms at those places; and he was instruotod
to report tbo result of his enquiries on his return to Khandesh.
The Local Goveioment has also, after consultation with Mr.
BohertsoD of the dydapet Farm, decided on commencing a system
of affrionUaral ednoatien in tbe Deccan, and probably, in due course,
the Bhadgaon Faim wiU be made subsidiary to the scheme of Instruc-
In the Central Provinces, Major MaodoogaU. the superintendent
of the Nagpur Farm, proposes to publish the results of ** any decidedly
successful experimentin the Jiural (fazatU, a paper printed in
Hindi, Uahrathi, and Urdu by the Educational Department, of which
a copy »B sent to every Government school in tbe Central Provinces.
Tbe Chief Commissioner approves of this proposal ; but auefa a means
cf making known tbe operations of tbe farm seems scarcely to be
what is requirsd, ibe record of these experiments being useful to the
agriouMufttl community only when they can he followed and explained
on the farm on whioh they have been tried. ...
9 Id the Madras Presidency, good and useful work is being done
nnd'er the supervision and guidance of Mr, Robertson, the superlnten-
deutof Government Farms. Attaohod to tho Sydapet Farm, on which
experimeois of various kinds are tried, is an Agricultural College, iu
whioh a complete course of agricultural instrnotiou is afforded, and
whioh is Intended eventually to accommodate upwards of one hundred
ftudents. lo view to a further diffusion of information, Mr. Robertson
baa proposed the establishment of small agricultural experimental
Stations all over the Presidency, each being placed in charge of a
Unined agriculturist, who is also to conduct au elementary agnoultural
olais. This scheme is. however, at present in abeyance for want of
tnudSt
Beesntly, a very interesting ploughing competition waa hehh at the
Rydapet Farm, in which European, American and native ploughs veto
used, the oompetitori as well as the visitors from different parts of the
country being very numerous. Such open oompetitious as these afford
an efficient moans of interesting neighbouring onlUvatorsin the methods
aud prooesaaa of the iesegoveff syetem of agrieutture practisod on the
farm. Th^ pnblio reports ihW that the exhthUlon was watched with
very great interest aud was completely snooemfol.
UK From the fasts summarised above, it may he said geosralty that
only b tbe North-Western Provinosa mid Madras is any real effort
being made to teaoh agrieultural reform to the people, tu the North*
Western Provinces, a Department of Agrleultoro and Oomiaorce bas
been created, with a Director at Its bead* whose special duty it is to
orgontse tbe collection of agrteultnral and eommorotal statistics; to
direct experiments for egrleulinral improvement in model farms and
elsewhere ; to watch end report on the ’progress of trade, and to suggest
in what directions it may be developed, or hindraaees to its prosperity
removed ; and tO investigate facts conoeCied with the condition of
the Bgrionltural olatses. The scope and objects of the Department are
clearly explained in a rnlnute recorded by Sir John Btrachey in Novem*
her 1874, to which The attention of the Local Governments aud
Administrations wa« drawn iu the letter from this Department dated
the lUh August lB7o, Rok 11—426.433, regarding the oolleotlon of
agricuUnred statistics.
In Madras there is a Department, whioh, though not as yet
formally recognised as a Department of Agriculture, is praotlcatly
one, with an efficient and well qualified director at its head ; Imtits
expansion has hitherto been greatly lmpen«i} by various Causes, hot the
least among whioh has been the want of funde,
10. In other prorinees very little is being done, nor as matters
stand can much be expected. Experimental farms indeed, when they
stand alone, ure of comparatively small utiiuy. Oq really useful
they should bo part of a system of agrionltona iastructfon^ they
Bhould bo attached to a school where sound agricniwri^) instruction
is conveyed in class, and they should be the field for oAin^ug juto
praotlco In the pmsence of students the theories of which the Fd^ahob
bavo been explained to thorn In the oless-roora. If the students ara
taken from the olesses dependent on the land for their Uviug, satis¬
factory progress in tho diffusion of agricultural iustruatlon under
such a system will soon be apparent. It is with much satisfaction
that tho Govornmont of ludla hna watched the recognition of these
pTiuolplve in Madias and the efforts that are being made there
gradually to mature a complete syetem for their application in
practice, Tho system for aotion in the same direction whioh hai
just been proposed by his Excellency the Governor of Bombay is
also gratifying os iodiciitiog tbe interest taken in the matter by
the Government of that Presidency. Iu other provinces much cannot
be expected under the present system, though, defective os it is, the
farms, If they are carefully and inteUigeokly managed, luteiUgenlly
supervised, and basis, must
gradnalty do good, and the Government of India desire again to
commend the subject very earnestly to the attention of toal
Governments and Admiiiistratious. Bengal espeoUlly jg a province
which is singularly deficient in opportunities for agricultural inatrnc-
tioD, while it is perhaps of aP Indian proviuoes tbe one where a
reform of practice is most needed. It is also the province of
whose Bgrioaltural resources and capacities the goveruiug body
knows least. It ia a matter of more than ordinary importauoe
that the oultivating and wealthy Jand-owniug community in this
great province should be taught to realise the advaatagoa ol a better
Bgrioultnral prdoiioe, that steps shoutd be taken to remove the
reproach which now exists, that the very elemeuta of agriauUntal
information, such as the average yield ol particular crops In partlouiar
soils, are wholly absout. Efforts m tbia direoliou were made some
ytars ago by Sir George Campbell; but these efforts, though well
iniontiooed, were frustiated by radical errors iu the seleotioii of sites
for farms, as well as in the seleoticn of superintendents. The rosuHs
were so oDsatisfactory that the futtan were broken up one after tbe
other, the last being abolibhed in 1877, on tbe ground that all the
attempts whioh had been made to teach agrioolture to the poepU* of the
country had (‘tided in failure, q'hta PonoluNfnn wma uoc accepted by tho
Government of India, and it is desirable in oouneotion with tho preaeut
ouestion that the views then expressed to the Qovernmoot of Bengal
^ould be urought promiuently beforo other I^oal Governments and
Admmistratiuns. In tho letter from the Goverumunt of India to the
GuvernmenL ol Bengal dated the 4th May 1877, No. Ill, it wsa
said
'< Ills Excellency iu Council is by no means prepared to admit that,
because it is not necessary at present to teach to the natives on a
soiontific basis all tho technicalities of tho highest farming, there ig
therefore no opening for instruction of a highly nseful, if pf a more
modest kind, adapted to the present educational and agricultural
etandaid o£ the country. His Excullency m Council is unable to agree
with his Honor the Lieutenant-Governor in (he opinion that tho attempts
of tho Goveroment to teach agrioolture to the people have failed every
where. Where these attempts have failed, as at Puosah, failure has been
tho result of inelllmeut managemeot; but where ordinary caro aud
attontioD have been intelligently given to the subjcict, it is unquestion¬
able that, as at 8>dapet in the Madras Bceeidenoy for iustanoe, good
! leBullB have ensued,
** 5. It is not necessary to employ specially qualified agrtouitural
chemists tor the purposes contemplated by Goveroment in the esta¬
blishment of model or experimental farms. The objeote of tbe Qovern-
nient have been frequently stated, but they have been well and briefiy
summarised by Sir John Btraohey In the following extract from his
minutoof the 28th November 1874, proposing the creation of a Depart¬
ment of Agriculture and Oommeroeiu tbe North-Western Provinces
('«The object of these model farms should be three-told : first, to
obtain complete ioforc lation, based on actual facts, as to the average
productiveuess of different oropa on the different olasses of soil on
which they are ordinarily cultivated, and tbe cost ol cultivatiou ;
secondly, to establish and prove to the agrioultarist the advantages to
he gained from email improvements, saoh as they are able themselves
to carry oat under existing oonditiooH, sooh ea deeper ploughing,
ecoumnloal nee of canal water, solooiiou of seed, &o., thirdly, to make
experiments ns to staples and iuduttrios which it may bo possible to
iutrodure if new, or tu familiarise and improve if already exiiriii,^ mi
the oonntry. The extension of serlouUure, th^ improvement of indigen-
oos fibres, and the manufacture of a finer^elsss of lohscoo, may be mvn-
tioned among the ohjeots of such experiments,''
It li AtIjMdi tM'lMMM lB<fwkMUMi
tly vtf|^«0«biHl
M botfMh
ftlt OMiir mhmt •toiWJtttii of'whiaVmcwlil» IMIV ^od*. tlio
trt^tio^ait ond broodltig of H«r« i^ookt ioiprofoaioiik of tihto {nplononli
^ iooooiifaUf idipAfM
hy itt W«t|f0tjd mm of foJr iatolIi«ooo«, ppmutog to odequyto ’prwf
tlioiki»o#f«ldt of modem forwlog, (ood oonwqoeiitly toWJV
kno#t«dg«Of MrtOaUurol chomUtry •■ fi oaaeEtfel'to the
pomnft i»t oodom fannioif)* m by o prolei^oat obemlat of bigh
•Q^HtlflO ftttbbuOOPtOf " '
“IMHofcrMraownlliiOMDeilbeonflatittMt Itgaoni st tU*
MnA kra WMtttly' awStd', mA ttat It oMMarM tor tbo olemratary
Iwtopotlo ff Id raoli motton of tbo ogrloDltonl oomBvaUy mo parMTonA
Id bf tbo. Loool aotorajW«m (wpont wbooo coidUl wxoparoUoo
BOttilDr owibo do»6»,*U#y ounot • «;M«n»blo tbO*-»» b«»
ooqr ooniidombla ollert apoa mo oultooteoln tbo Mighbeorb^
for tbo OoremmeBt f»na «od tbroagh (bem upoo otbeif farther
•T TheeioelleBt teeullf irhleb here follpered the oreetioo of •
Depertoieot of > AgriouUure, end Oommeroa, ia the North-Weetero I
P»fliioo«,laUiol«pulm^oh bio beoo glron by ft to bgriottiwwl
enoBlrj Bod Unprov^toteo Indiceto perhape the beet form lu wbiob J
Cfoveromeol eot^ direeted to the promotloa of the objeole in I
wiew eetebiiebmeqt of each e DepertmeBt lu e»ob proviuoe I
/.nil Vfr m meioteihed io tbe Kortb-Weatera FrovioOei eatlrety from |
pcStlnolel iaiide) tbe esteoitoa of the evitem, whether by Bgrt- I
ealuirel iBitroottoo in eehootii or by pxaotieel teeobiog in expert* I
iiMotftl liwmi'i or where meane are available by a combination of |
botfay oenid be. reqalated noder efficient oootrol and advice I
aooording tojth^ partieolar requlramenta or olrcumetancee at each 1
prov|noe» From tbii point of view the Qovevoor Qeoera) in |
Uoanoll will be glad to learn that matter has agaiu received |
from the (^vernment of Bengal and other Local Oovernmenta and I
AdmlBbrtratlone the ooniideration which ita importauoe mefite, |
and be would wleb to be Informed at an early date of the reaalte of |
that ooniideration. [
PEOFBSSpR WILBQNON^E^ AaBICDLTUUE.
T fl0 Olaii of Agrloaltnre in Edinburgh Unlveraity waa opened on
November Id. by Proleuor WUaoo, who direoted attention In bia 1
introdaotoiy addreae to French agrtonlture. It waa. he eald, of great 1
benefit to agrtonltnrlati that they ihould become acquainted with I
farming aa it waa carried on throngboat tbe Continent, eeeiug that j
one could not pan through any welbfarmed bit of country without j
BOtiug new practioea. wbiob. it carefully atudiod, might be found I
tultable for applloatlou at home. In the summer be bad, be mentioned, I
visited Perie In company wHh Jilt, Fleloher Biensiee, to attend tbe I
International Agtloullnral Oongreis, and when there be bad an I
opportunity ot examining the diffierent kinda of French stock. Of I
cattle there were some fifteen dJetinot breeds, kept principally for j
working purposes. In the front rank of those stood tbe Oherolais, I
wbioh were admired by everybody, and wbioh In tbelr points^ |
appearance, and quality were equal to somh Engtish shorthorns. In
sovoral u£ tbe hruads a marked tmprovemeot had been ofCocted by J
orosaing with Bugllsn aire»>-a fact Which showed that it was better to | '
seek after the improvement of a native breed than merely to set about I *
•applaniiug it altogether. Among their sheep, wbiob it was well j !
known were for the most part merinoes, crossing bad also been intro* | ‘
dueed, with wbat snooess might bo judged when be mentioned that
two pens were shown to him, tbe one oontainiog hfgh-olase pure {
meriuoes weighing 103 lbs. a bead, and the other soma crosses between } <
fioathdoWDB and merlnoes of the eatue age, weighing 220 ibi. The (
clip of the different lota was, be bell wed, in iboaame proportion, in I c
one reipeet French sbeep*farming differed very luuoh from what wee i
known (n this oonntry—tbe applloatlou of ewe milk to obeese'tnakiog. |
Many of the bigh*flavoured cheeses thus made were well known in c
this countrv. Of one variety, called Eoquefort, 8,000 tons were made { t
every year, for which quantity tbe m'lk of 260,000 ewes was ueeee* v
sary. A ewe wonld on an averagetglve about 26 Iba. of cheeeeannually, | o
on some farms folly aa much as from 40 lbs. to 60 lbs. being got r
from agood, welbfed, woll*oared-for ewe. In regard to the breeding of e
horeee, be explained that the French Government took a paternal Interest o
in the improvement ot the sLook of the eouotry, being the posieseors j ti
of some 2,600 good etalliona, which were etattoned at specified places, j X
and the use of which by farmers and others was calculated to improve f u
tbe class of roadsters. He also mentioned that achoola existed at whir h I
instraolloa might be bad as u the proper mode of breaking in young j
aulmala. Aootber peculiarity j be noted in France was the extensive j
use of mules and astea In on' district alone there were 28,000 of f
these animals, the mulea bred from jacb>aefes and loaree. Tbe jaok-sisos {
wore, he stated, kept solely for breeding purposes, and were on that
account much valued, eelling from AlOO to £600, In their rearing of }
pigs the French had not made mnoti progress by crossing ; but In the
breeding oi rabbits, pigeons, and poultry they did wondera. htoar Parle
there was a large number of small farmers, holding from 10 to 20 uoftf,
or even less, who devoted themselves to tha rearing of rabblte^ which Tt
were brought to a great size; and by these men a ibotongbly good thing mi
was made from the businesi. i*igeon«, as big as poultry, were sent to va
market in tbe same way ana tlm attrition p«id to poultry •waa | thi
indioatod by this, that last year the Frcftob sold liOOO milliofit ot eggiL ex
over and above what they used thenisilfOfr^a sale which represent mi
about two mtiltous and a haH pf totocy.’ Thfa latter oirahaiiihUMA th(
of thia country, aa any auch point WM in the meanUm»f cuiixilf
sr ; could not be prcfftobly gfom hut wlMiro U totfkt W tw .1^
t mmmamimmitmi'
‘ Bodir CROPS'AB pooh Aim UAstv&s:
I -. . --**■ ■** .**■ .
A H the opening meeting for the aehaoh of the OtraBoeatto tButoher
of Agriculture,. PtQtmot Ghhtoh read an Intefeilldd FaiMr;
[ of vkkk the foilovriDg ia a portion {•^AIl Iptjda bare , to,
I valued, not only acoordlog to their abtoltsto rtohaaai in tbe mvirM
I oonatituenta ;nt food, but alto in regard to the fatip whiiffi fheie
oonstitnenta bear to each lOtberD As them oohatitui^tl teay IMI Ibf
regarded aa Butxltive, though In dffierent jdagraea, ijb fa oouvenltBt
» to speak of them as Butrlmenla. There areafx ;*^1, water; fieih-
formere or aitrogonous matter or albuminoids; 8. etatoh, anga^, And
oarbobydratos; 4, oil and fat; 6, ^bre; fi, mineral matter or aab
My chief object to-day is to bring before you the reaulta. of some
aaslyses of roots which have been made by an imprered prooeiA
These rUBalta mainly touch the aeopnd Item Of otiT' Hat, fieah.forittars
bnt they seriousty alter tbe accepted theoretical value of rodla hs
food by showing another kind of error in our eaUmates of their
feeding value, to error in the ratio between thla ceoond groan of
nutrients, or the fleah-formerS. and the third and fCurth grOUM
taken together or the heat>glvera. Incidentally, I ahatl allude
further on to the functions and uses of most, if not all, of the
six groups of nutrients, but it is expedient to explain aft once
wbat Is meant by ibis ratio iu question, I shall call ft the 'nulrledt
ratio,’ and to avoid deciroala shall assume that we are always dehilng
with 10 parts <be they groins, ounoSs, or pounds, or mere abstract
quanlilies), of fleBh*formezt (or aitrogonous Compounds of VSfetable
oitglu. but like tbe albumen of eggs, rhe casein of cheese, or the
fibrin of meat). If we look at those kinds of natural herbage which
best sustain the health and growth of oar (arm animals*-we lock
at those artificial foods which bring them to an early maturity, wa
shall fiudthat the nutrient ratio shows a high proportion of flesh-
formers, But the range Is very exten8ivs**.from 8 to 10 In deeortU
oated ground unt-oake to 200 to 10 in eagar-beet. The rioheeft pasture
grass will give 88 to 10, tbe poorest 80 to 10. VITe cannot fix a
nutrient ratio which shall be equally adapted for all BDlmala at all
Btagee of tbe feeding prooees, but we can aecertalu by direct experi¬
ment wbat ratio gives tbe beat result lu tbe partioular clrcumatauces'
of each case. To caloalate tbe nutrient ratio we add together tbe
percentages of staroh, of sugar, and of all other nutrients of the
same group, called the oarbobi^drates; then we multiply the percentage
otoll by 2|. and include the result In tbe total sum ot heeWiv^.
The percentage of flesh-formers having been ascertained by analysts*
we arrive at our ratio by a simple earn ot proportion. Now the
chief cause of these csloulated ratios being wide of the truth in
tbe case of roots and euoouleat fodder pIuntA arises from the simple
fact ithat it has been the habit of agricuHural chemists to reckon
ail tbe nitrogen found In these foods aa existing in tbe useful form
of ,^o8h«formen, while in reality this Is not the case. On tWo former
CK^caaions (1873 and 1874), I pointed out this fact to tbe Ohaifibhr,
and it has at last attracts general attention, I cannot oltlm the
credit of discovering this fact, for Lewes and Qllbiirt pointed ife out
witu distinctness in a paper read before the British AssholatiCn so
long ago as 1852,
FALhAClBB OV ANALT8IS.
In October 1876 1 announoed some startUug oorreotions of the
current view obtained ih 1874, but almost too etartUng to seeuce ay
own belief at that time. But other methods in the hands of foreign
chemists having confirmed my figures, 1 was able to uy 4hafttht
mangel must he plaoed below the swede, and even tha turnip, so lav
as richness in nash-formere waa concerned, tbe comparison beiog
made with roots grown side by aide under precisely the same ooudft.
tlons. My mangels showed less than one-fourth of. (he flesb-tormeve
with which they would have been credited, had the ordinary prooifs
ot analysis been totlowe'd. 1 do not mean to affirm that sooh a
result would be invariably obtained, but eubssqueat experitncBta
enable B.e to say that from ooe third to tbiee-lourths of the nitrogen
of this I oot exists in forms useless for food, though oxeeJlcht -ii
manure. This fact of course obligee ne to alter the notrleut ratio.
To ebow now far the new reeuUe differ from the old, 1 give these
uamberi-
FLBSH-VOBUBBB IK MAKaiLB.
Variety of root
Water,
Fiest-formers
by old
Flesh-formers
by new
Per cent.
process.
Per oent.
process.
Per oehft.
Feeding beet
.. OiO
1*488
088
Yellow Globa
83-7
1*026
0*68
Long Bqd
Gotoeik Tankard ,
.. 81-8
1*080
0*51
901
1*6)0
0*67
These roots were exceptionally large and watery, so that these flgumii'
must not be taken as lepcesentlag the Average riobueia ,cil theae
varieties of mangeia Tet the above pesuentages eonfirm the staftemu^
that half oi the assumed flash<»fQrBMri of saAOgels mav be
exietent. Of 12 analyses pahUehed to 1878*7 of differenT^rJetiei^
mangelAand given in tbe Oetmau ^Tigrilcehii/ AgHouJiunU GkmlSk,
tha loweit aamiii^ 0*22.l»et ctoi. of .fisihfonaers, attd the hl^S
tbe mean hatog liBS ,* it is probable that this number
halved to represent the trutb.
A. 'i-'s ,
- . .'.OLAJia. •
W % kwfti betii fiitoiifed witli » wps ot Utf lAt^tMug
iriHt ^ifimiit tn'*^ IrNWgl
ecAitSootid <d(uritg iMt •#a«oii by Mr. J. Beoit Piidv«oAi«t FIrcq
Si Bofi^tUil. Hie exj^rittieiite irere on oet*‘gn>irmiafpot« imdar glu#
leitb dit^ent munree ^ eadtiie teport^ wfaieb fome pnrt of tie ennual
MRiie of lb* ^enxoel Agiiooltutel AMoointioB of Seotiwd, if oeftein to
iateroft noit of oar roederr. We giro the following extracts :*•
it^e objeefai of the exporimentai toll deteile regarding which are given in
aeeemjianying tablet, may be rong^^ i^tgd M foHowi:1. To teat the
ebkeaiW aoaroe of phoaphorna and nitrogen. With thia view oopiyilttea and
bone^h were eboaen, and theae wen triad in their natural atate^rednead
to ai Sne « powder a« poeaibie in a peatle and mortar t and aiao in their
I diMotrad atate«rmoted, on aalphnrio acid. The firat exparimenta
urare^^evoted to ,thl|obieet,tbo drat foar having an addi^^lon of nitrate of
«odi^ and the leat four an addition of aulphete of ammonia. The coat in
each ease ia pretty mach the same—aay 2a. 6(i per acre in favonr of the
mineraJt and the proportion of phoapborua in each almoat the aanie-«*v».,
8db' par cent, where tindiaaolvod, and 24 per cent, were diaaolved. Nitrate
of soda and anlphate of ammonia were also tested against one another, as
•oarcea of nitrogen, the goantliy in the nitrate of soda applieation being
•lightly emaller than in the aoJpbate ef ammonia, ae alao ia tiie ooetr-3 per
cent teas in qoantity of nitrogen, and 2a. t'd. per acre in ooat. 2. To teat an
eqnail'inonBy talne application of other light manuroa agaii^at those already
mentioned) as well as ogainit one another, and with this objeet Peruvian
guano,dissolved Peruvian guano and fiah guano formed the neat three exper.
imanta, while another was devoted to an application of diBSolved bonea, with
an addition of vittate of soda at a very similar eoat per acre. 8. To teat the
Valne of an addition of potash. For this purpose Koa. 13,14, itad 17 of the
aubjoined table were allotted. 4. To teat Pemvian awon as the source
of nitrogen agoinat nitrate oi soda and anlphatc of ammonia. Wai, ihis end
in view Nos. 16 and 17 were made, and compare most directly not only with
Noe. 12 and 14, but also with all the others. 6* To test the relative result
from a medium^ application of farmyard manurcifor which purpoee No. 18 was
added. 6. To teat a plot without any manure as a ooinpatiaon with all the others
and so to discover what benctjiclal reaulta in a remunerative twose follow.
The scene cboecu for the site of the experlmantal house was a
hollow, folly exposed to the influence of tho aun, and about 600 feet above
sea level* The atructure erected to contain the ihirty'-aix experimental pots
was 14 feet long by 71 feet wide, the roof slewing from 71 feet to 6 feet
high. The roof was compOsed of glass, in four saabea of 31 feet wide and
t«udd,hctie^ ^ii«M4ttd^^«4^ wti]initea|enftod«» th#* wig
hgate UUtedl|feime.l£al>ythiiif|tt^vonr«f tl^ «a«t
cl 6 and 7, mtofial Maie&vid«ld rwttdMved with «ul|Aato cf
there was no decided diitei^ ditodved ipeaehinstaXMe bpitigth«
iiriier. Between d and I) >^bonMcli; dbMolnd jmd txndtoaolvid. with
c»lphawerattBonla, th« palm might he weterded to the nndiieol ved* In
the case ef I and 3, diaaolted iniiiMeat» ndth nitmte cl soda agd with niteatf
M soda and with anlphatowf ammonia), theMWai no dUEerencfti if at alh in
favour of the nitrate. Between 2 and hone^» disseM with nitntoof
aodaand wHhaulphato of ammonia, them Wit ,Itt^ didhimioe, ptsliapa the
latter had it on the whole, and in the oaae of the imh to the nenth moat
decidedly. No. 3,;minar^ andn^ate of soda against 7, minimi and fnlpbato
of ammouia, here the nitrate was beat; as wae alao the earn in the eigieri*
ment with 4 and 8, hoae^aih, with nitrate of •odaaiul,withsuiphato ef
ammonia. Then was no de<44ed dUBupnoe between 0 and Ifl* xemvian
gnano, dIsielTed and undsasolvedf both being short of some ot the former
appUcattona, and both earlier. guaao (U),eomparad with .Pemvian
guano (6 and 10). At firat the fomer looltod very badly, and was later, but
having improved, now cempared limilav to the latter ippUcattena# In the
tose of 12 and J$, dissolved bones with nitrate of soda and filili Pemytaa
guano, it was thought that the latter would prove tbp better and theibeaper,
indeed, from the then appearance, it seemed Uhaly that Id wonld turn nut
the best of the whole applications. Nos* 18,14, and 17, which have each
an addition of potash, when compered with i, 12, and lB*«*the same applica*
iions without the potash—inditotod no perceptible superiority. No. 16,
which is credited with * nothing,' has all along thriven well, it brairded
regularly, and has continued healthy, and though weak and never atrong
looking, still promised better than could have been expected. The |rop
was cut at two different datoa. On the 2Bth of August, Nos. 16^ 14, IS, 10,
0, and 11, to the aoutb, being fully ripe, were cut, and the others on the
4 th ot Beptember*^ being all quite ro^y for tbe‘sickle, With the exception of
No, 4 to the south, No. 7 to the north, and No, 11 to the north, and both
pota of No. 18, which were all a litUe green. The same variety of oat, eown
in the field in the ordinary way, on the fith of April, was out on the 24th of
Augost, BhoWtug that theiofiuenoe of the glass bad not in the least degree
forwarded the growth of those under experiment Indeed, there was bo per*
oeptible (nereaae of temperature inside the atroctarei the sides being tally open,
permitted free oircnlation of air st all times. After being allowed thorenghly
to * win, * they were carefully thrashed out, the gram and the straw of each
pot being put in separate parcels, properly nambored. And on tho 80Ui of
Wepi«ti.i,«v these were all weighed in Mr, Faiooner King's Jaboratoty,
The following tamo 0 how« it,n qnnniitiea and coat of manuretpplied per
acre, and the percentage of pbosphoraa and nitrogen which each applioa.
tion ewntained
8 feet long each. The enolosuro Was made of rongb wood, boarded at top
and bottom for about a foot, while ilio aides were formed of I inch wire
netting. The experioienls were conducted in earthenware pota 12 iyiohea in
diamiter and of tho aame depth, resting on boarda oit tue grcfuudy elates
being placed beneath each, ho that the roots oouU not penetrate into the
soil beneath. Tho pots were placed among riddled oehes, to preserve them
from drought and eun. The soil used was all taken from a field dose at
hand, which was cropped with oats the prevkma yea). and ia a thin poor
clay. It was taken spade deep, and afterwards well mixed and riddled, and
one-fOurth ot small stouee, riddled from gravel, mixed with the soil to
keep it open. In 'preparing the pots a depth of 2 inoUes of stones or gravel
was put at the bottom of each pot, followed by B incbef *aoil.' The seed oate
were then deposited to the number of twenty grains in each pot, the manure
sprinkled over them,and the romaiuder of soil added. Analyses of the mannrea
were mode before application, and the qnantibies aconrately weighed in the
laboratory iuBdinburgb. There were two pota of every number j thus each ex^
periment was made in dupUcate.and arranged in relative posltiouB in the house.
The duplicate pots of eaoh experimenl were under as diasimiUr
influeueep aa possible aa regards situation, one of each occupying an inside
position, and the other an outiida. The crop selected for the experimente
was grey oats, twenty aelaoted seeds of which were put into each pot, and
tba iowings were made on the flth and 10th of April (No. 18 on 80th April).
AU were up, except the last sowu, abont tiie> 30th April, and they were
thinned' out by degrees, as they seemed healthy, to ten plants each pot, the
thifiniog being completed by the end of the first week in June. Some plants
wire attacked by grub or some other pest, and some pots were ooasequsutly
unequally planted, and had occasionally a vfeak plant or two left. The
plants were watered at first once each day in the eyening j but daring hot,
dry weather they were watered twioe<^moniing and evening. They never
ware eoaked, beiog only kept moist. About the 2 th July they ' shot ’ out
to head, some partially, others quite out, and by the 87tb July only all were
really * shot* * Cbceat diversity was observed in the different pots in point
mifearlineis and latoneu in shooting. The plants that grew beat and looked
best at firsts about the begimung of July be^n to fall off* while those later
and mota backward at first began to oomo up to tho others and promised
batter ( noUkhly those witk 'applications of phosphates in the undisiolved
atota weiwmoit backward and anpromisiag for long, but latterly improved
fA a vmy rmsiked way, and when ready for the sickle appearad quite as
gilty ^ aa titoaa whlob bad pvomiaedJiatter in the earlier part ef the season.
It may be fintlieitiag to rapijoduee a eerieeol obeervatioos^ modo un the
2?tovf JulFvte to .Ute growth and appeaxauoe of the vovtous pote at that
date, wtoeh may ba Wjl^smidwitotlwreaiati^ theeo^es
after hteftotin9^ N|tteiiaBtab4.lbtoteii«ldiipolved«ndimdmso^ with the
IdditloBCdBiteaUfififida^MtetoWMtitttepi^^ (tiffyinaoe. Beiwcei|
No.
Manures.
.S
£
•a
! Mineral Superphosphate...
I and Niiroie of Soda ...
, Bone Ash Superphosphate
} Hud Nitrate of Soda
j Copwihf’s (finely reduced)
oud Nitrate ot Soda ...
' Bone Ash
' and Nitrate of Sod i
13
14
17
. Superpogphi
and Sulphate of Ammonia
BoueAeih Superphosphate
and Sulphate of Ammonia
Coprohtes (fluely reduced)
and Sulphate of Ammonia
Bonv Ash ... ...
aud Sulphate of Ammonia
PernviAU Quano
Diaiolved do.
Fish do. ... ...
Biscolved Bones
and Nitrate of Soda «*,
Mineral Supeipboephate...
Nitrate ot Soda
Muriate of Potash
Dissolved Bones ...
Nitrate of Soda ...
Muriat-o of Potash
Nothing,
Diiwolved Bones
PecHViaQ (laano
Same as No. Ifi, with
Muriate Of Potash
If atoiyaidllung (weHrOtted)
383
Ml
2*66
I'Ji
8*88
111
2*66
Ml
833
V
2*66
1 *
S'Sa
I*
2*66
P
2*66
2'66
8’
2*66
Mi
8*83
1*U
•771
2‘66
1*11
•771
2-66
*771
156:
s.
rtT
14
7
17
5
17
3
17
6
J5
0
17
5
17
8
17
6
11
7
211
0
17"
a'
20
0
15
0
80
9
17
8
SO
0
««ee«g
«*t M«
20 U
17
6
14
7
17
5
7
9
2i
0
17
6
5
e
20
0
19
9
80
6
6
9
68
A
*3
s
82 0
84 6
82 6
84 8
84 7
87 8
35 0
87 3
83 6
82 0
88 9
87 3
87 9
48 3
80 6
86 8
58 6
n
0a
. I
ms
28*14
a6‘68
36*4
24*75
88*14
86*68
86*4
13«
16*
16'e
26«
84*75
26*
m
80*4
.17*76
17;7B
17*76
17*76
20*5
26*6
20*5
20*5
28*
17*
26*4
17*76
IT^TS
22*2
12*
12.
ikpettot^ ^««tlti(»^t»0 of i!iiv«tt]W<& 4«og no»
gdfe tindii^lTod phoapboldi «ove • botto*? wrtttm o|f grilii^
thoogliTKlbbot 1«M «tm«»thoa those to which diseohod pfaosphetec op*
pUod» enoh gctticag a similar allcwasoe of nitrogen* the mean tut the eereral
pote devoted to thesoltttion of this question showed an iooxease of 87 boehels
>7^-in TTl nn-rirns tstt.Wv
and medore allotted them. dd» ASi^jl^ithe aame natnhes od plenti can be
omidoyed In each esperiment^ %m ifm, easy obearration «t4 jndiciotie
thinning out, do., kept nearl y nnilhviia *i fiir as accident or aiseesn' might
affeot them. 4th; The qaanttty ol mol'ttiire can he rtgnleted as neeeseary
and Slade oxaotly nniforra in all* 6ih« They can he perfCotly proteobed
from all accident, as hail, wind, At^ aa waiUaaaafefroitotheTavagesof
cl grain per acre in favour of Ihe undiasolved phoephatei* hat the diaaolved animala, birds, ahdl inseota. dth. la harvestUig^ evaiy portion of the
gavelh owt. kore atraw per acre. Nitrbgea having haca applied produce can bo aocured without the alighteat Ioaa/-*Jfof‘f/t firtHth
along with phosphjitea, the above reault will not oatoniah practical farmcra. Affrieidiurist, ____
Coming to a comparison of the pota which ragpived their nitrogen In the
idiape of nitrate of soda with those getting snlphate of ammonia, we dad
that on the average the latter haa the advantage* though not to a aery
large extent. The difference in favoor of sulphato of ammonia ia 1 ewfc.
of atraw per aore and bnahel of grain> The difference in price of the
two artioles waa 2 i. 7 d. tier acre, the sulphate being, of course, the dearer*
Estimating the grain at 8 s. per bashel, and the straw at 2 s. per ewt, it will
he observed that the dearer article is in the end the oUoaper by about it, an
aora. Many farmeri would not have been surprised though the difference
in favour ef snlphate had been even groater.
The value of potash salts has been very distinctly brought out. The pots
which received no potash yielded on the average 89 *1 bnfahels gram and 27‘8
cwts. shraw per aere* while those which obUmed about three-fourths of a owt,
of muriate of potash per acre yielded 65 bushels grain and 28*6 cwts. straw,
There was thna an increase of about 0 bushels of grain and nearly 1 owt. of
straw produced by the addition of 5s, 9d. worth Of potash, or a money gain
of about 141. per aero*
In reference to the source of the phosphates, the results are very inieroat>
tng, and generally accord witli (he expeneuce and opinion of many of the
beat farmers. The four pots where phosphates were derived from bone ash
gave a mean of 61*9 bushda gram and 29*8 owls, straw per aore ; while those
manured with phosphates from ooproliles pi'oducod only 04*4 bushols grain
and 26*3 cwt. straw. Tlie SU|»eiicinl 3 r o£ bmvi auh ia luro. as 0 a mnnjr a
farm, decided, the difforenco bring ih busbcla of gram aud 34 cwts. of straw
per acre The bone-ash phosphates cost 2 s, 8 d. jier aore more than the other ;
but tUie additional outlay gave extra return of about 20s. per acre. This
does not accord with tho exponmeuts of the Aberdeenshire AgriouUural
Association* only the latter have as yet been confined tn tnrnips, which may
ucoount for tlie varying results. Mr. Dudgeon's conclusion lU tbi** »<'<t>cur
will, nevertheless, substantially agree with fh« «*porifincvj of a largo
number of Boottish farmers.
For several years back oomplaiats havo been frequent regarding tho
Inforiority, or, at any rate, the variety and uncerbamty, of the quality of
the so-called Peruvian guano. Less than twenty years ago tho Pemviau
guano then obtainable forniod the best top-dressiug for cereals. Latterly,
however, this article has deteriorated so much that confidence m it has
been oousiderably shaken, nor will the experiments under cousideratioti
tend to strengUion that cunfidunee. Two and two.thirds ewtSv of Peruvian
*• No. 9, it will be seen, produced 55 2 bushels grain aud 25*6 owt.
straw pot aOftl , .-Im.I'* Af.Ua.x.lo'O/l t*ovU.v**i« f,Ull.UU In
No. to gavo the worst results of all* showing only 2*6 cwts. more straw and
actually P 8 bushels loss gram than were reaped from No. 15, which gut uo |
manure of any kind. No. II, mannrod with fish guano, is better, but still
considerably behind the proi^ueo ur si.« Ddts to which the mixed aiufickl
manures weiii applied.
Used along wi(;h dissolved bones, however, the Peruvian guano ha* done
hotter, and beats in a substantial mannor nitrate of soda. The mean of tfie
pots manured with dissolved bones and Peruvian guftuo topped that of those
manured with dissolved bones and nitrate of soda by 54 owts. straw and
near'v 7 bnshels grain per aore. The diffeieu.u uere is rather more decided
than many people would have expected.
The largest return stands to the credit of good farmyard dung. No. 18
was manured witii this artiule alone at a cost of 58^, 6fi, per acre, which was
by IDs. the dearest to start with, ilnvigh it turned out the cheapest in the
end. From tlie application of the farmyard dung thero was n return of 80*9
bushels gram and 45*9 cwts. straw. As compared with tho po^^s which got
no manure, there was thus fully 4 qrs. gram and 25*3 cwts, straw duo to
leas than £8 worth of dung, which indicates a handsome profit.
A comparison of the }>ots which indicate a profit on the application with
these which show a loss as xegards the poruoutage of phosphates and
nitrogen, is interesting bruighig out the effect whioii the percentage of
fihosphates apparently has on the yield of grain. 'Those,' says Mr.
Dudgeon, 'which gave a pr 't of above 20s, per acre, pis. Nos. 3, 4, 6, aud
17, contain on an average 36 por uuut of phosphates aud only 17 per oeut.
of nitrogen ; while the pots which indicate the greater loss, vis. No. 9,10,11,
oud 13, oontain only 17 per cent, of phospliatea and nearly 21 per cent, of
rfittogen.*
Mr. Dudgeon condudeshlM valuable report with the following obsarvations
in favour of experiments under glass
' That experiments can be oondaotod, with tee hope cf any good rsBUlUi
following tkerefxum, on the limited scale thoiic ru'e being carried Ou, f
know is questioned by many. They uo doubt have tneir drawbacks in
comparlsoa with those conducted on a large »rm in the open field, but, too,
they have many advantages which arc apt to bo ovorlooked. and td coma of
lhfi 04 i WOttld draw attentiou. 44 . iiuantiiy and qua r * ^*)f ^ soil
GARDEN,
W ATE1UN(4.—The Gardener^i ChronieU says that in diy wea¬
ther, when watering is important, it should be borne in
mind that a good soaking once a week or so—a soaking that pene¬
trates thoroughly, the water finding its way to every part of the
root of the plant—Is most benefioialy but that watering a little
every day or so, giving hommopathio doses, is an operation much
better left alone, for muoli more harm than good is likely to result
from such a practice, in so much as watering in such quantity as
to moisten the surface only causes growth of fibres near the top;
the slight moisture not being sufficient to nourish them, but on
the contrary., the young, tender growth of fibres being within
reach of the burning bud, must result in exhaustion to the plant.
Water, tlierefore should at all times be adiuinstered with a liberal
hand, that it may aoak and percolate thoroughly, as a
long shower of ram will do, and the growth of roots will be
produced and oncom&ged in ibeir natural posidon, going deeper
and deeper the nourishment they effect, and will thus be
O'* ibled withstand any oooasionai neglect.
ILvssu liATivotu ItozEi,.—The flow*ers are produced in enormous
quiintities in March aud April, after the old loaves have fallen and
before tlie new loaves have appeared j the crop rarely fails. Tho
fiesiiy fiowors fail off and cover the ground beneatli the trees,
aud aii> firatrftorod eagerly by the natives eveiy morning during tlie
xiowering season ; a single tree yields from 200 to dOOlbs. weight
of tiowers. These itowors are stored as a staple article of food
i>y tho Bheels and other tribes, and so valuable do they consider
these trees, that in time of war tho threat of cutting them down
genorally reduces them to submission. *
The iJowers when dried have somewhat tho odour and appearance
of Sultana raisins. Lately examined by a French chemist, M.
Petit, tlioy were found to contain half their weight of sugar, and
arc thovo£or 0 voiy nouriahing.
In a paper recently read before tho liinnioan Society by Mr.
Lockwood, that gentlouittn stated that wild animals of many
kinds troop eagerly to tlie mahwali trees during tiie season to
feed on the iloweis. lie was therefore Jed to experiment upon
domestio annuals, and it was found that tho flesh of pigs fed
upon lunhwah flowers in this country was miiuh improved and
acquired a delicato flavour. The animals so fed rapidly come into
condition.
Again
The trees thrive in poor stony ground, aud might therefore be
cultivated on land not available for other crops. So regular is the
iehJ of flowers, tiiat it is said a bad mahwali harvest has never
cell known in India.
The flowers wlion dried will keep for almost any length of time
and do not appear to be attacked by insocts.
From tlie seeds an oil is extracted by tho natives ; it is used for
lighting puipOHca aud for soap-making. The smoke arising from
the burning of the oil-cake, after expression of the oil, is said to
be poisonous to rats, do.
Tho mahwah tree,theo, affords a means of obtaining an almost
unlimited supply of tood, both for man and beast, a food which
will keep a great length of lime in any natural temperature^ aud
will' h requires no trouble to procure and no outlay in cultivation,
The tree readily propagated itself by seed which, in India, is
usua ly self-sown.
THE PROPOSED BOTANIC GARDEN
AT GANESH KTlll^B.
GorBHNMfiNT Absolution.
D uring Aagast ISTS the attoutioA of the Gavemmenb of Bombay, was
given to the fovmatioii ol a botenio garden at Oaawh Khiud, near
Foona. Tho questions thereto pertaining wore referred to a conmi toe of
Bpscislly selected and highly qualified oiBoen; natnely 1 —Uoloael I^Uo , Mr.
Bhuttleworth, Dr. Gray* and Major Maat, E.E. Besides Utg matUrs
peitaitiing to the Gatuish Khind Garden, the Oommittee'e oonsidetation was
invited to the question whether Foona or Bombay ehonld be ohoseU h« the
pW for the princqml botanic garden of the Bombay Presidency,
2 . After inu$b enquiry and consideration the Committee deem Poona to
be, on the whole, the best place for this important bstftntioa* They
submit an elaborate and ioteresting report, and snm up thalr recoosiiiedda..
tiotMl under lOghtoen bcadSf. The »4 reconmmndAUPaN m fill tlffliiy
AGiti 6 u|,Tt«is?r. - , u
of JBomiw-y* wiili th^itotaaiiott flfcwryiojj
fituwK>ii^ moawii sliatJ permit, femae of t-Mm for
woftt of ttViwUWo WjW^»^oOi otaml over for* tUo proeoplN, Sterna of tUeia,
iiowofi way Uelow, pawoly !—flwt on tho
PiOfrOnt tite nt Onttoei Jthiu4bo oatabUshed tho chief botin^io ^a'dan of iha
Bowboy jPxMldoooy;* aod that ita extent bo forty acnree or thereabontji* That
« emirit'^hmiioh Kprden, ooiAeielm^ of four or hrO aorew, be eefcablidhiid in
BowWi Rod that the Grant College compound b^ eelected for thw purpoee.
That the Superintendent be relieved of hia present moongiuonedutieaof
plUpreiaer awd dnig.inftuafiiCturtic, grid that the oil apd phaimooeun'iai
apparatus be trunsferryd to the Me<lic.il Store*. That part of the gardt^u-
house than vaooU*d bo fitted up a* a library aud oJasiuroomj arid tbit
Certftiu eelectiid botaolbal looha aud diaKinms be parcbuifcd. Ihot n
oompleto etandaed herbarium of tbe indigenous plants of Western India bo
formed, and that it bo Kept pcrmaTiently in the Raideii house at iJaii-Hh
Khind »certain rooms therein being liLted up for the purpose. That llic
main wieiiUflo garden bn bud out in tlm irregular picturesque »t) In, w.th
ipeolid reference to latids’oapo effect j mid that the planting ot I he gtudeu
le cairied out gradually and without any undue hiiato. Tiiftt; tho ohiof
resources of tlie garden be devoted to the bnngiug tognthor u£ the
indigenous plants of Western India, and thul. uniil tliu >s SMtisf.ictonly
acoctiipliahed. uo pains be talton, ereefit ui special case-*, t<j iiiLroduco
foreign plaut. That the d^taili* of plantiug and loavuig out of the scieiititu*
garden be left m the hands of th^e present Miipenutendeut, TImt tb ■
system of inttfrehaugo with other bolaiucal garuu-*, uf ivoda and Uviu^
plants, be developed to as great ail extout ni p'»N8il)lc. Tu those and o'liPi
respiicta the fcorvioes of the present t>upo> uilondvnt, Mr, Woodrow, vtiil
most usolttl,
8, The cordial thanks <>£ the Govreruor in Council are toridorod to the
President aud Members of the toe for tho able manaoi’—a mownor
■which is at ouco learued, practicil and ftCiciUilio—wheroliy tU^y have
carried out the inteiestiog aud mipoiUub task cntru.stcd*to th(.n». lli.''
Excellency in Council trusts that iheir labours will beai fuiit Jicrtafter lui
the ttdvauoement of botanic scienoo lu Wo. torn India,
4. The ackuDWlcdgmonts of Gnvetnmont aie also ofToi-d to Colonel
Jjanghton aud to Colonel Goodlellow, U.E, for the as&istuiico T<»inleiod liy
them to Uio Couiiuiit'^ lu the piepnraUou of surven, plans .md csimiilej,
MiNUTic By H, K. thic Govkunoh. j
I would mvjio thci ntt-iition ot my hoiiourablo ooiioaguoH to the stnlus of
the botai.ic gaiden on tbe left bank of the river Mnhi near Oatiosh Klund^
Apparently tins gaiden must be called botmuc, though its ooudiuou bota-
nteally is far from being adequately devehipe L
2 . It appears to have esiaUibhcd pninunly for producing medicinal,
plants, which would supply to the Medical fb'paitmo'it, of (h'vernment, what
arc ternied country medicmeai, ” that is, lucdiciuoa mdigoiious to India.
In this wuy it was to prove remuiicfatiiiO, from, tho value ol the laedicnl
stores to be thus provided. And this obtvek n, in some dn,^reo attained.
y, Hut, r.B it w.i« placed iimli'r tho chjtge ot a profosnouxl ami fcieutific
garciouer, liuincd in Englaml, Mr. Wooflmw, tlio g-inlen lud giuduall.i,
acquired a botanical cUaiacici. Many icsornJ, rnro, biri' i'ii, uiii'iinnurai
tifcs, shrubs, and jilaiitri, have been pl.mti'd and m i being pimibd lh(-r>
yi-ur by yeai, which iiio not at all mcdivUiul. Spociuicns arc inuh iplioil,
and many of them me fold or oilVjod foi f-alc to tJio public. It m voi 3 /’
cicditablo to Ah. Wnodrow that he should have act imfdiahcil all tii s
uoLwilhstaudmg tho imne particular and obii>',aory fnupts,,, wuhjU th«
garden has had to I'ulhi.
4. The le'^iiU, however, wiamio^tly is that the ganlon hii^ Iho apii'nr.inoo
of being all uiideveloped and poony kept Boiamc Gaiden—a gaideu uUkIi
from that point ot View 18 not wen thy oil hoi of this (iovtiiiincnt jjv ol iLia
Presidency. Tho attenlion of every visitor naturally be iillrav.tid li>
this patent ciruumatuuce rather tiiuii to tho fact (.I'^cr'i Uimiiil) only by
enquiry), that tho guidon is uot oxioUy but tiuc, but hu.t inin<<ly a sun.
sidiary botanical biauch attached to tlte niuiu body of the atfur, whnh
IS tho production of nidigonous uipdiomce. This stale r f things canuot, b«
•atwfaotory to any ouo couoornotl, and 1 thiuk my (sollcak’ioH will comun
wiUi mo in thinking that tho poflitioii IS uot oua which wo ahuuKl widii to
BOO perpetuated.
ft. As we have no botanic gardon iu this rrosidettcy. I £«gg<‘St that wa
avail ourselves of this opportumty of e^tabhalnug one by makmg this garden
avowedly a bokuic gaiden ; ho many plants aud trees, boieg already
available. Tbe situation, too, as regards soil and moistnio. bang till ilmt,
oould be desirod, being close to the gieat Btntiun uud oity of Puoiiii, with all
its institutions, eduoational and oLlioi , also boing uud n tiie eyo of the
Governaieni and its staff for soreral montlis of each year, ft wuuld uot be
uecessury toinour any consideiablc expcusc at lirst. Ouco the garden was
recogubed as botanic, additions would bo made to it troni time to time.
Battlie soieiitifio bratioh ot it and the cost connocbml therewith would hAVi<
to be separatod fluanciully from the melimaal oc directly lemuimrativo
branch* It is impossible that the scieutiiic branch shouM pay itself: it
must involve some expense, however moderate.
ft. 1 propojse that a Committee bi upp<nuted of experts to^xnrniue tho
garden and to propose detailed measures for farming n boiayio gaionu here,
it the least possible cost. Such Oomuuttce might consUl of Dr. Wollingtou
Gray, Bcutotery to tho Surgeou-Goneral (au oHicf>i well known for hi.'t
atUMiimoAis m botany os iu other scienoes), Colonel Faliu, Bombay Native
Infantry (also well known for his interest iu and knowlcdgo oi botany), aud
Mr, A. T, Bhuttlaworth, Cuos^nutor of Forests.
7, Espry aesisiAthiO will jUe be afforded lo the Qopamitfcee by Mr#
Woodrow.
BICHARD TEMPLE.
Tilte COMMXTtlCJB^ft BEPOaT.
Ill accordance with Government Besolatiou No. 2577, dated 3(lth or
August, lu7B, the Committeo named iUereiu met for tho first time at Gauesh
Ivhnid Garden, on the StU of Scpi ember, md. proceeded Vo eoufvder the
nicn'-urrfi utiLOsaary for fomiijg thii into I scientific botmio garden.
At ihuir preliminary iufpoctiou the Committee wftre most favourably
impiosMod with the situation aud general aepech cf the grounds and tho
clmnu'icp of ihe aoiJ, iiiid Uiey then formed an opimou which, subseqUfUt
and uioiM famijjtir il^quaiiitiuioo with the place has servad to ooufiifni, that
Dtttiir'il advautiige^, wliioh tbe prodeiil giiden posaosaoB, render it an
omineutly smUhlo eiifco fur the e«iuili)u,!inicnt of tbe elnel botanic gardon of
tins Presidency. 'Jlic utidulaUiig surface permits oftlipi gariion betug laid
out with duo oori&idcratum for the landscaiio effnet, the soil is goiKl, aUno!»t
thronghout, and is well lulapted to tho growrth of the groat majority ol oiir
lUflqjeimuH plants j tho cliniute is aho suitahJc ; the supply of water appears
lo h^-* uliuiid.iui and peroiimul ; aud, lastly, the positiou of tho garden with
refjx'ct to Iho city uf'Pooiiu ami its c'diiciitioiial lustilutiousis all that o.ia bo
desired.
Tbo (\}mmji.t'oo aiiprehoiid that tho only objectlou, whioh can bd raised
ngaliuit placing the chief botanic guidui of Western ludia lU the Deccan
lies in the drslance of tho garden troiii tho groat coutre, and tho oducatioual
and soiyntitie iiirttitutioUH of Bombay. The fact of tho easy ucooS'iibUity of
lV)ou,i, however, will m fi omtinii measure ovureome this objection. As a
iiilo, ft Inigo botanic giudou, catablishod lor scwutiUo objects should bo iia
ilnHc to the uiotuipolH IS pMjsible, mil could iiBUitiblo jiiLoliu obtained for
the purpose mmr Bombay, tho greater deflUMbihty of such iiu tirraiigemont,
lid conipuri d with Uic piopuscd one v/nidd dimbtleiis bo admitlod. But wi
the ('ommMt ‘0 are tnv,jie that, no sulUchutly largo vpaco ot ground
(jomluiiMii; iVitljHi itsolt tho nccoaciaiy c.ipabilitiou as regards SLlmUiou, auii.
cud walei-^iipi iv vxHtB uitho \ieiuUy of Bombay, they agree iu rccorii-
meudiiig that, f^ i reaaonn alioftdy ataiod, (he principal soieutitic garden ot
Wi’sUriv I'.dia bo edtHblidheil ot Giiuosli tvliiud.
It M manileat, liowover, tluit th-i Doccuii is misiiited for tho growth of
cortaijj tiopic.t! plants whieU loqu.io a greater Uegreo of atniosplionu
immtiiie, and ii imnc condliint bi^li tcmpomfcuro than Iho climateol the
Deccan nifoids iM.niv' <>f our iu>))g<^ru>uH, and u large iiuiuhorot imtaraliBQd
plant 1 c.uj only be grown uUb tblhciilty above tho Gliata; aud m»ywieca»oi
h.iidlynt all. They requiio tuc moiiiloi, warmer, aud more oquttbltt oUmiito
of i1k> Koiikun. I'or the giowth end propagation of uucU tropical plants,
theroiore> us will not DoulikU m the Doucaii, the C'ommitLoo would suggest
the ftdM isiibility ol; fnuning a smtvll braach garden uour Bombay, Tina need
]\;ij4 cQUMisl, of uuiio ibuii four or livu uciee, audUie Committee are given Vo
uiidiThtind tliid tiio umiiiomi'l‘iutroimdnig Vlio Grant Medical Uollege ia
.sutfuionlW wob mhipU'd bu tho pmpuso iliey have indicated. The noil la
li'rly gojd, but m parU iho gnnnid 11 /it bo lown lovol as to bo under water
during liesvj mills. CIiho by. howover, a sndluieufc supply of eiirfh oxist-^,
which luniKl ottoily bo utiiisod for raiBiug the land to .1 propel'iev^'i. The
Gr.int i^'ilfoqo eo;n,ionud poesciiisM one (.liiof advaidagn, / that it. is lU
the inimcdi.'ito vicmity of tho Medical tfJiool, uud, weica sciuntitic gaidon
orttublisii.'J hcio, it w.iul I bf‘ more birnciy used to cucounigo tho spread of
boUmcal Kiiowl(i>ig<'than if it cxihtel olsovviiere, Tho Viotoria Chirdona
wcio, m VIjc CyiumiiteB ttic lufonned, oiigmally iutonded for a botanic
gurd.'ii in cimnnjtioii with tho Victonimnd Albert Muiouru ; but for Bcvoral
ycAM past tlii'y liivo not been condiictcJ With any soiouDnc obioct—merely
hS ft p^^,r^su^o giul*'n. It is poh.sible that a Hiuall portion o£ these garden^
iiught bo ubt.unod fot thd Kfiuk-in branch gaiden, but for certain toaaons,
wliiv'li not’d not bo licro spciili'’'d, relating to tboir pist and present fiimuoiiil
pi'iulMil ftu i tlKMuiidc in which they arc tuauaged by the MuaiCipality of
lliiuibay, the (JominitU'o m thinking that the esUbhahmont of the
branch garden m tins locality would prove an nubatiafacfcory arrangement.
'Hie auil, too, of the Viutoi'ift tlardoiiB la more ot loss Halino aud uot well
fitted for the growth ol trees or shrubs The Oommittoo are therefore
dooid"dly m Uvoiir ot tho Grant College compound being converted into
tho branch gurdeii. Iho cobt of tins portion of the geucraUcUemo will
doubtless toim the subject of u separate investigation.
The CJoiumitteo uovr proceed to set, foitii m detail the meuaurcH they
would recummi’Ud tor forming n boliiuic garden at Ganesh Kbind aud for
liowpiity it up in tliti h<?.st and most cconooiioal manner possibla TJiey
t'OiHKb'r that n .spare of forty acres, or tho.eaboiita, outof tho sixt>-hvo
uhioh tbo entire garden is said to contain, la amply aufticieut for the
s( iontitio garden . aud tills, if properly laid out and fully Btookod, they
tiiuik IS ipiito aa much as can he convomontly m.iuagod. Tho Committee
prupo.se, therefore, that that poitlni of the estate to I ho east of tho unlla, and
kuowti on tho pUu a laid our, be the botanic garden, the reroaiador being
reserved lor the culUvauou o£ modiciual plaute and for miecoUanooin
itgiteuUaitil puiposea.
The formation of a complete herbarium of the indigeuoug plantii of
Western Judia, would supply a want whioU has long boon felt, aui frequently
<lepb«ed,ttad would prove of groat BCietjtifie aud practical value. A gmieial
Indian horbanam being already established ut C.ilcutta, the G'omanitee me
of opiuiou that the proposed herbariuuf aL Guaesh Khiud should couaiat ouly
of our iudigenous plants. A aoporate oollectioa of ah the useful plants
;4no««
S f"
^USttltMtika !n il)ii he»i4e^»^ tiotili
KIbO U fOlUd^ . ' «, ^
fi&e CmikiifU* i^« itaodard h^rb^rinm Jbot^ld ^
OuuaU lUMf f!h$ vnM eUmute of tli« Konknn diu^jl ^jii«
fftiiui »£feoU drlfd i^knU nio«t iojanonsly, A BoiAlt brqtnoU liorbariom
bf ortobHib^ in Bombay in tUe Victorin sud Albert Ma«imm> «tidi
wbeki nnoeMtttyi |>Unt« oontd from tmio to timo be trAQ$ferreii thither from
Osoosh Khind* Valaftble or rare epcdmone aboulil not^ howeror, be idlow^od
to loaTO tim latter place, except during the dry eeuflou. The coileoUoti and
preparation of aberbarinm in a comparatirely iaexpeneive prooeee ; the ooet
of ooJJeotiug might be charged nrider travelling cxpeusee, and of propacing
and arranging the plants, to contingencioe. Local hotaui&t^, too, and ^fhe
Forest Depaitment, weald no doubt be glad to assist and ooutribato.
To carry on the ordinary duties of the scientific garden a permanent
establishment, in addition to the present nupcnotendent uiul the office clork,
will be required. This should consist of at lejwfc Llnrfcy.fire profesHioual
’muUes and n vnuecadmi For rough labour, coolies can bo employe] ^>ben
ueoOflsary, with buys or women foi wcediitg. A herbnnam-Keeper aud
draffernsn is aisj ossontial, and u person cumpeteub for the duly can be
obtainoil for Its. On per mensoin*
The annual oosL of a poimanent garden eslabiishment stich as that
indicated above will bo as folloa^s) :—
Its.
Superiutendout at fia. 350 per meusom ... ... 4,200
Office oleik at Us. 25 ... ... ... SOD
Horbariuin-kcepor and Draftsman at Uk, Go ... 7^0
hialle^ and Muceadam at Us. OOl) ... 3 ,G 0 U
"J’o the above must be added—
q'raveiling allowauco
Dibiary alluwauco
llcrbatium ... ... ...
Offico coniiiigoneiea ...
fAnnnal Repairs
* Purcliase and repair oi implements
Flower Keode
Fois ...
racking and carriage of plants and sood<i
Coolie labour
rattle food (grain) . .. -
Manure ... ...
Miscellaneous
b,^2D
Carden
conUngenoies.
K-.. 2,f>SD •
Tk will thus be aeon llval Hie ohtlmatod iinnuul expptidi ut* nee'Siaw foi
mairitaiuing the garden mantate of piopor order and elfn* mo iuntH to
Hs. n,fi00, or in round nnmbers Rh, 12,000. Thu estimate «.Iic
have no hesitation m oliaraoterisnig as an crceedingly inoLlerate one, A«
; l^n^g and Uybg oul^ ga^ep ^ |«£t of thi^
preeant aupavlutunident. If That j|>nrpoit& k' bcdMing {tote and
Bpeoiniensi the garden ha permlthad to tfAlrel threngh
cerfcaiq parts of the Bresidenoy" eiinh ' year. 15. That the eyatem pf
tnt«i*ohaDgs^ with other botanical gardens of seeds and living ' plaaili, he
developed to as great an extent us possiblo, id. That a permaneut
establishment, consUtingof a rnperinteddenti an odlee (defk, a herbarinm-
keeper and draftsman, thirty-Bve ahd a muceoifvifa, he entertained
for carrying on the firdinary duties of the garden. il7. That an sitraordi-
nary expenditure of Us, 22,037 be ssnctioned for the purpcio Of couattnetiog
roads aivl foot*paUis, excavating a pond, ereeliug houtes and sheds
providing iron piping, Jro , Ac., for waler-supply, fitting up rooms for the
herbanutn, libraiy and class>rooin and Ct»r the purcliaao of boiauioal hooks
ami diagrams. Ifi. That a recnniiig annual gmnl of at least Us» 12,000 he
provided hir Lho maintenauce of garden, herbiirmui and library.
'liic Conirnittoo desire to acKnowledge the md they hare reooived fii'om
Colouol I..ingl)ton in the prepuiation of a plan of the garden and from
Colonel Goodlellow, U in furnishiug thu annexed estimate. They have
also to lhank Mr, IVoodrow, the fduperiptoudeut, for his cordial and in-
fceliig'^nt oo^oper/itioii and Assistance.
ill cant!Jii>aou, the Committea trust that the proposals they have
adupbed, and which, aJficr caretnl consideration, thiiy sgieo in recommending
ns the boat fitted to attwin the obiect in view, will meet with the approval
of Goveniniout, and ih it the result wiU bp creation of a scientific botanic
gulden which shad prove pocond to none in this coimtiy,
CHAllLlilS PALIN, President.
.ALLEN SnUTTIiEWOli'lII, Conservator^
oi Forests, N, 1) f nr.. i * -
W, GItAY, Sm yeoiuM ijor, VMOinbeiS.
CilAliLE.'J WANT, Maior, li. E. )
-J__.■■ ■■ " _ J, ' .. I ■ . .. I . ■■'■ . l ... ' .l ' . . i . . .
FOliESTUy.
f'l’MJVI Euc\£Attui^ is Algeria.—T he eafcabliahmoni of plaqtutiouw
-A of l^ucalyptus in ct*i(aii> Algoiiaii plains, hitherto innocent of
huH hi on followed by niiforoseen cousequencop of vital im¬
portance to Tiiany of fho coloiiisU. For, besides their vaunlod
beneiicnil Action in piiiitying the air and luoderntmg the heat, these
pliuituliouH linvQ had the fiirlhor edect of uLtiacliiig cuuntlesa
inyiiiids of spairows, whose dopredutioQH havo coached a point of
veiy t^iavo eoventy.
The i'filK'wing is from the P-nest Hesorve Commission’s Beport
on lho Ni4,iii Dull lot to tho Madias Govormuoul
" Wnhiuit coiisi h'liiig the jnmihlo cd’n't of* lie^^s on rainfall and
dnnnfe, we havo conaideiud as beyond dispute the fiictH thnb wood¬
lands oxen iso a most bonrfieia! oiferl in tlio lotoiitioii of water
set off Agaiusi^ it, moreover, there iaiiUle doubt that by a. |iidn,ioiis courst*
of management a voiy cotisideralilo Micumc will evciUiuDv he doitvod inmi
the sale of plants, seeds, imPCollanoouB garden produco, and hoibariinn
upectmens. The proseiifc recoipts from the hrat lluee of tli.‘se sonrcoi''
amount to about tts. 1,500 annually.
The Committee having now considered and disonssed fully the Hiepi» winch
m tbcir opinion arc necessary to the formation of .i rtcjctitHio botanic card-'n
nt GanesU Khind, it will bo couvouwnL to set foi'li Ih'To ji sumin^irv of their
recommendations 1. That on the present site at Ir.iiiofli ICIii.mI lio
entttbhshed the chief botanic garden o| iliu llombay Picsnloucv, and thal its
extent bo forty acres or Iheieidumto 1. Thai ,‘i s^oaII braoch f/iuden,
conbisVi . of four orhvo acres, bo established in Itoinhay, iind tint I'-c Gr-mt
College oompeniid bo sblooted foi this purpo^e 3. Tliat all the iinnn londs
of the Ganeah Khind Garden, ne ehoun lu the plan, Iv* i-orni.uieTiLly
constructed by the i’liblic Works Deport,iiont at na earlydale ah irio-.i.
able. 4. That u piece of ornamoTital .-.nim- be foimed ; this work to be also
nudertaUeii by the Public W'orks Depurlmeut. 5 Tiuit an orchid .and 'orn-
bouBO,’ A Bummer lioiiae, a cattle .vniJ .uplemont ehed, and a poLnag shed be
otecteil, and that the cxiiiiting plan 1.house by rcoonstiuolud; all hfing done
by the I'ublie Woiks Department. G Tlut tho wiitoj-?upiii^ sysuau of tlio
garden lie of iron pipinji, viib inasonry tanks or iiyln, ith at jn!,crvfils
7. That the supimutendent be relieved of his pregeot incouufuous dir e nf
oiUpresser, and drag-maauf. ‘urer, .and tln-t tbo oil nad } Jianiiaceu(io.il
nppnrotus be trauBferred to tli Midioal Siomm, S. Thai part of the
gaidcu-bonse thus vacated be ' up as a library And class loom, an 1 j
that certain selected bobaiiiCiil boot.s und diagrams be plllc)la^>ed. P. Tltat '
n uoinpleto eiamlaid betbanum ot the indigououR pUnts i'! Weatoru Indn i
bo formed, and that it be kept pcrmanciii y m ihe gaxlpo Iiohi® at G.oiCRh |
Khind, cerUm ri omx therein bemu Ihtr.id up for the purp.^iio. lO. 'J’htit !
the mam aciouUfic garden bo laid out m the nrogalai picuircsquo style, i
with special referenne to lambc.po olhict j mni t) t tlio .nang the i
garden bo parried out gradually, and’.vithoui any u, due hantp. 11 T.aal !
the chief icboutoob ef the gardt-n bo devoted tn the bijo^mg i.i^^other of the |
indigenous planta of Western India, niid that until this is P.itijumlonly ac- I
compiiflhed, m* he taken, except m gpecml cjibch, to nitr iduia* f ireign i
plants. 12. That a small class gwdoo, ior practical inainu turn in «le. ^
pteniary systomatio hetauy, be oakubbshed. 13. That the i the |
ami the rngulniiou of llio wupply, luid that any extonaivo donuda-
t. n uoAi lho rto.uueH oi kIoiiiji tlie i.ourwo'? of stioniurt muflt of
MM easily ho foliowod by doHliuctivo iiood-i and equally fatal
d'(-lights.”
A MONTH or tvvohoforn his N.iil mid, Mr. Nepoan iound a Bpooies
of Vuuiila vino Kiowint): in lho Ujiper Thoungyoen forests.
Ihiiirtii r.iiiiu-i po-^sossos two v.'iiiplics of this ])lniit, one with
largiMiml the oilipi wdb smal' UmC. Wimt Mi. Ni>q>oan saw wan
of lho f‘liner km-l, si -^litly ivsninljling lho tino Vniul/a wdiicli had
a v-MV iiiiirow iitni smuL-wlinl short leaf and fchort iiiterpotiolary
joints The spociiiion rofeiri'd iu was both in fiuit and flower,
a vci”' rare occiii icnce us it iiooda mumpulutioii to fertiliao the
align't
Ml Uidinge, Snciotary to tlio local Agri-IIoiticultural Society,
found I lO < ommon abundant in the Arakan Hills.
SoAiK lino plants pent fioip the Uppor Thoungyeen forests, to
the gard‘!i the Agii-llortiouiiiiiai Society hero, are said to be
doing very woll. Tlio expmiiuont of growing them amongst teak
has been coinmoncod in the Fust Salween Foiest Bub«division,
In the Journal of Botany for Novoraber 1878, a now oak from
Assam is dcscnhud by Dr llauce under the name of QusreuB
Kunii, Dr. Iluuce says
At the close of the summer of 187:, just before leaving Calcutta’
for Fcuung, wliero ho Wia*! prematurely cut off in the prime of
life, that iudefatigaiile and conscienlious bntanist, the late Mr.
Sulpix Kui/, seht me a few Indian oak.s for examination. The
oqj^ novelty in the very small collection was a oarioos specids,
tickelerl in pencil, in Mr. Kara’s autograph, Caitanea wmiet'Utaia,
Ku-ft;'
9 ?
; T»® 'DiFflOtrLtlES OB' TBW
^^TpIiOBlIAT A%BOS " wrttcR Tti«<liart |iatp«rtiD»i)ibArtiol9 ia tbo
JL fin^i of the 23ed uUimOf M aboY<n hm fl«t mo
iblokfng. Hob^ lew men UiereAre now^Meye whooere for ti:ee*ptenHnff
iO uny wAy I Bat how meuy there are whose prooliritiofrnn directly
towards destroying and catting down trees i OMciaUio charge of roads,
ahd Alaoicipat authorities too often eicUlbit great apathy towards the
planting and mainteuanoe of trees, and the tenant of a house haring a
' welloptanted compound will too often cut down valuahle or osofni fruit
and shade trees just *to let in the air’ or to 'expand the view,’
Of will quietly sit down and eeo tha servants destroyirig tho trees
in their seeroh after fruit or firewood, or witness, with anooocern,
the trees and shrubs ruthlessly and needlessly destroyed, hy tho
wanton admission, or unauthorised intrusion, of oatHe or goats. The
native, the ryot, the herdsman, and the oooly are in inost caacs
perfeotly callous as to tho fate of trees, young or old, so lung ai his
cows, buffaloes and goats get their daily quautuii] of food ora from
the brunches, and also provided that ho him^etf is well supplied with
firewood gratis, to say nothing of theinviry to trees caused by I ho
pernicious habit the ryots have of annually stripping the trees of
their living branches and loaves for the sake of manuring tho’r
paddy-fields! Goats, indeed, are too often the onrao of this coiiuiry
as regards the vegetation they destroy, ospocially Uu and about our
towns, villages and oanloutaeuts. They will attack, tearing and
biting, anything green they may come across, it they will not oat
everything, even tho '* milk hedge,” Whatever they bite either dies
or fiags at once. We are told that after the intro iuol^ioii of goats
into St. Helena they soou coiupteloly exterminated n valuable species
of tree by browsing on It, and, no doubt, they would soon convert
this * happy smiling land ’ (botanically) Into a howling ” wild iraos-i”
were they only a littlo more nunicrous and a little luciiv uncontrolled.
As instances oJE successful pliuifcnig, look at the old lopin—now a!a^
but few all over the country, liook at the old roads alongside, or
orosnag, tho line of railway, very often so o.irofulty Imod with
trees, green trees on eoch side. Look at me green top-is, and shady roads
tn Mysore and look at theOubbon l^irk in Bangalore. But, on tho otliei
band, look at the laiinre of I ho planting al mg tho “ Ride ” ar Bangaloie
and some of the road'i and open places that wore so carefully nitendod
to duiiug the time of Ookmel M^Hham, the I), A Q, Al, G. tUoro for so
long. Of late, their fonci^s have b'‘i'n hrok"U down, and t,hi>y have
been eaten np, or lorn to pieoea by go its, buffaloes, whether
* by your leave ’ or not is nuknown. Want tiC wabw, too, in another
cause of fnilure, iVrhaps tho ‘ famine timo ’ may be somewhat to
blame, but it is now nine to taki*' the maU' r in hand once nioro.
Bflllary, also, which has a few ycais ago been pretty sucenssfully
planted (lu the cantunnient) under tho Slauicipahty and
has fiuffcied very much from the famine i f, from tho clrn i^li!) an I j
scarcity of forage,—many, very many, tioos and shrubs having qndo
disappeared. The oonipoiiiids aio for tho most put ‘all open,’ and
cow«, buffaloes, and goats roam ovary whore, day and iii,;lit, iviUioi.fc
saying " by your leave,” and work tUeir wioked will.
Tho military vegnlations regarding cun'o'i.nrtnts say that "'Ii.'m
should ba planted about cantoinnnitn on th • 'inbH <d tlni lo•»d^ and
$u the vicinity of tho barracks, Ir* affnrd siiado” “ j’-eon
already pUnlod are to bo ofiudu'l> after. Tun evp-^,H,»
iiionrreJ in carrying onl Hn'se m'^Acirm «ti.tnld bn nin. onf m
cantonment tmida.” This I'l a vm> eK'^dlont oiler and monl I bo
acted up to both lu the letter ault'n apini no doiib', wheii*Moi thoin
ia money iu Uainl. Many ol om sifitions have boot' iii'ion ‘imptovoi
0l late yeaiw. But it h time timt mtiohs .-ilteuMiin was m.v i),ud
to the planting of fed roaotveein the neighbourhood id our towns,
cantonments and vdUges. Tne area of tlm cirohi Ldeunid ny the
wood-cutler 1$ iiioreasing every year, tho pricent dcoWoutl ineraa'iing
ill consequence, and yet no attmupis at luplainmg arts, mele, nor
have the jungles any elianco of reoovoring themsidvei, tiio yomig
ahoolaof the pprouiing atumps and young se‘•dllng^ oomg emiatuntly
eaten down by roaming oarlle and goa's, or deitiuyol Ijy tire. Ii is
now lime to limit, at the least, ontting of lirewoo'l to a flaul distanoH
beyond a cert.dii radiu-t, say sovon miles Iroiu our J>ir,'o towns mid
oantonmontB. This would give some email elian'c ot meoveiy. Tim
Babool tree, Aouau Amfuan (Trie Amhtc tree) nod ilv relative
A. Kmt (iho Acaoift or yma rtMn * trad) winch are so harf, an I
grow so easily ovorywuore mignr-hi largely dH'^eiutnii od by «e-jds
from the Ceded and Wonthom DHttuds. Bui. perhaps b-'Uyr than
all others, as a fuel »ud gnuerallv aswfitl \vo>d, is that of lUo
casuarloa—now so widely spread and well Known ovorywh-'ro, not
only as a gwd wood for fuel, hut aUo a very aupoiior wosid foi
gancral purposes, house*building, &j. This wood Im'I b'^u proved
to stand soccQSsfirlly a more severe cross strain than any plimr wood,
1 bolievc reporif^ of J^ou's of (inutt Kr/tibittott of ’ol), whii at the
satad Umn it is more etavlm than taaK, and quite as nnp'rnoas ro
the atiacks of white aiits, iko., Whoa properly aciivoio'd, If^i cohd is
Ofl nothing when compart^ to that of teak, nagoM woovl. The
jak and angelt wnedi trees should ttlsio bo tuor'* extensively pianted
than they ore, as also tamarind (a slow grower) and jouglo almond
(tarmanilia), Bqt carofnl planting at first roquirsB alwiya soma
fXpeadUufO of Utae, and tdooltdQa oeftam espcudituro of mouoy,
and afterwftwtii a posttlvafy OWtoSn oxpeaditure of money in watering
and guarding the young trees.*—axpc«dltare» which, at present, the
iioverament is uoabJo, and fntlivtdhals have been nnwiJling, to Incur
on a iaige scale. I'iie wctUc^do uatiye kndUolders and merbliante
might do a great deal in this r^peet if they wonld, and this wonid
he just as good and proper an exerei^a of "charity” »■ feeding
Brahmiua and dosiag the ants on the roadside with sugar.
TUEE PLANTING IN AMERICA*
rtlLllil Amorioane arc wiser than wo are fd*lho matter of tree
A planting, Ihoifgh tho iiood for verdure is not bo great in “ the
Htatea *’ as it is in Soulhorn India. Could not tho tlovornmenl of
Madras lake sonic active stops towaids the reboisonient of the
country after tho manner ileHcriWd in a paragraph wo ahall
mmediately quoto f Wo think a similar coiubo might bo adopted
in ihis coiinfry, if anybody was siiincionlly ia oaruOBt to care about
the inatfm. A conesponJoat of Jf'Af? T'/Vaa has been viaiUiig tho
fcItAlo of Nohraska iifror an ialorval of ten years. This ia what ho
says about tim planting of frees niiJ the manner in which
such planiing 1*% fontoied by tiio " fi'oo " Government of
the Ijnitoil Stales *”Tho sight of a Iron is no longer rare or
uotowDilhy. Tlio piorfpect is now varied and rendered attractive
by niiinOoiM of sung faun lioiHos and by Iroqnenl oUitnps of trees.
A l.iiin«v'H iiiKt cuuj after piop.inng land tor tho plough, is to plant
trees on hi?j hoiiiesicHd ; they glow rapidly, and they servo the
pinpoao both of wupplymg Ujuiimber which in innch needed, ttml
also the piotoclKiii I'loin too uinds which is HpooUily deeirabh*.
Kven it wclt-inlorehl ilid not piompt the fiiMTUH to do in Nobraska
what ycoit did with Hucii good clijet around Ahhotsfmd, lie has
anotlKii indm'emout to help m covering tho land with wood. A
•SLate law guos eiiuoiiragouient tii tiiuhor growing, taxes
being uMiiiited in proportion to too nninbor of acres upon which
li'mis lifxvo liocii pliinlod. In proof oL the rapidity with which tho
inouoUiuous pianio ran he diVursiticd with tieo'^, ] may etatothat heio
tliO iisefnl uiir-in-vV'>o<l treo atuniH a tiniruetei of i!() iuclies within
t'iOMpj,cc oi l^yeius, th.xt wiU'in throe years aftei pliintiug cotton¬
wood, maple, ash, and walnul Ireos hocoin« largo enough to supply
I net. and tiiat they furuiKh all tho wood foi uee on a farm with it
livo yiNiis alt Ji pl-inimg. N<ibiMska has tho credit of being tlio
liiHt piMirio Slate winch lias pxrt ^otl a'iviKH iaw on this important
s'lhj'cL” 0 11 (iovarniu'Mit piolosseslo lie ” paternal ” wo wish it
would ili.sphiy a little p.itotnui c no towards a matter of so much
iiuportauue as is tlio iy*eoVcimg of the country with Ueec.
TllEE-PLAiiriNa IN BOUILIERN INDIA.
I A \ at.i'iciJ and cAporieiicod coutiiluitui* wiitos
I “ 1 road a vei y sorisndo aiholo in the JArJra.'f Times to hand
j tins moiimig log'iuiing tioeplauling ; it le oau vvuK’h will benefit
[ tiio cniiuii^ at iiiigo, but. to which Uovcnimoni give little hood and
j h-Hi eiicouiiigi'iU'jiLl. L can Kpcak fioui cxpeiionco in the Mysore
J province iliut. tlieic uro iiugft tmcls of land wliu.h might bo well
i liiilirtod I'M gtowing rivos, laud wliicli, under ordinary couditioiiB
I will never \ leld a pte of lovouuu, and whioh native ryots wiil never
I dio'iui <d' taki.’j; up for giaui-cullivjition, but in the hands of onter-
I psisi.ig I'hiiop-Jiiiis. vvtio would take Iroiiido and lay out capitai,
1 might he iir,night luto uso .as fuol pi.iHiuvos-
‘ But wlut oiiLouiageuvnit is held out to such iijrUviduala ?
N one. Uu the laud b'Uug HUivo\cd and ArtsosHcd, if au applicaiinn
H in ul'» 1 01 a vacant eito, (1 >vei nuiont, lusiHls on lU« full asaosbuitMit
home paid, and no rodnolion whatever is m idc. Some yeaia ago,
I t»'jiiu\o ui Air, B iwnug’s lime, theio were some rules drawn up,
uudci ivliicli p irties ungUl apply lor wasteland to plant out wirli
fuel trues. Sm h lauds wore given fiooof assessment for a poriod
of to'i or bUoeii years, subjo''t to conditions whicli allo'wed
Govuiiimint toiosume tin laudH if required foi puhlic purposes, of
c-mi'Ko co'iip'nis,iliug tho growci, and. lurtlior, ascertain wliat pio-
P'Mtioii <>i aioa w.iM to boplantod yonly. The rules, however, did nob
(/-’.laq Art tho oPi uals pificod a goo I iiiiny ohstacliwj lu tlie vvay,
giving all kin Is of trouble and peify auii'iyaucoa ,* and, finally
fno tlovonnuimt robiM havo h3on alJowcJ to become a dead letter
and wflio tbon cttucellod.
” Now T (and s 'veral others) who take a louk wull a-h *ad know
Ill'll fud will alwa; s p'ly ho long as tlnre arc railways lu Li'lia, and
1 ahmild like lo go into the planting apeculatiou Uu'goly, but how
ciu I ad >Ld to pay, jjiy Ui, 3 K) for ill) aoiQs for five or six
yo.in, without getHug a rirnrii. A ryo'. Lakes up liiid and
eultivales ; b 3 has a rottiiu a* i e., in thn course of the year,
'lod^ ho is ©nahlod to pay nssijssuDut ; hut with troo-planfiiig it is
ddl^jrout. Tuoro would ho n I return for at loa*^ five years, and,
tlieroforo, the u?xt tliroo Ur four afterwards that oamo in would
only pay working expenses.
*‘Now, if Governinoiit would give laud iVo') for ten years, it
would be Bonae cnouuragoment, I don't ask that Oovornment should
give tf&od latidf but there are hundreds of acres of waste, which
B^itrl^ it
M 1^1^
■^<j?«4i4)l 4^4 k»r%Mi
\i% M'tUfitm w'#
,_a^''wli4 4«y^/, iV'a. ttiii'''']
4 ecni^ltt tff 'btsu'drei traea^ lUt'avaisiieMii ktoad ^
imd rbatid tbem^ faa w^a^’&waM with liinda fraa af %nx, whfdW» H
after year»i aa o j^gfarfre or jod!, paafted itito Ufa famUy ail
valttable property. Ae«»»a plauUiig waa good for travellers, and
tn eotne piurie yielded a epioll rofoope from fruit, bnt iliera waa
better bauafit to ih^ coaptry. Nawr U:ee-planting, as you euggeat,
^nld bo neefol, apd yot a tnau ia not, enooaraged to do tide,
Wi»y ? OoternttoOnt ongbfc to taka the matter up and act in a
more liberal spilnt. li may bo said that Gororunient, baving^A
large Forest Depaitment to coueervft and plant treoe, do not caro
to cnoonrage.private individnale. Thia i» inoonslitne. The Foiy.st
Pepmtment has done but ji'ttte moic than adopt stops (o take rate
of (re(>s v}hm they are found ^romng natuial, i e.^ in latge fotosis,
on liilJH, &o., hut tlieir olloita to plant out n^w plantntionfl have
been very poor comporod with Iheir ontlny, 13ut the Forest De-
parfnieut would not 1)0 inteifered, with in any way, and the
efforlH of private individnala would bo turned to plauUng tiacl
ai/’
Ireperi^,^
ti^ mif
■»y W'
!W hiyiiitg
"rIewW thwatl
M let Weeding the ^pd^rgroA at^ '
iiUrenfl. Operatioae wore he^ere^
woaimres having hijon adopted to have lebpar'
wore ttoedod, and ifc ie eapeoted that a eitiefactcrifj^,^
plantt will be the resalfc, Coaeidofrihle progdaM wa« ^ .,, .f -,.-^0
down teuk seed in the teungya clearanoee in ^tbe
203 aeroH having iteon sown by the Karen cultivaiot doting 'the ' %t a
co?t to the Dopartment of Rs. 690* or Be. S.6 an iacre, <rc^|[tiag intM
appearance of some 77,OHO healthy pUiits. Fight acre* weie’j^Wn in the
Same way m the Yayaay reserve of the Sittiing diviaion, at a colt-of Rs* 102,
and ihe ground is now wftH covereil with young plants. This system
t« capable of very crtentiiVe developm >iit, and more eoope will be afforded
fvir It when tbo proliibiiion againsi. the girdling of mature toak trees has
boeu removed, and when the fire protection measures have hail lime to bd
welt tcbtod m the yoimgfir reserve! U«*pioduotion of teak by thq proorgs
ol “ diblilmt.'- in ” wn>) agmu frooly tried in flio-tr.iCed rcsorvos, some 2,000
m7naldm plAoes whore the Foieat Dopaitment would net put | treated mthe ^vlokkha Beohng and Kmigveo reserves
down a Bapiing,
“ T may mid Loro tbat a good deal of joalouMj’ and nbsfcnictive-
rn»H9 to puvntd enlorpriHo is ahawn by tbo Forest Doparlinoul,
inQNinuch ns, wlieu a pornnu applied (forrnoily) fur a piooe of Ininl
under tbo Forest rulos, il being lofont'd to tbo Forosl ncpnifinorjt,
was at once reported « 4 » as being * iiccossftry for tbo operations of
Ibe Departniout. ’ Of eoiiiHe, this wan cn om iibe not to give it,
And it is BuperduouH to add that many sites so api)lioJ for iiavo
never to this day been utilised. ”
Blirmil BUIIMA FOliDST KFroitTS FOR TEK
YEAR 1877-7S.
ri^lIKRE has been, again, unusual delay 111 the Babmission ot Uippt r^-porl*?
in their coiuplctpcl elate, owing to repeated roferoncos bat'’, i the
Ih'partmont and the CompU’olici-CJcueral, C.ilciitta,iii regard to Um i Maucml
resulls of the year, Tlie K-port ioi the Teuii^serun cuclo wa*- roc ived bv
the Chiei Coramie'^iouer lu lu.oiu.iciuit us f vr bacU tia lOlh Jiilv^ , ut ou ilw
.list of that woutb, it wub lutiiuaied (th.it alLorulwni m coUmi oi Ihiji
liguird alfttementft would probably liiv^ lo bo mmlo. In tlit. ease of llio
Tegii czrele, t'-it linancial gtateintut (lorm 611 was rceoivod bv die . l.lifiunid
ConBcrvatilr on 26th ,September fr>>m tho Complrollei Goocr.d, and the
repQi t reached the f^ecretanat on lUtli October,
No legislative meaaurea were carried into cftcjt during the The
questiou of having a new Forest ^ct lor bntish Jhuina w'aa imdei con^tdeiii*
1 ) 011 , as WAS also tliat of rcMsed rules for the coutiol of rivoiA and <iiuberiii
tinueii Aud tho nmiingcmcnL o( timber-reveuuc btaiions, but no tleciuiou
hud been unived nt when the }oar closed.
Ill the Tenaaserim cirolo, the progrodv< made ujl!) loaerve^ hvit* not *'‘nt
great, and not huoU rh migJit have been looked lor tioin llm n'pnrt ni ihe
^eur pievious. In the rcpoit tor 1^70.77, it waa slat 1 1 that i»ropc'<iiU hud
been hubiiuttod lor reserving 47 njuaio milo>i, and wlio iibuit t" he
submitted for tho roaervatiiiu of tin mva of oikiU 17U ^pnirc miios,
the nccessar.v mx\i.yn ami map«i hnuig bcua c'-idcied ,At Iho i^l-xo
of 1977-* .-I howcvci, the addiis )u,il area of rosorwj am >uiUc’'l ouly
io 68 square imlo8. The v\<‘ik lenaida tho laig'r aie.i lias tippmcutiy
bocu done over again by tho I'oiojit ^cttlol^o^1 Doparhucni, whu’li eoiu-
njeuced work foi tho iirjt time in llio Ti'..Ajriiiu eu<lo, ,.ud i-aonutl fd
proposals for fresh reservia lOuUumii; iiro.i o‘ .ibuiit 170 square lude.,. I
oi the Th IIrawaddy division during the yeai ; while tho urea Lhat failed
in ia7ij.^T7 was re-i<iwn. A Biitisfaclory growth of plants has resulted, but
the priices-jm cohUj, Iho outlay hrtving been for tho year Ra. 3,890, eiclusive
nltogother of tbe ^l^pen(lltu^e in weeding and Lo 'pmg down the undergrowth
wtillh spring, up H 1 rapidiy as to choke the young pUQl^, U more con-
lidenco eoul.'l bp placed m tUo real desire of tho tCare.) ouitiv-itrirs t<>> pi-event
Jiree in their gitrjfitlH, tho fi.itti 7 j/frmil very probably be found, us
Ml. J‘'h*ieotrop observes, lo he pralenb’e to the oib-sp on evety acure,
pr<o' 1 , i iaboareia ojm bo t^eem-ed in BuiBoierifc numbois to curry it out,
'£ o.‘ V aro u* the Ti^iuasseutu Circle ilitee smulJ teak plauUtioiis, fonued
in and .iggrogatiug 17 acres 'I'hcBe have cost fr-m) first to last
its, blit, be^^oiij a riiniiik tlint one of them (ihiiigaaeo
Uvnmg) "hud to be nbainlonod " dining the year “lor wnnt of
Jrtboiir cud owing to aickiieHS ainnng coolios,’’ no allinjon is made to
them m Afiijor Se-itou's repoi t, nor waH uny new plunUtioii woig carried out.
'I'hc planutioua m Pegu uow aggiegate 8,322 acres, tho principal ones
boiug ih->AO ai Kyetpyoogm and Muga 3 ’ce m the Uangoon district, the
cnormOiih cost of boUi of which aad Ihe best mOviA'S of redecniiug at least a
part of il fi.f) now undor discnsHion. 'J'u the hitter, 27.S acres of teak onltl-
valion wer. ml'icd during tho yfiii uii.im notif'fs nn 1 fiSi nciob eleured fot
L'ulliMilioii III (.-t'S-rih tJie tnliro mitlny loi t)io yoai bung Ka 18,373.
This bnng ‘1 lip the ni-ieflhe idimhiiion i.> 1,3n(I .icros, and tho oxpendi-
tnro iioin hroi; to hu^it to Its. t'd,9-l7. An nnsatisracte.y ieatuie luthe case
k.f both plniitations m their Jubinty tii injure by lIitM ear cltor year. In
the ease of fttag.ijee, Imwevei, wUieli now foims a part of the newiy-
Hiiuctioned Magnico I’fai'i^fj o( 2u equare miles, it is natural to look m
f'i! c for giontet immunity tioin this danger, provided u firc-tracc oj
ill '.li hroiiuth IB luimod nionnd tho liound.iry of the reserve.
Ill .uc Teiifinr.r'jiiii fiiclo, iiu miiini* cultiiiition oi anv kind n.i.s attempted,
uni repnji u foiriit us lo the proeross made in tlint repotted on m the
pre\ I'll year ; I’Ut al Miigncc, plants of Ti/iis r7asfua were planted out
over . 1,1 aroi of 3 ; .sf'rois. A portion of lliese however ami hIko weaily 000 -
Ihiid of the phuitu-t ViCuUni'i laid down m previousyeaM
pc ii’^ho.Mii tho till' d oiilbrcttk ol fire in tlm pUaUlion towiiids the cud of
the diy ii'Msou. Ill Uu> (luehouaplantation at TJiurKlinmgyee, the eipondi-
till., la ivnaniij n. t ei'niinmaated for liy th‘i rotmlls aUiiiiied, Tins diad
already a<t,rnclt‘<l the utlf nion ot tho Governiiieni of India. , but it will now
bo r&laeed bv Re, I,.'00 a yoai, as five Karen apprentices, who received
Us, 3<f . mouth eucii, Itave letr. the phintuliou, where ttieie was insutlioiont
()Ceupiti'‘»n for thorn, ami as tJu-y vveic unwilling, it is said, to work lu
'thoi 1 - 'Is of the di.suic.t. Tho cinchona seedlings, put down lu prcvioUR
The preliuimaiy survey and Belectiy i .'C tracts for reumNos waa | joatf., o die Cnp./.'t/ainen variety, have gradually died oft, and vBry few of
unlortmiately delayed by the lilm-s .01 ilie ollicer diputod ioi this du'.v, and
an area of only about 65 bipiarc ni i* j has lu'cti 6i.leetoit,
For theTegn cirolo,the iiguuv lelatuig to sjnctioued lojoive.., ‘k giv'Mi in
the body of the report, ddfer (ouHideniMy from t! j.e whitl* «pp,Mi ni
tiietii no ^cnimn. A qiianUiY oi batk was gathered Irom decaying and
imlicalth] locking tieecs (inruu the year, aud niudo over to the medical
aiuhoiitii' toi iiso 111 hoSiUtidH , but no rep'.rL oil Its tiicrliemal value hoe yet
b en roeei ods .i lar||,ie miinbcr ofsecl'iiij'S oi the Swertruira variety, aud
tiialcnient No. 46. In tho report, the CouservaioL )i,it. fju'oi notoniy oe j uime of (Jo. f'/t, w'oro p anted'iui'uig tin yeai*.
rcFulta of the work done duiiu, tue u.ir, but also of (hai wic i has b.'cii
None oC tiu'ua now c.Mst eiilici in lV.gu 01 Tcnaseoriin. In the InUer
done Since the ohwc of the yea am! up to wlnt be calls s'*^-emi ofilu f cirile, b.iwover. u iinniber of dJ yeais' permits (21) ware gtaoLod in J865.
heawm. TJie icf oil boacvoi'is f. t ' o tirhe'al year, nu'l shoiiM relate only ] authoririug the lioUcra of them to cut teak in the Altai an forests* They
h* woik done diiniig that pci 10 ( 1 . i < n>v tends to coniti'.-mu p; juu up the i a>e loulnctyd, hiiuevcr, to trees girUimg 76 feet at 6 foot from tUC ground
hgiiie& ot Work done sineo the tloso id tho jotii, whu,lt hi-uri,-. will again ' and huvo to pay diiiv in the i.iduiary way ou what they' remove, In 1896,
appear ill the nenf .veai’a repot. The area of lefeeryes ublci during iho j jho rights in tU^se forests wt!' revert absolutely to Governmout. Oac lease
M'ai ansounU to 2.19 equaic iinlob , wln.it iL has h«cu iieeo'jarv to exclude i aisoeMsts itt tho Atluriiu dipfncL, which wi.s giaiitcd m 18211 for 99 yoars.
IIu area of 2!)6 Biinare miles from llial hithciLo t*lipw’i under 'hn hciid of | Tho^o, uiulor the orders id the GovcrumosiLol Jndm, couliuuod m abcyauoc
t*lipw'i under
“ Slate J’eaervos,” owing to tlio tiacts lu quesUou Inumg ) cun taken up
under iulci», which h.ive never bcfcii eanctiouol, so Unit the n-t nsult during
the yoar gives » dccieaso of 58 squaie ’inloa, 'i’ne ar. 'i of pioo <tu d resm vea
awaiting saucUon ul tho dose of tho \ cur w.is n>'> lesi tUim 853 Mja ito mnea,
it 18 ojxiu to doubt whether the rcatn valiou of (hcsel.ugctiactatb.es not m
Mina CABCS presa witJi aouia hardship oft tho Kareuw and the Bp .rae v ciAtji^oa
jnthcforest&.uotvitbataadmft the careful inquiry uaually lua'o , tU«ir
clauAu and iighU.
throughout the year in both cuolos, and tho e^ntue energies of the Forest
Siatf were ooncernrated on the solcciion and settlcmout of i“ciiervi,d.
.Sovftral pructiCiii diftioultma wore encountered iu coimcction with iha
working of notillcatioi) Nos. 33 and 81 of 8iii March 1870,—-Home Civil
Otlioeifl putting too liom! an iotcrprotatio.'on the scope and iqiplicabRlty
of fre9 peiiaits. To con^ct uny irltsapprehentdou ou thia point, rtevi^sA
rnlcw v.'<;ra issued itt Janukiy J678, ifcatiictiug tlic grant bf froe petuiRa to
paraoiui living withm dye milca ot the spot whaie tha Umbov woa gtowingj
al 'WtA
bat probihty. ^tmUy
wntkblk Irrf liswir i^(»|t; ' MaoJi wtpaTtewja hu %tw tM«tt goiaad
of th^ m iKjla^tifioao 80 ima Sij of Sth Afifoh 1876, ital it wiU
be jpoii^jt^; ib *the to mehtr vataOble^oie of that 'is-
perieaee lu io iw 4M it will betp to tettte on » jait »na latlefbctoiy
fookioif imoiiat ioioyt piiYilogte of the cosmoAitiM affected by
them.'
lnthe ^?eiitM^ifiioiie!e/o&Iyl74toniof padoak, ihitfco, and pine were
eztraetcd by Qovbcjiinent agengy,->ibe dull condition of the marltOt, added
to tbe ftock fomaimDg over from the pravions year* giving little iuduoement
to bring ent a large quantity. At Taroy, 868 pyaaadoe aleepers were ready
for Uauaport to Monlmem at the eloae of the year, and oontracta wore
entered into for 6,(l00 more at Tavoy, and for 800 of varioae kmda at
Idergni* In the Pegn eirole 2,918 tone of variona woods weia extraoted by
the Pepartmeot during the year.
Bidving operations wore not lo aueoeefiful on Uie Salween as in the
pnviOde year, only 4,88i lng« of teak baving been salved, as eompared
With 0,718 m l87$>77- 'Phia was due to the unueually flooded state of tho
river, which rendered tbe work one of much danger, a good deal of timber
drifting out to eea. In tbe Pegu circle, 9,166 logs were salved, 7,980 of
them being,' however, delivered to claimacts afterwards, compared with
1,818 restored on the 'lenasaerim side; but tbe eggregato result of the
operatiotte in both oiiclea would appear to have been Us, 66,950 in the form
of receipts irom this source, ngamet nn expenditure of Its 40,716,
There was a net inoreaea of 40,980 loge over the quantity imported during
the pievlnuH year, a»o of 22,647 logs over the importarjons of 1S7&>76. In
the case of the Salween, tbe increase is attribnled to greater activity in
working the Rarennae and other forests. It is noticed that tbe Umber of
this year is much superior in quality' to that imported in tbe years
immediately preceding, and, although tbe tracts in the more immediate
vicinity of the rivers and streams have been well nigh axhnusti^d, there are
understood to be still oonsiderahlo areas of fine forest country further
inland, from which howevor the removal of Umber will be attended with
difficulty. No reason is assigund for tbe lar^o increase by the Irrawaddy.
It was caused to a great exletiC, doubtless, by the highly-flooded state of
the country, and (he consequent unusual faoihiies for floating Umbor down.
The quantity of teak fioui Briush forests entered for du^y at Ksdoo
during the your was again, as might havo been looked 'or, very email,
although tbe floating iaoihUes of the season were unusually favour-
able* Better resnllB will not bo secured unUl gudlmg work la again
permitted.
Knquiriea were made early in the year on behalf of tbe Admiralty, as
to whether a furlber supply of selected teak Umber oonid be prpvldcid,
similar to that sent home by tho Lreadnoughi m the previous year, lu the
meontimo, however, thu vessel's cargo, although selected with much care
and trouble, had not ou oiaminatioa quite siitisfled the expcctatious of tho
dockyard anthoritios, and iurther shipments were oountermaaded. Dndor
pieieiit circumsionties, it would probably be found impossible to pick
out even a small quantity ot timber equal to Admiralty reqaire-
meuts.
With tho exoeptlon'of one officer whoso ill-hoalUi wns due iii a greater
measure, perhaps, to a prolonged and unbroken residence m the country
than to any immediate effects of exposure in the forests, tho nontrollmg
staff throughout both ciroles escaped senous sickness. As the Additional
Ooniorvator points oat, tbe liberal travelling allowances and the youth
of so largo a proportion of the' present staff officers has much to do with
this rolult*
|ii|np^w96fvi^
miimmpim
T HB following, from tho review in the Ctijlon tho
eAperitnental gardens ftt Peradenya, would not eoem to epeai:
well for the chaflcea of tea«pUnting in Ceylon. “ We notioed
plants of the Ohitia and Awaiu variotiee. Tho Ghiucea aro
eighteen monihi old, bat etauted; those from Assam are in a
bethet oonditieh, bat fltill hai^y In a satlallhetory state, oonndering
their afiie.” * ^
hiving-* epened' ^ahlihhii«hhiW ■ Wflf,.
Pirieg leaelorehiigiiiittl W^the
mahe a few teaiatkt on the enhteo^i and
and disadveniMtw <6f sadft an, eetetritshseenb Oit goarie ldoAbl -
my opinion as granted,, bet 1 have viewed the diffmniitriidniot the ;
question, and any that enoh an eetablishineni take# a great de^l of vefrv «
pontibitity on itself and great otedli Is due to the Ceylon Coapigy foe.
uudeftahing to carry out its arreageBoents*
Before going turtber Into the master, I must irooetiavUy give * ihovi
sketch of how teas are manlpnlated in order to arrive at tbe adveategie
and disadvantsgev of forwarding lest to snob an Mtahlfshneitt. In the
first iosfaace, as most people ire aware, the leaf Or flushes efw gathwed^
by women, girls and boys, brought in onee or twloe a day as tbe
woather stands i on a very hot day I should say twice and on a oeol' ^
one onoe would be sufflolcat; tbereaion being, not to allow ibe>lsaf tn '
tho basketa to ferment, as it WouM on a hot day. When the'■
leaf is gathered, it is taken to a large, ecot airy room where it is spread <
out thiuty and allowed Ibrough the uigbt to wither^ This is ^e of the '
most important processes in tea-making, aad a great deal of oare must .
be taken that before leal is rolled it is properly ready lo bear' ihe foroa
of rolling } any leaf taken off and rolled immediately will neoeisavUy
oraok and break up; but by being exposed to air for a certain time will
soften and give to pressure; in other words this is oalM wsafAseiny^aed
on this depends tbe qaaiities of the teas. When the leaf wlU give or
feel soft ou preMure it is ready for what is oallod a first rolling before
it goes through any firing. There are times at which the withering :
takes longer than at others ; during tbe rains, and when tbe weather Is
very cold, the leaf wilt remain as when picked fresb, and if kept too
long before withering will give sour teas (but will not ferment as some •
people suppose), and to avoid this delay in withering jrou may pass the ^
leaf over a oharooal fire or through your pan heated to a gentle heati
1 have adopted the latter process and found it answer quicker. Hera
again, when yon have to give the leaf an artifioial withering, Che rolled
leaf takes a much longer time to ferment, which is the next thing that <
it has to undergo, and not la'»s important matter lathe manipulation.
There IS DO fixed time to allow lor fermenting} yonr own praotloai
experience must teach you. When you think your leaf la suffioiently and
properly fermented tbe leaf will turn a null orange or rather copper
colour ; too deep a tone will give you red leaf, which has more or less
to be pioked out in sorting ; although you may baVe picked nothing but
fine leaf in tbe gathering, yet it will have to be oJassifled as inferior if
over fermented-—you either pan your leaf before a scoond rolling or not,
but 1 most oortamly hold to panning to give a fine quality aud strength.
(Yon may depend that most of the inferior teas that are sent home
and are oomplatued of, wore obtained by not panning the fermented
leaf i the leaf will not roll so easily,) After this second rolling is
over, it gets a third or final tolling, and then it Is ready for firing over'
charcoal fires iu what is called a dMle or driita—made of bamboo, or
as in Coylon, cane. It docs not do to over.fire your teas tho first day,
as you are apt to burn your tips or fiowery Pekoe away, but glvwit a
gentle firing, and next day give it a stronger one, and put into your
bin or large tin or lead lined air-tight box. Your teas are now ready
for sieving and sorting for packing—sieves are of different number#*
running from 6 to about IG. For the teas nsually prepared on an
estate Nos. 10 and upwards are suffiolont, as the meshes are olose, add
teas passing through fine. All remaining in No. 10 may be sorted and
packed as Pekoa Souchong ; and that which passes through as Pekoe
and fine Pekoe or Flowery Pekoe, which does not require sovUtig*
(lo a large establishment such as is opened by the Ceylon Company,
Limited, a sieving maohine, known in Assam as tbe " Taxidiaoimeter "
patented by Messrs. Parry, Bmith k Co., and to be had In Caloutto, in
what is required, and will save a very large force of sorters and slevers—
purchasing sets of sieves costs almost as muob as gettiog one of these,and
there is less trouble than in arranging sieves—one man feeds and an¬
other simply turns tho bar die, when different quality of teas are thrown
oat on different sides). Tbe teas when sorted aud selved are now ready
for packing, and before doing so you give your teafi a last or final firingi
and then put into whatever sine boxes you intend, which are previously
lead-lined, and packed for shipment.
Having gone bnrriedly through the manipulation, the first thing that
strikes one is at what stage during the mauipulation will the teas bear
safe oariia|B to Colombo from, say, 100 mllw^ (most of the tea estates in
Oeylpnareadfly^s journey from any railffaj 1 1 think—but am open
to eotri0lion)v> We take the first stage after plekiog: the leaf win not
100
THE INDliN AiJBIGTJLTimiST.
Malrch 1,1^70.
bear b»i4f P«Dkedi AAd kept ia bulk loog. but wilt fiuiiawtjli or
b««t, BO UUi in out of tbe quBBtioo. The oeit U du^g or ot^r
f•Tal6atatioo. Itou would bars to do ao Intmedlatoig attar the ftrat
rolling, and let it termeot during trauBuiifloo, Here you run the
riak ot overdormeatiog, daring any delay whieh may ooour to rail or
ouoUe :*-*lhU won’t do ! Ot ooursij it caouot be done attar temeniatloa
nndbetoredram firiag. After it liaa rooelTed the flrat or loose Ariog
yon may do so ; bat would hare to send your teas in a very alr-tlght
btnor bos, aiattlilsor anyafler etage the teas will sour, and where
are you then f The only stage that X eaa see is just before Anal A ring
forsblpment home and yet again an air-tight bii^ would be required, tin
or lead lined, eorawed down, and opened in Oolombo, tu be immediately
thrown into a bln reedy to receive it there; ah 1 and it runs risks even
now* Not that I any every oare will not be given to it by the Coylou
Oompany'smaaageri and employees; but where suoh a deiioate thing,
BB taa is conoerued, it requires immediate sapervislou and attention,
and in any delay you risk the value ot your teas. lu an establishment
like apaokiug and sorting bouse, you would require, where fltty
ditfereflt estates send down their teas, Afty different bins, and a like
establishment of slavers and sorters, aa you are apt to get your teas
mined up with those ot other estates without there is a very osrefat
and constant aaporvisitm in the different departments. It is quite a
different affair in Ohlna, where the oultivators are mure or less ryots
and where they sell their teas to the house intending to Anally pack it,
but not in a single initanoo do they lose sight ot it fur Anal paoking. Ac.,
at their own risk by others* In Ohina, a cultivator in a very few
instanoea has not more than four or Ave acres of tea, and what Is made
of tbeie lew acres ts purchased by merchants and others, who then
pack or run every risk themselves. I will now go on to the advantages.
You have Aist that of not having a Ased establishmeut on your estate
lor soldering, carpentering, sawing, sorting, Ac., and you give your tea
over to a house that sees that it is shipped carefully away, at|d not
thrown belter skelter into a warehouse ot broker's store to be injurml in
every possible way before shipment.
Taking both sides of the question into careful coniideration, I should
think the advantages that would ba gained by sending your teas down
lor tnorff than mere packing and nhipping Ao//iff are few and
far between. I hope I may be wrong, and would indeed like to see this
enterprising and successful Co. gain wider-spread uamo ths*' it already
has done with the new year, and many happy returns ot it by a well-
wisher and
TKA I’LANXER.
Matale East, Slst Dec. 1B78.
We give promineuoe at this stage iu the tea enterprise in Ceylon to
(ho above paper by one whose experieuoe in connection wuii tea estates
and tea factories in Assam qualiAes blm to speak with some authority.
It will bsseeu that, while very fairly setting forth the advantages aud
disadvantages of such an ostabllshmeiit as tbo Ceylon Company,
Limited, have founded in Oolombo, be rather hopes fur than expects
utiqualiAed suocsms. In a piivato note he refers to the failure of a some¬
what similar establishment in one of the Indian tea diBlr>ct3, but Ibo
Cirourostanoes weie probably different. Koadera iuterested wdl form
their own opiniuns, and time will settle the question. Wa have a! vvays
had a leaning to the idea of central faebones. It is true that tea houses
on a modest scale can be erected on estates al a cheap rate ; but after
a tune the diCAculty wiU be in aonuection with timber tor ouarcoal
and boxes. U is of great Importance that the boxes iu which tea is
packed should be as much as possude of uniform weight with reference
to questiona of tare iu the home market, and it is obvious that a Arm
or f'oropaiiy doing businnss on a large t>Cf*L' would be at an advantage
in i.iis lespeot. Materials tor boxes of a suitable timber, well seasoned,
could bo supplied cheaply in large quanuties. So, as regards charcoal,
should furtherexperieuoe prove that vharooal heat and charcoal fumos
are absolutely necessary for the iNirfeot preparation of tea. The
question has been repeatedly raised aud those who nave rend Colonel
Money’s Prize Essay know tbai.ii>>, in the most iconoclastic spirit,
disposes one after another of all the mysteries of teH*raastiug by a
Buooession of pans. He Anally utspenses with all appliances for Armg
taa except trays uf perforated cloth Or metal. Mr. Brace, who oou'*
tributed an esaay to the Oheermr^ reoommaucis trays in tiers of not more
than three, the under one to be after a time oarofuUy and cautiously
shifted to the top. Croat oare ia requisite to prevouf any tea loaves
falling into the Are and producing smoke. If the muslin ri .iting
tea-cloth (Messrs. Waj^ r A Co., have some for seif^}, or the wire
trays, get burnt or heated. lam<ige to the tea leaf will accrue. Even
if pans are used, and our . r«rrespondeat takes their use for granted,
there is the possibility of ovur-roasifog, if the pans get over>heatad,
or are not kopt constantly in motion, to facilitate which they are hung
loosely. In our own uxporieuca, excellent tea has been prepared by
such simple means as a cylinder cl closely woven matting or of sheet
iion, about 'd tu 4 feet high, placed over a dear charcoal Are, and
the tea leaves, after proper rolling and furmeiitiug, placed over the top
of the cylinder, in a tray compo'ied simply of fuusiiu net Axed to a
Loop of bamboo. With such simple appurnins excellent and well-
dried tea can be prepared, but no doubt ordinary net has the disad¬
vantage ot rapidly charring nnder the iiiAueiiUe ol the heat which
dries the tea, With specially prepared open cloth, with pierced metal,
or with Wires, there is, ot course, slower tendency to destruedon, to
delay which aud to prevent the burning ot the tea leaves, untiring
care la necessary. There can, indeed, be no question ' bat ihh pre«
paratioa of tag requires much mora of minute and parii>i£Hl attotuma
(bail ia the ease with eoftae t the malA ageni to the me eaN being
Are i la the other water. A' dtoialoa of libour, U it ooold be
eucceufany effected, la tberetofa, oo doabf, dcslraUe* Tbere to too,
the fact as regards tot, that, instead of a pressoxo at crop itoie for a
law maatha, Aushes" of tea will require to be gabhared and prs|Htfed
over a considerable poruon of the year. Xu Horibem ledia the
dormant moniha extend from Kovembsr to Maroh, but In a eocmtry like
Ceylon, we suspoot there will be little appreciable oessloa of Aathei^
except when a ehill wind is aooompaoiad by oonstanli drisxliag rain so
aa to oouuteraot the inAuenoa of genial lun heat. In the case within
onr personal experianoe to which we have baen retorring, not only are
pans dispensed with in the Arlog process, but there is no sieving or
sorting of the tea subsequoutly. The tea is one ktud, a very sapstior
Pekoe douchong, every single tip as well as every tender leaf belag
present. In the case ot blgh-growo tea, this surely ought to be
enough, and the product ought to oommand a market, unmUed and on
its own merits. To tea drinkers in England it would be cheap at is*
per Ib. But the brokers stop the way o£ any thing so simple. Mtr.
Burrell would be the man to carry out the Idea. Meantime may we ask
gentlemen of Indian and local experienoa if they oonsider copper pans
Bheolutely necessary for the thorough Aring ot tea, and, If so, why?
Also whether the use of oharooal or other artiAolal heat cannot be wisety
and advantageously economised by the utilisation ot the sun's rays, In
their ordinary oondUiou or oonoeotrsted by mirrors ? We know that
many Indian planters prepare teas largely by spreading the rolled and
fermented leaf in the sun, on iron plates or other suitable materiaf.
Our correspondent gives an interestlug account ot the tea-sectlug
machine. More important still is the rolling machine by wblohaa
enormous amount of hand labour Is saved, though not entirely
dispensed with, Then our good friend Mr. Baker has patented
an apparatus tor driving oxceaa of moisture out of tea leaves
iu wet weather—the moisture being ezpellaxl by rapid revolu¬
tion, we believe. Labour is so scarce and difficult iu Assam that
labour-saving appliances are already largely in use. Here it is only
when very large quantities ore produced that we need think of
machinery* No machine ia ever likely to supersede the delicate
hands of women and ohildren for the Ipluokiog of the Aushes.
The mode ot plucking described In the Produce Markete* Meview,
'jiles, the taking away ot at least a portion of the fourth leaf
down from the tip. Surely ib would be better for the quality of the
U*a aud for the healthy aftergrowth ot the plant, if only the tip, two
leaves below it, and halt the third leaf, were taken away ? What do
experts say I Ou the property in which wo are interested, we should
never think of allowing four leaves, in addition to those undeveloped
in thetip " to be token away. Nutare must certainly and rapidly
resent so heroic an outrage on her laws. But, however gathered and
however roasted, clear it is that if tea is to be good and to remain good,
it must be jealonsly excluded from a moist atmosphere. Tho taa should
he put into the bins or chests, hot from bring, and as dry as it can be
made without burning. Its subsequeut value depends on the care with
which it ts kept hermetioally dosed until required for use. Even in an
imperfectly made household caddy ” tea will deteriorate. Boasted
and ground coffee requires oven more oare, for the toodenoy of the
charred uoffeu is to imbibe not only moisture but mophitio gases,—‘Clryicn
Obeei’ver,
COFFEE.
THE PULNEYS AS A COFFEE DIBIBICT.
B. 0. \V. W. MABTIN, uding collector of Madura, iu a
letter to the acting chief secretary to Govermnout from
Madma, llth Jauuaiy, said:—"In reply to your official memo-
raudimi, I have tho Uouor to state that 1,967 aoros of land appear
to have been cultivated during the official year 1877-7S on the
X^uluuys, and the yield is estimated at 416,892 lbs.
Yield,
Acres.
Lbs.
Pulaeye ...
... J,987
416,892
birumalaia ...
... 1,623
448,896
3,610
866,783
Acco. ^ is b><^d to the coffee estates on
the Pulnoya by the Adalur
Ghat, aud now to a considerable extent by Oolonel Law’s new
Ghat. Thei e are also several bill roads leading from tho plains
direct ^c> the coffee estates. Coffee planters oornplain bitterly of
the bare-faced way in which they are robbed often by very small
children emploved by the hill Chettios. The yield on the
SiruiuaUis is 448,8961bB. and the ooudiiious of access are some¬
what similar, thore being a ridoable road from tho bottom to ilia
top. Kodaikaual is the station of a second-class^ magistrate
the bottom of the Adalur Ghat is but nine miles from the joint-
magistrate^B aud taluk station of Diudigul. Tho top of ihe
iSiinmalais can be reached from Ciiidigal iu 6^ hours easily and the
return journey is shorter.” Mr. Martin having asked that (he
Cuffee-Btealing Act might be extended to the Pulueys, sanction
has been given, and the foltowing notiAoution published in tho
Fori Si. George Gazette “ Under the provisions of Section 2 of
ActNo. Vill. of 1878 (‘The Madras Coffee-Stealing Preventiou
Act’}, the Governor in Council Is pleased to direct that the said
Act ehali take affect from and after this date in the Upper aud
Ifower Pttlneye and Sirumolais in tl^e District of Madura.'^
Mmlh h im TSB INDUN AGRICULTURIST. lOi
. J4IBEBIAH COFFEE IN TEAVANOORS.
M a JOHN FATNE writes to the Ha<kaa AgH*Eortkulturel
fiooiety may vecolleot the Soeiety about a year
ago pmeoting Messrs. 0. R Dowden Co*, o£ Tutioorin, a
4oaen plauta el the Liberian co£Eee. These they divided among
mjsatf a<)d neighbours. Mr. E. SmedJy of Arundel two, Mr. T.
Miller of Hereford two, Mr. Mathison of Rosemount two, three
were planted at Parapet (all lu Tiavanooro), and three were kindly
given me which I transplanted here (at an elevation of about
2,260 feet) in large pots, 3 feet deep and 2^ wide, covering the
same with glass^globes, because of the cold and very wet and
windy weather at the time ; one shortly afterwards died (it was
barely aliye whau 1 got it,) the other for six months simply existed,
though duly aired and cared for in every respect Not having in
that time grown in the least, 1 removed them to * Courtallum,’
‘ planting them out in the open, at about at an olevation of 400
feet. Within 0 week they made a start, and are now doing
wouderfulljv 1 should tell you 1 broke up the pots they oamo in,
and very naturally found a * network' of roots ; these with a pair
of sharp soissors I cut away until there wan not a curved bit of
root left, or any soil. 1 mention this, because the other nine plants
were planted out by those among whom they weie divided, with
(in cases) the loois untouched ; in others but slighffy pruned (one
person planting out pot and all, straw round the pot just ae he
had received it! happily the oversight was pointed out to him in
time, and one of the two is doing well)'—which will account for the
tlirowiug out of suckers, to the detriment of tho plants and surpiise
of the growers. Of these nine plants, five are alive and most pro.
luising, and with one exception are finer than mine, which 1 account
for by the fact of mine having been kept six months in an ungenial
climate. 1 have no doubt thoy will in the ond bo as fine as any.
It is allowed, mine for syimuotry and being perfect plants carry
ol£ the puhu. 1 merely mention this by way of information, and
for the benefit of (hose who may have to transplant plants that
have been long confined in a small space, and tbe roots of which
are entangled and altogether out of proportion to that part of the
plant above ground. About the same time that the Society gave
Messrs. C. B. Dowden & Co., tho plants above referred to, it
presented twenty to the Bcottish India Coffee Company of
Travancoro. These Mr. Jsmies Grant, tho manager of the Company,
tho other day, told mo were doing well, and some far excoe>ded
mine in siae, but for symmetry, inino were to be preferred, and he
had no doubt would soon oveilaxe the otheis. Mr. Grant expects lus
to crop next year. Tlio Liberian coffee plants in Madras, so fur
as the Honorary Seurutury can judge, ai'e not doing at all well,
though he still hopes to sea tbom improve daring this cold weather
now commencing, and to be able to write a full lepott on the
subject next year. The plants sent to Tia^ancoro wore us
received from K.ew, and were most probably, aud so far sm tbe
Society is aware, ail of one kind, though the habit of two or three
of those retained in tho gardens difiiers slightly from that of the
majority.’*
COFFEE LEAF DISEASE.
BBSULTB OV XXFEUmsaTS OXUltlifiD ON AT Wallaua Estatu,
Lindula, Jauuaby 1871).
T has been suggested that, ia view ei the many experiments that
will probably be tried to cheek leaf disease daring tho coming
season, an outline sketoh of the experiments lately earned on at Wallaha
and tbe results obtained therefrom might be of service.
lu the following remarks I have tried to summariae what Is at present
known of BemUeiavattatrkx and disoussed wbat appear to be tbe must
suitable stages for the application of remedies. 1 have given special
promioenoo to the ejSects of sulphur and lime in checking leaf disease
from the fact that the two specifics will probably be tried more than any
other on a large scale.
In deciding whether sulphur or lime is to be used on a estate at any
given time as a remedy (or leaf-disease, it is important to note tho
exact stage of the disease as it shews itself on the coffee tress. If wo
divide the
LiFfl OXBTOaY OF THU HbIIXLXXA.
into three periods, under ordinary ciroumstancea, In its Jirst stage it
oonsists of flue filamentous threads growing with great rapidity and
oovering the stem, branehts and leaves with a fine network of branching
tnyeelittm. This stage lasts for a longer or shorter time (probably from
December to March), dependiug upon tbe amount of moisture pretont, and
the she of tbe tree» the fllamenla m ibis stage evidently derive all ineir
noorlshtaent from tbe moist shaded atmosphere in which they grow, and 1
bate no injurious effect upon the tree. But when they reach the leaves
they soon begin their vfork pt destruetion. The upper side o£ the leaves
bcibgooTCredbythg oduthigot tough gutto^pcrchA^llke substonoe and
baviog no pores or stomata, tbe filaments are unable to penetrata it,
but on the lower side tbe leaf does not offer so strong e reslstancf,
and is so full of pores or siamaia that tbs filaments find no
difficulty whatever—especialiy in damp weather, when the stomata
are wide open—in gaining admisiion to the intaroeltalar tissue
of the leaf. This Intercellular tissue occupies the ocntral and
lower portion on the leaf and is made up of irregularly placed cells
otosely packed together, in which, under tbe fnfiaeuce of sunlight, the
food of the plant is elaborated and prepared. These cells, to foot act
as a etoinach to tbe plant and carry on a work In the economy of plant
life similar to digestion iu the animal world. As soon as the filaments
of the Bemileia reach tbia ioteroeUular tissue, they tap cell after cell
and feed upon their ooutente. In this way the vital machinery of the
ooffco tree is destroyed, %tid it is no matter of surprise that tress affected
by leaf-disease suffer a gradual loss of vital energy or that ropoated
attacks, destroying tbe young leaves as soon as they appear, at length
Eeriously affect their powers as orop-produoera.
Tbe filaments In the first stage, i. 6„ before they enter the leaves, siw
so miouto, that it is impossible to defect them without the aid of tho
microscope; their extreme minuteness may bo judged from the fact
that it takes nearly 40,000 to make up an iooh in diameter.
lathe somid stage the filaments are well established witbiu the
tissue of the coffee leavos, aud they branch and ramify amoogif the
interoelluary tissues in all direotiouB. Instead of being long and
stendci and moderately branched, as they appear on the out¬
side of the leaves, they now assume a thioker, mors
branched, and a coral-like habit. The termtoatives of each branch
may be sfen in ouutact and often penetrating tbe waits of the cells,
aud gradually tbe cell contents are absorbed and taken up by tbe
parasite.
Tbe destruction of tbe interocllnlar tissues by the filaments may be
soon detected even by the nuked eye for if the leaves are bald up to the
light a number of semt-transparent spots dotted here and there over
their surfaue reveal the several points of tbe attack. As the work of
dcstractiuu proceeds the leaves become more and mare transparent till
at last they are almost eutiroly deprived of their iuterootlular tlssne,
and if they do uot fail they Uaug as useless appendages in (he eeonomy
of plant life.
In the t%ird and Uft utagr the disease shews itself unmistakably in
the now familiar orange-ouloured powder which often covers the whole
ot the under side of ihe coffee leaves. The filaments having reached
maturity once more push ibeir way through the stomata, and appear
on the oataido as minute tufts ot Ilexuous threadH surmounted by a
single sub reniform spore attached obliquoly at the base.
ITudor a moderate magnifying power the spores appears as some-
what kidney-shapod bodies covered on all Bides but one with tuberolos
or wort-like a papjlimronu point. As (he sx>ores ripen, many of them
full to the ground or got blown away by the wind, but the greater
nnmiicr remain on the loaves till all the latter are shod.
Judging from the heavy, oily ebaraotof of tho spores, ib is probable
that moat of theia remamin tbe immodiato neighbourhood of the tree
and except under tho lufiueuceot strong winds are not distributed over
very wide arcus. The very rapid spread of tho disease may bo accounted
fur by other means than tbe distribution of these orange-coloured
flpures, nud if what is mentioned m the next paragraph is found to
exist to a large extuiit on coffee trees, it will afford another strong
ludnoement for attempting to check tho cUaeaso in its first or
filamentous stage. After tho spores have fallen to the ground or arc
attached to the stem and bruuohes ot tho coffee tree, they begm (after
A longer or shorter period of rest, to gormiuafo, and the filaments thus
produced once more attack the foliage, and the disease once more goes
through Us several stages as detailed above.
Biscohdaby Brozt&s.
As pointed out by Dr. Thwaitea in his report of March 1874, the
Bdinileta under certain conditions reproduocs itself by moans of
seoondanj gpoiw given off by cunulia-baariug branches of tbe filaments*
In the report jlist referred to, Dr. TiiwaUtn, spaaking of these secondary
spores says “ At the torminatiou of some of these branches (uf tho
filuuieuts) secondary spores are produced in the form of radiaUng
necklace-shaped strings uf little spherical bodies o£ uniform size, and
this fotm closely resembles tho fmotULuation ot an Asjm'gUlus. Mr,
Abbay has also observeu another form of secondary spores arranged in
single rows ot spherical bodies, a good deal larger than those radiately
arranged, but still oxceediugly minute. These ineonceiveabiy
numerous secondary spores may be easily carried by the wind into
surrounding diatricts and thus convey infection to distant plaatations,
li these seeondary spores are produced under normal oonditions by
the filaments on the coffee trees, they are evidently a source of greater
danger as infeoijOD-Qaftiers than the oraugc-ooloured spores, and, as
pointed out ahote, they afford an addtlloual argument In favour of
^ ; 'v' ,'■'' *-i-f ■' ■'
>'4iifMi |i|{ Without prododui; thh ertQga-chloor^d'Kpom;
fhtl il itifooli^ BoUdefthle oa Bid or ohuidmhd eflctsB mid' Ott wottfo
^hOflOc' It if yorjr proboblo thot undor taoh oironmitoaoM (wont of
< fttBUNttlood «ku! pavwtf of growth) tfao 4Umeiitf produtfe^ ioootidaty
' ipotvl Ih iho<»cety«Bblo Aomber^ If this ooojflotore 10 louad by
labie^ttfot obiortitloa to be true, the exigteooe of targe ortM, of
•bbodooed or bed^j oDltiveted ooffooi (opart Irom other cooelderatlooe)
ii a ooaroe of the greateat danger to ooiSee oiitiration in the lalaodi
^ md^^iAuat cotouteraot mnoh of the good effected by remedial measarea
adopted on welbeultltated and highly manured eitatog.
^le .daogerof futeotion oannot, howereri be need ae aa argumoQt
agalBgtadoptltig any remedial meaeuree oq well oultlrgted estates, for
many of them are so far remored from such centres of infeolion tliftt
by the ioplloatlou of reinedtes they may at least gain one, if uot a two
^yesMtiamiuilty from leaf clieesse, and the returu ihns obtained in
> extra orop «rooid>more iban oompensate for tbeontiay inoidontsl to tbe
appifoatfon of iime and luipbur
' itHt
:#ltb it. Iiiok al dfiO w.. W
wortblme ireae. Xha appUchtloW Of Oowd^^ u*'.
X>r, QoOke. Met under iharty of .ibi dttgadeabtattaA ' b^ abotta# bah has
the one merit of belog easily mixed, In taxable proporttbiMl.
XHfl FpiiioATipa
of wblcb. 1 believe. Mr* Wall Is the oonsleient adm^tardeseram to
be carefully tried as a speomo iu. stages ,oua, and |w^ .Tbn.WieAir
fumes of burning sulphur wi|l undoubtedly WU the fllameatja and
spores of tbe MmUeiat but the prooest requires to ^ be c^dabtud with
cauUott. In order at the , same time not to injure young fotiMU hod
flower buds. Ire®rettb*t 1 have not bad oppprimiitlei Of.Wlug
tbe plan tried or of examuilog filameats and spores under the mloros*
cope after they bnfe been subjeoted to the fumigating prooeiSf
Juime. from the diiflttulty of applying it effeoinally toaU pw^ts the
leaves aud sinaller brunohes, and from its uiicerlaiQ adtb>u» ily
in «lry weather, does not eomtoetui itself as a gpecifte for geperat
adop'ioii at this (tbe flist) stage of the disease. From aba* X saw of
IIS aoticio 00 Wallaba I woai*l reoommeud that it be tried as a
disJofeotaot later on, v«.;—in t.be third stage when the trees and
ground are strewn with tbe orange-coloured sporangia,
Afpligatiow of Ooaiit Likb.
r« the Application of Solphua
as, as gpscifio for leaf dlssease it is iobended, as In the case of tbe hop
mitdew.to beapreoantionery measare and to act aa a chech on the
disease in its first or filamentous stage, and while it is still an external
parasite. This is mo’it important, because the disease generally reaches
its munlo^m Just before orop Ume, when the trees can least bear the
the csbaosting cfiects of iTirmtlein nnd it Is most necessary to chock at
tbe.OUfsetAoy development of tho seroatfary spores. As the filaments
can only be detected iu the first siage by the luioorsoope. it is advisable
to treat all the trees on an estate, even tbe healthiest with sulpbur. If
during the month of February, March, and April advantage be taken of
lienvy dews to apply sulphur to every part of the coflee trees and on the
ground,its value as a specific for leaf disease ought to be apparant
during the coming crop time. From the eiperimeuts carried on at
WaUaba it is evident that when sulphur comes in contact with the fila¬
ments and spores It completely daatroys their vitality, and if oal-efully
applied oauuot fail to lossen the severity of neat es»»st)n'8 attack.
Flowers of sulphur are preferatdo to mlphar vivutn pr black sulpbur,
baconse It a more certain in iis acion, and being heavier st Ire bettor to
the leaves, if flowers of sulphur cau be obtaluod at Rs, 1 .\*per too, it
will be much cheaper lu the long nm than eulplutt ncutn frefuse
iul^orjat Bs, 100 per ton. Iu applying sulphur on a large scale
ft wiH require at least 20 sulphur biowera to begin with.
If ten oooltea are placed to each row—oua to uae tUa blower and
the other to hold up the leaves ho that they oan li t well powdered
uudetneath—40 coolies thus employed ought to treat 600 trees per liour.
On sunny elopes they will not be able to work more »u»u one hour
each day, aa the dew so soon dtsappears, but they might be transferred to
the nearest shaded slope facing west, where the dew remains, m aume
cases It till 9 o'clock, The precarious and uuoerlain nature of tbe dew
IS no doubt a serious hindrauce to ibeapplicatiuu of sulphur on a large
scale, bnt if all Um materials for sulphuring are kept ready at hand himI
a set of coolies—say pruneis—are especially reserved for this work ana
started at day break, much might be done m a few week.
With an abundant supply of dew, the sulphur blowers conpletely
oovertbebrancbosaodfoltagoof the trees with a thin uniform coating
of sulpbur, which remains on the trees for several days, even alter heavy
rain. Soon after It ia applied the sulphur gives ofl a faint pungent
odour disUngUishedas that of burning brimstone ; this is not the smell
of sulphur itself but that of BO» formed by the
combination of snlphur with oxygen, Xhw sulphuious anhydride, or
sulphurous add as it is aometimos called, is a deadly euemy to the
fi t guB, while it is comparatively harmless to the coffee tree.
As in tbe second stage the filaments are safely lodged within
tbe tissue of the leaves, it is almost impossible to reach them,
without at the samoi time destroying the leaves theinsolvee. This was
the difficulty which preseytwi itself to sdentifto men at homo, and
from an examination of the dry leaves alone, they were unade to
detect the filaments externally, we can easily account for the hesitation
with wbioh Dr, Cooke and others recommended the use of sulpuiir as
a remedy for loaf desease. (flee report on coflee leaf disease, Indian
Maseuin, p. 12.)
It the filaments on the outside of the branches and leaves are
destroyed on the early part ot the year by sulphur, and again it the
■pores on the newly fallen leaves, and on the ground, are ilostroyed
later ou by quick-llmt. the raeult must be a dimiuuuoa of the attack
inanaggiavated form, anri peisevered io, such a gradual amelioration
of the disease on well-onl'tvated estates that Its efleot would be hardly
felt at all.
The appUoailon of a prepaied
Bolxitxon of Lima BuLrHUtt,
which ha" been recotninsuded by Mr, Abbay, and more recently by
Dr. Dias, may have homo effect in this stage, if it is praoUcahle to
treat a largo area with it. A similar preparation has been lA use in
iSugland for maoy years as a disinfectant under the name of
Mixturti, It IS desotibed tally m the Gardewn ChrmieUt ISfili
p. 695.
In experiments with this mixtiue, which have coiuo under my notice,
iheso'ution in the one case was so corrosive that it destroyed ail the
leaves and in the other was so weak that it was perfeotly inneouons.
1( t^ioJutioo ASA be so prepared that it will destroy ‘^e^fitaments
of the leaf dlieaie withoat injery to the doflee t.4 , um ptolilem
In tbe experiments with lime, it was observed that the quicklime
derived from tbe ordinary dolomalio limeatone of the bills was not
■trouK enough lo efleotually dostroy the spores and filaments, afld it
would be desirable to experiment la the future with ooral lime applied
in a dry powdery state as soon as possiule after it has left
the kiln, and plentifully distribute it over the Hem and
btanohes of tho trees, and especially over tha withered leaves^ Iyin||
on tbe ground. Tha most favourable season for tha epplioaiiou of
lime IS just after a sevara attack of tbe disease, when the leaves Hava
nearly ajl fallen. If quicklime is then applied it will destroy ell the
spores with which it comes in ooutaot, and by decomposing the
withered leaves in sitw prevent the danger of Infection. The plau of
COLLBOTINO ALL TBB FaLLBN LSAVBS,
and burning them, which has bsen advocated, as a precautionary
measure with regard to leaf disease, Is a good cue if generally
applicable to large estates, but 1 noticed that after a short time Very
lew. If any, of tbe withered leaves under the oofCes retain the spores
npon them The latter soon fall ofl and are found everywhere on the
grou'nd, where sooner or later they germinate and produce filaments
which once more attack tbe tree. It is evident, therefore, that by
ouiiecting the withered leaves and burning them, only a email pro-
portiou of the spores is destroyed, and taking tut# ooUBideratiOQ the
cost of ooilecting the leaves the damaga of a fire on a coflee estate,
and the probable scatterlug of the dry ripe spores which must inevitably
take place when thv» leaves are disturbed, I venture to suggest that
It is mueb bettor to act on the old proverb, *' to let sieeping 4ogs
lie," and destroy leaves, spores, filaments and all with ae Utile
dieturbauoe as poiaible by a plentiful appilcatiou of qaioklime. The
value of the lune us a dressing for tin soil, and the facility aud
ease with which it can be applied, are additional points iu Its favour,
As an alternative process, where it Is not possible to apply lime to
the whole of the estate at onco, Che recently fallen leaves, together
with a little of the am face soil, might be scraped together, after a
severe attHok of leaf disease, into one of the pumber-oae wafsr-Apfex
( found on most estates, and covered over by a small quantity of quick¬
lime. In this way a larger nomber of epores and diseased leaves
I might be destroyed al a very trifiiug cost.
I O. UOBBIS,
SOIENTIPIO OULl’UJJE OF COFFEE.
T he fullowiiig i# Mr. James Sinclair’s contribution to tho lest
dieease aiecussioA
Lindula, 6th December 1878.
Dear Siu,- -It has froquontly occurred to me, that, in directing
oar attention entirely to the diacovery of an antidote for leaf
i.:sea6e, we may bo ignoring what is, to my mind, of much more
importance, Pix., the cause of its appearance on our coffee and ft
m ^aits for preventing it.
I’revention ia better than cure !
That apecifio for thia peat will be found in our day. I have no
faith (u and even if found I doubt tho value thereof. That we
shall ultimately overcome thia great enemy to coffee, I bavoi aa
little doubt, and that not in the far future. May good luck never-
thelesfl attend the experiments of those who are trying hulphar,
porter, &c.
laskyonwhab wonldbeihonghtof ft community who, m the
casoof anepidembooused by bad drainage, bestowed tliolr whole
caio and attention to curing tho sick instead of at once improving
their sanitary arraugemeuts.
In my experience of agriculture at home and in cojflee planting
here, wliioh extends over nearly twenty years, I have proved more
than cKioe that any failure of crops by disease is doe aoiely .to pre-
venable causes, to a neglect of the laws, of good husbandry, uCt
wilfttlJyof course, but through want of knowledge.
At this moment I do not rfmUeot a single instant a
beSgdtsooversd for any of the npmerous pests whi<di the wmst
;Agn-^'
jRibSSW# 1^ Mtitboy ^tn , £mt;i!a^ |iN»WlC* ^«vor«
Mur mi Mi0!OiMult:|r combated, hkii not bv m an^ioote. m^a
Oiat dfr^ 0 ^ Cticm aH, ** potato* blight” in beuig ifta4ttally ooa-
qacr^ and wlU doabtleaa In time dteappaar. l^troip diiaase,
which oauaed the utmoat conatarnaUoo amoag; farmeta on the
lighter aoite oC Aberdeenahtre about lourtoou ^«ars a^o, is now
10 harmloaa in its effects that you seldom qr oeeor hoar it spoken of.
8 bimpoTtan(^Sstbi8 crop to the farmer, that all the agriQuJt»**al
and chemical aoleuoe possible was brought to beat
that, and the other cure, such as lime, salt. BnJ^nur, sulphuric acid,
Ac., woresuggAted without mue^ir any, good result.
^e farmers gave up in despair and settled themseWes
doiSn to watch Sne effect of different manures^ the seasons for ap¬
ples tuem, tho different methods of cultivating thf. soil for this
plant, till at last it began to dawn upon them that the style of
cultivation was bad, and although with ill-treatment they had
for a time succeeded in raising good crops, yet tho day of reckon-
fog had come, and tlieir whole system must bo changed. This
has been done and with the very best results.
Now, sir, don’t you think that something may be learnt from
this ? Depend on it, leaf disease is no special visitation of Provi¬
dence, in the usually accepted sense. ” As we have sowed, so are
we reaping.”
1 wish 1 were as sure that I could point out wherein we have
more specially committed a broach of the laws of ^od husbandry,
as I feel certain that we have brought this on ourselves. Ohiefest
amongst them and 1 make these remarks with due deference to
men of longer experience in coffee than I have, is want of judicious
and seasonable tillage, a want of method in manuring, Ac.
The importance of stirring up soil in England is so well undor-
ttood that it would be almost superiliioue to dilate on it. A
strikiug''proo£ of the advance made in mechanical cultivation
during the last few years could bo readily understood by a visit to
the Paris Kxhibilion, where implements of all descriptioua and
prices were to be seen for tilling the soil.
f have beyond a doubt proved to myself in Dimbula, how bene¬
ficial digging up the soil is, and, in this valley at least, the deeper
the better. Soils as a rule, in fact all soils, require norating or
oxidation, now and again, but eapooially Ceylon soil, where so
many of the lower compounds of iron abound, rendering it noxious
to vegetation growths.
1 have no doubt but. Hint tlie coffee tree, like many others,
exudes or excretes matter deleterious to the soil, which will in
course of time render it quite unfit for its growtli. 1 have road
of whole forests of vigorous-looking oaks suddenly dying out and
in their stead biroiies springing up and flourishing and iu a few
years scarcely an oak to be seen. 1 should think this is a case of
the soil being gradually poisoned so to speak, whereas, bad it been
practicable to expose the soil to the atmosphere, tho ouks might
still have thriven. What is it but the air and rain watoi getting
into the soil by the edges and iuterstioes of the rov^ks that makes
the coffee beau so well thrive.
But apart from the beiiofiiof exposure to atmospheric iufiueuce,
by digging a great deal of what must be otherwiso wasted would
remain in tho soil. At the bogiutiing of the year, when crop and
pruning have been fiuished, an enormous quantity of vegotablo
matter remains on the surface. Now the larger proportion of this
useful fertilizer must be carried off by tho drenching moiisoou
rains instead of being taken into the soil, which it would be were
it elaokened up.
Vegetable matter is most useful os a fertilizer only in containing
in the right proportions and in proper condition fur absorption by
tho roots of plants, all that is essential for plant life. Another
plea for tillage is that it unsuits the soil for insect or grub life.
In many cases whore tillage to a certain extent is curried on—1
mean in digging holes for manure, leaf disease, if not caused, is
aggravated to a cousiderablo exteiit so that even in tillage cure and
judgment must be exercised. A field ought not to be touciiod
with mainotie or hoe for manuring while the soil is quite saturated
with water; nothing is so noxious to the soil; of courso you can
till your soil in a too dry state as well as too wot
The seasonable tilling of land in England is so well uudorstood
now, that should a season chance to be a very wet one while the
soil fa being turned over, the farmer will tell you that his crops will
be attacked by all the diseases they are subject to ; every one of
them will appear in an aggravated form.
Some very striking jnstanoes of this have come under my own
observations, but this epistle is already too long.
Liming is a branch of manuring that is much neglected in
cultivating coffee.
l!lie same object is frequently attained by an application of
qbioklime chemically as is secured mechanically by digging.
Professor Tanner, of the Boyal Agricultural Oolloge, in his
** ^emouti of Agriculture ” qays
The advimtfhges atlaing from the use of caustic time may be
cuumertted as follows ^
0 ) ^ It enoouragea the decompositioA of the organic matter in
the aoil*
J 2) It neut^tiete ttm orgimio psfds which make land sour,
?) ot tlia alkaline matters (potash
I soda) from ths aotniaht fitcediente in the coil.
tt prdn^ot^ double silicates*
i fav'ors the prcd^citeh of nUfftw of potash.
ooutributes food estefitilu the perfect growth ,cf
plants, ' . ^
(7) It improves the physiedt (Aaraoter of the soil and promotes
healthy growth.
Surely tho above is soffleient to oouvince np of the need we have
for a more extensive application of this f^tillser.
Doubtless there are many other ways than that meutioned
whereby we mwwaliliocKe our estates. They will gradually^ as we
gam expcrienoo, have to give a place to a mote sjstematio, more
enlightened method qf cultivation.
I have no doubt but that the day is close at hand when we sliall
look back and wonder how the coffee tree lived under the treat¬
ment we had been submitting it to.
What is wanted is careful experiment by keen observers-—
practical men. Frequent association meetings fur the purpose of
exchanging views and getting fresh ideas. Thus will leaf disease
ultimately bo stamped out body and soul.
Now a word to those who Uavo seasonably dug, drained, limed
and manured, and all in vain ; also (0 those who say they have
leaf disease on their unexhausted soil of young olearinga.
Disease once generated will attack tho well located, well
oonditionod tree as it will the well conditioned animal, but they
suffer less.
Apologizi ng for occupying bo mnoh space, and in hopes that
these views may lead to soino disousBion, fiom which at least some
benefit may be derived,—Faithfully yours, ^
JAMES 81N0LAIH.
AQRICULTUUE FOU PLANTERS,
Bx A. 0. Dixon, E,c.a., B. Sc. sc Boi. m, b , (London,)
H aving pointed out briefly the general geological relations, (be
pbysioial properties, and the chemioal composition of the soil, as
found in Ceylon, and shown that it is of great practical imporfance to
the cultivator to possess some knowledge cf its physical and chemical
conditions, whioh reveal the active and dormant powers, and the
conditions regulating the tranultion from a dormant to an active
coudltoa, available for vegetable life, wo may now consider Ha sultahllUy
for various crops. The form and elevation of the land, together with
the prevailing winds and rain, fequire to be taken into constderatlon.
Coffee la capable of being produced with profit at VBTiouBaUiiudes,froia
2,000 feet to 4,000 . This may be extended in either direction. Certain
kinds, such as Liberian, may even flourisb at sea level. Fiat districts
are generally avoided for ordinary ooffae, as the water is apt to
accumulate, and resting in the subsoil does not give (he roots full play.
This is much more evident, however, in the case of ciuchons, which is
near akin to coffee. Food may be eaten by us, but if the stomaoh juices,
such as the gastric, are not (hero to transform ft into such a state as
adapts it to the requirements of the body, it will do us no good, nor, if
other juices are (hero, which ought not to be present, will it benefit the
body, although all the elements of nutrition may be found. In the
name way, tho subsoil may en danger the prosperity of tbe plant,
A careful cultivator will therefore look well to bis soil, and can soon
find out whether it is too heavy or too light, or, it may be loaded with
elements it does not require. If the soil bo too stiff and heavy, his
mind will nuturalij suggest lime, or even sand, to keep it open. At tbe
same time, we must bear in mind, that crops may be found which
would enjoy a stiff soil.
Again, if too porous, and therefore probably not suffloiently retentive
of moisture, be may put olay or heavy soil upon H with advantage.
He may keep a heavy soil open, aud In a very proper manner too, by
bringing leaves, twigs, or other bulky matters into play upon it. The
rala>fall in Ceylon, although somewhat out of the ordinary course of
things, during tho present year, is not too much for coffee, it can aland
even more than it has experienced during tbe last twelve months. If
the estates are properly drained, they will not be burdened with
moisture—nor if drought should come—and no doubt It will, for even iu
a climate like this, wo cannot get rid of tbe law, Ihnt action and reaction
are equal and opposite—it will not suffer much. Boil in a good physical
state will draw moisture from tho air, and many plants evaporate more
water than the ruinda.l around them will account for, and this is
merely by tho wise arrangement that tho air always oontains more
or leas moisture. Where we have great heat, we must, as a role, have
great rain-fall, either in the form of actual ram, or dew. As a guide
fo what a soil is likely to do, it would be advisable to examine tho
nature of the vegetation already there, and the mode in which ft
grows. If there is abundanoa of trees or undergrowth we may take it
ter gcantsd that the soil has plenty of plant«prodaoiog power. The
natuxal fegeteiion will gWe aa;aa idea 0 / tbe depth of the eoif, Moeordiag
as it is KiuteM Of dMp rooted,
TttE IMrcli l4a^
W4 miy htm plan^ of i»il«rftowth» iiootteri of tbo lowm* lonn| ot
?eg«t»bls Uf 0 ^ mi o| wibtolii lertM tat kutaiiee, do nol ipegk il| of
tbo aoll, wbtfa o^ir^i tmh ai moMsi and lltanrort,
mmhaniHaX gvial bedi of whiob^ 1 have Men np-oonatry, natural^
like boggy plaoM { tlia eoii, or ratber peaty matter, If ofteb impregnated
to a great extent with Iron.
We may ba^e potaib, Ifme, or eiHoa aeoretiog planter aooordtng to
tbe net are of tbeioll. Tbe weed eo oommoo on many eetatei bef««.^bQ
goat weed, (ifya/'4^m)'-baB elmilar reqalrementa to ooflee, faenee
tbie wood If a good Index to tbe soil. It may be tronblesome, bat it
wJU help to form a very good compost heap. Tfteee weeds ebould not
be despised, for if kept in oheok, they are oooverting good matter into a
better form, and this ie not going to be removed from tbe estate, bat
retorned to it again to form bnmua. We most not forget that tbe
hamos we meet with in tbe soil Is formed of pest vegetation ; it is not
the cause, bat tbe eSeot. We may say, in fact, that aa Iron sbarpeneth
iron, eo caltlvation ebarpenoth the soil.
Tbe forests, of coarse, require attention i! they are to bo profitable to
a umTTfl'ryj btitiiililljl s fow nations have paid auy attention to this branob
of agrioollnre. Perhaps the Oormana and French bead tbe list, and it
ie at tbe forestry soboots of those ooautnea that oaudiUatos for that
branob of the service mast atody for some portion of time previous to
their being sent out for permanent employment,
A soil over^workod with ooffee might bo relieved with cinchona, which
is not cuUliated for fruit, except for the sake of seed, or by tea, which
prodnees a leaf crop. Frait, leaves, and bark require different matters
for their perfection.
The mode of dealing with the rain-Call is a point worthy of considera¬
tion. Bain Is a most valuable aeivant, bal it mast be kept under control.
It is too much the custom to treat it as an enemy, which we shonid
clear out as rapidly as possible, instead of oontrolliog it by abstracting
the gases, such as carbonic acid, ammoniiL, and nilrio acid, generated
by the lightning, in passing through the atmosphore, and regulating the
supplies, BO as to store them in case of dcftclouoy.
Stagnant water on land in injurious, and in order to prevent this, we
must have drainage. Nature has carved out her main drains, and if we
wish to gat the full vffcot from the soil around these we must add the
oapitlarkstn such amanner as toget the full benefit from the water
before It reaches the main branches of tbe rivers, The mere ovorfiowing .
of water over tracts of land seldom does-much harm, hut if it U allowed
to become stagnant, it injures the soil ooDsiderabiy, and v^ben it dries
up, the sun, acting on the decaying vegetable matter,'cieatea malaria
in tiiQ neighbourhood.
lienee jungle is almost always moist, for evaporatio n is checked
by the shade of (he foliage. The tree^ also, coudeniio tho vapour in
the atmosphere.
The force which removes the rainfall from the soil to the ocean is
gravity, or tbe force of the attraction which tho earth exercises on
all bodies In a direction perpendicular to the surface rt the ocean.
The vertical space through which the water moves, is called its fall,
aud dividing the length of its course by this iall, we get tbe rate of
fall or inclination. When water passes over water, the friction is less
than when it passes over the eartu. thoroforo the smaller tho surtace of
earth which the water touches iu its course, the smaller the (riblion.
Henoe water m a narrow chauucl will movu moie rapidly than in a
broad and shallow one.
Ww next come to tillage. We till tho ground m order to break it up.
and to give the air lull play within, aathe air helps to digest the food
in the soil, and t j make it ready fur the plant. Tillage ib always
followed by a good effeot, although m muring may n(;t have tbe same
result. Man exerts a great icfiuvuce ou tho soil either in tbe way of
improving or impoverishing it, The most fertile soil may become
barren by continuous cropping. The term permanent fertility is not
applicable in i's full sense to any kind of soli, for however rich it msy
be naturally, its productive power will be dimmisiied from year to
year—it may be slowly, but yet surely if no provision id made to restore
to it tbe elements of f' Mlity wMoh have been removed daring a long
series of years.
1 will DOW give an ana<yMi'' of an estate soil which I made a abort |
time ago for a gentleman up-uooutry. I
Moisture ...
...
...
s.e
8-4
Urgauiu matter
«»
12-U
Iron oxida
...
...
••V
0*33
jaiiimiUii, ...
...
8*01
1 liUO
'23
Magnoi>ia ...
...
...
...
*18
Totaftli ...
»•»
...
•21
Soda
•07
Thosphortc acid
...
•17
Sul^thuric acid
*1
Silica soluble
•••
...
205
Insoluble silicates
Traces ot chionne
Cubonio acid, Ac.
•
1
V’
87*05
Of tbe ituolhUetUiftOM 17^(4 qaart%i*itid tkenfifoini
itt orgaaio matter *19. ^ ^ .
I have stated tbif in the mat iiertki w mueb dlfer^^^
wo old probably not be nnderstood t in faot, X am soma what doubtful
whether even this ordinary form Is tnteiligible to mohy* Borne have
an Idea that the more iiema the better, For lay own parti ta far aa
practical agrleultnre ie oonoeroed 1 bold that the fewer le ihe bettor
plan. Wo only require to know tbe essential and detrimeatal elemend
of plant life. Tbo selection of a sample of soil Is Important, and I
win iheratare give the mode of seledtion recommended to the members
of (he BoyaWgrfoujturai Sodiety of JBngland, by Dr, A. Foeloker, the
ConsuKiog Chemist, li lo as follows ,,
*• Have a wooden box made 6 inches ung god wide, and from 9 to
12 inches deep, according to the depth of boU muI fubaoilof the field*
mark out in the field a spaoe of about 12 inohes square ; dig g
slanting direction a trench so as to leave nndistarbed a block of soil
with its subsoil from 9 to 12 inches deep. Trim this block to make It
fit into tbe wooden box ; invert the open bos over it; press down
firmly ,* then pass a spade under the box and lift it op gently. Turn
over the box, nail on the lid, and send to the laboratory. '* With
coffee soils I would recommend that a deeper portion should be een^
1 will endeavour to explain the foregoing analysis, but In
onler to make it clear, I must say a someUiing reipeoUng
chemioai elements. In tho elements of our language the •
letters are divisible in two groups—vowels and oontonanls. The
chemical elemente are also divisible into two—the non-metals and (he
metals. The non-mctali of the cultivator are oxygon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
carbon, chlorine, sulphur, aud siliooo. The metals are potassium,
sodium, caroium,iron, manganese, and aluminium. Some of these are
solids, other gases, some have an affinity the one for tho other, and
fv'i ji binary oomponuda such as oarbouio acid gas, a oompouud o( carbon
oxygen, and wUbout which plants could not live. A tertiary compound
such as eulphuno acid, oousistsof sulphur, oxygen, aud hydrogen.
Quaternary compounds, such as quinine, contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. Oxygen, an invisible gas, one of tho components
of the atmosphere, when it unites with another element, is said to form
an oxide. Thus the water we drink is an oxide of hydrogen. The
potash we note in the analysis is oxide of tbe mctel potassium, a solid
substance. Soda is the oxide of the metal sodium, protoxide of iron
is one of the oxides of the metal iron. Alumina, magnesium,
and lime are tbe oxides of ihe metal aiumiuum, magnesium
and caioiuui. These oxides are also called bases, siuoe they readily
unite with acids to form a salt. For example, hydrochloric acid,
better known perhaps as muriatic acid, or spirits of salt, nnltes with
the base soda to form chloride of sodium, or common salt. Sulphate
of calcium (gypsum) is a salt formed by tho union of sulphuric amd
with lime.
An acid is a compound of hydrogen, capable of nnlting with a base
to form a salt. If the acid contains only one atom of hydrogen it is
itftld to be monobasic, aud such acids oan only form one class of saltf,
for example, chloride of potassium, where the hydrogen of the
hydrochluiio acid has been dispiacsd by ihe metal potassium. Sitlphuna
acid is dibaso. It contains two atoms of displaceable hydrogen, and
ottu tborefore form two olasses of salts,—the one normal, where both the
atoms of hydrogen are displaced, as m sulphate of «oda, or one only
may be displaced, forming another sulphate of soda—the acid sulphate
BO called because it bos an acid character. In like manner we have the
normal and acid suiphates of potash.
Piflerenl elements have different values in exchange among thsmeelves
Should the metal displaoing (he hydrogen have double tbe value of an
hydi ogen atom, calcium, then such element displaces at once tho
whe 0 of the hydrogen, and we have as a result the normal sulphate of
oaloi m. ^h> 9 p 1 mie acid is tnbasio. It oan form three classes of salts
—oa» normal, and two acid. It is on aooount of this iribailc character
that iho com position of the salts called phosphates are somewhat difficult
to unt erstaud.
Now, ..ulphurio, phosphoric, and silicio acids are mentioned in the
analysis, but the reader must not imagine that the soil oontalns them in
tbe unoombined state in which they are expressed on paper. So long as
there are basc^e in the soil which they like, or eoicntifieally tof wfaieh
they have an affinity, they will unite with them. The sulphnrle acid
may be there in the form of sulphate of calcium or other base,
pbospborto acid oocorring ifi tho soil results from the mineral apatite
which is a phosphate of calcium. WKhont a sufficiency of pbosphmio
acid we can never get the trait to mature, eo that we need not bo
surprised to find a tree bring forth snffioient Sower, but yet be uoiable to
perfect It.
In order to understand oheiaioat affinity, let a few drops of eulplmrio
acid be pot into aglaia el wateracotaiauig line eolutfon; ihte aeid
will immediaiely ^ay bold of (he forming a wkite pre^j^Uatoi or
Aaftio«r«ttaBT.
Ili^flljh k t«w 'dropi'of tb^ «^ime bd poartd updo « |!ddeo dt trto, w«
«h«lUg»to A^ tfedIftBit?, tbB ootd t«kibk potaelatoo ot tbo hoo to
imm AolobotA t}l troU, irbil* tho h^drogoo h fl«i
, tb« tnioni tbAqnAtto wbidh U OAtimAtod Along witb
tik«ai, •!« idtloatAB of potoab and alamtna,
Iron* oofl of the eletneuta lo the AOilt hes given HiO to oopaidernhle
dtaoufstoiif Vegetation oenoot live without it« Tt is one of (be
neoelpwiry eoioponentfl of that Bubsteuee called chlorophyll, vrhlob
ijnparte tlm green ooloui to vegetation, and yet iron, althouiih
UfOCBaaty, if In too groat quantity, ia iajnrioxie. The question naiurally
aHses. How is ibis 7 Iron and its kinsman, maoKanese, tite oxides of
which tinge our various rocks end soile, exist In two distinct rhetnical
■UttoSi^oixe in which it Is fully engaged with other elements, for which
It has affinity : and another where it is not go fully occupied. The
foily engaged farm is (ho peroxliie, the other Is lUo protoxide. This
less fugaged form is very ready to raise itself to the higher stale by
taking op oxygen from the air, t*ut this oxygen ia inquired for other
purposes, lueh as to biirii up the hamus and other matters wo chose to
putinto the soil These are boint. slowly, without emitting light, just
ttBibeoxygen we breathe is used to burn our own food, and furuiuh ns
with heat, as well as forming, ns a result of burning, carbonic acid gas,
4f, therefore, the attention of this oxygen is diverted by the pretenoe of
the lower oxide of iron, which would be the case to a considerahlo
extent in turning up many subsoils, wbat else can we expect than
Injurious effects ? Tbo oxygen cannot attend to (he iron and its other
work simultaneously. As soon as it has satisiied the iron, it will
resume its ordinary work.
Borne subsoils, when turued np, require frequent working in ordor lo
oxidiae the iron aa qniukly as possible, Unlphur, one of the
components of sulphuric add, and about which a great deal lias been
said of late in connection with leaf disease, is v9iry different from
sulphurio acid, A planter may read an analysis, and find (here
salphuiic acid, but this bus nothing to do with the leaf diseaBO, nor will
•uJpbur have any effect upon ii if placed in the soil, for slow oxidation
would then take place, and a roenltant compound will be formed called
fulpburoDS anhyAndet or gtUpknrom acid minus water. Atl anhydriden
are soluble in water, and thus when formed it is not ranch unlike
protoxide of iron in its behaviour. The sulphur in this state is not in
lull activity ; it will readily take up more oxygen, and be cotiverfoi
into saiphurio add, eventually uniting with some bsse in the soil,
forming a sulphate. H, then, planl^'rs think that sulphur put ijiio the
soil would be effeotive, they had bettor apply sulphate of amtuonia at,
once. Bulphur spiiiikled on the leaf while luoisf, oo doubt would be
heneflciul in its aetion.
We will now say a little about manures, or those snhstanoes wo
employ for restoring, muiutainiug, or impioving the fertility of a soil.
Manures may be divided into throe classes : animal, vegetable, and
mineral.
Tbe most important is farmyard mannrp, or in this country cattle
dung and urine. The * vegetable matter, wbidi has been used in
bedding, and earthy maitoi, which has absorbed (he liquid portion, is
also of great value.
This may well be called the most valuatde tnannro, since it eoutnins
nil themineial ingredients for ooff«e, and an applioaiion of tble to each
tree would improve the yield, as well as maintain il for two or three
years, accoidiiig to ihe nature of (ho soil. CatiJo dung is formed fjoni
the vegetable lualter upon wlileh the auiumls have been f<‘d, and fiom
which (bey have asHimilatod what they required and rejected the rest.
It is evidenq therefore, (hat the manure from young ammals is not so
rich as that from full grown ones, sinco they reqmic incombustible
e’omeots (o ImiUl up their bones and flesh. The quality also depends
oD (he nature of the food laken, and on the manner in wldch it is
preserved before its being applied to soil. The absorption of the mine
Voided by the animat gieatly mureasos the value of (he solid manure,
since it is rich ,m urea and uric acid, both of whicffcoutain nitrogen.
The absorption is best accompliHbed by a free use of earth, straw, or
other liiter. Btraw, being tubular, retains a great quantity, ond when
It rota adds its own mineral elements tc the manarc.
Manure may, however, be allowed lo become too rotten, and in such a
state the gasBB of deoompOBitiou will pass into the atmosphere unless
the heaps be protected. On heavy soils, it is well to put it in (lie
ground In a hall rotten state, since it helps to kof^p the soil open. At
the best it is but an irregular mixture. One thousand pounds of
cattle dong yields about 6 pounds of potash, 10 o' ammonia, 3 of
phosphate of Ume, and 800 of water. The ammonia would refuiH fiom
the decoraposUlou of the nitrogen oonfaiued m the dung.
Oattle dung contains all the essential ingredients of the coffee bean,
and it is for this that a planter has to apply manure ; not for leaves,
stem, or pulp, since these are not, or ought not to be, removed. We
cannot increase the cron proportionally fay adding proportionate
quantUies of dung. The whole mass in the soil does not coma into
oouteofc with the root hairs'in one year. The oontinuance of ns effect
is due to the diffusion wbioh takes place gradually, so that to get an
Inereased effect in a given time, we must apply a much larger mass of
manure than that wkloh ooutalus just (ho required increase of mineral
matter in the bean.
Bit even this is limited by Liebig^s well-known law of minimum.
Every coil has a maximum of one or several elements of nutrition,
and a uiioimum of one or several, and it is by the minimum that the
crop is governed.'' We require a certain unmber of bullock oarts to
convey from an estate a oertain quantity of ouffee. If there are more
carts than coffee, the cpffee is the mioimatn, and the quantity sent away
depends on that tniniraum of more coffee than earls. The carts are tlm
mimimum, and stilt the quantity transported depends on that. Just in
the same way soil must poaseBS, for the production of coffee, polaeii md
phosphoric acid j it potash is la minimum, then phosphoric manurps
are useless to such soils; or if phosphoric acid Is in minimuio. then
potash manures, f£ addsd, arc without effect, at least, as far as the
procluetion of (he crop in question isocnoerned, unless at the same time
we add along wittt U phosphatea to iaorease (bat which wai in mtnlmunii
(fSti sentiwMd.)
TOBACCO,
I T is estimated the out-tufii in g(»od tobacco loaf from a property
cultivated acre of laud ought not to be ieea thaa 600 Iba. In
America the average is reported to be ttsualiy 1,000 lbs.*" East
ladian tobacco generally eelis in Loudon for IdF. or 2(2., and
oxoelleiit varieties fetch about 5cl per lb. The Myouk-toupg
tobacco is so favorably epokeu of that we may with some safety
expect tlio latter gnoe for it. Then if the flovernmeat farm
there consista of 200 acrea (tUia was its proposed extent)
800X200X 6 *800,000d., or Rs. 33,333 per acre
or Its. 2,777-12 per month, l^ot an unprofftable speculation.
Native calculations, however give 370 lbs. aa the average yield
of an aero under tobacco cultivation. The calculations thou
would bo
370x20OX 5^370,OOOtf., or Ra. 16,417 per aero
or about Rs. 1,286 per monlli, even (his is not bad. It is probable
bowevur, that the native growth would not fetch so much as
per lb. But in the Ooveruioent farm atQbazipore, and in Bengal
farina, 800 lbs. havo boon readily obtuiiiod, and there is no reason
why the auporior soil and situation of Myouk*ioung should not
yield aa much under proper care and scieutiHc cnltivatien.
Tub following is a aomewhat important para from the last
Stirmah Oaseite:^
Tobacco of excelienl quality is produced in Northorn Arakan,but
its commorcial value is to some extent neutralised by the ittdc and
ignoiant syatom which the cultivators adopt in curing it. To
educate them ill this part of the work, a “farm” was established
in the locality in 1877, under the charge of a European who had
had largo oxperienoo in coUivating and curing lobaoco. Under
his inanagemont there was ovoiy reason to hope for success; but
he started the work niuob loo late in the season, had to contend
with very bad weather and a gioat scaioity of labourers, while, in
addition (o theao drawbacks, ho was suffeiing from a painful
ailment ftoin which ho sOon after died. Qia auccessor found
matters in confusion, cud has confined hitnsolf lo growing a few
acres only of tobacco, on ibo ounog ot which he is now engaged.
The report on this ciop by vxperls in Calcutta will probably decide
the fate of the farm. IShould it bo continued, the intention is to
luaUo it a geneial nursoiy-giouud,—-not for tobacco alono, but for
such other oconomtcal products aa may be consid> red suitable.
The climate is unheaithy,—all but prohibitive either to natives of
India or to Kurgpoaus even of strong couetitution, and, unless the
labour queation can be solved, there is little to hope for from a
district which otherwise has within it the conditions of much
possible wealth. The establislimeut of a steam-Iaunoh on the
Koladyne nvei ought to be attended with excellent results*
NOTES ON ISOME POREIQN TOBACCOS AT THE
PARIS EXHIBITION.
rilHE following arc a few short notes upon the exhibits of foreign
^ tobaoooa which were exhibited in the different foreign seotiona
of the Pans Exhibition. 8ome new facts are also added, collected
from the different catalognea, which all more or less contain Informa¬
tion of value. The statistical and other iuforiaation obtained from
the different olficiai pubUoatious is necessarily much oompiessed.
Spamtii Colonies ;^Amongst the different regions which produce
the most aromatic tobaccos, alike noted for their boyitet and their
exoellence, the Island of Cuba is pre-emiaently distinguished. The
priuoipal Havana manufacturers of cigars have made an excellent
exhibition, and there can be no doubt that they have been oarefal to
display only their very best prodaotlons. lu the Moorish pavilion,
where they are laid out, is to be seen, side by side with cigara of tha
most oelobrated brands, leaf tubaoeo of incomparable ffoxibiliiy, deUoacy
colour, and aroma. In taot, the perfection of cigars is to be seen
both in the nature of tbe leaf and the mode ot mauafacture, In Cuba
there are p lantatlons leuowoed for their tobacco, like there are vine
jerds in Burgandy and tbe Bordelais celebrated for their wine ; and
amongst these the most dlsilaguished in the Champs do Mars are
vodoubtediy the Lena, the Hotode la Orus, and Bio Hondo, all in tbe
Voelta Abajo, The prices of the tobaccos exported from those planta¬
tions are very high ; they sometimes even reach from 3,000 francs to
4,000 francs the quintal. The well-known brands seem equally to inilslii
m
,THB INDIAN
Miidx 1/ it#.
npon btitig jr«m«tt<iri^te4 thtfr r«paUiUon, fttid nffix Iktgli ptlopi
to (beir otgftrt* W« gotbw from the dlffaront Sxbit»ilion pobiieatloof^
tfaftt tlio trbole of Cob» It oot rqnalfg Itvouroblo to tho outfiTAtlon
of lobtoeo, bnt IfaBt the plootert Ijavorfablj Uintt their hopee to the
diilriot til trhieb tbaf grow» «nd ore never fooliefa enoogb to experimeot
in obtoiniog o different tpeclet of tobaooo to that for whtoh the coantry
ia adapted. Tbe riobeet diftriore arc io the weatof the colon/. The/
are tbe Vnetta Abajo, Patrt<Jlo$, and Vnelta Ariba. The firet^named
ia^ as ti w«II4(novrO| tbe tnoat fmportaot. Ita aonnal prodootion ia
abool dOOiOOO balea, of irbiab tbe average price variea between 20 and
20 plaatreafor each 100 kilos, of fillioga^ and from 160 to 200 piastroi
for the same amodht of leaf, Sometimea 100 kiioa. of v«r/ uoe leaf
have been known io fetch aamuob aa 350 piastre Tbe other tobacco-
producing diatricta are the Paorto Principe, Tierri^e Adentro, Uemedioa,
Qibara, Ace. Here the average price is 12 piaatrcf, the tobacco being
of a more ordinary quality. The total production of the Island ia now
about 42,000,000 kiloi., which la nearly one-tentb of tbe whole conaump-
tiou of the entire world. In 1862 it waa only 20,000,000 kiioa. The
average vatue of (he barveat 1i 413,200,000. It ig prmoipally in the
town of Havana ttaelf that the principal factories are situated. The
only protection they receive from tbe Government is that of their
trade marks. These are too well-known to our readers to require
reeapitnlation, but, awaiting tbe reports of tbe exports, they seem to
oQonpw at ihe Bibibltfon the same poaitiona they occupy in popular
estim^bn. The prices of tbe cigars exhibited vary between 26 and
400 plaatrea per thousand. I'be consumption of indigenous cigara in
Cuba alone is estimated at 600,000,000 per annum, and the export to
foreign countries is put down at another 700,000,000. The lldgie of
H anil la and tbe Planters of Porto Uico have also come forth satis,
faotorliy, but their exhibits poll ridioulomly before those of the Pearl
of tbe Antilles. The cheroots are very fine, and will no doubt receive
aomo commendation, but the cigars, though well made, are not very
pleasing.
IhtcA C(f!oniM,-^The tobaccos exhibited m the Dutch section come
partly from the mother country (which only produces very coarse
tobacco, well adapted for mixing with weak species, of wliioh it corrects
the insipidity), partly from the colonies, and especially from Java
and Bumatra. Tbe leaf tobacco of Java is remarkable for its beautiful
colour, the delicacy of its tissue, and its aroms, which recalls to our
mind rather too emphatically the odour of pears. It is admirably
adapted for covering cigaia. After Cuba and Manilla, the best tobacco
for everyday use undoubtedly Is now coming from Java. The exports
of leaf tobacco from this isltdld are annually worth about ^£400,000.
The Turkish tobaccos are neither nationally nor worthily
represented, and there is little to say respecting their appearance on
the Obamp de Mars. Some interesting facts are. however, to be
obtained respecting them from several tobacco publications at present
pervading the Bxhibitiou. The quality of Turkish tobacr^ ", usually
very good, is duo at once to the climate, to the nature of tht> soil, and
to the particular care which is devoted to tbeir culture, their drying,
and their pocking by the plauters, Tbe Ottoman Kmpiro possesses
plantations whore, like in Oubo, specially good spooit R are grown.
There the price is about 15 per lb.—even someiimes higher for the
productions of Yenidje-Karasow, where the best Turkish tobaoou is
grown,—which is quite uh much, if not more, than Ibo finest fancy
Cuban leaf, which has been subject to especial nlteaticiD. Turkey is
pre-eminently the laiid of smoking. It is oaloulatod that about
30,000,000 of Turks consume annual]/ over 100,000,000 lbs. of tobgoco,
of which nearly the entire amount is used fur smukiiig in pipes, in
the Ottoman Empire the indigenous ” weed” is subject to a tax entitled
“murouryd,” without the payment of which no transport is possible,
This tax amounts to twelve piastres per oke, which is very large, and
contributes considerably towards limiting the exportation. Those
species which are particularly in request lu foreign ooautriea are ne
beatiliful brown tobaccos of Salonica, Janina, Trebixoud, Aleppo,
Djebel, and Syria, and those darker and stronger of Mohaliebcu, Aii,
Siuier-Kiie, Latakia. and Abou-Reha, The tobacco leaf receives in
Turkey no other preparation for smoking than being cut very fine and
pressed. The aroma for which it is so much liked is due to the species
of fermentation which takes place whilst it is being pressed.
SERICULTURE.
TAgAU BEIUCULTUUK.
To TUB BbOBETABY to GO\ibBNMKNT,
Qoneral Department.
JaHffaofi, AAmdmffar,Ji0i^ January 1879.
SlB,—1 have the honor submit, for the information of Government
tbe following account of experiments m iasar sericulture during
the past year
1. As mentioned in my Iasi ifpuit dated Ist May 1ST7, when I left
Poona on famine relief doty, I gave over everything oonneoted
with the subject to Mr. Woodrow, the buperiotendeot u( the Oovern»
meut BotaUkOal Gardens, Gaaemti Khind, including the cash
account of Ra 871-7-6. In December 1877,1 was transterred from’ the
Diiarwar to the X’oona Revenue Survey, aud on my return to the
station of Poona lu July 1878, for the monsoon recess, I resumed
charge of tbe experiments. The cash balauco then amounted to
Ha. 421^.8.
2, My former experlmeats,. as well as those oouducted by Mr.
Woodrow, bad proved that It was h miaUke to attempt ^ .«i«r these
worms on twigs, either cut from road^side trees, u ‘um those
whioh had receive^ •oniti Mfo aad aCtentfoo in a garden^ and 1tl#l
the plan most likely to enoeeed waa to feed them on ebrnbe In looatltlei
where they could be protected Itoni their enemieSt <tiid H needlMi
from unfavourable weather, With ihlt view I began to ooUeot yonng
plants.
0. 1 hod noticed in 1876 that (he tasar irorm throve welt on
Lagerstrmmia ludica, an oroamenia] efariib^ fairly abundant to tbe
oaotonment of Poona; this is a plant whfeh throws up a good nmny
suckers during the mousoou, and I soon got a few plants together.
1 took a bouse which was well supplied with shade and water, an4
my gardener managed to oolleot 172 plants between December and
July, many of them only a few Incbee high, but eome were large
enough to tie of use. There were also in the ground 6 bushes, and
my first care, when I came in from the districts, was to out them all
back to the hard wood, and apply to their roots a fair amount of
manure. The consequence was that as soon as the rain commenced
plants shot moet freely into leaf.
4. Mr. Woodrow bad not been able to save any seed cooooiii.
but 1 had found three female cocoons in the diatriete, and
the Marathi woman, who had been my chief aaiistaot to
' looking after thoee worms before, had eoUected 12, I eoofi had
several moths from these roooone, and found, as I had noticed
before, that there was no difficulty In getting an abundant supply of
fertile eggs. Hardly any females were wasted ; it was only neoeseary
to put them out over night on any bush, and it was almost a certainty
to liud them paired at daybreak. I found that it was not seoeeeary
to tether them, they rarely moved from the twig on which I placed
them. As fast as the young worms batched out, 1 put the traye
containing them^among the leaves of the plants, and in a few hours
they commenced feeding, The weather was everything I could desire,
showery with a few breaks of fine weather ; the bushes were full of
young shoots, and the worms throve as I have never seen them
thrive before. I tied bamboo soieens together and covered over the
plants as they stood in the open, Tlie worms changed their akioe at
intervals of 4—6 days, instead of 5—8, as had been (he case when
I reared them indoors on gathered food, and they spun tbeir cocoons
in .^-35 days, instead of 40—60 as 1 had noted before. The mottie
came out of these cocoons in 27-—SO days, and tbeir eggs proved
ferule, produoiug oaterpillare which grew as fast and as large as tbe
first. The only difference that I observed was that the "cement"
of the cocoons of tbe later crops was less uniformly white ; this may
have been dus to the changes in the weather or the quality of the
leaf, some shrubs having been eaten off three and four times this
monsoon.
6. The Lagorstrmmia bush proved an excellent food, it fiusbed so
quickly that a plant 2 feet high, after being fed off quite bare, cut
back and repotted, was again in thiols leaf in a fqrtnight, and the
same batch of worms etript it again. In changing the plants and in
daily examining the cages, a few accidents occurred, but 100 worms
yielded 71 ooooous.
6. 1 enclosed an old Oarissa carandas, which had neither been
pruned nor manured, with bamboo ecreeus and liberated 60 worms
there. Ju tbe course of a month, 1 gathered 81 ooooons, a little
larger than those of the Lagorstnemia, hut much harder and yellower.
Tbe caterpillars seemed to thrive a little bettor on this bush, and
completely stnpt it, but the tree did not recover quickly and did not
yield another supply of food the whole monsoon.
7. X put eix worms on to a young Ziaypbus jujuba tree in my
^a’den, but neither enclosed it, pruned it, nor manured ft. It had
i\ great deal of leaf and flower on it, and the worms ate both,
They grew very largo and healthy, being in every stage of tholr
existence a little ahead of some of tbe same batch feeding on
Lagerstrmmia. Five ooooons were spun here, larger than any that 1
hail gatheted from off the other trees.
8. I let the majority of the moths fiy away, for so soon as the
male has left her., the female is quite ready to go and look for suitable
trees to deposit her eggs on. 1 bad not enough food for more than
100 worms at a time in my own compound, and almost every attempt
which 1 made at bringing them up elsewhere, unsheltered by the
Bcreens, failed, Crows, squirrels, and other enemies carried them off,
and I hardly got a singlo cocoon; but in my own compound 1
oootinaed to rear a few at a time, ebauging them from one tree (o
another as I found it expedient. The result of the experiments which
1 ma^lo showed me plainly that plants in the ground with or without
screen, over them, gave the moat suitable food; that it mattered
not whether the young ehoots were eaten down by tbe oiterplllurs
or cut off by the pruning ebears. Tbe Lagerstriemia ever eprouted
again, •.mdit was only the very limited supply of food, which 1 had
that pn vented me rearing many more worms.
9. From tbe single experiment I have toentioned, Oarissa does not
seem to recover quickly. Ziryphus seems to grow very fast, principalJy
at the extremities of its {png straggling branches, but as I only bad one
tree in my oompoand, 1 could sot be sure about its usual habit of
growth.
10. I baked some of the cocoons gathered from each of these 8 trees
and sent them home to Mr. Wardle, asking him to give me an opinion
on the qaalities of the respective fibroa 1 had all the buret and injuved
cocoons cleaned, and sent them, together with those whioh Mr. Woodrow
had on band, tojthe Alliance Mills to Bombay to be oonvected into yarn.
1 have kept some fifty seed ooooons for next year’s experiments.
11. I have got together a good maay plante for next season's
t>xpMrimeut8—863 Lagersdrmmia Inilica ; 10 Lagerstramia Farvifiora |
13 Conooarpus Latlfolia j plants and cuttings all rooted and lu leaf;
also 186 Oarissa Oarandas, 136 Zizyphus Jujuba, 106 Pentap-tera
TomeuYosa. seedlings ; there are besides 3 Zisyphns bnshae in the
oompoand ; and if my gardener will but takeoare of these during my
eight months' absence from Poona, 1 hope to rtoame my experlmwnts
under better auspiees.
12 . The past season has been very favourable for tasar worms. Ur.
Lyle, vrho wMoaltivAting them to a sipall extent mi DapnrI to 1876,
TUB WiMT
m
of U» mtii wlio iroc»voder MnttwQi OiivatoUm
iSSjf Afld 0 )^ l»l«i Vhcther ba vroolad ftoy more oooem «or they bad
H«it«ppened to be oo tbe aod teot« nwo to an ho«
aony bo ooiil4 o^leet within S hoon, So oftmo book with 800, and
«a(d ihot ho bid beard that oome people bad been taking them Into
Poooa fdraalo, pretomably to tha native phyploiana I myiall have
oboady fSoqod many more eaaaaliy ihii year in the dUtriote than 1
alnaUy do<
#18, 'Ddrbig the four moitthaof 'tbe moaeooa lapeot Re. 138*8-9 in
tomiog the ptantatfone I hare enumerated in paagraph 11 and In
nreteoting the worms while feeding. I have etill 384*XJ^6 left out of
the money pYaoed at my disposal In 1878, and a detailed aooount of
this expenditure hes been saOmitted as usual to the Aooountaot-aeneral,
G. OOCYSSMAEKR,
Assistant Ruperio tsndeot, Revenue barfly.
<7U&S0lt£:/ THE PARIS £XEIB1T£0N.
T HB fact that tha native eilk Usbuob of India, with their
gold and iilver mixtures, exhibited in the great Exhibition
of 1651, has bad a wonderful eEoot upon tlie decorated textiles
of England is now pretty generally acknowledged by those whoso
onions are worth anything upon the subject. The high charao*
ter of these fahrios, iho wonderful texture, the perfect harmony
of colour, were a revelation in 1851, and It has boon a subject of
greatdnhsrest to inquire how the native weavers vijjth their s»mple
loomweUold produce BttCh fabrics, and still more how they could
with such certainty calculate upon the precision of effect desired
being the result of certain combinations of dyed thread when
wrought together. Attempts have been made oves and over
again to emulate, not to say imitate, those effects ; but with all
the applianoes of modern chemistry as applied to silk dyeing, and
the great variety of tint produced by these means, even when the
original Indian pattern bos been taken thread by thread, the
European-woven counterpart, although frequently very effective,
never had the charm of the original Eastern work, and almost
every attempt to produce analogous fabrics in which the pattern
was itself European invariably failed in the element of colour.
The secret of the dyed silks of India appeared to bo impenetrable,
but why no one could tell; for, after ail, the secret appeared iu be
on the surface; and so it really is.
The Commissioners for India brought together at the Paris
Exhibition a very raisoollatieous but very valuable and suggestivo
series of illustrations of native manufactures of a comparatively
low and cheap character, examples of products common among
the people of tho various provinces of India ; and amongst other
illustrations was one of the native silk of India—the product of
the Tasar, Tusseb, or Tussor worm, or wild silk also examples
of the eggs from which moths have been dovelopea during tho last
summer, and finally cocoons, Ac. In addition to the silk itself in
its primitive stale, examples of thrown silk, “tram and *' organ-
ziue,’* and a Iso dyed examples, there were exhibited speoimeus of
the native dyes from the plants used by the natives for tho
production of those colours and tints which have been puazhug all
iSurope for at least tho last quarter of a century. In the tints of
the dyed skeins, we see the elements of the harmony of iiio
native woven manufactures of India, not produced by costly
materials and elaborate pioeesses, but by Tcgutable dyes
obtained 'from the com*»»"* plants ot the country and appllod by
the s»H>« Mojpie ingenuity, wbiob reaches its culminating point in
tiie prioiitive loom of Cashmere. The fabrics shown woie cliiefiy
dyed and printed, the printing having boon affected in a very
suitable and characteristic series of designs by Messrs. Warldle of
Leek, to whom the Oommissioiiers confided the experimontal
illustrations.
The practical issue of all this will, it is hoped, lead to the intro-
duotioo commercially of these native dye stuffs totlie silk and other
dyers of Europe. The French silk manufacturers are greatly
excited at the pniepeol of obtaining such dyes, and regard the
little exhibit in the India section with unusual interest. It has,
however, still to be seen how far the colour and the quality ot
European silks will oome through the prooess of dyeing with
those dye stuffs, and whether the coveted result will be as com¬
pletely attained as iu the soft tints of the wild silk, the prod not
of the some country. Of course opinions differ on this point, but
at .present they are oply foregone concluaions arising out of other
conditions of material.
The silk is said to be found “from the north-west range of
the Himalaya, south as far as Midnapore, iu Bengal and through
the north-east rapge to Assam, and southward to Chittagong,
and probably further. It is found also iu the residencies of Bom¬
bay and Madras. “It Is also stated to be abundant in Bhagut-
pore,inwigal, and in the eastern district of Ohattatiisgaib, the
Onahda dwirict of the Hagpore province, and the homo district.
It apjptors that this Mtoiid kina of silk has not been much dyed,
but the evi^oce of the examples in the Exhibition proves that it
is oapable of taUog in a very speolal manner as regards
harmony to tint, and this faeyms to be steadily borne in mind, as
it may inffuenoe the whotei^t^mmeiH^iaUy. The **!ruesore** raw
silk has a very peculiar natural itlat, which may be dss^bed as
a greyish drab. Tide may have mu^ to do with toe peouliSr sub¬
dued tint but wonderfully clear eolotir of the material When dy«d[,
and the whole quality of the dirumatto soale as dyed may
depend for its h)imiony Upon tois peculiarity of fhe raw eilk.
At all events the display of ibis “Ttisseh,” or “Tneeore,” by
the India Commission is well deserving of every ottentidn by those
interested iu the silk trade of Bnr^, and we have thought it
worih while to call special oUenlion to 41ifs aDi>retetiditig,'hiiM&
its economic aspeoi, very important iHustration of pecaliariy jialivo
products of onr EasSbrn possessions. Tlie fact that it is grown on
BO extensive an area, as also that the worm will feed upon a oou*
siderable variety of plants are all elements iuite future commeroial
Buoeess. Aa might he expected, the want of fineneoa and high
quality has hiUiorto been largely owing to an iinperfeot and un-
sldUftil inotbod of mauipulatiQii throughout, from toe cocoon
upwards ; and there can be no doubt that with the iutrodootioo of
proper moobinery, and the instruction of native growers, a corres¬
ponding improvement will be the result. This improvement is
fairly illustrated as regards quality, fineness, and oleano^i (n
sumo of the specimens shown, and eridcooe is given thar'^“Or^
gnnzine ’’ and “ train ” Of good quality can be produoed, and finally
woven into a very considerable variety of fabrics in which it has
iiiitil now been tho custom to employ mulbeiry-grown silks only.
There is another interosting and valuable feature of the ecoiiomio
value of this wild silk. The immense iuipruvcmeiits made of late
years in spinning machinery in England has rendered unwindable
and waste silk available for a great variety of purposes, since an
even thread is producablo from cocoons which formeily were
utterly useless. There is, therefore, every prospect that the
cocoons of this Tussore silk, which have been rendered unavaii-
able by the premature escape of the moth, can all he utilised and
spun for a great variety of purposes.
Specimens of another kind of wild silk—-three motlis and six
cocoons of Attaous Cynthia—were also exhibited. The silk is
known in India as Eti, or Efia of Assam. The filament is vary
delicate, and the natives spin it by hand, like cotton. The yarn is
mado into a coarse kind of white u*oth of loose texture, but great
durability ; in fact, a lifetime is not sufficient to wear it out. The
winding of tliis Eim silk is stated to have been recently accom^
plisliod, but tho filament is very fine of an inch. We oaunot
hut think that, a most important iuiure is opening, for the silk
dietricis of India, alike in their wild varieties aud in the innlbetty-
grown silks of Bengal which find their way into the European
markeiu, and by itiiptoved machinery have been so largely used of
late years. Nor must the fact of the introductiou of the native
dye Bluffs in connection with the native-grown silk be overlooked,
aiihough this apperUiiis rather to tho artistio side of the mauufao-
iurc than to its merely cominoroial aspect.
CINCHONA.
CINOHOKA CULTIVATION IN INDIA.
rilllE introduoticii of ciiiclicma cultivation into India was under*
X- taken with tho object of ensuring a cheap and unfailing
supply of the febrifuge for the use of the imllioiis who annually
suffer from fever.
Fevor is by fai the most prolific cause of death in India, cariying
off very mimy more than all other diseases and accidents put
loffeiuor. The total number of deaths from fever in India is «p-
erarda of amiliioii and a half annually. At least half these deaths
will eventually be prevented by patting some cheap form of the
(dnehoua alkaloids into every druggist's shop in the country at
one rupee per ounce ; aud thus mallitndes will bo saved from death
or grievous suffering.
Tho successful introdnclioii of cinchona cultivation into India
has been a task of oonsiderablo diificulty in all its stages. It was
not only iiooessary to transplant a genus of plants from one aide of
the world to the other, it was also an essential element of success
to convert wild into cultivated plants. This involved a close
study of the climate, sml, aud general physical as^iects of each
region whore the valuable species grow in ihotr native forests ; a
comparison of tln^so circumstanoea with tiiose prevailing in the
East Indies, the discovery of the best spsotes, and also of the
species >>est adapted to secure good results in their new homes, the
study oL all the requirements of the plants nndor oultivation,
wiihoul any guide, astl e cinchona had never before been oiiUi-
vated ; and finally, Iho solntioti of nuraorons very eomplicatod
questions relating to the best and cheapest form in which tho
febrifiign can be provided for general use.
Tho taiik was diffieult and complicated. Mr. Mmkliam nridortook
it in 1852, and all arrangements oounooted with the collection of
plants and seeds in South Amerios, anddheir conveyance to India,
have been made by him, and carried out under his superintendoiice.
HisoriginalpUawos to depute collectors to the different regions
of too Andes where the various species Ifiourish, to havs the ooHec*
tions mad# simnUanoously, and to convey them dimet acrosa (he
Pacific to India in a special steamer. But only a portion of his
irorl; irfiootf 1^
Jfpwt* .ftjfehiiliwiitJie , ,
Moy i;^ 4^ 40 vM might Ju«a bMn don* in tm dr two,
tU #ifcMliM Vet tli« vholf work ii oow 0 I
leittMui^etek
In iS$0 Hr. Merkbam wai only able to organiai three expert*
tioae : ooe imdor bii own oommand, to obtain plants and deeds 0 !
Ae oellsayas and other species from Oaravaya in Southern Perui
yielding the yellow barks of oommerce ; a seoond, ander Mr.
Fritchettf to oolleot species in the forests of CkiUtral Peru yielding
the grey barks of commeroe; and a third, under that eminent
botanist Biohatd Spruce, to coilect plants and seeds of the
mchona iucoirubra In the forests of Ecuador, yielding the red bark.
In 1860 the whole of this work was done and done thoroughly,
80 far u ths diffiouU and dangerous part of it in tbs Andean forests
and the oonveyaooe of the plants to eea ports on the coast of the
Pacific, were ooncerned ; hut the failure to furnish the means of
direot eonTsyanco to India led to disasters which were ineritsble.
l^ie njaots had to be oooe^ed across the Isthmas of Panama,
then ^England, than proas Egypt, and down the Bed Sea to India.
The fiiet ioatalment from Southern Peru all died on the passage, or
after reaching India ; but the seeds forwarded in the following
year germinated, end thus a atoolr of C. CaUiaya trees was secured.
Subs^uently more seeds from Bolivia, collected by Mr. Ledger
were received, and the plants raised from them have proved to be
an eioeedingl£ valuable variety, which has receivea the name
L^dgBTwmZ The second instalment of plants consisting of those
yielding grey bark, was equally unfortunate, but the precaution
had also been taken of obtaining seede from which a stock of
plants yielding grey barks was estsblisbed in India. The third
instalment, coming at a cooler season for passing down the Bed
Hea, was more fortunate. It consisted of plants of C. $ucdruhra,
yielding red bark, nearly all of winch arrived safely. Thus by
1862 the arrangements made by Mr. Markham as regards the
above species were crowned with complete success ; but the work
of introducing all the best species was still far from hushed. It
remaiped to obtain the valuable species from Ecuador, yielding
the crown barks, and also the renowned species of Columbia.
Accordingly Mr. Markham obtained sanclion for the despatch
of a collector to Cuenca and Loxa in southern Ecuador to obtain
seeds of tho C. officinalis, the orginal species of Linnwus
(afterwards called C condaminea,) from tho bark of which the
Owntess of Oinohon was cored. For this service he seJooted Mr.
Bobert Cross, au experienced gradener, who had already acquired
experience under Mr. Spruce, with instructions to obtain a supply
of Wds of the best Loxa species yielding crown bark. Mr. Cioas
reached Ecuador in 1862, made a good collection in spite of
extraordinary difficulties, and the seeds arrived safely in India aud
Ceylon, and germinated freely. Mr. Howard, 11 k xveli-kuowii
quinine manufacturer, also presented a fine plant of C. ojfficinalis
(von Uritminga) from wJiich a large stock has been obtained. I
Thus tho introduotion of the crown bark species was secured.
Mr. Markham's next care was to obtain and introduce plants of '
a vaiuablo apeoies called C, pitagenm, which grows op the slopes |
of the Central Cordillera of Columbia, near Po pay an. For this !
working he again secured the services of Mr. Cross, who set in
1863 and made a good collection of seed, but, owing to damage
suffered in their transit, they did not gormiuiabe. After Home
delay Mr. Markham obtained sanction for a second attempt, aud in
1868 Mr. Cross again set out for Columbia, this time with more
fortunate results, for seeds of C, pitaymiia collected by Imu near
Popayan arrived safely, and gerimnated freely in India.
ujwhile tho destruction of C. m its native forests
led tho collectors to seek for other trees la more distant regions, and
anew bark began to appear in the matket, of great value, known
as the OalMtiyadc Sania Fi. Mr. Markham resolved that this species
should also be introduced into India. The eervice wae one of
special difficulty aud dangerj for I lie trees are only found on the
eastern Cordillera of Ooluinbuv, near tho sources of the Cagheta.
He again Intruoted the work to Mr. Cross in 1877, and again his
confidence in that intrepid and most able explorer was justified.
In March 1878 Mr. Cross arrived at Kew with a good supply of
plants of the CaUsaya de Santa and also of tho C. cordi/oUa,
yielding the Carthageiia barks of commerce.
Thus at length ell valuable species of fibrifiige cin nona
plants, indigenous to 8ou‘b America, have been successfully intro¬
duced into India. They f.o as follows: -
C. Calisaya (yellow barke) bwlivis and Oaravays.
C. nifida 1 ^
V. micranttw > (grey barks) Central Peiu,
C , J. . _ -
C. «ucciruiro (red baiki) Ecuadfir.
C. oficitMili«(crowji barks) Ecuador.
JcolamUa.
C. oordifQlia J
The first and moat haaardous stage of the enterprise was the
collection of tho plants and seeds in South America, and their
convoyanoe to India. The second equally difficult stage was the ^
l uliivation aodtlie disoovrty of the species beat suited for India,
as well as the best method of treatment with a view producing |
the la»gest peiceiitago of febiiluge alkaloids in th<* {
.
to this duty ,r diid 0hp»0 «
, Adetheni ahifoa of the l?e%h
piahta of tho
attp at a greater ^levatioik uador tho WUhm |
0. itfidmlis plants. He al#o i^ooted ittaa lap ____
Ooorg, and the Puln^ Hills, and on tho oeooaiou of a oacond oioit*
to India in 1866, in Travinoofo igid Wjrnaodi
The successful conversion of the cinchona from a wild to a
cultivated tree is due to the unrivalled ekill apd aUUtjr of
late Mr, Mclvor, superiiiteodefit of oinchona oultiyatiou, k tho
Madras Presidency. Mr. Mclvor propagated the plants with
great suooess, established them in the plantations, discovered the
conditions under which they would mve tho largest yield, and
also the method of renewing the bark by the tnossiug process,
which undoubtedly secures an increased percentage of fehrifuga
alkaloids. The final oonolusions are that tlie (7. Sttceifttifa
species is best adapted for use in India, and for furnishing
abundant snpplies of a cheap febrifuge while the C. qffictnafiB
and the Columbian kinds will be the moat valuable
burke for the London market, and for the securing a retnttOera^ve
returu on the outlay. By 1870 the NeUgberry oinohon a plauta-
tioufl, belonging to the Government covered 1,200 acres of gronnd,
while private individuals poM»«oeit several thriving and paying
plautatiouB on tho Koifgherries and in Wynaad, 235,747 plants
having been d^tributed up to 1876. In the same year there were
over a million cinchona trees in the Government plantations.
^In 1862 a cinchona plantation was eatablished in British
Sikkim, under the superintendence of Dr. Andereon ; plants, of 6'.
succirubra having been obtained from the Neilgherzy hills. Other
kinds are * not lUrely to flourish in the Sikkim climate, but the
G Buccirulra is well established in the Bangbee plantation. By
the vear 1875 there were upwards of two million plants of &
ctmira at Bungbee, and the propagation can be carried on with
ease to any extent.
Thus the second stage of the enterprise, namely the onltivation,
wae crowned with complele euccess.
The third and most important measure is the supply of a cheap
febrifuge to the people. As soon as it was established that the
C. euocirubra would be tbe best species for India a veij^ critical
point arose. That species yields a very large percentage
of total febrifuge alkaloids, but only a small quantity of
quinine. Mr. Markham saw that it waB< of vital conaequenoe to
discover the medicinal value of the other alkaloids, namely
Ginchouidino, quinidino, and cinchonine ; and to aaoertain
whether they, equally with quinine, possessed the preoioua
febrifuge qualities. He accordingly obtoined the ap|mintmeiit of
Medical Oommiseiona in 1866 for oach of the three Presidencies,
to investigate and report upon this question. The result was that
cinohonidine (the principal alkaloid in (7. succirtt5fa) and
rpiinidine were found to be quite equal to quinine, and oinohomne
luferior, though still efficacious in larger doses. This was a great
for it made a cheap febrifuge modiciue possible. The
tiiktraction of pure quinine is au expensive process, but the
production of a medicine oontainiug the total alkaloids iu the
park is easy aud simple.
This important fact having been established, Mr. Markham nett
urged the adoption of cinchona cultivation into India ; namely,
the preparation of a febrifuge medicine at the Government
plantation, which should coutain all the alkaloids, and should be
saleable at a cheap With this object Mr. Broughton was
appointed as quiuologist on tbe Meiigiiwtjr Hills in 1866 : and in
1873 Mr. Wood received a similar appointment xor tne Oibkim.
plantations. Mr, Brenghton adopted a method for the manufac¬
ture of his medicine which entailed the use of alcohol and wav,
therefore, too expensive. Up to 1873 he had made about^ 600
lbs. of au amorphous cinchona alkaloid, but tbe eaaential
requisite of cheapness was not seonred. His method was
consi quontly abandoned. Mr. Wood began his actual manufac-
torit\' operations in 1675. His method is the aome as that
recoc mended by the learned qninologist of the Hague, Hr. J, E.
De \'rij, who calls the resulting product quinetnm. The powdered
bark IS first exhausted with cold acidulated water, and tbe resulting -
liquor is precipitated by a caustic alkali. Scarcely any fuel Is
requirok^^ aud no expensive maohinery merely some wooden tuba
aud calico filters. There can soon be yielded, by hia prooesa, about «
140,000 ounces of an efficient cinchona alkaloid every year at
a cost of less than one rupee per ounce. Quinine, in England is
from eight to nine shillings an onuoe, aud in India the price is
much higher.
Thus the great object of this difficult undertaking ie on the evs
of being secured ; axid an inestimable blessing will be conferfad
upon India ; while at the same time the barks rich in quinine will
be sold in the Loudon Market, and will repay all the outlay with
interest. The sum of £40,000 was realised by these aalea in 1877
alone. While on the one band, cinchona cultivation Will be a
most remunerate public work, on the other it will rob the maloHons
fevers of India of three-fourths of their victims, and will to that
extent diiAinivhthe amount of human misery and soifering.
A UOHTaiT
SOVliiiAL OF INDIAN AGRWULTUllE, MINEBALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. IV.]
CALCUTTA : TUESDAY, Iot ArillL, 137 'J,
[No. 4.
NOTICE.
119DZAK AcmicuLTonisT will U 8\Ti-ipU@d to all Scimh nad
in India al half yrivc,
11 KNIGHT.
OalcnltR, let Feb. 1870.
... . I I I r I - - I - I II I ..
CONTENTS:
lEIlEliS TO THE EDJIOE.
> rAQB,
LB'ftKtta'- '
Artesian Wells .101)
Information Wanted.100
ludiaiiand Australian Wheat loO
Tea eoile ... U'O
JCftiis GfttSfl .110
Bamboo .110
BeO'Cnltuio .Ill
Ihli Farming.Ill
KoUghuc NotoH .11-
Auriculluru in ibo Sarun Pis-
Liict ..lli!
The iSajfat Industry at Dluokuy,
QueetislaiKi ... ... HI
Tho WUd Olive m BuimaTf HT)
LuAMSO AKTJCLlf.®S —
*1 he Bamvrih Cotton plan I- ... ll<i
Ouitivntuiii aud JMaiiulactUto
ot ‘l'e» .11"
Indian Itiveis.I Irt
.tottiUifs from Madm^j I'JO '
VillaiiO Statibtica .1-0
Ewi'oaiAE. NoIks ... . Vil
C'OMMfNJOA'lBI) &, bKLlU'TlCD—
The Argun Tree of iloroi'oo... iy&
Agiioultiu.M JLeeLin;? and
CuIlIo F.ui .it f^ounftil,
Kattywar. . llid
The Ouniison I ho ilnnaiayas IjJ?
Calhjjdiylliiin liutvhylhim ••• 1-0
Atiriciilttual K\punm(.ias ., I'i'i
PfjZ'i FoUiJiaerH .1110
.llu)andi*hfthr A r r i c u 11 u ral
hhow and liur ... lijo
The Uate.JPuim if the roiRiuu
Unit .IM
An Kccinomic Burcuii . .. U'.l
Ciuu&moa .I Hi
New Commercial Phinl'i ... 1H2
The l*«paw .IW
Manure .. , ... IH)
Carbon a» Plant Foud ,
The Geological Kuivoy of
, India ... .. ... IH't
1 Taoi..
Engliuli Fruit trees lu Mani¬
pur .. ... ... IHt
ExpA-iunoTital Farmnitf lu
Mysoio ... , . ... IBl
SfiRtticauo at Belltiry.133
't’he First employment <>f
Guaiio ... ..I'h3
\iiliio of Wood Ashes us
Maiiuio .23^
Chloiulo o( Iauio as an
Insecticide ... ... 13 j
Gau]jun<—
Notes .UI)
; Agiicultu).d iiud Horhcul-
j tui.al Bouety ol India ., !•%
1 Foisii'iriu —
j ISoL.'fc, *.l-'d
1 Timuin^; ot youug Fort .tor
i lor lud.a . . ...
Ihc etlccl i;l' C'lal I'.ii n'-.
i^uu'klliuc ou luidoriiiound
i ‘JLiiiibor , ... . I
I T’hc Flvi'da Al.i> itoi Tn u . J.'P
I Austiulmii Tief's iCoihoi ... IMt
! Avl'ijucsou Dibtrut II'.vL l.''J
1 Tiri’I tlA/'lLl'L'—
I 'risA—
I Not^» . , .. HI >
' Coj I ai —
! Notes.li('
j f olleft huaf-IHxciioO . ,.11!
j Tj.lieuan r.»/l ce , . . . 1 U
j AriuuIiuic Ivr PlanLer;i 1!1
'I'lM’.M » i)—
I 'J'ooicco Cultiiation ... il»
1 tivLiroM—
Null' .1)1
Citicliftmi Culture; 11 uv to
fc'iiM' ;ht' Ijib 'Ui and 1 A*
pitiM i.i “ Out "
i .ScL’dlii)j;s ... ..
; 3Iepi)ft on Ihu Gnvermitoxt
Cinchona l’hd"i]Mte(o ui
Java for Ihc UU Qu irlcr,
; !«'•« .. ,113
1 AllVKUni3l4aiIfiNT."s ... .. llti
NOTICE TO COUIlESrONJ)ENTS.
Our Coire&pondenis ami Cvntrihutors will ftrcfilj/ vhh'f/e ju
. iJ'ihtjf will take the trouble, where the returns ot cuJUvalion are
H^^eiaUd hy them in Judian n\ight$ and nir'i.orr.-ij to <jice then
Kngliih ^uiml&nU, either ia the UM, in parttiUwti*^', ot m a
foot-noUi The bigali tn particular tonee iiO murk nt the dtp
Jerent Provinces, that it ts absvluteh,' necvt^sar'/ to pin Ho
English value of it in all cans. It tvould he a gnni icjut'o
if the Gopertmenli itedf followed the mme course tn all the
offloial reporie puUi&htd iu
----^—*.'*f.... .... -
Will F. L. Ulndly send hie eddreei (o the JESdilor who bus it com-
nBt&icaiion tt/orwird ta him*
AUXESIAN WELLS.
.Siii,—May I rc(]uePt you, or any of llio readers of your VftluhbJtf
journal to be kind enough to give Iho pnbho some lufurtuftUoQ regarding
Aiteaiftu woUp, whioh biivo, 1 hear, beou couNlrttoted iu Pondlohcry,
Madras Proaidcucy ; suoU os the coat of their couBtruc^ou, and the
feasibility of consLiuoluig them in the Madura distnut,
JNQUIREB.
DmiiKul, lot March 1S70,
INFOUMATION WANTED,
Sii!,—Will you kindly permit me to put tho tulluoriug (luesiione, iho
solution of which would put me and my country under your highest
j oMigation,
I 1. Whut arc the best meanri, uuloral a«i well as artilHal, to obtain
! n large ipianitiy of gum and lao from such trees as are capable of
I piodueing Iheui.
I 2, Which treoH or ralher wliieh kindh o£ liecscau bo boat propagated
j by cultingi^, ami whioii by Hotils I
I J, Would you rocommciid iiimiig: a soil GBU'emely sandy 7
' Ccrlttujy uol.—‘Flu./, J.
I It 8 K
j l>nb March
i - -- -—
I j.\J)JAN AND AUSTRALIAN WHEAT.
Sin,--! iiavc had speciti! oppuiuinitn m of seeing; various cereal graius
, luU'Jy. J lind that tho wheats (‘s-jorted from Imlu are foil of filth
j irom tho iru'de of Dircshing. They uro also lui&ed with vetches aud
j bailoy. Ju sinking contrast lo the Indian whuats, i find (hnt tho wheat
' fiom Sonlli Ai.stiab.a ia t>i rl'ictly clcuu. It is out tbero by a maobiuo
I called ‘‘llidlcj's leaping machiiio,” Ihis imploment will work only
when Ihn whiiiit i« ,voll riponod and diy ; but those conditions are
! gi'ueially jn.'i lu Ihv N -W. T , ut any i.itvi aitut the suu has caused (he
I dew tu uv.'tpoiaio. Ihe muohuio'^iiiiply cuts off the ears andc&lraots
* ilm gruiuticmi them as it luivols along, f am conviucod that if it can
I bo adapted to bulioil .'a!K>ai, tho innnduebuu of this machiue would
' )'rovu n cut boon to upper India aud dvUii ie. It would get in tho
! curu Ircu tit'iu the dni uf the ' kuiii'in.” mid would luoreoTcr leave
, tho low gtowiu^' pulsos uuUmclwd. Uf cuurse if the villager sows
' *'guojai,” tho luaohiiio would tutu out goiijv.i. J merely give you Iho
j hint for what it :i woiih, but 1 hope that some eulerpnslng aemindar
; or oITGcial will juusecuto c*mpiinos from tho (ioveiument of South
' Australui, If ludimi wheats weio reaped bke Australian wheals, they
! would hung ft far higher price lhaa they do in the English maiket
I Tho muihinu I wri'.e about is raudo iu Australia, and I have not as yet
i bocti able to discover » .sjur] ) spuciraou in WnglanJ ; but if any of’ your
roadors intcivst tbuniaolvijs ID the subject, £ shaU bo very happy to
' fts.siHt them 10 making fiiilhcr enquiries.
II, MIDDLETON ROGERB, LaTB B. 0. H.
! 20, Corn Exchange Buildings, Loudon.
I nSTEniOIlATlON OF TEA SOILS.
j . 111 !,—Iu fhH JnMgn AitntuUnrist tat JPeltraury l.t, 1870, tier. !a a
voiy clt.vcr and interesting report of Mr, E. C. Bdirottky, on tho sub-
joot of Kaiks Gra«s la the Banda distriot, in which ho slates : —
If Kans has fuken possession of ony field and is left olouo, it
exhausts itpolf after ton to fitteen yeaia' oontinuouB growth (or rather
'' exhausts iu that period tho peculiar dements la tho sod which sup-
port it). If, however, the sot) is distuirbed or cultivated, Kans will
m
THE
Mui
^ m allowEa io m EaoMfradly upon the eoH, by etirriug it qp, ihfre
** will be lit tm Um ebeukleel oambiaitloaa tome mm ofitbe peeste
elemeute, Katti ^e to ea^ the addiUoaal nouiiijibpiem thu#
** futoiehed, trUl p^olopg the exiitence ct E^Qt beyond the etne) period),”
The ftbove exeitiy repremuif tbe pies^t atete ot the case ea regardi
(oA outtifetion-*'* the paonliar cletnenia in tbe aoU wblcb inpport tbe
iee^plent ere being axbauated'* Irou ofer^pluoklog; and although
manuring la largely carried out ou many gardena tbe ezbauatton above
ailoded to ia bat delayed, not prevented ; wbiob^an only be uoutraliaod
by giving tbe pianta a reaf, and allowing them to mature ibei<' ** llusb”
Icarea, aayi once in four yeara, lotting ttie natural vegetation ol tbo
place grow in ita own natural luxuriance, mature da aeoda, and die
donzi» after which dig it all iu and carry on the cultivation ia tbe
ordinary mauner.
It may be aaid that ebareholdora will object toloaiug ihoir dlvidenda
every lourth year—better tbia, Ibougb th<iu not obfainiug any loi
half a generation, or perhepe for ever. £ 1 titl oiattorg need not go tine
length, but may be avoided by plucking annually fr m only throe-
fourtbi of a plantation leaving tbe other fourth fallow and thus give
tbe plants rest ono U r years, and allow them to n und r '^u
tbetr seed and to oe lu .atural a state as It s poei do 'or a uul
tlvated economic plant to be.
The present system ot coutinucus plucking of tl ' new ie ;e 8
resembles the operation of kllHug (ho goose that laid tdo golden eggs
Aisiit Nature and she will reward you, try to force her and punisbme (
will surely ensue. U, 1 \ T.
KAN8 GRASS.
H.
1 .
8 X 11 ,—I was much interested iu readmg Hr, Sobrotlky’s on Kans
Grassy In tbe Indian A^frmdturist tor February 1st. Ilaviog
been at Jbansi iu 1874, where wo had relief, works, iu conecqueuoe
of the distress it produced, 1 came across a good deal ot Kaus and
rai very much struck with the phenomena which attend its appear-
liuee. My atteotioT has been a good deal drawn to Agricultural
Physics since leaviug Jhausl, and after tbiukiug out s >e matter,
1 felt B ' sflled that the appearance of Kaos slgnaliacd uio exhaus¬
tion of the soil in a maunor about which there could be no mis¬
take, I observo Hr, S. states ” that injudicious cxbuuation of the
soil is cue ot the causes uf its appearance."' Iu fa>’t the thou Com-
luitsioner of the distriot told me at ibo time, aud a native cultivator ooiu-
plaiuiug to me of kans also admitled the fact that I Um peirple tilled
and manured their land, they got the Kans down, but 1 am afraid, it w ill
be no easy matter to got saoh a measure as this ouforcod as a matter of
public safety, leaving oocasluu to look through a set of uuiilyses of
Indisu soils abo . two years ago, 1 oume across one of a soil ju the uatue
8 ta(e uf Xehree whiob joins ou to Jhausi, and is close uu Ih' ^ans devas¬
tated tract, but not so far as 1 have seen, us yet uifeoted, Oompariut this
wUh tbe other Boile, 1 was struck with the small amount of «u 4 >Uuria
acid preisut and pointed lhi» out to Mr, liarman of the Mysore
Agricultnral Department, who considered the matter worth
noting. 1 remark the same thing m Mr. 8 ohroUk> s analysis
of Banda soil, rotssh, Buda, chloiine and sulphuric aoid, together, only
amount to 0 5G in No. II overrun field, wb ^ iu No, 1 they 1 28, Ho
that tae sulphuric aoid musMjti a more traRf^. Now it is curous that
in Hr. S/e analysts ut Kaus ashes there js only 0*8 percent, lu the plant
Turning to tbe tables »u Hr. Scniotiky 'b Pnneipirs o/ Jiaiwnu/ Jigneul-
tura I notioo that most of the mefui anla require a very much laigor
proportions than ibis auiiuai >‘yu gre^ for instance, as much as
S'4D per cent., wheat utraw 8 'iV< rje straw ie the »olc compeuior
BiBt«-HAvIiig read Hr, Sahfottky% t^oti m the weed eallad JtSm
id, the local 1 (eke (he liberty to. expreiii tty ovm theory and
thoughts on the subject. They are hesed solely on praotieal kaovledga
of the soil. 1 am a lam holder 6f a few vlllsget in the district. Hr,
Schrottky's remarks on tbe canses of its growth are learnedi mine are
vulgar and purely ruial If you consider these few lines worth any¬
thing, you may kindly insert them in some corner 0. yout'yvalnable -
paper.
Kans is a weed which grows parlioniarly (n mar* and caher landSi
and seldom in Uch pmdiva ; hut is *^lmo8t unknown in rankert The
former two are ocnaiderod the rich' soils for oultivatlon and the latter
are light onoA
1 rngatiou and manuring are almost unknown In the district* Farmers
jolly Uenen J on rain and air. They do not plough deep, nor more
(hi», ooce, bnt ' w the seeds in big cloda When they have eztraoted
from thd elemen^ pe' rliar for the growth of certain crops without
obangir nen.. and tho ^ Ao'ency Is not supplied by any artifihlal
zneai ^ " me» impoverished, and must needs have recourse to
Borno .uAturui nod, . hen the land is exhausted or when those fructi*
i. ig elements are washed away by heavy rains, tbia weed must grow up»
reason why this weed has such long roots, 1 think, is because tho
soil was full of* those elements, but when they have become extinct on
tbe surface, they still exist under it at a certain depth. It Is a natural
means to pump up those elements to the surface of the soil by capillary
process, and when it has performed Its functions it dies a natural
death. *
This is a very slow process, bat at the same time a most certain one,
very often takes seven years to perform, Now it Is the business
. f u'l experienced agriculturist and practical chemist, to invent and
iniroduce a more steady method. It muB t at the same time bo a cheap
oue, otherwise it will be ot no tiso, more especially iu this poor distriot.
I know nothing of phosphoric or any other acids, because 1 have
no muaus to analyse the soil, nor have 1 a sulQcieot knowledge of
chemistry. I may venture to state a vulgar method which may
suit the means of tho poorest class of fanners not quite unknown to
the people at large of Banda district. If the cattle are kept feeding
uu the heldA (he kaM will not grow, and if the soil is already infested
with the weed, it will vauiHli sooner
There is another method wbloh 1 mouu to try next season—and
which if proved succeseful may etil) be a more expedient method. 1
mean to make dlluhea .itouu'i t^' ^tld audio have a sort of embank-
ineiit round them, .u erder to p.. unt the water f> m running away.
This must be la addition to the above procctis
Tbeue arc my own thoughts, 1 have never had an opportunity ot
'oading those treatises named m Hr. Schrotlky e report.
A FAKHKB,
Band 'itew ,{$79.
N- * turn to Iho above exprriments, whjdoes,.*' a farmer not
a porliou the Kau^t inlebted laud, as recommended by Mr, Bchiottky.
— a.
BAMBOO.
Sir —I find tnat m my last letter to you of the 23rd January, 1
omitti'dto call year attention to the last report t received from Mr.
Itohnrt Thomson, page 27 of tho brochure 1 sent you at that date.
nio letter you published from mu iu your January number, gave the
raai er of my comtuumcation to the Bocretary of Btate for India, there¬
fore ^ aseume you would not repeat that portion of my print.
11 .'W send you copy of extract from the Demerara Soj/al Goistte,
with Kans for the short comoionB ot 0 8 per cent. Todeod 1 once i Janii ry 9th, which perhaps vou will poo well to insert, as it bears on
made a formal allueion to the Jhausi fawiiio ^inupcd by Kana ' 1*'® o* growth, prou, ‘Ou, and cropping of tho bamboo, and
and with some diifideoco suggested that an anal^His 1 .lad seen, ludiruted
the abaenoo of enough eulphuno acid as the promotiri|i! cause of Kaos.
I also stated broadly ui) aprcfiflioo that the grass bsiK^cneti that the
laud was exhausted, and t at us far as I bad seen thoie was ooihing
to prevent its appearance t'the entire adjoining districts in time,
1 see iu Johnson's How Q'opi, Unm\ an American book, that in the oat
plant Boi exists much more lu ih 7 leuvcH U nu m the eleni, and that
on hloseomiug apparently Iho »»’lpUuric acid de^irtl^ the lower joints
of the oat stem entirely. Now my recol^ction ot Kans is. that :t
hae the appearauoe of animated straw whvT: '^'rowing, there
being httle green leaf about it, so that it is by .mstitutiou a plant, which
might be expected to contain tho mimmum of sulphuric ucul.
jP.A—Lime as suipbale.
In Tehtee sod . 0^002 per cent.
„ Xioivor Bengal sod •.0*414
Mo other sutphates in the analyses.
A, 1. F,
etrUn jtarihiSt Ihers should to no reason why what dame Nature egecta
in the VVcB* Indies fahuuid not likewise bo obtainable in the East Indies, '
Extr act from (ho H i/al tlauite, Demerara, West Inuies, January
9iL. 1879.
BeganUng the local '■ t* of bamboo so strongly advocated in
uU letter to Hi. W.lliam vVaixer (which we publish) one ot our*
voiintry readers writes thus —Dsmerara ia not specially suited for
" ban boo iiuietis the plant has good drainage and plenty of room. In
' lUL ; ^ ^ard Islands where it has both, it grows to a gigantic Slae;
" but hero it is apoor:biag. The low lauds abutting on the Sea are
" noL good fci' iK txi hoy are salt, and undrained ; bamboo blossoms
even when it has boon cut for firewood tho year before, X have seen
" it several times, the stools did not die, mobably because the stalks
were not too old, and were sucoalent^ and hfs^i^hy^ At an estate X waa
*' on, we had large quantities, and mrj ^ : < were out clean of,
•> ud oloM to tho looM, Md the a«x< .v>^r« hod iiww nvifIVi
»* ®W WyV.jsia'^^i to
K tiw wit ttiaiti .mtiitM
pi^, imi^i||^^^t/^iaP c«M»id owiHy ho g^at 13 * 4 *®
« iiiliW W bwdi good for flre-wcwjt dr for mnkfotf fc^h-mU drains j
^Mfaoyodtifffliodttifty $»f d{DoHe«)otig(>iii \htf oo^e t>t»t foom th®
*'dt0oi/ offor 0 eniling Mpooialty) makaa delicious piolulo mtide > like
, wa 4 oQt, Of oiibbsg«, or paa^paw, Ite®. WV ^‘tatiot tbo 3 ?, ?nd C.
** Soofoty giro a prize for aa ma^ tt>rUtin frm aa a,&iii>^ti of
t* fapU 7 Xi le a folfooy to sappose that bamboo Ir going to grow eitho'^ m
**a ewamp, or *v hard, dry, and perhaps aait pasture on the fror^ *aruis.
** XI h well drained, kept clear o£ buehj aod hare water, not
etag&ant water, tout good rain or runojog water,*’ M> •jortespondt u*
ia Pemerara (a^ eatate>hoidei ?uo aeut m the •'-bore Ptfc*‘Act adds
** I hare aeen ou this werate Dlumps of bamboo ii 'o'*" niid ^
remained daitc healthy ifte.. »rde , X have ent thevn down tUi (c 1'
** roots, and also burned them, bot in a few moutba tbsy wer is
flooiishfng as ever,"
The above assuredly does not conio,lie with Dr er^m^nts
possibly, the variety of bamboo may havo ar .< wu. he
reason, or the age of tho clump, ds jo'i^'od c- i t humno ,
like an old man may losy ih vigour of •' hIk O' »n'' s 6 / 'nen.*.
were conducted on clumps of Jiavu.i^f^ lire* u, a*® v«ir*'" A
bamboo indigenous to Demerara ! boiievo to vo l/am/mr ‘"t
probably however the reason wav have been cllmatt* jo'^Iuo'ice, ui*
aulhoieuc laoisture^ at any rate cutiiag down tha whole ol Tr^ shoot i
both old and young should I think be nvoS led. •
TUOi^, uorvLvraii}
Claxhougb^ Soadrihnd, 20 Lh Peb> H’?;>
pleatlN iflid tlo^ra, e$p^tc(tlitf Ab tablata»i (kre luffleleblfoM tbetti,
Ko. i» X^o Fun|ab ntiak$i Oum this is a tride than
27 o*«S, and mat bo tho M WpfoiWfoilfe of the wild bee^ forU buUdi
tn the hollow of trew. Ii la datkiah ot colour. The honey ta min-
what tart. '
A Ireneh saioiAj In u moxtOgfoph on ham^ slates that bees war*
i)-'igh,aily brought to Europe by the Arayad Wde»i for ih^y were not
/^digttnouf Bees and honey for m a portion of the ofiertngs at the ** Ham”
sacrifice. i hud in the Vedas, and even now are used at *<abraddas,” but
as to their haring been oarnad to Europe by the Arayans Is an open
tluestioQ. Perhaps it is so, as the cereals were alscf taken by these people
wi ■uigrutiog Bal^««*«« are wild Ju the bille of India, and my getting
m the Salt rangA, bra.''11 ii.y mind the times of dobn the
d I* <!t probable * hao U •*, &i;, formed a portion of the
’ old. beltv>'^iagj» o. n; Cuu^awiuj races and were carried by
then' * y<ry ue i»p tbi dUid in,
Tt ... w-*ll fc»'owu tuat ufes wore unVuowi In Norlb America; the
Kyd Indim t . ti 1 »,.n *' FagUdh ily.’’ Now bee culture is a very
iojpoiteut bift'i . ti nJ'iftf ^ In sevyul Fatales, and tons of honey are
expo ,r. to and thoucr^’ds of sores cnltivatod with
ittiv 'Cl' >««.* ‘cu . jf e. ui^r unity d.-^lng nothing vise. There is no
wtt ..if ■ 1 'r' ,rip' hta alsi, and need not bo
COUhinr I t ' Ibf
M. tv BDCHANAH.
f iijerat ■, bard 5 i'
E(iT*, * Mail)
BliJ£'GUi,T‘jKE,
Yynr V'lluable paper ha;. i ftoii ' inled with reference to beep,
nnd ibe rdvauoement of boe cnUuia, I write the followiag regards
the wild hooey>bfle of (be sub-mountain tracts that have come uudei
my obpt *?aUon.
Thorn are hut two desoriplious of wild honey-bee in these perls, but
nativea of .>iidh tell mu, there ^ four in their country.
t,—Pcnjabi iilarthi, ■;adb, Sur uit^a hottoy-beu exceeding half an
laoh ju Jonglb , head and thora>v black ?iith gieyiHli yellow hairs at ns
ljiv.e, iho wholt form elegantly eymmernoftl, the abdomc"? t rango^
yellow iougish, Iho while*and black bauds or I'^egmcuts uot rlii ..ict, iLe
t'xtTemu licgiiioub loiming ^tijuging appamrus blaokiab vnni.{is laf-tal'iL
and blacttish* They are v ry'itrc**. aini if disturbed wiU (iwa m >ut
auU put all 10 fi'g'il w "h’.t a t'orisihruli '.rri., 'ut b.'v 8'.,l’c
’own agu’u* IluVi'u*, "id^oj "u ft i, ft •' willh^'f* lu p\'i'.j'.t I lO
0 X 1 remliy v'dL tl lO' i "lodi i>. .^ti't *n ».( mv 'alio i
wad OUCH to lh< b l . Ji , t! l’o>» »i *Otd I'Ui*
. B ff*!' f/i
*' .**!!
1 ilidf.
. e
ne
Btill, aticf’l ’ i|; '
brraUm , tbty iftw < f"
u 8 l'. ut branch ci a ib u .i.
never broad, po that thf* hi ■<.* frou* rs , Tlioy a.a
unJor the eavcB of hyu.os au'l 'era,iAu“ hv^ t-iat -i-'yarc cft'mi
domefltloatbu , for it id said tuc w.^iliy wd I •ifBcb s \o. U- Jd ,
hollow of treet,, If not irritate-i tuey ate b'lnu'J'H. aro ‘J'u . i
be obtained by smoking, generally at lue u..i y f le .
yellowish, and the wax plni/iU.. ey ,'»w% <* roi.r''fcr‘a’ n
England, in the Stahac bee ^ viixl .ocy an v ry aiu i,' ,
No, 2 , i?an]ubi C’Aofff C.u'iw . 5 /// . rht-< i j a .mUiM "'*>
even half tho size of the last, it is uuv t. t uj'orr, toe white u -u b .
bands,four or five, very diatiuol a* iov ur pan oi ubuoi os , wkijjs tt' \"
parent, very light grey, It is a v«.y bjnuleof. o*'’. hiry nud ’/Oi » i >i.-,
Their honey Is very hue and wh’‘u cryhtah^ir 'v riTiM VUk
Ja not very large. The habita tUa samw as abov.' fju u* k tih
geological pastime in tuc salt range, a uaiivo bi 'iivl
a few steps off the road having t>vr i
Both these varieties arc vciv plum/
ainoe fruit and forest trees abnuT
reqttiree food for them to on h ra
hilia theOhaoUra, the white pcs' - i'-*.
draw them.
No. 8. Pttojabi D/M)r>/iirt. Ou.U> A . :r.
No, 2 , the hive largish, Hoiw wh ..
domeatio bee of the Euugia and OUnmba h, ^ tit ,
hives formed In the shape of a drum wi'h ti ’ , <
would be the better description, they piii,s‘iu ii>, ..r.ii u.
and have the holes outwards, generaliy w d
when they extract the honey from the L , is, - . - > , •'* i
•moke them out; they transfer them at tho 'wn by
•mearing flome sweets in a new hive; tho pc^'pla luly ^I'cd ->><'•*»
in the winter when the snow Interferes with lim bees ruscrUtx
wild flowers i the food is im a parched grain {mml) with i he
» :itvv jjti
^ I 1'.' (,
(I'M .V^ V ,v rfO
,u, !i (.mi,-, i* r vtt'if
la r iT-i no<t
C CB «>.tit.lL.eii to
hop
ttfl
.3
sa
VI tl*
I
i
}
j
i
Fib,—I n estimatiu^, uo <.apiib.liii«s of district tor meat producing,
lU auitabllity lor the growi^h of tur ,ps ' highly imporf*nt matter.
Turnip growing, and the use of lumei: i. mamiro quite revolU'-
tiouiBod tho farming syatem of Eiiglauii, and accmdliig U competent!
autliorllioH, about trebled tUa meat-produoiog ulnlUios of the country.
A ’yorksulrc Farmer writes, Don«M term ..ne uf *he most valnable
manures fur turnips on all light boiIs, on account of their portable
and cumulating character, they have convertetl barren moor lauds into,
riei foriiio, auJ productive farms, luxurialf g in every valuable
product 01’ tho country, their value la beyond all prai&e.' Another
writer. Gays, ‘ All oorap.^. ativoly dry soils, from the poorest sand
aiidgravol, up to the uche'-t free loams, are mote or less BUiUble for
turniup '
TUchq two short exiniiti show ua exactly wual could be done lo
brin»? the Hills into acondUioa for producing meat, Wehaveexaclly
tl)o B'nl rennned, not lo paiouoa as it is found in EugUud, but the
vFfw’' cuiuvatat^.r area of tho HiU'i is what m England would be
'Murriip foi/e,’' The apparent dl/Qoiilty Is .'tv poverty, but
'he lands ot tho 1 M!b are not naturally poor, (hiy have been
f oautt cd tv I eiog gr-iArt-l over for gonerattons, and rocoivlrjg nothing
in ictui , not eron the droppings of oattie, for that is washed avray
by lue "rat hesfj rain-- but it was found on tho farm that tbe
i^rainhui etjni*, u not superior to shoiah land' All that was
rec.a red wu3 i heavy d.reaslng of manure lo bring U into coadiUou.
:‘hf o di«i''‘v L- or* Jaoed waa the getting niAuura to start with, but
'.r*4 Jiujis as. 'A o^i'ture the dittliiiilty cau b# got over. The great
advantn,'" t i thpin ti thoir portability ; sixteen bushels Is
ovlf.'tii i j be viiUou'tit lor an acre agamst thirty cart loads of
i'irji yaul uiiri n'u, 'iu i once heviug brought the land into oonditlon
no Hb'Otsed np-k«»'p becomes easy
■Novr, b'l u** draw a oomparifcon betreen the IXiUa and England
us :t iTrp 'j<mntiie4, In Kugland there is about a month and a
b»,\: whioh turnips ran be «>wu Only one crop a year can
bo laiKud, niul lUeso haw to bi riused, and stored during the winter
ut ooiis* irtab’o oxn-snso, an I heavy loss from decay; and perhaps
aut mute than huU (ho land in the country ii suitable for the growth
o£ the root
Ihne every aoia of land is suitable, aadyd^nffay dan be carried on aU
and cousequently a regular supply can bo kept up
witbv ii( '^'le expense or risk of storiug. There is a difflouUy with young
l«)' dark g lue dry season, chiefly from the attacks of fly. but there
U7«j i\ llcH for this, besides there is little necessity for carrying on
\< 1.3 doling the diy mouths, tJte rooti idill etand on the ground
y , ( .tuwajt^ for fit' I yean, 1 have kept mangolds aud bsets on the
biud until they were two years old, aud they were then quite
».ound, and weighed as much as forty pounds each,
Iho turnip, ioo^ seem^ to accommodate Itself to almost any elevation,
t have seen them growing freely at Manantoddy, and they thrive at
Bangalore, and at the top of Bodabetta.
I have written at this length on tarn! pi, because I consider them ibe
very huckidioiie of stook keeping, and if it is proved that the Hills are
iavorable for their growth, it is ^proved beyond dispute that it is, or
112
THE INDIAN AGfRICHLTUElST. AprU 1,1870.
could be mntit; a f(Uod meut^producii/t; district. It w^y Ite fituid
<Qniips*«fo aut a 11 lUut iu reqtucei). NtiUiter is ll ; we waut lodUur eoU
ottko. The UUor I buTo alren'iy Npokon of, end AI 0 O erasdng for uture
oattle. We sliU rcqnire fod^lnr /or faUeuing (hena. Here ia wliat aa
EugliHUauthoffflay^oti 'Ot, " aoowof ox reriviires from two to
three ftcrea of pKelure or umuduw to feed it aU the year loutxih liulby
TAiemg clover, lucerne, flaiupoiir, or tarcA, throe rowe or more caa be fed
with the produce of oue ttPie,” auil tbte, where fur eix mouths iu the
year growth is ttUuost at a RiaudsiUI, whereas here, with laud under
inigaiiotJ, growlii ftocs on uii the year round, and all the vanetiua
meutloDtid thrive luXurlatitly. Notwiihslundiugall this, wegot on cur
tables quarters Of uiuttou (?) of four pouu ls, and ^ho rcuiaiua of sitper-
amiuated bandy bullocks
lUader, with a deUcalestomaeb, do you purchase your own mi nt ? I(
not do uot veuturu on ir, U is said that Uia Satanic Majesty piovides
us with cooks, and certainly some Ucutou, who piuhideB over hltii scuds
us ouifbutchers. 1 t^hould im»KU»« they oiler a preuiiuni £<»r the diilioat
coolie* iliey enu liud, to carry tliuir meat to our do^ir*. It n curnoil ou
a trny that has earned gcnciattons of handy bullocks, without the
parjfloatloii of rcrapor or sotubber and i* usually covered with a cloth
that hears iintDistakabls evidence of having done duty ns uu article of
drosf. 1 aeo this, and sliH, thank Uud, for iny daily food, but cli ! how
J would thank the man who wouid hIwiI noiuo ostabiishment ftom wlnoh
1 could obtain a woH fed jomt of meat, fieofrom the abonjiioatiou? uf
filthy cloths and unwashed paws.
_ d. BAKNAKD.
' KOTifiiaiuu noxjekS.
Bib,—T he weather has been extremely dry during this month ; about
half an inch of snow fcH on the 35ih, ram on the 20th and 2Ist, and a
amali quantity of bnil on the 22ud, the whule bamly suOictug to peno*
trftte moro than four 01 five tuches into tliu soli, TLiih dryness will stunt
Iba wheal and barley, causing a loss in stiaw iiotn tho halms bt.ing so bliurl.
The following is a comparative (ablti of iiih past live scanons :—
i M'KItL'AHT,
ITood grains are now aboht a* follows, per rupee^ Atfa 6 fosrt, whslaii
10 aeera, ooctrae rice 6 seers, table rice 6 aelirf, oonid dan 0 Miori tin-
grrmnd, or S mra ground, milleta god Inferior grafos 42 Men,'
(learuese of provisions Ihongh portly due to the dry weather,'we bove
now had for bo many months, may also be partly aoeonnted lor by the
(act that the local Oovernment native offiejateare largely laudcwderst
having lai'gc Btocks of food gratas on hand, and that bumau nature—
where self inh'rest la couceitiod^belng selfish, It i* only natural to
snppofc that ratsa for tlm food grains and other produoe are bving and
will be driven up to Hicir highest iwssible extent, QoyerDinent though
pcifectly aware of the oircumBtance of the local ofilciaU beipg largo,
laudowucre, yet keep Ihtfm m their present positions ^ because being
large IiiudowncrM it would bo an iuoouveuieuoe to them to be removed/’
at 1 <^hbI that was the rcusou given by the chief European distrlot
official, in one well known instance for not removing the oalb tabaii«
dar, when hi* removal had been rcoommeudnd by a magistrate sitting on
the bench itud recorded in a judgment 1 Fancy retaining an European
Government official in biti position under smnlar ciruumstaucev 1
fSome of the villagers in the adjoining native territory pf Kanayti
have taken to ploughing their holds sinoe the roin fell, with the inteU*
lion of sowing corn aud fit/rfry as they could not do bo last autumn,
through having but few ploughing cattle and their fie)d«->ibe ones
now being ploughed—bocomiug so diy, owing to the drought, before
they could sot to woik upon them that they had to forego doing so ;
thoy aie now hoping to recover lout opporlunilies and think that the
present sowings* will ripen about a foilnight later than if sown at the
usual time. 1 shall endi-avour to keep myself informed of this experi¬
ment, and, if succesbful, 1 will keep u spare field and do the same
next ye,ar.
Gardening operations much (he suiuc dk lust month. Zinm,
mignonette, dmutbue, and other fiiiwer seods sown. Scarlot'runners
sc^' ‘hiring first week, sprouting m tho last week. Tranajdauting of
ir> ‘ s end sUiiibs going on. The vino which was transplanted during
the trusty weather, has split and died down nearly to the roots
uioof that Its period of removal was a litllo out of season, cuttings
of roses, willow, A:c , have boon made and planted,
I*'?!!
jKr.
Snowy anvfl
Hally „
Haid.v
Koteghur, 28th February
a. i\ i\
AORICULTUriE IN THE SAHUN DISTRICT.
I.
' Dmiij^ an 1 I hull , Cotl .vn'l MilU !>' ' Rnd'vcrv
, ti'H'l 1 fi’jf, *liiin|i j t'fniii" , ^'V I'tiiiU
I hill ti!i.iu]i t Abii.Ju yr ' j'lil; ((< hrt'i iWi int'h
I , lUiJ oi>M, j jvviuil. ciil. ii'itt i.'JJ.
I j { ‘■now Ji H I
Wind at beginuiug of Iho moiiili VV". then veeied to the N.-lii.
Thermometer (Fhl.), hung in open vemndaU W. fiHpHct. about 42"' in
the inoruiug, oU"' in the cveiuug, lowest lii‘.;hest ul \
.limgle-burniug la stiU gomg on m Ibose pbioes where the villageis hiu'c
more giazuig ground than what they know what to do with. Where
the gr.i?.ing ground* are cioppod for hay or eaten down by caltle and
flocks these jungle fires never occur, it la only wlicro tlio villagers have
such a superabaiidance uf grazing laud lhat they cannot make uisc of it
for their flocks ftud herds that loey bum it: in Auntrnlia one acre of
grazing ' «id is reckoned ample to feed ru hu.iluI all the year rviund.
The bark of tlio branches of the Kuil tiecj (y^irt«,y in many 1
places, ha* been cover('‘d with a kind of lunuim (vein, it im
sweet to tbe taste and is much lik' d by the luhabKuuta who go out iu
parties to obtain it, behoving that got i (Ui..ic will ensue onnatiug it, li
appears at long iutervaiR of timo and is said tu betoken a hurd winter
ttud a scasou of scarcity it comes out between tho months of Novum*
her and Pebru'iry. The last timo U appeared was in November ISZi,
The Catkins of bho willow (^•^shal, .t/iiri) have budded , I udi of the j
Andromeda ovalifoliR (A'Zfirt, wild pear (nArt/irOj i’oach j
bfimi) are swelling ; plum trees (rtZacAir) are uow becoming covuod .
with thoir pretty white blossi ms, smelling so svvocDy, Of wild dmvera '
there are tho rock lyohnlrf (J with iis red flowers; lite |
violet coloured piimroso ; and a Buiatl white flowered pUut |
somewhat ri.scmhltng the scouted allyeuiu m gardens, miudcu-han
fern m warm movsl Bituatlon«i.
The thrush (W* jVri/), and sluihng dart out ol and about the
hedges busy huuiing tor grub owU have uonio out from ihuir winter
resting p.acos and bats aho, the former me heart hooliug iu tho jiuiglo.
The motiaul, argils and other snow bhds hic iiov uiigiattng (oarliei
thuu usual owing to mildness ol ssasoi.) to hinhei pans of tlio hillt
keeping just below the snow lipc ; they arc atib tolerably inmo. Hare
huutmg should now finish aud (ho auiuialo be loft idoni} to mate, bread,
and roar their yoaag OAOS,
, tSm,—A graal howl Is raised agahisf indigo in North Bchar for taking
I up from 200,000 to 22.‘),00(i oorcn of laud “ which would otherwise be
i devoted to (he growth of fomkgraiu crop* ”; but when the crops in
I mdliMiis of acres ot Iho very land which is outireiy devoted to the pro-
I diietlonc/f food-train, fail, then follow wild sliouls for oaualn ; and, as (he
j !iir’Golonel Oorbet remaikfid, engineering la B^kod to step in to take
j t»e place of agncnltiue, ExporicDCo gained during the present aeasctii
ol dtought, however, ooucluHlvcIy piovea to me that tho true remedy
110 “ 111 the ryots' bands, if it is made worth (heir while to take advan¬
tage of it. When the crops arc parched and Blunted, the cry for water
at any price arises, and cauuls are considered the only panacea to miti¬
gate thii rffeots of diouglifc. Tlioro arc few men ronnpcted with agricul¬
ture iu India w'bo havo not been Btrioken with this crave for canals ; it
originates with thefiisi burst of alarm, aud 1 am afraid that many
people vJill succeed in ruining thenisolves, and their lands, beforu thoy
discover the mirttiiko commiltod in introducing canals to their districts.
Tliop'f icot which H now being carried out in the Sarnn district, presents
a Btiikiog proof of how irrigutiouiits would like to oonvorl tho most
simple olieme into an elaborate work. All (hat the district planters
asliod fc wAB a supply of water lu the small rivers, which arc now dry,
and if tl work had been entrusted to tho charge of a committee of
practical men, it would have boon flnUhed ere now, at a cost of not
more than Iltj. 1,000 at the outside. But tho schema has grown until
St d.jica noi know itself; symmetrical cuts are being made across high
lands ; so, b..*ido3 the oust of thene works, the Government will probably
have (0 pay heavy damages for crops mined in water-logged fends, for
it puzzles me greatly to think how maize, indigo, and the superior cereal
crops are to thrive with stagnant water rotting their roots two feet from
the BurfAoe of the ground. As it Is, lha spring lovot ot the district Is
, too high in many places during the rains, and even now in tbe month of
1 .Tanuary, in the vicinily ot this factory, water is eight foot from tha
sorfftcfi In high sandy fields, and fesf-»'» (be very paddy c^wufs which
have failed to produoe crops for the iaat few years. During (he lime
crops were m the ground, water was ouly throe feet from the surface ifi
these and yet the upper layer of pure impervious day was
compact and hard like blocks ot stone. The soli in these fields at tbC
present season Onti up iu large lumps like coal, to a depth of (hret feet,
until sand is taet« This impervious layer prevents air nakiog its way
• , Igg AaMpPWCWIT.
. ' ■ ■■ ■
S ll«RWtt& Midi, itt4i dli(ipM#tili Ihe ’vvitir iwiai Ibdilr 'ti^g to thi
tvd ttiinoa wM ot thM
' l^od daring latiolil of '4h!0d|^l ft tt%bt t><i
; iddotM fodl tut M pilot* growing in tbna MdeMoUd loiJi,
i «* WitMttn, ttolitofo^ 00^ beUw, bat nat ti drop lio df Ibb.'* Tbeio
* inbdliari ot prwiirt.too atrong; that h too diif tbojr bbto n liy«r two or
• fhrtdMtdoapbftbo paroft day, wiiiah boa been gmdoaWy wMhed
‘ down Moentoildi by to^ftoe drainage fromM blgU landi* To iw-
proTo the physical condition* of theio clay*, canal water il dertafnly not
, vei^bwd^ My want .either lots of boiky oirgtoiti nulnares, bbrnlng, or
^abadmlxtore of sand to reader thetn poroae and triable t 1 hare
■ rcoottmebded the tatter-mentloned method to the Ooferoment a* the
idc^ dmj^le and bractleable in this coantry, where 1 despair ot eter
^sedimthafiatfreH apply their straw in a rational way to the fields,
fbnkdoaa be proetired frOm the luhsotl ot the high fields ot even a few
felt below the ittrfeee of these very Olay*, fiiirface drainage from the
xhlgh fieltdilboald be cheeked by enolositig them Witb banks, and by
idtffofiisr'wills sank In the loner ends of the fields j this wonld prevent
Ithe rain water sweeping down and lodging on the ehouft, which, after
ibeing rendered frlabie by any of the methods proposed above, will then
"be fit to prodaoe all the superior kinds of crops grown on the high lands,
The paddy Is never a tborooghly suooessf ol crop, as It either suffers
from droagbte 6r floode ; besides, nOder the most favourable eircam-
stancas, it U not eo valuable as the highland crops. For the last eleven
year* I have had coneiderablo experience of paddy cultivation under
artifioial irrigation, as a number of the ohour$ ifi the vioinity
of my factory are irrigated by natnral flow when the Ounduok
ii in flood ; and I have particularly noticed that the crops in
those chourt, which hove been under irrigation for a number of
years, do not present the same healthy appearance as paddy raised
in seasons of heavy rainfall. The plants too, often get choked by
weeds, the seeds of which are brought down In the river water. It
will eound etranie to Bngliah ears, that, In places Where irrigation water
cannot reach by natural flow, the paddy crops have failed, although
spring water was only three feet from the eurface ; but such has been
the case with thousands ol acres in eveiy* season of partial rainfall.
Again, in seasons ot heavy rainfall, when the paddy efiours are flooded
with rain and canal water, the maize crops suffer lu proportion, as the
Hthole oomtry then is waUr-log^s/i. I remember in 1871, a year o£
heavy rainfkll, thousands of acres ot Indian corn suffered from excess
of inoisturo, and oouBequenlly distress occurred amoug the cultivators
• in many places. In friable and well drained sod the roots of the
Indian corn plant average in length feet. A good idea of the con-
Altton of the crops in high lands, dnnug the raius, oan be gsiued by a
atudy of the indigo hhofintics (or second growth) daring the mouths of
August and September. The heavier the rainfall is, the poorer these
kkoanties are, and this is a proof that even the highest lamis suffer from
excessive moisture during that season. In 1871, when 6!) inches of
rain fell during the rains, the Indigo second growth was so poor at
my factory that it took Qheegahs 13 eotfahsot plant to fill a vat ; whilst
in 1877, when the rainfall was only 18*25 inches during these four
mouths, the average per vat came to 3 he(>gahs 1 cottah. of plant. Somo
people are too apt to lock upon indigo as a dye, forgetting that it is
a plant which thrives or languishes from the same causes that affect
the maiee or other high laud cereal crops, and tbereiiore wbeu 1 bring
indigo forward as an instance, 1 am often mot with the reply, “ that
may be the case with indigo, but not with maiee or other crops.'*
A most serious evil connected with laud in which stagnant water
lodgea i*i that as It dries, the soil settles in such a compact form that
the roots of plants cannot possibly travel m search of food ; hence w«
find, in soasone of light rainfall, the paddy burnt and withered,
althongh water may only be three or four feet from the surface of the
land* If we ineist npon bolstering up the paddy, we shall do so at the
expense of the superior crops on the high lands, for the paddy does
not thrive nniess the lands are in a waterlogged state ; and this will
'be ittoet enicidal policy when we take into Cocsldoration the fact that
these very paddy fields oan be improved so as to bear twloe, nay three
time* as mooh food-grain, as they do now under the most favourable
circnmitaooei. The undermontioued statement should be enough to
show the difference between a rational and vandalic system of agrieul*
ture, Fields I and 2 are within a stone’s throw ot a village near my
;aitory, they are only separated from each other by a narrow border.
No. I Field is farmed by a resident in the village, who has a number
of cattle, the manara of which goes on to the land j growing hlgludry
crops as a rule, and being near the village, it also receives extraneous
manures. These organic manures have rendered the ctay soil friable
and poroua, and It prodhced an average of 28 maundsof maize
per acre during last hhbrves/ season; and now bears a flourlablng
crop of barley and innstard, M produce of which is estimated
at 19 manhds ot barley and^^ '^maandiof mustard seed per acre.
This field, at pll mntg, bag done if* dui^ M prodneing within a
twelve montb 'I? mannds loo4 and 9 mannds of mnsUrd seed
per acre, alt Mlyafieb. Kovlr; let n* see what fistd No, t bag
done* Being a little lower than field No, 1, the toil, in oonsequbnoo,
is a stiffer clay, and is devoted to pm^ldy } H U farmed by a tyof who
lives in another hamlet, a quarter of a talle offv bence the field li hever
manured. Faddy was planted in tt} and aHhoogb there were forty
wot days, daring the thne it was In the ground, giving In all $8*60
inches of rain, still the crop proved a failure, and prodnoed only an
average of C mannds of unhaiked rice per acre; 3e field !• now
empty, a hard Impenetrable patoh, devoid of weedior tcgctable life.
The other day, it the beflUDiog of lUli month, I took a spado, and
digging through the hard dry day oame to wafer S{ feat from tha
SQifaoe. Now what would have been the effect of flooding this field t
It would simply have raised the spring level to such a height that the
malse crop in field No. 1, would only have produced halt the amount it
did when the rpring level was lower; In tact paddy field No* 9 Wonld
have been nourished at the expense of maiao field No* 1, Tbo yield of
.3,851 lbs. of food-grain per acre is of course enormous, and ban onfy be
produced from coKiiniiously and highly manured land ; but it showa
what this glorious land is capable of doing under proper treatments
and the paddy field, although not capable of producing the same
amount for want of manure, would, If drained and rendered porous and
friable, give at least 2,000 lbs. of gram per acre, as waknow bow
proliflo clays are under fair treatment. The maiae crops this last
autumn were very fair on the high friable loams, and the inoeeedfog
crops of rubbee were equally good, without iri*igaUmt wherever manure
was thrown ; although, of course, in numamued plots they are stunted
and sickly. But is Irrigation to take the place of proper Ullage and
manure I God preserve the people if It Is. It strikes me as being most
iaconslsteut to talk ot 200 or 225,000 acres of indigo land (as the
case may be) being ** the curse of the country/* when over two mitUon
aerosol the fnest land in the province annually produce next to oothtdg
for want of proper treatment,
_ D. N. B.
II.
Hia,-~My old employer used to assure me that a planter does not
profit by experience until be has lost a lakh of rupees ; using the
same style of argument 1 may say that the Government of Bengal
will not profit from warn'ngs frequently held out to it until another
famine, like that of 177*), desiccates the land and sweeps away SO
per cent, of the population. It oxerctses me greatly to think, why
tbe Goveruraent ehouJd persist in patching and bolstering up a system
of agriculture which has everything against if, and nothing to
reoommeud it. If tbe paddy was a rich and prolific crop, }>ke wheat
or potatoes, 1 could understand tbe auziety to koop it on Its legy ;
but consuloTing lhat when It succeeds best, it Is at the expenio of
other crops and the cattle of the country, 1 think that the sooner its
cuUivatiou is cuufiued to the very deepest ehowrs iu the province, the
better it will he for the people and the land. If the cattle, Uka
Balaam’s asv, could only speak, I am ocrtnln they would tell tie
tiiat (hey prefer a bad paddy season to a good cue, as they then gat
clean sweet straw to eat; whilst On the other hand when tbe paddy
lodges in tbe mud and water, the ears of grain are cut off, and the
coarse, dirty straw, which is unfit for stock food, Is left on the field
to be carried off for the mere gathering, free of charge, by the saltpetre
and lhan makers. The cattle would also give vent to their feelings,
very freely, with regard to the wholesale exportation ot oilseeds which
goes on from this province. I have a large stock of bullocks at tide
factory, and I find it impossible to get a suffioleut quantity of linseed
oako for them, although 1 am living in a country where fiat is grown
in every rubhee field. Most of the linseed la exported to Calentta
and other large towns, like fish to London from the provinoes. With
poor and loan cattle to drag our ploughs, and supply nothing but thin
watery manure, it is impossible to expect the sgricnlture of the country
to flounsb, and I therefore beg of tbe Government to place a heavy
export duty on oilseeds, so as to check the trade, The argument
against interfering with free trade Is no argument at all In Ihie instanoe,
as I am asking the Government to protect a wretchedly poor and
ignorant peasantry agains'. themselves. Tbe people must manure their
lands, and Introduce a proper system of rotation of crops, or they will
perish in millions; nothing but a sound and rational system of
agriculture can save Ibem. The last two seaiODS of drought have not
paered wiihoufe shedding oertain advantages, at they have In tbe most
prominent manner exposed the week points in native agriculture;
a patutully Severe lesson to the wretched masses of the people, but cue
which our Government should be prepared to profit by. An almost
insane confldeoee is placed in tbe saving powers of irrigation oanalg
and Wells by the Bupreme Government^ instead of these nooemoriei
being looked upon as one of the minor props to the ptospbtlig qI ladiaa
114
mt mt>im i^mctrLTUEisT.
ApHl 1,1670.
Egrlculture* 6a^[^l]ritig lodia ivUh inigatioa work8» witlbaal maklag
ft& attempt to Improve the asriovltaral praotieeit ia U)re doaiag a man
iBSerteg from d^Utium trmeui witb » bottle of brandy ; for a abort
period thfBO wotka may aot aa a atimBlant, but eveatoally ibe taat
itate of the tend will be worae than the firat 1 claim every right to
write aa an authority on thia aubject with refereooe to my own proviscoi
Aa 1 have had a liltlo irrigation work daring the kJmreef and ruhbee
Maieni all to |Dy8el( for some yeara, and the more 1 atudy ita efleot
on the cereal cropa and opium the leas I like U. even the very paddy
crop la deteriorating under artlMal irlSgation. In September a
heavy flood ooonrred on the Oanduoki and a large tract of country waa
submerged for many weeks; aa the water dried up, the flelda were
sown down in barley and wheat. 1 said to myaelt aa the men were
sowing their crops^now ia my chance of obaervlng the fertiUeing
propertiee of the Qandnck aUt; but the result la moat dloappomtiug,
the cropa are thin and stunted, and the average yield will not exceed aix
or leren mauudg of grain per acre, Certainly the cropa were late in
being sown, atili they oagbt to be much better than they are. If
irrigation can take the place of the rainfall, why has it not saved the
poppy cropa in Saruii during the last two seaaons? It is not for want
of trying that the natives lost their peppy, as they have beeu elavca to
their flelda ever aiuce theae cropa were bowu, working at the wella aud
ponda from morning till night, aud many fields have received five
waterlnga and aa many more careful weedinga. There ia one field
which 1 irrigated for the owner by natural flow, before the seed waa
aowoy and aiuce then it baa received two or three waterings from well
water, but the crops is mleerabie io the extreme aud will not pay its
expenses. On account of this unnecessary bard work and poor return, the
poppy is becoming a most unpopular crop with the cultivators; and
the Oovernment should take warning in time, and ask the planters to
institute a series of experiments to ace if it cannot be rendered lees
precarious, as certainty irrigation alouc will not save it. 1 have not
seen any of Mr. Scott's valuable notea on the subject, but my idea is that
the peppy fields should receive bulky organic manures such as refuse of
indigo plant, and top dressings of rape aud mustard cake, the seed also
should be sown iu trenches to protect the young plants from the
extreme heat during October and the beginning of Novr>Tiber. The loss
of the revenue doiived from the opium industry will more than the
Qoverument could bear at present; but if the seaeoiis do not change
for the better, or an improved system is not Intioduced, the poppy
cultivation in KortbBehar will become a thing ot the past; for surely the
Supreme Qovernmeut will not force the ryots to couticue the cuiUvaiioii
of the crop at a loss. It the opium department, at th'‘ '«nd of the present
season, will publish a statement showing the number of acres under
cultivation, and each ryot’s account for tbo last two seasons, tuc public
will be greatly obliged. The Government owes a great deal to the ryots
Of this province for the opium roveiiuo, and therefore it ehould
prepared to go hand in hand with the planters i't introducing ••■u
improved system of agricnllurc.
The district oificers of North Debar show by their sUtomenU,
regarding the prospects of the cold weather crops, published in tht
Calcutta Oazettfl, how little they understand why the crops are so poor,
ns every reason but the right one is given. One geuticmau says that
*Uhe cold weather crops on unirrigated lands are stunttd and thin"
and anoLUer that the rubbei crops are poor for want of lain.'* If good
^kops of barley aud wheat, which nre euiOferiog from over luxuriance
of growth, were not to bo soon in every perguunah iu manured
and %(inrr\gaif'd lands, one woulii obime in with the idea (bat irrigation
was ueccasary j bnt those maniuvM lands prove that alt that is wanted,
even m dry reasons, for the ruhbee is organic manure in the soil.
Certainly the rulbtts is very poor iu unmanured lands, “ sick onto dealh^’
fur want ot austenuuce ; but the manured and uuirrigated fields show
crops which would do credit to any country, if rape and mustard had
not been mixed with them. At the same lime I can point out thousands
of acres of irrigated ruhhee whioh have not beneltted from iriigatioo iu
aoy way, ailhough . seasun has been such a dry one* The clay soils
of the low lauds, and t suudy loams of the high lands, in North Debar
are homogeneous in v .l u iqtcr, and are simply influenced by the treat¬
ment they receive. 'jLh^.> best land is the land which receives
the best treatment; for in«itanoe. a field may be seen with a
crop whioh promises 20 mauuds of grain pi^r acre, whilst alongside
that very field will be found a crop of the same description that will
not give 3 mauuds acre. 11 is hard 'u blame the tend under these
olroutustances. Suppose » man to have n spirited tharough-bred horse ;
he starves that horse, and then rides it at full gallop in its exhausted
statewhat are the consequences? The animal probably falls and
kitte hte rldar. Bat who is to blame under these oucumstanoes, the
horse or the men ? *
These dry eeasctm prove how organic manures »•' j iho crops, and
at once point to theae manures as being the best ;a this climate.
I caa ihoff wheat 0 leet high; oate bk teet high i gardsw piai 7 a&4
8 feet high \ tumfpi weightwjg three pciuidi each f all raised daring
this season on organte manorei without a drop of irf igation water. 4uDd
daring last year, a seafon ot scarcity and tamlaei Mr. Maqdonald of
Pertabpur factory lifted an average of 8i0 mannds of potafoei per acre
from high sandy tend mannred with Mi water; this is very encouragitig,
and shows that the soil is capable of great rasolts ( I ehouB like
fo know it any other planter has experimented with mt water as a
manure for potatoes.
Tbo fact of planters wanting water tor irrigation, durlnj^ s^ona of
drought, in the hot months of March and April, 'jfhen all the iuperFor
cereal crops are off tbo ground, does not go ^to show that tridgatlon
is required tor the rubhee. It the planters sowed their indigo in Oatoher
when the ruhbee is sown, or in Juno when the maise is sown, the Govern*
ment wonld bear very little about irrigation in North Behar. Irflgatlon
is certainly required for the paddy, but this crop is not happy unless the
fields are flooded, and this oouditiou of things is against all sonnd agrleol*
turai practises, as flooding and water^logging half the lauds of a ocuntry
for (he benefit of one particular crop mast injure the '* dry ** crops on
the other half. The very fact of oate succeeding so well In these
districts without irrigation should be enongh to show that It is not
required for the mhbeet as even In Kugland oats require a damp climate.
The planter m these districts who has once irrigated well mannred
wheat will not repeat the mistake a Beeond time, unless he wants the
crop to bd ruined by mildew and rnst. 1 may be thought guilty of
exaggeraUon iu making these statements to prove my arguments; but the
field and their crops do not exaggerate, and will prove all that 1 say.
Now. although I am greatly opposed to irrigation for the mibhre
crops, wnd hold that the paddy eho^tv'^i shonld be reclaimed and rendered
fit to produce to perfection such crops as sugar esne, wheat, and barley ;
<}till 1 say that cuUivation should be prohibited in the natural drainage
obanuels of the country, and these nullahs should be deepened,
embsnked, and supplied with water from the big rivers so as to render
them navigable. I put the question to the public : which is best
suited to the couutry, a network of navigable nuUahst or a network
of enteha roads? The nullahs m this district were navigable eighty
or a hundred years ago ; and 1 do not see why they should not
be rendered navigable again. The euteha roads as they exist at
present do the Biliish sense of justice no credit. One of these
roads presents the appearance of fhree roads running parallel Co
each other, the middle road being reserved for ehhas and carriages,
and the two side roads devoted to the carts of the poor wretches
who pay the roads cess. Those roads are a great deal too wide,
a great deal ot valuable ground Is wasted by the side cniblngs,
cart tracks, aud big roa d in the middle ; the side-roads and
cuttings should be let out for cultivation to the ryots, on
the uuderstauding, that instead of paying rent each ryot keeps
his part of the main road in thorough repair ; this proposal would
bo greedily jumped at by the ryots. There would then be one road for
all, the roads would he kopt in thorough repair without costing a
pice, aud tbo rich road cess funds might be devoted to making our
nullakx navigable. A network ot navigable mUlahs in the provinoe
will give us back the cheapest form of transport in the country; and
besides helping to cimnge the climate they will also supply the inhabitants
with abundance of libh, which will swarm in the small rivers whence
they can run backwards and forwards between Iho big Qundnok, Oogra
und Gauges. There ^should not bo locks on any one of the nullahs, as
they would interfere with the lieUcrios, and raise tl^p spring level of the
couutry to an injurious height. The villages might be entrusted to
deepen the at one halt the amount, ontside contractors would
charge.
Before finishing this letter, I must touch on the great advantages
'.vhich would accrue to the ryots if oil-mills were set up at every factory.
1 >rgauicmanure is the principal thing the laud wants to enable it to
produce crops sufflcient to support the people, aud we cannot expeot to
gi^t this manure to peifectioti If the cattle ot the oountry are badly fed.
1)6hat we will by opening out t ho country with railways and navi¬
gable canals, but lamine will always haunt the villages until ttia native
do justice to their cattle aud their lands.
_ 0, N. M.
TUE SUGAU INDUSmy AT MACKAY,
QUEENSLAND. t-
is now fourteen years since Mr. Spiller left Java and Arrived
at Maokay with a quantity of sugar canes for acolimatisatiaa and
if possible in due time to make sugar. The progress the sugar indostiy
has made during the last ten years entitles it to be ranked as one of
the firmly estebllsUed industries of tluecttaiaad,
Maokay \m fairly within the tropica with a ollmate dteldodly
favorable to sugar’growing, Frost so dangerous an enemy to the
sugar planters at Maryboro’ and on the LogttiiOaoBn ntf rarely
1,
THE INDIAN AGEICDLTHEIST.
ns
bffft; it hMI ^ baenkBowo to beso ie?fireMi to ^trl^ too
OtoDt bat«?«» totti too dMMgo doQO woo vorj iHgbt akd onljT tioh
cone ootlotodMgto# W too dooper hoUovnot too uadutfttotjr toad.
TbopoiUton of gmtor port of too Mooby dJitrlot Ijrlug ootoo
■M obit ottd mdtioTor •airoonded os it ii Up blgU hills ood j^sotoiog
ftloo laodp Hi Its midst, oil of wbioU oro moto or tom oooorod with
• thtok Pogitotido of o iaagle ohomotor, ensaros a rogulav sapply of
ntO| tho gtootor port of which falls during thO raiap ooasoa com-
mohoiog towards the end of Dooomber and ooatiaaiog adtil the
•od of March, HUherto tbo oano has oevor suffarod from an absolute
wool of rain, although last year more rain than aotoally fell would
-trave beta* more favorabie to the crop. FrOm the Insuriaut growth
of tbo cane os well as other plants one eonerudes that the soil is
very rich even when taking into ooDsiderotton that moisture and a
, high temperature tend to luKuriaaoe of growth. The soil possasss
bat little lime. There are two varieties of soil here are on which
'eane to grown; one a very deep vegetable mould, the other a loam
wito atilf Olay subsoil, but which, '.when well and deeply stirred and
bedded, produces cane almost as good as the former doea The other
soils vary much between these two.
Table 1, gives (be average temperature and rainfall as observed at
Alexandra Plantation during the last eight years ; this plantation Is
situated some seven miles inlaud on tbo Pioneer river.
TABLE 1.
The first mill was erected by Mr, Davidson at Alexandra riantalion
and lu 18C7 about twelve tons o£ sugar were made there. Messrs.
HewiU jc Oo. followed suit iu IBG8 and since then until the fatal
disease year 1875 the number o£ mills increased rapidly.
1870
there wore
1 1 mills with
2
stLlU.
1871
ditto
10
ditto
»>
If
1872
ditto
It
dll to
„
j|
1873
ditto
15
ditto
I)
1871
ditto
17
ditto
t*
f}
The prospects of too industry were probably never brighter than m
1874. but in 1875 its progress was suddenly checked by the appearance
throughout tbe Colony of that terrible disease in the cane, commonly
known as rust. The origin and development of this disease are still
not fully accounted for. Its first appearance was after an excessively
heavy fall of tain. At first it was said to bo a fungoid growth,
later on It was found that tbe ravages of tbe fungus were augmented
by myriads of aaarif and now from the very latest information it
would appear that tbe miri are probably the primary cause of the
disease*
There are at present sixteen mills working at Maokay on their
respective plantations (besides a few small plantations which sell
their produce to the mills), as follows
TABLE II.
Fkahtation.
The River Estate
Braasoombe ...
Pleystowe
TeKowai
The Cedars ...
Hebta ...
laveroess ...
The Alexandra
Ibe Pioneer ...
Meadowlands and Balmeral
Barrie... ... ..
. Fouldeu ...
lltotoro ... ' ...
Dunbletou ... ...
OWNBR.
Spiller .
Iiaitlaiid King ...
Hewitt Aud Komilly
Sloano ivtid Co. ...
(?) ...
Ceo. itaff ... ...
Donaldaou.
Davidson.
Bpillor .
Hyue ..
SloAue and Co, (?)
F. T. Amhurst ...
Carrol and Avery...
^oaue and Co. (?)
The average production per acre of cene crushed is as loHoWii i
TABLE ai.
Season umim 81ST
Mamcu.
Tons.
Cwt.
Qoi.
Lbs.
1872 .
1
10
0
22
1873 .
1
G
8
10
*874 .
1
8
2
1875 .
1
17
2
14 1
187« .
1877 .
0
0
it
18
3
8
2
14
j Effects of rust,
1878 .
1
! 19
1
2
G*
*
TsHrSBATURB.
lUlNFALL,
M, Max,
M.Mln.
No. of D.
Juohos.
January ...
95-2
687
17
' 18*38
February ...
90 3
68’L
15
13 37
March
ri 4
88*0
60’5
10
10-G7
April
BWO
8
7‘IG
May
7H-5
5t'0
9
5-81
June
77’3
4C’3
7
3'14
July
75*5
47*6
5./
2-10
August
77‘G
89-5
3
6-88
beptembei...
81*9
47*3
4
1*19
October ...
88 0
54’6
7
2-52
November...
8V8
fi6’8
6
3*03
December ...
...
...
88*9
63*5
11
8'39
Rive of these mllir, nam^y Fouldeiii Ueadowlauds, Fiouecr,
aeA Te MowM, boll their logat HhTaouom pana.
River
Until the rust made Us appearauoa, the Bourbon caiio wee tbe
variety universally planted, since then thany hardy and so far rust¬
proof varieties have been introduced. Those mostly met with now are,
Big Yellow Meera, Black Java. Rose Bamboo, Otamatio and Gingbam }
io smaller quantities are also grown Oaledoaiau RlbbOn, Ireboe,
Malabar and others.
Tbe canes are not ratooaed more than onco, unless tbe first ratoons
turn out exceptionally good, when occasionally they arc toft to ratoon a
secoud time.
The leery process as Introduced in the Colony by Mr. DcLissa, tha
colonial paten tee, was attempted at the Pioneer plantation, but lha
results did not prove suificieutly satisfactory to warrant its estabUsho
ment,
AtFoulden, Mr, Robert Walker, manager, a refiniug proeeas has
for some years been iu operation, which produces one of tile whitest
and most perfect sugars I have evoc seen tnrnefl out by a sugar mill.
This procosa has not been Introduced on any other estate, probably
because it is said to be very expensive,
Sugar planters calculate upon reaeiving per ton all round on
their sugars, toss lo.frkiny aud shipping expenses.
The three mills to which stills are attached are tbs Alexandra, Pley*
Stowe and To Eowai. The Anohor*’ rum produced at Pleyslowo to a
very superior spirit and com mauds the best price amongst the colontot
rums.
The amount of spirit produced at the above named stills during too
tbe season ending Slst March 1878 was 95,898 gallons which coming
from 145,255 gallons of molasses gives per proof gallon! thesa
figures compare favourably with the results obtained m the sooth wharo
2 (and 2 are the ratios. At Mackay tbe distUlera complaiu that they
cannot get a suffiolent quantity of molasses.
Finally the prospects tor next crushing season are excellent. A
larger area of land is nudor cuBivallou than hitherto, aud one of the
plautereia about to enlargo his mill in order to be able to crush canu
from the many small farmers in the district. Should the cone still
remain free from rust and the weather ooulinuc as favorable as bitoorto,
the crushing season of 1879 will prove memorable in the annals of too
Mackay Sugar Industry.
HENRY LINO RQTH.
Bilabaue, (jieensiaud, 29to Jan. 18H).
THE WILD OLIVE IN DDUMAH.
To ike Sditor of Madras Mail)
Sir,—‘I n your Issue oE the 5th ultimo, I And that you publish ** the
discovery of tho wild olive in Burmuh." Several parties here have been
mcntioQcd. uud each one declares that the merit of the disoovery
belougs to him alouo, aud the authorities and the public have been tod
to believe m a miue of wealth, that will prove more profitable than all
tbe gold fields of Wynaod, Souo wonder, that^all Durmsh'* tuck it
down like trade.’' aud licked their lips over it, till a letter appeared in
tho Rangoon Oautts, signed Jfgricola, in which the writes stated
that this woudertal Burmab olive" grow wild from one end of India
to tbe other; the natives in some parts making a kind of arrack from
the fiower, called " Smoky Jack," while the oil from the seed gave
mors smho than light. Througliout the Madras Presidency, it to known
in Tamil, as Illapay" ; and by the Teloogoos, as "fppay," while from
Orissa, in Ganjam, and through all Bengal, it is also known, »Look at
any Fnoe Current or Customs Statistics, and I am sure you wlU not bo
able to find the seed or the od of this famed olive quoted, as an arttclo
of export; and if this to so with regard to India, where the tree grows
wild, aud where labour. U so cheap, how to it postibto that any oue in
Burmah investing in such an uudertaklug can ever expect to fealtoe a
eiQgle fraction of their outlay, when an ordinary oooly turns np his
nose at uu offer of Rs. 10 a month, and where the Barman will not work
for you i But suppoting (or an instant that the tree will answer all
the expectations formed of It, what then ? Wiil Burmah stand the
least chance with India in the markets f Certainly not i the planters
in Wynaad would be able to plant too whole of that district with it,
and export it aU quarter of tbe boat^whicS one would inonr iaBurmali
Dttrtof BE^ in W|6«id, I CBW tin p«ej>Je w^y
of oit^ of^ Hoping none of year re^ri olU 3 m guM
mUw A)n|l9»Bi|fia«fM*t>p^
OnSBBVBB.
Jitcimn 3lj5i[i([«I<iqi2t
CALCUTTA, APRIL 1879.
THE BAMIEH COTTON PLANT.
rpHE endearoara tbat wore made during the last two years,
to introduce the BamieU cotton plant into India, have
on tbo whole been fairly snccessful, inasmuch as it was shown
that the climate and soil of dilTorcut parts of India are suitable
for Ui cultivation; but a great doubt exists in our mind as
to whether tho bulk of the seed received in India was really
Samieh cotton, as there is a great deal of evidence forth¬
coming which shows that the majority of plants raised from the
•eed poBigssed none of the peculiarities that distingubh the
Homieh cotton plant from tho ordinary Egyptian cotton.
This new and important species of cotton was discovered
by a Copt in tlio Nile Delta neart he Cairo Itailway,
in the province of Meinifid, in 1873. The Copt noticed
a plant in u cotton field, wholly different from the rest,
and carefully collected the pods, separated the seed and
planted it socretly in an isolated plot of ground. lie carried
on the cultivation of this new cotton for three years, before
general attention was drawn to it. For the last two years the
area in Egypt under Bamioh cotton, has largely increased
and its cultivation is sodnlously promoted by tlt< Minister
of Agriculture; it has been calculated that there will be
nufficient seed available this year, to cover with Buinioh cotton
the whole area that is fit for cotton cultivation in Egypt,
anAOUntlng to about 700,000 jeddans (3o0,000 acres).
The importance that attaches itself to the cultivation
of this new species, consists in its yielding per same area,
nearly three times as much cotton as the ordinary cotton
plant. Tho Bamieh cotton plant has straight stems, attain*
ing a height of nine to teu» feet, and instead «-f tlirowiug
theitwo speol^B ithbre hh^ed, the fhoi la oili hf
importanoa to ^ anhale idt
the proeeSK betwe^ mCi^ing so widely is rare, eSst^n^h»
and booeuse such resulta hm h^ recorded down Id the
present time have generally remained sterile, or at best but
of little tise in the se^iiel; whereas in this <^e Nature has
produced a more fertile cotton than the ordinary hinder
The Bamieh/’ wo may mention, is the plant known to us
in India as the Blandi and RainUtrau ^ y*
Seed of the Bamieh cotton plant was obtained in IS77,
by the Government of India, by the Agrl^Horficaltaral Society
of India, by Messrs. W. Nicol <& Co. and several oUiers.
The seed imported by Messrs. W. Nicol & Co* was sent to
their mofnasil branches in Guzerat, and in November 1877
wo heard that there was about an acre of land under cultiva¬
tion with this cotton, oue half of tho land being Irrigated and
the other loft to the notion of the ordinary rains. The results
of this experiment aro not known to us though we have made
some enquiries regarding it. The Agri-Hortionltural Society
grew from the seed it received a fow plants in their own
garden at Aljpore, and distributed the rest to the Qorernmonta
of Bengal, tho N.-W. Provinces and private individiialB,
In the Society's Garden at AUpore, the seed that was sown
in the middle of Juno 1877, grew vigorously to ten feet in
height, began to blossom in September and the plants yielded
their first ripe pods in October and November. In April of the
'' fiiuwing year (1878) it recommoncod to flower, and it was
piOposed to allow tho plants to remain as biennials, in order
to ascertain if the rpiallty of the next season's produce would
retain its cliaracier or deteriorate.
From the seed sent to the N.-W. Provinces, a small
quantity was sown at tho Exporimmital Farm at Oawnpore,
on tho ridgo system. Of 20 seeds sown, 13 germinated.
They were sown in July ; first bolls were picked on 20th
December; yield of tho 13 plants fivo pounds Kapas
(uuclcancd cotton), of which four and a half pound on being
passed through the native c/m/ia, yiolded 23 ounces of oleaii
cotton and 3 lbs. 2 O'a, of seed. Tho plants were grown 2^
foot apart, and throw out long lateral branches, a few of
the plants only being of tall upright growth with few
i ido branches. Mr, Buck observed tho distinction between
I iheso few plants and the rest, and has gathered the cotton
out lateral branches, produces two or three soral-verticil!ated ( and seed separately and has called that, obtained from what
pods, issuing directly from the axilla of each loai, tliesc appeared to him the true Bamieh cotton plant, No. I, and
being alternately arranged around the stem, what appeared to him tho ordinary Egyptian cotton. No. 2.
Tho ordinary Egyptian cotton plant, ou the other hand, (in its Mr. W. Masters, ot tho Opium Department, at Hadjepore,
varieties; Afa^:o-/ni7aei Gallini, Aulnnwiiy c/c.), has the form of also grow^ a few plants and reports tho plants as having a
a shrub, with ono or more mam stems mrowing out numerous
lateral branches, which occasionally spread out to a con-
siderablo breadth and hoar pods at various intervals, two,
throe or oven lour leaves ofnen producing no pods from
their axilla* The leaves of the Bivnh h cotton plant are large,
greatly undulated, and of a deeper green than those of the
ordinary cotton. Its flowers are yellow, tho interior spotted
with pnrple somewhat like those of ordinary cotton, hat they
fire frequently larger*sized, and grow on elongated pedan> les.
As to i^ts origuii it iS thonght that the contact of Bamioh
plants, which existed in (be cotton plouiation of Birket-el-sab,
having prodneod this new type, acted upon the seed of the
cotton plants at flowenng time, and that the origin of this
apeoies may thereforo be attributed to a process of hybridisa¬
tion between the Bamieh (Bihucu^ eicnUniUB)^^^^ the ordinary
cotton (Gofsyjpmwi larhadmse^y the more so ns, when seen
front a distance, plantations of this new cotton display,
liko ,th^ose of the Bamieh, (llihmm escuUnim) a multitude of
itruiglit stems without branches, at least as regards
threo-fonrths of their length from tho tops. KU^true
that the now cotton is the result of ^/lMldlsatiou
I main stem, ten feet high, with lateral branches, issuing
from it within tho space of a foot and a half from the
giound,
^lessr.s. Haworth and Oo., of Calcutta, report on this
cot! m, grown as above, as follows t—
1 Bolls similar to Egyptian cultivation, and like it as
regards its seed, bolli as to formation and freedom with which
tho Itbre can be separated. ( Cawnpore Model Farm)
2. N>'t of a particularly good color, but as regards length,
softness, strengtli and fmeness of staple, every thing that
** could bo desired, and would rank as good fair, Egyptian
cotton, valued at about 7 to 7J per pound." (Ditto),
3. Not equal to No. 1, either in size of the boll or the
quality of the cotton, but similar iu all other respects. (Mr,
Masters),
4. Equal in color to No. 2, but containing considerably
more stains, harsher in staple, which is also wanting in
length and strength : value about 6 to 6j^ per ponnd* ( A* H,
Society's Garden.) ^
Tho agent of the Elgin Cotton Mills At Cawnpora .thinks
the staple of the Cawnpore-growa cotton partionlariy $ae
»„T''
imcniiiimi.
tii0^ Eagt«iid for of .fara
^ ootmta rangtog ba^twwa haadreda mi tiro iimared*, and
oiUi^absita probaUa value in EngUu^ at a ahUIiog apauud.
31ieaamaodttou wa« reported on by Mr* 0* Sapps one of tke
jmoat competent judges in Bombay, at the request of the
Seoretaiy to ilie Chamber of Commerce, as follows
»‘I bm reoeired your note and a sample of cotton. After
exauitiing the latter oarefally, 1 bare come to Ibe eonclaiion
that che neareit oomparfion iu appearance .and touch to It Is
fitUy good fair brown Bgyptian cotton. The etaple le eilby, but
wy Irregular and tery waety* which deficiency would debar this
style of cotton from being mis^ together with Egyptian, or used
aaparately for high numbers. Besides the irregularity in the etaple,
there are very objeotionable knots and nests In it, which reduoe the
value of the cotton. Taking into coosideratlon tuat tbe price of
Egyptian cotton is exceptionally high now, and folly good fair brown
being quoted about 9^4, 1 value tbe sample at i<l* below that class of
cotton, say 9id. If tbe cotton has not been allowed to mature fully,
this oircumstanoe might account to some extent for the wasty staple,
but even admitting that some of it has been picked in an unripe con*
dition, ibe beat of it would not be worth more than 9fd. which would be
equal to good brown Egyptian."
The details of the experimental caltlvatibn of this now
species at the Bhadgaon Government FaVin, Kandeish, marred
greatly by the adverse season, were published in our last
issue. Mr. Stormont states that he finds littlo difference
between it and the ordinary Egyptian cotton. The resulting
fibre was submitted by Government to the Bengal Chamber
of Commerce who report
Tbe staple fs long and strong; the cotton is clean and very free from
stain, and tbe colour and general characteristics are those wbioh belong
to cotton grown in Egypt,
The Committee of the Chamber are of opiniou that if the quality
were kept up to tbe sample before them, and spinners could depend on
a certain regular supply, this des*iriptioo would in process of time come
to compete side by side^with Egyptian and the belter qualities of
Brsells in the home markets.
It IS rery superior to any Surats yet exported, and 111! it becomes
known and appreciated, it is difficult to fix tbe value* The Committee
think, however, they may roughly quote it to-day at Bs, 20 to 21 per
mauod. or to sell in Liverpool 5^ tu Sf per lb."
If we read, in coTquuctioii with the above, tiie report on the
Bamich cotton plant furnished to the Egyptian Ministry of
Agriculture by Monsieur Delchevalorio, wc can but come lo |
the conclusiott that the seed received in India in 1877, was
not pure Bamieh cotton seed, but was adulterated and, if not
entirely consisting of the ordinary Egyptian cotton, was so
largely mixed with it, that on this account the experiments
cannot be pronounced as decisive; and we can only hope
that the further supply of seed {\i pounds) which the
A* and H* Society received last June from Mr. Chapman,
the agent of the P. and 0. Co., at Alexandria, will turn
out better.
The following details of an experimental cnltivation of
this cotton, which was made in Texas in 1877, is laLen
from our contemporary Colton^ and will bo found interesting ■ —
"The seeds were plauled ou -Ith Uny, in u garden eitnated in Ini.
32^ at au elevation of thirty feet above Oalvestou Bay, and about
BOO yards from its margiu. The soil was a light, fertile, sandy loam,
The seeds germinated, and the piaats made their appearance above the
surface of the soil iu six days, namely, on iOth May. The first blossoma
appeared oa 8th July, aud tbe first open fruits ou 80th August. The
average height of the plants was about eight feet, but some grew up to
ten feet. After the plants had ceased growieg the fruits perfected
tbeuselves, iocreaiiDg in else. It is stated that tbe fruits are very
abundantly produced from near (he base of tbe pleat to its very top.
Ip tbe space of four months and ten days from the time of planting, the
open fruits were of euffieient aise for picking in any quantity.^ From as
oateful and safe an estimate as could be made, the yield was found to be
fully equal to 3,500 lbs. of eotton in the seed per acre, The habit of
the plant Is detoribed as being very singqler In Its outline. Unlike the
American Upland, and 8ea Island cottons It does not send oft braaohes
regularly from near the ground to tbe top of the plant; but the main
etew beers etoee'to the ground two, three, or more branches, and then
riaec to a height of eight or ten feet without a branch. Leaves only are
given oE along the tteme, alid the axil of each leaf are frh» two (o
five, and sometimes six long l;ietto)ei«aeh bearing a frait. The branthes
described at the base were also very heavily fruited, as many as five large
fruits growieg to close together as to touch eeoh other, The cotton or
wool contained in every fruit on the plantation was of a pale yellow
color, which was diffienU to be accounted for, as there had been no heavy
rains during its growth to stain It ; it it is suggested the profuse den a
may hove been tbe cause. From the record of these exparlnasnU it
seems that we may still hear something favorable, about Bamieh coiton
with regard to its becoming an article of commerce."
• mmm>>Kmsafwmeumas»
CUIiTIVATlON AND MANUFACTURE OPi TBA.^
NDER the above title, Colonel Money Itae published the
third edition of his Essay ou Tea, which received the
Grant gold medal and a prino of Rs. 300 from the Agrl-
Horticultural Society of India in 1872. Cirenmsianoes have
considerably altered since then ; our knowledge of tea Las
been considerably oiilargod and added to, during the six years
that have elapsed. Managers of tea estates are drawn now
from a more iutelligeat class of men, and altogether, with
the exception, and it is a very great one, of mannring, there
is little in the practice of cultivating and manufaotaring tea,
as practised in most of the well managed eStaKes of Upper
and Eastern India, that is open to any great improvement.
Colonel Money has advanced with the times, and the work
under review may well ho considered H standard work
on the Cultivatiou and Manufacture of Tea, which ought
to be in every tea planter’s library in Indio, Ceylon,
Java, Japan, China or America* The merit and storliog
value of his first essay has been so universally and
deservedly acknowledged, that all that is left for us to
say is, that this, the third edition, contains all the additional
information that has been gained daring the last six years,
has been corrected up to dale, and much enlarged. The
value of Colonel Money's work is enhanced by the fact, that
he has seen and studied tea cultivation in most of the districts
of which ho treats, and that he deals with the whole subject
in u practical manner, and has very few scientific theories to
advau co. Our space does not permit ils to do more than briefly
notice the principal points and features of Colonel Money'ti
book.
Colonel Money dcfinc.s in the first seven chapters the
conditions requisite for success in ten cultivation. Ho is of
opinion, and expcriinicc supports him, that on a suitable
site, aud in a good tea climate, tea will pay; it is
equally certain that it will bo unsuccessful in a bad locality
I and on unsuitable sites. No garden shoald exceed 500
I acres under tea., and j 7 highly cultivated, Colouel Money
says, oven half that sifse will pay better than a larger area
with low cultivation. This is, of course, excluding each
land ns should bo reserved as forest lands* In fixing on any
i distiict to plant tea in, four things have to bo considered,
i viz, cUmaie, means of transport, labonr and soil. The
i climate required for tea is a hot damp one, the raiu-fall
should not be less than 80 tc 100 inches per annum aud
should bo well spread over the year. Tho plant will
certainly grow at a great clevaiioii, and even at froeaing-
point. But the flushes of leaf there are less frequent,
and tho manufactured article has loss strength. Tea flourishes
to far greater advantage where there is hot sunshine,
copious ram, e'Spocially in tho early part of the year,
and rich soil. Drought shrivels up tho leaf $ cold stops its
growth. The drier climate of the Nortb-Weatem Provinces is
’ far inferior to the moisture and heat of Assam. Colonel Money,
in Chapter HI, puts tho tea-growing districts or provinces of
India through a sort of competitive examination, in which
tho subjeots selected are climate, labour, lie of land, soil,
e Th4 OultivdAinu and 3Iam/(Wiure of T«a, by Lieuk-Culouel EdwArd
tfouty. Third edltiou, correctod snd uiuvh enlxtxto. i Thicker
A Co,
Its. , April rvims.
tuid ; itt4 tbon acljnclgi^s tUe prisseg to Assam,
Caciiar,^ Chittagong and the Western or Bhootan Doara,
Kangra, Kumaon, the Bhooo, and the Keilghorries, thongh
eharmingfor invalids enervated by long residonoe lathe plains,
aro prejudicial to the tea plant as far as quantity of out-
turn is concerned; for the Kangra ralley teas as regards
quality excel in delicacy of flavour any other Indian teas.
Assam and ihe'Xerai aro flrst and second in this part of the
schedule. *
Wc have already referred lo the size of a garden, as
recommended by Colonel Money. A very largo acreage means
heavy expenditure with disproportionate yield. An estate of
3 to 500 acres, in full bearing, where Uicro are no Tacancles/*
with a good site, cheap labour, facilities for manure and
ready transport, will yield a more certain and a larger return
than a vast area badly chosen and not highly cultivated.
Tea luxuriates in friable Boili*, with a sandy or loamy
subsoil; light coloured loamy soils or sandy loams, con¬
taining h to 10 por cent, of organic mutter in tins upper layer
being preferable. Siiil soils of every kind ought to be avoided
and ,no matter how light and friable the surface soil, if
the subsoil is clay, the site is not salted for tea cultivation.
Forest and grass lands are equally suitable. The lay of
land/’ is a subject on which Colonel Money speaks very
lucidly. In the Himalayas for instance the warmer aspects
are, as a rule, the most fertile: vh'’ veraa iu warm climates.
There are few if any planters now, wj think, who would dream
of laying out a garden on sieep slopes, experience having
sbowii that oven whore terracing was tried, tlie am face soil
was gradually washed away into the valley below. Gently
sloping valleys or table lands, are the cboicost sites for a tea
plantation. In Chapter VIII, llio advantages . dividing
gardens into sections of 5 acres each are set forth, the chief
of them being that each section can be treated, regarding
plucking, as an independent portion from the rest. Only whei
the soil all over the garden is the same, ami observatiou sliow.s r
that it flushes equally, it may be left all in ono. In the Chapter
on ** Tea Seed,” sufliciout stress is not, we think, laid upon the
advisability of gathering seed oa/y from tea plants that have |
been allowed, for a couple of years at lea.st, to grow naturally ^
without pluckiug or pruning. Wo hold that sc'-J collected ,
from plants that arc regularly plucked, is degenerated and i
ought never to be used for seedlings.
Kegardiug sowing in nurseries or m sim^ Colonel Money
says that where planting m situ will succeed, it is by far the
cheapest and best, but it will only suoccod, whore there arc
cold weather and spring rain*^, anu ovou iu those climates
success is not certain, as the oaily rains often fail, so that
in all cases nurseries in rosoivc ai‘c advisable. Chapter XII
and XIII give detailed and ^^lear iiistiuctions how to raise
plants in situ, and in nuvsenu^,
Kegarding manuring Col (aid Money says * — j
•< Hy IBrat expenemod cl tuauure to tho tea plant was obtaine<l j
iu iho Ohittagung itiatiict fiom a small garUea elo<io to tlie station, •
which has bseu for aoiuo years liighly niaauTeii. 1 wwa stiock wiih tho ,
frequency ami Hbunriaiu'' of tho flashes auil iho stroai^th and flavour
of the tea. kly high o\ moa of the tea was later borne oat by
the Calouita biokera. 1 a/ids to the * Pioneer ’ garden, close to the
Chittagong station. During the best tea months, flash succeeded flesh
at iutrrvela ot less than a week, while 8 to 10 mautids (GIO to 800 lbs.)
wan the yearly yield per acre I The soil was very saudy and poor.
AfbcT-expe.K'uce showed me that manuring ncaily doubles the yield
of plants, and that so far from injuring tho flavour of tea it improves
it while it adds greatly to tiie sliength.
1 shall therefore beg the quostiou that Tnaiiura tji au advantage. If
any planner doubts let him tiy ii, and his doubts, will soon be solved.’*
We tak?! exception • to Colonel Money's advice to bury garden
refuM and pmningsin a gn^n state between the plantii. Thia
is au objectionable practice, being certain to enco , , the pro¬
pagation and development of the fungoid and auimul paraaitos,
eompriBed under lea blights.^ The researches liiads fh Oe^yloo,
have given full and clear eVidcrioS of this. The garde;! refuse
and pruning, we advise on the contrary; shohld be collected
in large manure heaps, their decomposition Should behastensd
by an admixture of caustic lime, and they' should be oovered
with a layer of soil, to be kept moist, so as to absorb the
ammoniacal gases of decomposition.
In planting out a garden, 4 to feet is cdnijfierad bjt
Colonel Money tho best distauce between the lines, the .object
being to place as many plants on the land ife It will be^ufr and
leaving yet siifiicleut space for cultivation' between the lines.
Chapters XVI and XVII are taken up with advice, how to make
a garden and how to transplant the seedlings ; attention
is drawn there to Mr. Jeben’s transplanting and transporting
tool, regarding which au independent planter, writes: " No
manager of a tea or coffee plantation, who had once seen this
instiument at work, would ever again be likely to recur to
transplanting by hand.” Colonel Money considers this Inven*
tion, a most important one. Space does not permit us
to follow Golonel Money through the remaining chapters
treating on the cultivation, pruning and plucking of made
gardens, and their treatment generally, as well as ou the
manufacluro, sifting, sorting and packing of the tea, on
all of which subjects ho speaks with great experience and
advances valnuble suggestions for improvements. Nor can
ISO follow him through tho chapters on the management of tea
gardens goiiorally, on the cost of manufacture, cost of making
a garden, tho profit tea can give and bis concluding chapter
on the ** Past, Present and Future of Indian Tea,” subjeoU
which are treated by him in an equally lucid and authoritative
niaimcr, but we recommend our readers who desire full in'^
lormaiion and sound advice ou the above, to peruse Colonel
Money's book, which must undoubtedly bo considered a standard
work on “ The Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea.”
INDIAN TIIVFUS.
NDiA presents many flew Amifrastftf (hr JTiVg’iliaMJ; but ne rli^ pj^
in noUiing more stiongly than in herj:ivers. The name of an
liiriglifth liver calls forth all pleasant summer thoughts, and
s\^e(>l images of shade and soft luif, and green leaves, and
i^laucing water. The Indian river, al its best, has no such
AHMOciptioiis. liill streams are sometimes pretty and picturesque,
t}\uugli rolling through rooky wildernesses to which the
giuce of moss and heather has been denied ; and though the
nioHl that can be said of them is tliat they serve to remind the
ti.udloi of more l 9 vcly and familiar scenes left behind. But
wljatHliall a man say of the rivers of the plains? The theme is
1 U)L one iu itseU devoid of beauty and charm. A great English
poet, imagining pictures for his soul's delight, chose to adorn
hir. Cabled Palaco of Art with tho likeness of—.
A full-fdd river, winding slow,
Through herds upon au endless plain ;
eve' a.R Homer wrought the same picture by Vulcan’s hand
upoi lbs shield of Achilles, to signify the happy pastoral life,
with its wealth and qiiiotness and peace. Alas, tho Indian
river, albeit winding through an endless plain, is no more full-
fed than ^uo herds upon its banks. It takes one of two shapes.
The less common is that of a tortuous muddy dltoh, brimful,
indeed, in (ho rainy season, and for some short time after not
wanting in a fair supply of water, tolerably clear; but soon
ebrinking, summer-dried, when men’s need is the sorest, into a
stagnant canal, foul, choked with weeds, and deep sunk below
the level of the parching fields. Or, if the watec be stopped by ^
a dam, and made to give life and brightness for some few miles
above, nothing eau be more forlorn than tho wauderiogs of the
dry channel below, as it twisbi oimtessly through the Und,
filling the air with the siok smell of aquatio plaots perishing
under the pestilout squ. The other type of river ta one which
fails not for water, but its surroundings are the abpminatij(Mi< of
desolation. Little need is there to recall the piotore, familiar
to every eojouruer iu this couutry, of the lohoopttol^ wastes
th« iiiatQrio 8irwmt ef Io4**
nod fit major aSue^ts, Tlie rirer ite pre*
toQQf afar, by tJja bright gl«am reBooted from many, a
milf bl jiot damting «and, through which man and boast plod
heavily ont to the tuargin of a deep, rapid, turbid etroain, eome
few icore yardi broad, flowing oloee under a high bank of clay,
into whfoh it is for ever eating, and the plash of failing
fragments is the only sound heard along its melancholy banks.
No trace is here of the “glassy, cool, translucent wave,” nor
apy of those pleasant things which have in all ages drawn
western f/beta to the riverside for inspiiation. The myths of
the BJsat assign hideous origin to tho Father of Indian
waters. He comes tumbling from tho luterinlnablo unkempt
locks of Siva, rtie Destroyer, bringing with him all his train
of atllgatore, Crocodiles, turtles, %vater snakes, and wUalevor
other noisome and loathsome creature rejoices in his sacred
stream. Tho gaping moutii and serrated back of a huge
llaard, ortho round shell of a great tortoise, fed on corpses, or
perhaps the corps© itself, drifting hopelessly down the mid-
channel or stranded on a shallow, and covered with gorging
Tultures— these are tho sights which enliven the Gauges strand
dav. and at night, near large cities, the course of the river.
may bo tracked ny lUo orS f«i.n«vAi Uvoa. mnrA
deprSBsiog can be imagined than an evening ride ow the river
««*Ury time of the year. In the rains, all this is
a waste of waters, too dull and turbid to lona uuy win.....
laudsoape, while swift currents and sudden blasts make ifc
useless, and indeed dangerous, for the boaliug which }ts wide
expanse seems to invite.
If tho objectionable points of Indian rivers, however, were
of a merely sentimental character, one might be content to
leave them alone. But there are other bad qualities which give
a deal of trouble of a much more practical nature. Tho liver,
in the pride of its floods, has a tendency to sweep the works of
mao ok the face of tho earth. Every one knows the story of
the difllculties attending the construction of all onr large Indian
bridges. Without mentioning such giants as the Sutbj or the
Ganges, one may quote^ a piece of experience from tbe
Bamgunga, a river of tho second class, which was foic*^d to
submit to abridge some six years ago. It did not yield without
a struggle. Tho piers had been sunk to a depth of seventy
feet, and then the Qooda came, and when they sank, the massive
pillars were found lying under hundreds of tons of sand, in tho
river bed, oarried by some unacoountable ourreni sevorut yards
up the stream. The railv^ly now travels over piei'i which rise
thiity feet above the water, and reach down a hundred feet
below it. If these things happen to vast viaducts, one cun
easily guess tho fate of villages which staud in the way of tho
stream. Tlie loss of personal property, indeed, is not much ;
for the village rose out of the soil and sinks unrogretted into it
again, while there has usually been ample watuing for tho
removal of the few brass dishes which are th'< Tndiun pfasauL’s
household goods. But the loss of the village lands is a more
seiioUB matter. So long as the process of destruction is gradual,
the hardship is less felt. The cultivator has time to look shout
fur land elsewhere, and he will not throw away his seed upon a
field whicb seems likely to fall into tho river as soon as tho
rains begiis. But a few years of gradual erosion aio often
succeeded by a sudden change, transforming all the rivenne
topography, and throwing hundreds of acres out of cultivation
in a single night. It is not merely that the river has struck
out a new course, leaving tho old bed dry, and ihn surrounding
country as it was before, except that a certain number of flelds
have been appropriated for the now channei. That would ho a
small matter, of which nobody need complain. But the truth
is that the river, as it advances in its process of erosion,
leaves behind it only stretches of barren sand; and when a
sudden change comes, the utmost gam to the adjacent villages
is that this unfruitful tract is secured to them, safe from fluvial
action for a term of years, in the place of tho good laud which
was iWatlowed up, digested, and then voided forth i^guin
depriyed of all itd nutritious properties. At present the river i.
eatlog somewhere else, perhaps in quite tho contrary direction,
and may reasonably be expected not to return here for many a
day. lleknwhUethe lovr and level landa Are put to snob uses
as <hsil^ Will bear* Thetr fli^t fimit if n spontaneous growth of
tamarisk; a kiudly i^rub yihioh otolhes the bar# waste with
grace, and gladdens the traveller*# eye with green, and l^e
memory with the songs of a happier clime. It was in n
tamarisk thicket that Ulysses captured Dolon, by Boamander
bank; and the “ humble tamarisk ** gave the shade under
which tho Sicilian muses, and those not less sweet of later Ilaly,
tuned tho pastoral reed to sing the indolent'charm of eummer
days, dreamed through in company with beauty and love.
Not of these things does the Indian herdboy dream, se he drives
hia ungainly bullalocs through the clustering Itiushes of their
now pasture-ground. The laud is used iu coinmou by all the
villages among which it lies ; and, for a time, 1(io one is careful
to claim possession of any pari of that which is of so small
value. But tho tainaiisk roots hind the shifting soil; the
droppinga of thoir branches slowly fertiliise the ground; the
very cattle lioad it into cousistoncy, and onrioli it after their
fashion. Giaduaily Iho agiiouUural capahiliiios of the soil are
restoiod; tlie useful jungle, Jmving done its woik, disappe#!#
iu tire wood , and plougheil ilolda Ixjgiii to take its place
Paloliofl of the lit-host soil aie dieoovorod hero and there. The
rivei has not wholly dostioyed what it devoured, but ha#
Boinotimes cast it fortli little olianged, covered perhaps with a
ihm layer of sand, but ohaiged with tho water which it
wanted betofe. Jjuxuiiuut uuJoi•£ «iovttv attfiat# the
pioductivencss of tho damp sod boueath ; and wbou«it oomea >
li.. ^i.A hand of iho husbandmao, thick vetches and peas, and
tall lush wlioal, prove that tno new acquisition is one whioh,
save only Hoods, will yield llie wottlthiost crops in places now,
und may be trusted to do So almost ovorywbere hereafter.
From tills moinonf, the neighbourly joint uocupatiou of the
alluvial tract is at an eiiil. Each of the surrounding village#
asserts its undoubted claim to tho whole. Perhaps a nominal
HetUemont bus alroudy been made with some of them, while
tho land was yot valueless, and when nobody was^uiiuded to
dinpute a claim which did not jiumodialoly afloct the right# of
others. Now, however, that tlie value of the laud has become
ovidoiit, tho nominal owner met^ts wlih all kiude of dilHculties v
in onfoicing his title. Whole holds lose their crops niysteriously
m the night, tho tenants are made to understand that they
had better not try to cm or into possession of the fields leased
to them; and the ln:.d is openly encroached upon lu all
dheclions. It is in vam that oideis, upboldiug the settlement
arc juiuiiiialed fiom the liighest authoiity. Local influenoes
aio too powerful, local teiU])ttttiona aie too strong. At last,
after seven or eight yoais of continual lawsuits and ciiminal
pioHOcntion.?, whoro victoiy inclines with glorious uncertainty
to oilhor side, tho state of things is rouogiiisedk as intolerable,
and an English o/licer is sent out to put an end to it. This is
indeed a gieut day for all persons concerned. For ouce, their
conflicting aims are all the same,—to bamhoosslo the stranger
who lias come out to bo an aibiter over them only, of course,
each wishes to mislead him in a djiferent direoiiun. Heroin ije#
Ins safety , for llio amaKing discrepancy between their several
slories soon suggests awhulosoui3doubt as to the truth of iUeia
all. If one were inclined to bo soiious, it would be diflioult ta
imagino any more shocking moial spectacle than the utter
distegaid for truth displayed on nil sides. The enquiry is on©
where a plain and fair statcuiout is sorely needed. It is
hopeless to tiy to unravel the tangled handiwork of the river,
by inspection of tho village waps drawn before tho river took
to tianagrestniig it wonted bounds. Parts of the village lauds,
left undestioycd upon the high ground, oau iudeod ho traoed,
but the moment one descends into iho alluvial basin, all js
didusiuli, nought is truth. Each claimant deciaros the laud# of
his own village to have occupied, if not the whole basin, at
least tho greater pnrt it j and no piecing together of mops will
enable the bewildered revenue oflicer to say with tolerable
cortamty wheie the old bounds of any one village roolly were.
Only a professional surveyor, witli the aid of tho survey maps
(whioli are other thani tjie comparatively rude vUIgge maps
maintained for revenue purposes), can restore tho oncient
limits, and give ev#ry one hi# due. The ultimate decision must
oi course be made by the revenue authoiities. But one does
not see why our magnifioent survey maps should be left
unutilised; nor why an annual survey should not be made of
all alluvial viUag##, so a# to keep up {hat which is most of all
120 THE INDIAN AHBICULTUBIST. < April 1,18?0.
w«»te<3fM3id wliicli would save ImmoriM voitalion and troublo
in ibo fotiire^a limely record of all the chaogeii wrought Isy
the rher.
JOTTINGS FROM MADRAS,
I T nay not bo uumteroBting to your readeri to bear how
•ueceaefully the Famine Commisaion avoided the riek
of being obliged to conaider socb facte regarding the agricul¬
tural condition of ttfe Madraa Preeidenoy, as would have been given
them^ had the agricultural advieer of Governinbot. Mr. Bobertaon'e
•eidence been taken/ Not only was his evidence not taken, but
endeavouia were apparently made to aapprees, or iiot to bring to
notice an elaborate soriee of answers to Mr. Elliot’s queations, tbe
issue of which preceded the formation of the Comiuission. The
F. 0. contented themeelvoa with a morning's walk ot the Sydapet
Experimental Station, and with a cursory ioapootion of the temporary
arrangements for conductiug agricultural education there. Such
a visit whilst it might seem to casual ohsal-vers to indicate a wish
to inveitigate tbe agricultural problem thoroughly, was in reality
a mere blind, astutely devised by the Oiviliuti guides of the
Commission to prevent their unbiassed colleagues from heariug what
independent observers consider to have been the results of tba
system ot ttdmiutBtofiirg tbis country, for which the covenan¬
ted dviliana* are primarily responsible. The Government o£
India were wise, in appoiiitiiig Mr. ElHrti *i** k.vwiuou be
occupies ae personal oonduotor to tlie farce, which is now
being committed. Not the slightest endeavour was really
made to obtain the opinions, or to learn the views of the educated
agrioulturislB in the service of the local Government. Those facts
would seem to indicate that the Supreme 'iovernmeut look with
disfavour on endeavours to ititroduce a system of Rational Agricul- |
ture into this country ; and that their Etcetera Department is only
maintained for tbe collection of very incorrect statistics, which
may be useful, but the object of which it is at present diiScult
to determine, and perhaps to furnish a number of oomfortablo bf>rthB
£jr their protegees. If, instead of the present very unsatisfu/ tory !
state of things which exists in Madras as elsewhere, the local
Governmeut would make full use of the estabiishm^ut of
agricultural officers, whom thc 7 entertaitt, much work
might bo done. Not but that a great deal has already been
performed, but all agiicuUiiral inatteis being undtu the
direction of the Revenue Board, it is impossible to expect
from that cumbrous and stop>the-way ins ti tut ion that any real
endeavours will be made to give the country what it most requires.
A similar arrangement, with regard to the Foiest Department, was
tried and found to fail most miserably. As was suggested by a
writer in a recent pamphlet, tho agricultural officers of Government
should be taken from under the wet-blanket induence of their
present superiors, and put in direct communication with tlvo
Gaveiumeut. It might then be easy for them to bring uiatlers
before Government without loss of lime.
It was suggested in a local paper souiotirne that Gcverniuent
should dit^.de the Presidency into Commissionorehipa ,* if this
wore done, every CoramiHSiouer ought to have an agricultural
adviser, who might also supervise the work of agricultural educji'
tion in the local schools, on a sysloiu something similar to that
prepared by Sir li. Temple iu Bombay. Besides those local
advisers, the Government ought to have on their staiT somo educa¬
ted agriculturist to direct the opoiatious tbey decide on, and to
advise, ou topioa relating to his piofessioii. SSucii an officer would
fiud more than sufficient woik iu carrying out his duty. To
him also should be committed the supervision in particubir, of the
higher educational work,such ar that conducted in the agricultural
college at Sydapet, and the genu a! supervision, similarly to the
Conservator of Forests iu his own department, of all the agricul¬
tural officers of Government. It was suggested, I believe, to make
5 Oommisstonerehipa.; if BO ou the plan which I now suggest, it
would require the services of 7 officers to carry on such a wotk,
besides trained native subordinates ; thus-* '
Agricultural Adviser to Ooveroment, and Director of Agri¬
cultural Education. .. 1
Profoisor ot Agriculture iu Central College . I
Agrloultural Advisers to Conimiisioneri ..&
Snob a system might be applied to every proving of Indie, and
would, I think, form an efficient i^round wqrk for starting auWiUial
agricultural improvements,. Of course H would be eoitly, and At
present, iu the face of late famines, and present war, might not be
adaptable in toto ; but novertbelese, wi^ £1,500,000 to be spent
per annum in measures calculated to lessen tbe .effects of defiojent
rainfall, it should be possiblo for the Imperial Government to do
something towards what most thiukiog men in India are begin-
uiug to look upon as the best means of averting future diaaater.
What the intent ions of the local Govorument may bc^ I am
unaware; but 1 believe that under pressure from Calcutta, in order
to prevent Lord Orauhrook’s surplus dwiudling intA a deficit, it is
likely that considerable reductions In the public servioe will
be made. If this be so, it is to be feared that in their present
state of callous indifference to the real wants of the country, tbs
Madraa Government may show itself to be as benighted as its
brethren in tho other presidencies. It is however) a good sign to
see, that the native community is itself beginning to demand that
their English rulers should not keep back from them the discoveries,
which science has made,and which are so valuable to the cultivators,
be he Hindu, oi Kuglisb, Farsee or German. Tlieir demands are far
more likely to be lieeded tlmu tUu \varnin»a o£ n^ber of
educatedTarmers.
, . Madras, J AQRICOLA.
lAih "-jr love, y
VILLAGE STATISTICS.
A }' statistical register has been opened by orders of the
Director of Agriculture aud Commerce in the Norlh-Westera
Piovinces. It is an English list of tillages, to be kex>t partly by
native agency and partly by Assistant Collectors for the poitions
of districts under their charge. The object is laudable, ond we
sincerely hope it may be found capable of realisation. Bnt we
cannot forget that schemes, instituted on the first creation of the
Director's office, four years ago, still remain in great part unaccom¬
plished. Tbe remodelling of village returns, in the vernacular,
though long ago perfected on paper, has not yet properly begun
to take a practical shape. There can he no question of the wisdom
of the soheiue ; and it i:*, therefore, all the more provoking to find
it frustrated by obstacles of a purely meohanical character, which
demand only a little methodical energy for their removal. In
some districts, matters are nt a standstill^or want of the new
printed forms, which are not supplied till months after they are
dut; This IS obviously a difficulty which ought never to have
aris'm. It is a giatuitous complication of an enterprise which has
already to contend with a variety of embarrassments, due to the
stupidity or untrustworthtuess of the village accoujitauta whose
papers form the basis of the whole system. In this department,
asiu many others, tho great desideratum is trained officials iu the
lower grades ; oud a special element of difficulty exists in the fact
that the Government is not flee to select these men with a single
eye to their acquired qualifications. The wishes of the landowners
must bo consulted, and hereditary claims have to be taken into
conside 1 iaUou , It is hopeless to expect good woik from a village
accountiv/who IB on bad terms with the landlord ; and if local
lights be h.)t aside, the family of the mao passed over are pretty,
sure to ms've the village too hot for his rival. There are provi¬
sions reqn nng the examination of all new men, but they too ofteo
remain a dead letter. Organisation is wanted, aud can be attained
onl> by degrees. Meanwhile there is always a ceitaiu proportion
of village acc>>u*Atanta who are inooinpetont by reason of laziness
or ignorance, or a fiaudnlcnt turn of mind. Their papers are
constantly overdue, and when they do come in, they are found to
be incorrect. Yet it is often found that the lesser of two evils is to
retain these men iu office, under a regular aystein of fining, rather
than got rid of them on the ohauCe of beiug able to supply their
place with better. In fact, it is only ou raro oocasions that the
quality of their work is brought under the notice of the Oollcotor,
One of the chief merits of the new statistical register will be ap
increase in tbe number of these occasions, aud a more regular
supervision on the part of tbe English offioer^ The register ia to
come into use next yesr; but one would be over hopeful to
expect that it will be in full working order for two or three
years to ttomsA
Total ..
lil
April THErUDUiTAClWCTOmBT..
lu ol«im *a aot'wo, however, U a matten ot detail,
unooonected wHh tii«i:e»«jiilecop©ot the ifci« iatendod
to eerre. We mean the Htlle proviso that the figores, in the
portion to ho filled in by native agency, ehall ho^ recorded in
Homan ebaiaMtera. Woehould be glad to welcome this simple
rule the herald of a great change. But if 'wo look only to
the immediate purpose of the register, we shall find reason
enough to applaud the wisdom of so bold a divergence, albeit
in a small, matter, from the time-honoured practice of Indian
sorlBes. In nothing is the perversity of Eastern notions more
strikingly illustrated than in the fashion of recording numbers,
not by plain figures, but by a kind of slmrt-hand which lakes
up more room, is longer in writing, aud is usually more or less
capable of an interpretation to suit the reader’s pleasure. The
sole merit of this kind of notation is the symmetrical beauty
of its appearance. A tabular Btaternent filled up thus a
really pretty specimen of penmanship; but all regard for its
neatness vanishes when the native dork begins to read it aloud.
The leading numbers aro managed with comparative lluenoy,
though mistakes occusionally occur even in these; but fractions
of a rupee are invariably the subject of largo guess-work and
copious error. It is hardly necessary to remaik that fractions
are recorded in a fashion which, among Westorii nations, is
peculiar to mariners alone. They hoavo the loud and read
their soundings on exactly the same plan as tho native
accountant who records his small change in fiactioiis, of a
rupee, not in units of annas and pies. Tho plan is a scientific
one, aud the record of it, as noted above, is calligraphic in a
liigh degree ; but for piactical purposes tho whole system is
incouveniont and unceilaiu ; and it has survived to this day
only because all tilings old aio tieatod with a Bcini-oriental
Ievorence—wiim enough, if not oxaggeratod — by tho English
nilcrs of India. We may perhaps liope that loform, once
started, will take a wider range, aud that not tUjs single registci
only, but vernacular returns generally, will gradually conio to
be recordod in familiar figures. The change is ono which
might bo made at once in'all tabular staUMuents coinpihu] in
the Bub-divisioual olfices of districts, tlms relieving the Oontuil
English offices, already overworked, of all the labour of transla¬
tion. Wo cannot yot demand that tho village accountants
sliould keep thoir books on the same principle; but a beginning
might bo made by encouraging them to expect hotter oharicos of
promotion if they qualify thomaolvoy to use Enghsli headings
and figures to rotunia with which they have long boon 1*01 fectly
familiar. For the rest, them would bo no such iiecossity of
change. The names of tho tenants, if written with toleiablo
caro, aro always fahly legible; and the adoption of tho plan
piopoaed-—a perfoclly feasible ono, if worked with disvietiyii —
would render the village records intelligible to overy Assistant
CoUootor, without'the need oE any iiiterpieting medium. It m
fcmpoi-fluous to point out the groat stride thus made in iheduec-
lion of an effectual system of suporvision. Fainilianty wiih
village records would he a simple matter, if tho suh-divisiynai
officer were able to oairy them homo and inspect tl'om for him¬
self, over bis camp fire. This will novoi bo douo while tho
present vernacular method is in practice. No EngliBli officer
liaa time to make himself thoroughly conversant with native
handwriting, and it certainly is not dosirnblo that he should
create leisure for the purpose, by noglocting othui duties for the
charge of a diatiiot—and those who have tried it know what U
meauS’-*is due to the single ciroumstanoo that the Collector is
not free to take up files for himself, examine them, and write
his orders with his own hand. No doubt, such a change would
be a great one, and not to be made in a year, nor in several
years, but surely it is high time to prepare the way for it.
Nobody can suppose that the vernacular laogttages, with their
manifold imperfections of vocabulary, structure,*aud utterance,
will permanently continue as the medium of official or inteUec*
tual intercourse. Bui ilfis a mere want of foreright to nogltcfc
the preparation for a change which will certainly become
inevitable. Already we have examples of a Buocossful begin-
niiig in some isolaicd dopartments. No vernacular correspou-
donce is permitted in the local Secretariats. It is not so long
Buico the High Court of Allahabad decreed that all pleadings
before it should be in EogHsli. Objertious were not wanting
at the time; but tho result has been avast gain to the public,
both as regards appreoiatimi of the points of their oases, and
also in the cxpodition of business. Tlio same high tribunal
wisely dotennined that tho Uocorders of tho Judge’s Courts
should in all diBlriots bo iiipn conversant witli EiigUeb. Tho
innov atioii was Btrenuously opposed; but it has amply justified
itself by its results, proving that it rests only with the^Govern*
moiit to create a demand, and the supply of English-speaking
native officials will bo forthcoiuiug at onoo. Let the Govern¬
ment then extend its demand a little further. We do nob ad-
! vocalo Hudden or sweeping oharigos, A good beginning might
bo made witii n rnlo requiring tho lioad vernacular clerks of
Coimniseiouers’ officea to know Englibh, and providing that,
after a curtain date, these ofiiuos will deriine to rocoivo any
papeiH in the vornacnlur. TIk* next atop would bo a similar rule
ri'garding native sub-divisional ofiieor^*, as well as tho central
Rub-diviNional supervises of village accountants. Tins much
having been effected, tJio ra^t would follow of itself, while the
iinmodlato rosnit would bo an inimonsB sirnpltiicatiou of admliiu*
tiative work. Then the CoUeotor could leally judgo tho work
of biH snb-dLvisional subordinates, fioui loporU aud rophea
1 submit ted iu English for his own perusal, not interpreted by
tho tedious voice of a dn dork, amid a dosson other distrao*
tion*i. The thing is <iiuto poaniblo. Hero, aa olsewheve, the
Fiend) proverb holds good : It is only tho first step which ia
lonniuablo.
EDITORIAL .NOTES. •
O UR aiitif ipiition legauHng tho inefficionty of the fumes of
biiiuiiig sulphur (Sulphurous acid gas), as a suhstituto for
j powdered Kulphur, for the prevention of coffioo leaf disease has been
I Htipporicd l>y actual esporimoul. Air. Moirie worked out a series
j of oxpeiiincots with Sir. Wall’a {umignliug process, and found
1 that tho lilaments and spores of ilio Uemihia wore very little
I injured and recovered rapidly their vitality, after applying fumes
whioli almost destroyed Urn foliage of the trees, which bears out
wUat wu said in our previous issiui, vis.j that tbo sulphurous acid
in Ua nascent state, Is the most efficient moans of destroying the
vitality of the fungus.
TitE amuud Graiit-iu-aid of Ra. 1,2'XI (0 tho Nagpore Agrl-
suke of a mero mechanic ail. Iloitioultuial Society, whiuli the Goveiumcnt has contributed
, Somuch forthoimmodiatoeffcot of llio now rogielei, with its dining the hiat five ycais, will probably be diacoiuinued as
oharacteriatio Roman notation. It is impossiblo, however, to ^*»**'^ CommisMiouer is of opimon that ih& results
resist the temptation to look beyond tbo domain of figllro^., and attained dmiug tho past five years ;ire soarcoly such, ns to
to speculate on the possibility of a widely extended use of the Imponal subsidy now granted to tiie Bocioty ;
English as tlie medium of official corrospondenoo. The dis- Sm iely will have no just grounds for complaint
advantages of the existing system are so obvious as scarcely tho subridy is winidiawn. Iho Chief Commissioner iutends,
^ to need ennmeration ; but it may be worth while to remind the however, to siishun the Society by such moderate grants as might
J/ reader that nrao*ienth8 of official correspondenco in India is ncoessaiy, from provincial funds. The Government
carriod on in writing which the oorreapondiug offioers|-ro Grant-in-aid, if withdrawn from the Society, might well be
unable to read ; that the state of vernacular liloBdopends mainly towards the bcttei carrying out of the objects of tho
upon the interest or inclination of some native subouhaate ; Nagpore Experimental Faiin.
that petitions'axe not perused but only listoiiod to ; and that ——
tuisiakes are perpetually ooourring because the listener's aliention A iieport on certain crop experiments made in some dwlriots
ia otherwise engaged, ox heoaunie the reader blunders in his of the Bomba}^ Presidency during 1875 - 7 t>; was fgiwairhjil to tbs
monotonous ocoupatlom One-half of the toil aoooinpanying the Secretary of State in Hecombor last. Jw Hbaiwai aud Cauaia, the
m
THE limiilT' iSjHRICtJLTHEi^T.
1' ' V; ' ^
April l,1879i
mnU of the exj^eriments seem to show that the aaaeastneate on
the laoda in qneation la H^ht compared with the groas Yhlue of
theoiopef Uie higheet proportion being 6*8 per cent, in Dbarwar, and
6*7 in CSanara^ above Ghate. In the abeeuce, howoTer^ of informa¬
tion as to the probable cost of cultivation) these particulars do not
sbour what proportion the aesossment bears to the net yield of the
land, which seems to be the most important fact to bo ascertained :
further, one yoor’e experiments cannot pioduoe any reliable data
from which to deduce the general incidence of assessment to the
yield of the laud. In oider to ascertain this, it is recommended
by the Secretary of Stale that oxporimenls should bo continued
annually in the same localities and under different conditions of
of season.
AoRiCUETUBAn prospocts in the Punjab are so bad that the local
Gorerument have coneiderad it neceseaiy to call on all distiict
officers to furnish early and full iuformatioxi on the following
points let, prospects of standing crops ; 2nd, stoclcs ; 3rd, what
works of most public utility they would recornrnend being started
as rolief-works. _
The condition of the people in Katty war is causing considerable
anxiety in Western India. Grain is almost unprocurable, or can
only be J^ouglit at prices beyond the reach of the poorei classes.
The formation of local relief works is being urged by tho local
papers to prevent the people from wandeiing into other distiicts,
where they are likely to perish of starvation. A coirospondonl
writes from Rajkote, tlie chief civil station of Kattywar •
“ We must do soniothiug to save tlie cultivatois who ai© the
bone and sinew of the country, from the ruin and staivation, when
they have pledged their last gold and silver bangle to raise nioiioy
to feed their children. Tlie post cart from Rajkote daily takes
away tho valuables and ornaments of the poor people to be sold in
the Bombay markets. When they are roiluced to tin ir last rupee,
the want and desolation ot this district will be complete ”
Two proposals for the couetruclion of railways I'lrough the
country have been under consideration for sometime. U is
understood that the proposals have been nppioved of by tho
Bombay Government. No time should, therefore, he lost in pro¬
viding sinploymont for the bands of starving people who are
wandering about the counliy.
A small hold of Mysore cattle, the Amrut nmhal breed, ih to
be sent to the distiicts of the Nilgnis, Coimhatoie and Halom,
as an experiment, to decide whether the cattle will thrive in the
climate and on tjie natural heibago ot tUeee distiicts.
We observe that the Government of Madras hae given instrimUonB
that no applications for forest or whola land should be f^utortaiiied
on the Nilgiiis until tho whole district has been reported on,
and the gcnoial question of land resoivatiuu, whether ioiest or
grass land, has been consideied and decided. Arty siicli applica¬
tions addressed to the Commissioner will be legistered for
future disposal.
FbOM papers placed at our bearing on the iulroduclion of
iheoarob tree, we observe, that thex'ouiDusBiouf'r in bind has distrlbated
the carob seed among the Ooilfiotors of Kurracbee, IlydeiabaJ, and
Bbiksrpur, and the Conservator of Forests in Snid, with the following
results
In the Rarracbee district the seed was sown iu several places
In the Jliamek, Shahbaudar, and Sebwun divisnons. In the latter ulune
the seed germinated successfully, but owing to the floods nui! beuvy
rai|t the seedlings were 'esiroyed from submersion. In tho Hyderabad
district the experiment w ^ tri^d at SaJaru—the growth of tho saodliogs
is described to be very row, noun beiog aboie 9 inohea in bright,
but there are 160 plants iu a healthy couditiou Ot for transplaulbg.
Besides the above some seedlings have been distributed. There is one
plant already in the garden tho growth of 7 years. It fs 10 feet high
and is not only healthy but it is stated to have made more progrt^ss
this year than lu any former year. Id the bhikarpnr district the
failure was complete* The Oouservutor of Forests tin^l the experiment
in the flukkur, Nansbahra, Hyderabad, and Jurtnrk divisions. The
result may be pronounoed a failuie except at ISuUkur, where the
surviving plants ot which there are 25 out of oO have attained the
height of 5 ft* C in. and are thuving.
tfffB aUffual admirmstfatioa report of tho Boimay Ct»tton
*. ^arirt na uKawq flinf dtirlrlff tliA Vnar tliMM Wft« a
oofisiclerable falling o£^ In ilm af^ abwn with oottou. In tiHo
northern districte of the I^reeidebcy, tbe rainfall at the ooinmaffo^*
ment of the season waa too scanty to admit of an oxtattiiYO
cultivation, and there was consequently a great dtmlmHion In the
area sown, especially in the native States, while in Sind, owing to
a deffciency of water in the Nara, and tho late retention of the
flood water ia Thar and Parkar, there was also a ^decrease.
Ill the southern districts, the rainfall was seasonable, and a greater
extent of land was devoted to cotton there than in tL<v previous
year. The total area undor cotton was 2,312,651 acres, or 410,586
acres less than in 1B76'77. There was a not decrease of 468,428
acres iu tho area sown with indigenous cotton, and an inoreaso of
57,842 acres in tho culiivation oE tho exotic variety. The
total quantity of cotton exported from the Presidency was
763,313 halos, of an estimalod value of Rs. 7,28,05,307,
showing a decrease of 216,514 iu halos, and of Rs. 1,8*2,64,836
Jri value, as compared with tho exports of 1876*77, which
latter were, however, oxcoptionally low.
Tiik Chief Commissioner of Mysore and Coorg has sent Mr.
Ilarmaii, Superintondontof the Bangalore Experimental Farm, on a
tour through^the coffee distiicts, to enquire into the causes of leaf-
disoase, and getjorally into tho present state of coffee cultivation
in Coojg. Mr. Harm an appears to be going into his work heart
aud soul, and we have every confidence tliat his tour will benefit
the plaqting oommuuity. We observe, Mr. Harman bos been
dolivei-ing some lectures in I be Coorg PJanters* Association Rooms
’'‘fore a considerable and appreciative andienoo, and has drawn infer
r<w«a, attoulion Lotho riocosfcity of adopting a more rational piinciple
of manuniig, iustead of the present Imppy-go-lucky style.
Major Nutt’s agricultural fan and horse show at Songaiii in
Kattywar, a lopoit of which appears elsewhere, appears to
have boon a great success. This is tho first ocoasinn upon which a
fair of the kind was over held in these parts, and the gaihoring is
considered to have been very good The Chiefs of Bhownnggnr
ami Palitana were both present, the former presenting the prizes
oil the last day. The moat important feat mo in the meeting was
a coui-Po of lectures dolivfii'od by Mnjoi Nutt on agiiculture. A
course of study at the Agiicultiual College at Cirencester haN made
this officer quite proficient in this subject, and tho zeal wliiob
has prompted him to impart his knowledge lo the kiinboea in such
an ( ut-of-tho-way place ns Songaih, is most praiseworthy indeed.
Major Nutt’s slay in Songarh has been a voiy short one, yet the
j improvements he has already effected in the place, as reported to
iifl, hove been very great. He has now been ordered to Baroda,
and tbe logiot expressed at his leaving Kattywar is very general.
He will, however, have a largo field for improvements open to biin
HI Ibo Uaekwar’b toiritoiy.
■\Vrin rtferoiic j to llio anpposod flisoovery of the olive tree iu
Bin mail, a corrfB]»oiidciit sends a Ceylon contemporary tho follow¬
ing note .—In the Forest Flora of Buiuiah by Kuiz, four species
cl OIca, the genus to which the European Olive belongs, are given
L<i ualivcB eC JJurmah, viat, : 1, O’oa deutala. Wall ; with fruits the
of a small peu. *2, 0. dioics, Rox. with liuits tho size of a
laJ.'opoB. 3. 0. teiijillora, nw., with fruits ovoid-oblong, nearly
hal nil inch long, smooth, bluish black ; and 4. 0. robnsta, Kurz,
wit I small bluish black fruits, tins last being equal to tbo liignstrum
robisHtum of Ceylon, where we have also the Olea glandulifera,
Wnl, and 0. gaidiieii, Thw., But it is evident Horn the size, &o., of
tbu fs of tlie Burmese olives, that none of them cau bo
confounded with the European olive, and judging from tho
paiAgraph quoted, the discovery of a large edible or oil-
yielding olive tree in Buriiiah, must bo a species of mare's nest, and
aKo that tho discoveior, though he may have a vague idea of what
an olive should be, i j no botanist. Our Ceylon Woralus, from
which Woralugstoni^a, in Amlw.ganiuwa, pickled and sold ia* ^
Colombo, or in Ibeir natural state m the bazaars, arc very much like
olives, and hence their botanical name Emcarims^ but here their
atfiiiity ceases. They belong to a widely separated family of plants
and the pulp of the Weralu does not contain oil,
Mr* Baden Powell, Conservator of the Punjab Forests, has
written an intoi eating pamphlet on some remarkable gSoIegical
phenomena, known as tho chOs ” or sau6 torrsalB of
14^nih}iiArnni*A. Tba .A i.* . vu «. it
April
Tm AaRiciitTtriasjr.
isa
stm
to dijreot hi» fttfeontioa to th«
tubjwiij^ Wlt)^ Pf deviniu^ aomo niaauB of chookiog
tbalr progfoiuu lo oao Uiisil Rione tbay oftloulftte 35,O0O acros
of laud pp?exed with Baud by <^chds it sbould not ko forgotten
that in tbiB rich and well* peopled diatriot, thia, land alone,
if reciaimed^ might be on our rent rolls, bringing in a yearly
revenue of' at least Ils. 50,000.” In many other districts the
same feature is noticeable. Immense qaantilies of, ground,
'which, a few years ago, was under cultivation, have boon
devastated by ^ose^chOa” to an almost incredible extent.
The sand ^ descends fiom the lloshiarporo hills in streams
‘ which spread out »iu the shape of a fan as they descend
to the plains. The “ ohOs ” have even descouded far down into
the Jullundbur district, carrying destruction in Ibcir train.
Mr. Powolt gives tho following description of the manner in
which the masses of sand which descend in these toirents are
supplied. ** In the first place, tho general surface o£ the hills
is out away, roeultiug in the abrupt and scarped appearance
BO well seen on crossing Iho Sutlej from Rupar, Tho efedris of
this is either accumulated in secondary ridges, so often observed
at a short distance fiom the main range, or is absorbed into iho
current of a gradually-formed water-courae. The rain-water
as it flows towards the main lines u£ “,cli0” drainage is lima
already charged with lino sand and mud, tarried iiom tho
surface abrasion of the hills, and thus it is alioady piepared
to furnish a considerable amount of depositable muteual to tbo
chfi.” But the bulk of tho supply is fiirniahed by the giving
way of the scarped surfaces of sand strata, which have been
cut through by the stream, and now form its confining walls ”
Mr. Powell proposes to deni with the matter by planting and
artificial excavations, which will cJieck tho onward progress of
the ^*chd8.” He recommends Govermueut to send a trained
Forest Officer to Iloshiarpore to act as Aesistnut to tho Deputy
Coimuissionor I would suggost that the Home autlioritios
might be asked to select ouo of tiiose now studyiug who has a
taste for this branch of wuik, and lot him have special
opportunities of visiting sucli works ns the leboisemoiit near
limbrutn, which successfully oxtmguished the torrent o£ feJl.
Mnrlhe, the reboisemeiit o£ the Luboron in the Department
dos Hautos Alpes, that o£ Karst iu Illyria, and other such
works.” In course of time, some of tho land may be reclaimed,
and wo shall no longer be presented with iho picture of mile
after mile of the district cut up with the broad diy beds of
sand, not only useless, but sproiulmg their destdation fuither
and further with eveiy liot wind imd eveiy flood."
A BBCENT number of the Gazette of India contains a mass
of correspondence regarding tiie tussur silkworm. Some three
or four years ago, the Government of India took up tho
question of “ tho possible devolopmout of a profitable industry
ill the silk of the nudomesticated silk-spiiiuing woimsof India.”
Tho experiment has not been voiy successful, as regauls
either the quantity or (piality of tho silk, lb has been brought
to the notice of Euiopeaii mauufacturers, bub there appoais to
be little orno demand for it. The hugest older received is from
M. David, a silk manufacturer at St. Etienne for 2,0()0
kilogrammes of cocoons, lor tbo pm pose of making ex-
porimonts with the silk at his owu cost.” Uo oficred to pur¬
chase them at ouo fiano per kilogramme, but the Goveiumcut
could not afford to sell them at less than three or four times
that amount.
In his letter giving this order, M. Da\id asks the following
questions :—
What is the chemical agent made use of by the natives to
soften the ooooou and make it ready for reeling 7
Oan the natives reel a cocoon more than a ye.*ir old i
8rd,—What is the leuath of time elapsing from the making of the
coooon and the time of the oomiug out of the moth : does not that
' ^tltna vary greatly 7
4tk.-*'ths cocoons in the hales are mixed iu colour, dark and
light: arc these difCereot varieties, and era they found on tho isame
•pots 7 Would U be possible to get only light-coloured ones ?
The Resolution under notice requests the Lieuteuant-Goverrior
of Bengal, tho Chief Coiamissi(>ner of the Central Ihevinces,
and other ofiiclalB to lumish replies to these, aud to other
quostiouB of R similiter nature from M. Roiidot, together with
any other information objtaiuablo on tho subject.
Wjb make no apology to our readers, for publishing tho
following interesting extraotft from a letter on the Nagpore
model farm, from Mr. J. W, Neill, OJS-, Commissioner, Nagpore
Division, to the Secretary to the Chief OommiBSioner, Central
Provinces
I would say that while every argument which was used to
dcinoiistrato tho utility of model farms in di^orent parts of India,
and amongst others at Nagpore remains unimpaired in force, there
are additional reasons for maiutaiiiiiig a farm which has been
established, for which logul has been acquired, on which buildings
have been erected, and to which a water channel to permit of tho
iriigatiou of part of the laud has been made. In thin case too the
land that was taken up was naturally poor in quality, it had further
been iinpuveiished, the surface was uneven and considerably
broken up, tho rain water making channels for itself through
many fields which sloped northwaids. During tho past 5 years
much labour has been expended iu levolliuff soiuo of the fields, in
deep ploughing all, in maniiriug a portion of tho farm. It is only
during the last tvvo years that irrigation has been possible. The
laud has uow very much improved, as was cleaily evidenced by the
rontof some fields let out to cultivators uudor chciimstanoes ex¬
plained m the half-yoarly report on tho farm submitted at the end
of lust month ; uioi'o lemaius to be done. All tho fields are not
yet 111 tho best possiblo condition, uiul expeiiiueuts on the farm
have not been uniformly successful, but a fair amount of sucoess
has been Achioved. Crops, unprocedeuLedly large in these parts of
wheat and cotton have been taken off tho farm, and the benefit of
deep plongbingaml careful cullivatiuu has been acknowledged by
surroiindiug’ agiiculiurisls, although they liavo not yet taken to
imiUle what they admit to bo good. That the example of the
farm has not yet modified native practice, caunot well be construed
into an argument that the farm has failed in its object. It has
been established for baicly fivo years, too shorl a time to
effect much, even if the farm at staiting had been in thorough
order, the soil gor^d, and fit for growing any kind of crops. In
reality, however, the soil ovei a cousiderablo part of the farm
^was at til St iucapablo of supnorling any but the poorest plant life.
I am disposed then to think that, if model farms in India are
useful insUtutions, the Model Faun at Nagpore can claim a longer
Inal There has not been suliuneub time to judge of it as an
expcumpul. It no doubt is an expense, it costs Government about
Rs. 500 a month not, but model farms ate educational institatious.
They do not yield diicct returns, and it is in the hope of
tho indirect reliitn that they are maintained. I would in
conclusion express an opinion that if the farm Is to bo a
success, the supermteudeut should bo a man who can devote
his whole time and attention to it, who has had some previous
traimug, and has a knowledge of agricultural chomistiy; and that
ho should bo kept at his post foi 5 or G consecutivo years. If
such a person wore appointed, it might be possible to dispense with
the native Supciiritendeut, and in that way funds might be pro¬
vided to make up tho salary which would have to be given. It
may bo difficult, however, to find a properly qualified persou, eBpocl-
ally ill India ; an oidinary gardener fiom England would be of no
use, a young mau would, I think, be loquired, one whose mind
would be thoroughly open to uew improssiotis, perphaps a youug
man who had passed through the course at Cirencester Oolloge
might bo Seoulod in tho first instance, aud by the time his engage-
moiii expiiod, tUu agricultural colleges of Calcutta, Madras and
Bombay may have (rained natives aud fitted them for such charges.
Tho great difficulty is certainly iu finding a good superinten¬
dent. Occasionatly an officer in the Commission may bo found
qualified to manage the farm, but ono cuimot always oouiit on
that, and theie is tho chance that ho may have to be transferred ;
and the frequent change of siiperinteudents is, I think, of all
things tho most to be deprecated.”
We heartly concur iu what Mr. Neill says, and are glad to aea
tliat the Chief CoiumissioneT is likewise in favour of keeping the
farm up, and intends placing the same iu tho hands of an Assistant
Conservator of forests. The importation of Kew gaideoars ns
managers of those experimental farms has, on the whole, not been
successful. A proper use of tho advertising columns of news¬
paper would, we are of opinion, result iu procuring for these farms
some good men, practical agriculturists, Vho are acquainted with
native agriculture and its wants.
124 . vsk -tei® ' ApaJi.'iBm
, , ' ’T-7"-- T .
FCri»*BBift exper(m«i)U tbo juic«o£ tWCirfocii
, meloo tre«, Imire been o«rdo<i out by Dr. WUtm ocfc, of Dorim, wbioh
teud to confirm hioproviijiona] report ouita energetic itctfofi m a
eolvent And ferment in contact with fleeh oraibuminone bodice. The
results of his lator reRonrches rnny he thus eummarised :-^l. The
juice of the Carkapapat/a »i),orooiitiiins, a ferment which acts with
extraordinary energy on nitrogonons bodies, and also effects tlie
ooagnlatioii o| milk in the same manner as pepsine. 2. It is dis¬
tinguished from pepsine in that it acts without the addition of any
free acid, and also at higher tempcratufes (00*65 deg. 0.), and in
A much shorter time. 3. Chemically the filtered juice differs from
pepsino by yielding a precipitate on boiling, or on the addition of
oxide of mercury, iodine, or any of the stronger mineral acids. 4.
It resembltjs pepsine, as it oociiiti in thu gasUic juice, iu being
precipitated by neutial oxide of silver, nr siiiphnto of silver, and in
giving no precipitate with feirocyamdo of potasBinm, snlphate of
copper, and clilorido ot iron. The Carica pvpaya bidiig widely
distributed in tropical countrioHi, the colioetjon of Juige rjuantiiicM
of the juice sliould offer’ no considcriiblo diflicuUieH, and Di.
Wittinackconsiders the attempt to bo well woith umlertaking, as
this could be moat adrantagoouKly oinpioyod in making incut,
gams, &a, tender in a short time (u point of much practical
importance in hot weatbci), and also in dairy opcraiioiiH.
Mb, Mbchi of Tiptroo writes “ Have wo forgollen Liebig ?
That giant of inonUl cppacily, whoso discovories, and tlio thooiica
deduced from thoin, have fmnied an iinporiHliable babis for all
agriculture everywhere and in all Mines. How puny and second*
rate must appear, to any one whos udied and appioeiatcd that gio it
man's woiks,the simple praoiical illuHtiations and confiiiuations ot hia
theories and dictum ; and yet these weie for a long time disbelieved
and opposed, but never coiifnled by proof of erioi. Ilia uiinoral
theory is riding now triumphant over onor and piejudieo , and wo
have at last learned tho groat lesson which ho tried to teach
US —that where are wanting in the soil the incoml J^iblo elements
of plants in a miitablo condition there c an be no fertility of ciop.
Phosphate of lime and potash uie now accepted um essential bases,
while straw and chaff have goiio to tho witids, which contain
tho free ammonia that was lor the first time only ditn^oveu'd
there by Liebig, le it not Umo—if not it iv'vc wdl bo—wht‘i) a
monument shall record tho iiunieasiirable b ein^hln which he lias
conferred on mankind I One lises fiom n profound study of his
great works with a conviction that ho has left little more to he done
ill tho matter on the Natui'al^Laioa of Bu&handryy the tilh f
bis last great work."
A HOOT show recently held in PerkHliiro Ims brought the sewii£.t)
fanning system forwaid under naomowliat more favomablo appeci
than bus often been tho case. Thoro was, it apponrs, a section
sot apait exclusively for lootn produced by tliie byslem of
maiiuring ; and in all the five claa*<c^ compiisod in it the cxhibitH
were, it is said, wonderfully fine. Tho lirst piizes ail fell to ilie
Heading farm, on which 1K) tons of 1 ong red mangolds, 8s tons
of golden tankaid inaugulds, 77 ions ol yellow iiileimcdinte
mangolds, and 77 tons of yi-llow globes were giowu per aero.
These are certainly V'iiy satislactoiy ligures ; and if so wage
farming could often Hbow such results, it would soon dispose of
whatever financial difficulties have been cxpciienccd hitheitoin
cooueotion with it. It ought, peihiips, to be obseivod that the
crops exhibited were the first that have been raised on this faiiu^
and the soil is h^senbod as ‘new and fresh.* cdnlor ihoao
otroumstances excep 'onaliy good yields wcie to be looked for, and
perhaps would have realized under any sysUun wocuring
plenty of manure. There is another alleged fact, howevci'j vviiioli
would at first sight seem to prove that no groat allowance need
bo made for newness and fresUueas. On about fifty agros of Ibo
farm, it U reported, tbe same seed was sown, and the same
culture adopted in every particular except that no sewage was
nppUed. In this poition the crops yielded were less than half
the wsight of the rest. This seems lo he a very conclusive tost
cf the value of liquid manure. Hjt it must be borne in mind
that nobody has ever disputed its value, nor would any one be
AC foolish as to suppose that fifty acies of uptunnared-land could
At All compete with other ground delut^od », aewera of a
town. The only comparison worth ejiytliiog in that between tbe
and iu k large number of cases, at least, it biis beei? Ahown
pretty oouolusivsly tlint the difference in resnUe is not sati'slsetpty
when cost has been taken'into accotint* ff tb® Beading laAih
and some othets lepreseiited in the show refeircd to con inalatAiu
the Cl ops with which they are accredited, no doubt they will be
able to show very-gratifying balance-sheets, and the inhabitants ot
Beadiug may be congratulated on tbeir success in dealing with
the troublesome question of sewage, even though U converts some
of thoir neighbouring fields into spots that will be much the reverse
of attractivo in appoaranco.
At last we appear to have someUiiug definite about the phylloxera,
Ihaiiks to tho International Committee, named at (ho Trocadero
Congress, and presided over by M. Vimoiit. Tho Oommittee
coiiMintod of twenty'five membtrH, six of whom where (Ustliiguished
ioieign vineyard pioprietore ; they have examined the question
fioni tbe fiiai appealanoe of tho malady in 1866, iu the department
of tho ilorault, down fo (ho preeont moment : they noted the ohief
cures attempted—3,600 were sent to tho Minister of Agriculture to
claim the Qovernineutal rewaid—and visited the suffering and the
luiiied viiiuyaids. The lepoit stales the phylloxera was imported
to Kurope from Ameiica, find the disease can be propagated by
artificial—trunsporiiiig of plants—as well as by natural means—
tbo wind cliioily. btucks of American vinen, as first revealed by
Laliman of Boid^aiix, can losiat the bug ; they fiourish vigorously
when tlio nativo vinos die; the grafting does not m tbe least
nltor the dobcale bouquet of tbo Fiencli gmpo j but all Aniefican
(.locks aio not cpialJy insisting, the Molonis, Clinton Vialla, or
Frunkliii, and Tjyloi hoing tbo best. Tbo plant whrn attacked at
tbe uiot, dies from inanition ; hence, any insect dcstioyor must
bo succeeded by u good man uring to give strength to the wounded
plant ; after farm yaid manure, the next best fertiliser is dried
blood, with Buiphates of potash and iron and superphosphates.
Tho only etnuuuious iiiBucticidc is sulphuret of carbon, as first
euiploycd, on tho appearance of the disease, by Baron Tlienard,
and abandoned owing to its severe effects. The maimer of
employing this remedy is now better understood: two injection
holes per squate yaid, Bufilce to inmidalo the soil to the depth of
11 iuches with the poisonous vapois, and sumo apply tho quantity
IU 3 doses, at intervals ol 4, 6, ami 10 days. Submorsiug the vitiee
diowiin the bugs, but tho fiooding ought only to take place in
autumn aftar ail vogotatioii has ceased. Tiiea the vines can
support 11 inchcsi of watoi, fiom 30 to 50 days, to be followed iu
'qriiig by liberal manuiing.
i TiiE report of the AgiicuUural Department of the United Stales
I for tlio past year states liiut the maize crop vxcoeded that of 1877
< by 3O,OG0,00() bueheis. The crop of oats is stated to have been ilte
i ifti'gcbt evoi raised, and that of barb-y aud lyo was considerably in
I excess of that of 1877. The tobacco ciop also showed improvemaut
j iu ijuttlity. The averages of productiou us compared with 1877 aie :
j —Kentucky, 00 ; Virginia, 73; Miasoiin, bO ; Tomicsseo, 53;
! Ohio, UO; Maryhiud, 84; Indiana, 83; Noilh Carolina, 80;
I ronusylvaniu, 8Q ; lUniois, 50 ; Ooimecticut, 86 ; Massachusotts,
Ob.-^JJrituh and Mercanltlc Gazefle.
A WBITBB in au Australian paper states that in many
districts of tiio colony the leaves of tbo celery aio highly
-Btoemod as food for milch cows, and are of ton profeiT-od to led
t lover. Tho cows are said to eat them most greedily aud to yield
ou oiiis food a fur sweeter and rlclior milk than on auy other. Some¬
times the leaves are out up small, scalded with hot-water, and given
as a mush mixed with brau and someiiines they arc given whole
ill their nnLiual slate along with the other ordinary food.
This expcrimonls of Bouasingault, Stohinann, &c., have demoua- ^
tiatod that, while the urine of caruivoroas animals is rich 4^
phosphoric acid, that of herbivorous animals has rarely any. Liebig
accounted for the absence, by the olkalis of tlie urine being uuahle
to dissolve the pbosphates of lime aud msguosia. At the'
TJuiveitiity of Leipsic, some experiments were recently executed
lo call iu question Liebig'a expUnatiou ; from which it folloNys,
that whoa a l^erbivorous animal is submitted to it® ordinary
dietary, tho libeiated phosphoric acid is eUmiuatod, not in
TAB MRlODLTtJRlST'
1^5
Hdi 111 ulliitjitl wttli acy, wUioh oannot
the l\m {^hoiphatM, tK> allow its acid to pMu oi^ \ but i£
pho»phateao€ potas«iom be added to the forage^ the |>lioipboric
will be ellfUinatfid freely in the urine.
In India, Algeria, and certain parte o£ the eon thorn proTtnoea o£
Italy, th 0 Pelargonium malum ie grown upon an enormous eoale,for
the sake of an oil extractable from it very similar in odour to that
of rosee^ and whioh constitutes an important Article of oommeroe.
This industry has of late been very injuriously affected by the
aduUofation of the genuine oil by the addition d liquid hydrocar¬
bons, fixed oils, essence of copaiba, and similar suhstanoes,
whereby its value in pharmacy, and for the preparations of
perfumery,is greatly dimiaiehed. The CItalia Agricola publishes
the partionliCrs of a simple tost by whicli such adulteration may bo
readily detected. Fivi^ cubic ceutimebros of alcohol, of 70 deg.
fitrer>gth, are poured into a test-tube, six drops of the suspected
essence added to it, and the whole well shaken. If the liquid
rotnaius clear it is a proof that Ihd essence is pure, but the
occurrence of the least turpidity indicates adulteration, owing to
the fact that alcohol, of the strength named, will not coinplelelf
dissolte the foreign subslanco or substaiices, and tlioir presonco in
an'undissolved state causes the turbid appearance of lUo liquid.
SoMK official papers recoirod by a recent mail, describe the
difficulties encountered in the suppression of the cultivation of iho
poppy in (Jliiiia. Notwithstanding fines and Imperial edicts
against its growth and coiisumption, the result appeals to he that
moie and more opium is produced and used each your. In some
provinces vory sUiiigent measuros are taken to suppress it, whilst
others are overrun with the poppy, special dues being levied both
on the land given to its cultivation and the drug produced.
Then, again, the Chinese cultivators have discovered that the poppy
is an exceedingly reinuueiative ciop, and the local authorities
seem to bo not altogether indifferent to the fact cither, for fioin
(he lines and bribes oonncclpl with the production it is
believed that they reap a prolitable iiarvest. In some lespects, Iho
higher authorities are poweilosa In act, for if tliey attempt to
carry out the Imperial decrees, they are informed tiiat to iutoiloro
with the crops will so iinpovoriHli the laiid-owiieis as to make the
collection of iho Impelial land-tax impossihic.
M. SruPi*, a German faimor, desiring to tost the relative
fattening qualities of rice and inaiaie, tied up 18 bullocks in
November 1877, in three lots of 7, G, and 6 boasts reBpcctively,^and
as newly os possible under the same conditions as to age, weigiit,
Ac. The feeding was (he same, save that the rations of grain, Gilba.
daily, and in the form of flour, coneiatodof maize, oats^and lice.
He found that Bhlbs. of the latter exorcised the same nutritive
effot t, as 100 of maize.
MfisSKfi. Palmibbi, Oeu, and GR.tNDEAU have conducted oxpevi-
meuts to test the efiect of electricity on vegetation ; they proved
that in the case of maize and tobacco, the plants grown in full air
developed with double the rapidity when exposed to the electrical
outidiiions of the ordinary atmosphere. But it ivmainod to
determine effects in the flowering and maturing of the pUnts. M.
Urandeau ahows by his experiments, that the same rate of
auperiority,60 per cent, was maintained,respecting thefloweisand
seeds of tobacco and maize, as was exhibited formerly in their
growth.
For ages it has been known that solar h^hi^ indispensable to
vegetation, and efforts have been several times aitemptod to socuro
tlm best conditions for plants exposed to solar action. The colours
plants have been uiodiEed, by moderating the intensity of the
Jight to whidi they have been subjected ; hence resulted the
experiments, to determine what were the exact rays oC light mest
directly beneffdal to vegetation, as revealed by placing plants
under gloss of various colours. M. Paul Best has coiilitiuod
experiments on this subject^ and white the problem is not exactly
solved^ he has demenstraied thst they are the rod rays which form
the hsais of the phenomena of vegetable lifer^tronsforming food,
and bnilding tissue ; united ra^s.that constitute while
ki k . .4 . 1 * r .. ac. I ... .
A WRITER in i\\^ BulktUd$kLS<^U0! AccUmatatioilde ParU
record the results of a number of experiments with quinine sul*
phate on diseased silk-worms, A Commission which reported on this
subject in 1850 stated tliat silk worms treated with quinine or
gentian never exhibited the same symptoms of cure observed in
others which had taken either mustard or valerian; but Iilr,
Christan Le Doux, being iu ignorance of this statement, has
made further experiments, with satisfactory results. Worms
sufforing from ^ac/tfme were powdered with qainino,*and nearly
alt recovered in a very shot-t time after the application. Some
very bad cases of peh'ino^ with open putrid wounds, were success*
fully treated in the same manner.
After finishing Ilia Wynaad suiveys, Mr. Brough Smyth is
roquestod to pioceed toOatacatniind and complete the invesUgation
of the Nilgiri ond KoomUli Hills and their surroniidings and then
go to Cauara and any other Madras districts which may he here¬
after iiidicatod. Ilis s(m vices will then he at the disposal of the
Government ot India for the exploration of the Mysore gold fields,
llie illnoHs of Mr. VVitlioiH and Mr. Tliomia Laiog has to some
extent intorrupted Mr.Sinytli’e labors. Mr. Laiug is again unwell,
j and is not in a fit state to assist iu the work which Mr. Smyth has
I in hand. .
COMMUNICATED AND SELECTED,
THE AIIGAN TREE OF MOROCCO.
^ITOE following extract from a repoit by Consul Diunimond
Hay oh this tree has been placed at our disposal
“ Consideiable damage was done to the crops of 1877 by the
locusts whose Appearance in this part of the country was men-
iionod in my report for 1876, but us tlioir devastating flight was
I limited only to a certain line of country, many provinces escaped
the scourge. The prubpects foi the harvest of 1878 arc at present
vory unsatisfactory.
Since tlio first rains iu Septumlier only throe inches of rain have
fallen in Mogador and, it is repoilod, still less in Soos and the
I oouiitiy lyitiff between this port and Mojocoo. Cattle in the
I interior are starving for want of grass, and can ho bought iu the
I market for the value of their skins. In the iioighbouiir.g pro-
vinoen of Haha and Spiedina iho diought will bo less felt as they
nru thickly wooded, and tho forests of aigan trees above all
afford nouriehmeut both for the natives and their flocks in times
of scarcity.
This remarkable tree grows only iu those provinces and Soos,
and is utilised in tho following ways. In the first place, the
peasants extract an oil from iho nut, which is useful both for
burning and cooking purposes. When the nuts ripen and fall oil
tho trees (hey are collected by the natives, wiio are aided iu ilia
harvest by their goats. These animals swallow the fruit for the
rind, but, being unable to digest tlie nut, they throw it up again,
and it is (hen added by their owners to the store for making the oil.
For tlioir private consimipbion tho peasants rarely make a large
quantity of oil at a time, but crack open a few handfuls of nuts
with a stone, aud, after toasting the kernels in an earthenware
dish, grind them into flour. The oil is extracted by adding water
iu small quanlities (o the flour, which is stirred in a bowl* As
the oil is being formed by this process, the flour hardens into a
cake, whicli is finally squeezed, leaving the oil perfectly clear and
fit for use. This kind of oil-cake Ihon serves as an excellent food
for cattle, as also tho dry and of the nut, which is generally given
to llietn with the cake, foaning together their principal and most
nutritious food during the year, and is invaluable to the natives
in time of drought, for the argan tree is very hardy, and a dry
year has little if any .effect upon it,
Even the empty husk of tho not, when broken, is not thrown
away by the peasants, but used as fuel. The best charcoal Is
made from the argan tree, and tho dry timber is excellent firewood.
The goats feed also upon the loaves of the tree, and when browsing
in Iho argan forest may be seen dimbin^f amongst the trees,
plucking and nibbling the nuts and leaves.
MStfORANDlIW B7 BIBDWOOD, 03 L
I hftd Alt!eii% made inquiries aVout tho argati free, and iiaVO
Jeamsd Irofn Brofessor T. Dyer that 16 is the Jr^ania $i4er(^ytm
of boianiqtSf onaof tli6 an order to whicli'many well
known Indian treoa^ botli naturalised and indigenous, 4)elong.
The indigeuoiiB species iu Bonibay are ehrysophytlum ronhuryh&e
*Hiir«epli(iI iftpota lomentosa '^koombul T$mandra mudoUianai
a tree of tlie eatne genus as the gutta perolm tree ; JJaeskt ktU/oliai
tlie ceTebraM mowah, from the fl ours of which mowah spirit is
distilled, and from the seeds of which large quantity of oil is
obUincd, need for making soap in (he Kaira zillal), and the wood
of wiiioh is used for the naves of wheels; Jifiniusojjs e/enpi,
** buckool ; and mmueops Iteuandra^ kuriiee, ” the tough close
grained wood of which is used for making sugar-millH. ^
The introduced specJos ere Ch’psophyUum pomiforme fiom
Jamaica ; Afocurpliue eduHs ft cm Otaheile ; tan&i fiom the
Moluccas, and Ao^rat tapoia^ the sapota plum of f^outh America,
which has become (l>oroiigJdy jtaiuraJised in Weptern IiH]ia> and
yields a fine dessert fruit, the size and shape of a quince, cohered
with a lioli brown longh rind very sweet to the taste, and contain¬
ing two or tb ire largo pm ootb ciiesinut ooloincd seeds yielding oil.
Theteis every likelihood, tlierofore,of the organ tree succeeding
in Iifdia, In what localilios it would succeed best it would bo
dififieuHfo say befoi^band, wiih any ceitniiity. Morocco con-
si at s of the sou them slopes of tho Altae range, wbicb strctciies
in n curve from Cape Oher on the Atlantic to Cape Deir, opposiio to
Oibrattar, and falls from on elevation of 10,(X)Ct foot to I bo low
lands in a succession of terraces exposed to the full iidlurMico of
of (he North-west wind laden wiili (be iiiolsluro it has gatltcred for
111010 than a (boheand leagues in its way aoioss (be Noitli Atlantic
Oconii. Tho natural beat of the coniiliy lying so near the Tjopk
of Cancer is, lliereforo, tempe»cd both by the lain-clouds, wimJi
bang ovri it fioin October to Febiuary, and dining the i-])in>g and
snmnicr months by the south wind, wbicli coniOH ovci the snow
wbicb lies perpetually on the sommila of ibo iiiinui rnngo ol tlio
Alias mountains, piodiicingone of tl^e most ngiccable and liuitful
climates in the world. Tim littoral vegetation is that of the
Mcditerancan goneially. The olive, laiiivd, citron, almoiul, and
fig, niid the ni)itie, Cyprus, oleander, white i ■ [doi, luid aloe,
glow everyuheio; while the minor uplands (slo, ca and A’aUcypI I
aio co\cred witli dense foiests of iiopical tree*’, 'J'nking lliopi' |
physical (nets into considciation, and tbs < oeuinpolitan cbniacler
of the Older, and (be fact (bill innumerable Afiican plantH, botli
jMcdileriuicnn and liopicul, hn\o become coinplcicly naturalized
ill India, it is piobablo that the atgnii tice also will floiinsb in
India, cvcrywlure but mist in Hub'olpnn' tu^ is cxiiOHcd to the
Pea Inccze and an nnntinl laiiifall <>1 from bO to 25 iiicbcB.
It wmnid be most useful of coniae to cncouinge n« giowlli in
dial riots exposed to droughts.
It will bo observed, however that it is veij- similar in its erouo-
iiiio properties to tbo mowah tiee and sapota plum. 'J’lm iut>v nh
is one of Urn noblest native forest tieea ol Indj.' and is plojmful
everywhere iu Western India, at least in Ibo Concaus, on Dm
Ghais, in Guzerat, and KajivArn, and if more of atiLeliKolIm atgan
is wanted iu India, it would piobnbly be more pi(litable 4o en¬
courage the extended cultivation of (be nidigcimuR mow'ab, tbnn
to squander iiioiiey and time in tbo attempt, wbicli miglit after all
prove vain to mtroduco a new and imperfectly known exotic,
Geoiiok BjftDwooj).
SOlh August 1873
Wogador, 1st Noi’Cmbor 1 87 m.
Emit act Deiipatcli from lUr Consul at JUogador,
The aeasoii here for sowing the arganiiul is duiing tlm winici
tiiontbs ; it docs not take longei to apt out than a moU-n need. The
lies is quite indigenous (o this piirt of Morocco, giowing only in '
the hilly districts lying south of the river Tcnsift (near to
Hiiifee), and 1 am iufoinied that all endeavours to cultivate the
ties in any other purl of the country liavo failed. Tbo soil in
which tlm tree thrives is composed chiefly of liineatoue and smid.
It will grow in very rocky and pirong gioimd, but 1 have
liotiood that the finest and most fiuitfnl tiees nic Mioso which
grow in culuvr.f-'d ground.
Bamplss of the t'I cako and dry lind of Dm nut njmii which
cattle are fed mig‘' iuteicst poisons dcsiimis of cultivating the
tree, and I sbouwi i^avo no difficulty in piocuring ojmI furward-
iiig them if required.
A. Hav,
HeFOAT fiY Du. G. lhBDV\Onj^,C.S 1.
t have cxainined theae seeds. They ate in piiiuo condition, and
if forwarded to ludia foiibtviih b} tbo out-gmug mail will .arrive
at the most lavourablo time foi sou rig them, at least iu Bomba}.
They should be sent 111 the bag iu which they iiave come, laid in a
strong deal box. Copies of all the papers ieluting to tboin should
be* sent with them for the guidance of tliose to whom the rearing
of the trees will be call listed. I would vcntuie aljBO (0 suggest
that they should be addressed tc Bombay, fiom •* Imre iliey would
bs must oouveideutiy dlsirihuted to the ivsi . .a
MU.O. Bibiiwcok
I7ih Dwomher 1878. r
AGIlIOULTUaAi:. lIBEilSG AND OATT!.?! FAItt
AT BOyq AD,, KAITYWAB.
T hu follof jflg acfloiml of tlds'gathariag will bs perawd with SatereBti—
Aeoerdiog to auDODuostnaufi the above atfsemblege of ^ lusa and
abimale. together with a large ooUeotioa of things, was held at Soegad
on the 38tb, Htb and ]8tb February. The title ohoien for tbt pfoceediags
U too modest. It WHS really a good egricultoral exhibition, though the first
of its kind that has iakea plooe iu these regions; Major NuU seems to
liAvo Uie enviable power not only of OfigiuatiSg new tbiugSf but aleb of
influencing large bodies.of men and bringing them over to bis own opinions ;
and be oerUinly is to be congratulated on the snooess of ifivts enterprise^
which owed its ooncepiion to his own brain and its accomplishment to bis
poouliar tact, energy, and administrative abitily. It is pleasant al|o to
know that his scheme was Jienriily seconded by liberal oontiibations of
money and oiher forms of help from the neiglibonnng Chiefs, particularly
those of Bhawnagsr and rahtanu, both of whom were present oh the
occasion end took a deep interest in the whole proceedings,
fiongad is well situatod lor such an exhibition. It has an attractive and
healthy situation, and is supplied with abundance of running and WoU water
of the best quality. A rapHal macadamised road, brnnehiug out to Palitana,
Rwjkot, Bhowiiuggur, and (logo, furnishes additional advantages for a large
gulhonng of men and ngnculiural predueU. A large grove of mango
trees sUirting the banka of a pretty stroani, afforded by its excellent shade
ail ndniirable camping ground and protection Qu this occasion for the lon^
lows of hoi sea, liiffaloGS, bnllocki, and other animals which were tied under
ila binnclfts. Finn the road a broad avenue, lined on each side with gey
flags and devices, lan doiMi to the encampment, and with Jls orowds oi men
and lows of bnsj shops hud a most interesting and business-like appeaiance.
The fiur was altogether a new thiiig fur B(>ngAd and will long be reinsuibered
and (piked of by hundreds of ftiindies itironghout a ruUiiia of 5^) or fiO
milos. £vcn Buist, across the gulf, was represented, and some of its
\ enlorpMftiug Fursis exhibited first class spccimoiia of fiifitt vegetables, and
gnriiu. Such exhibitions nuifl do n world jf good in fiio improvement of
Auriculturul products, Iho elevation of cattle.biceda, and‘he gcueial jnt«r.
national and pohlicul benefits ansing fioin the free intcrronrse of different
(itiefa and the roinpetiiion of difforout Htates cannot but be ol the most salu-
tary character. 'J'he proocedtngs of the Kxhibitiou wore anunged as followsi-"
Fmftr J>AY
At nou» Mojor Nutt very appropualely juaagur.ited (he biHiiioss by a
I carefully prepared lecture on *' Boils," dehvered lirsi in Eriglnh and then in
i Uuiarali, in a spacious tent, before an nudionce of nearly throe hundreJ,
iivcluding 8cver.il Chiefs and a brgo uuinJ.)cr of other n/itive gen^etnen ; and
the earnest allenlion wUicIi was given to eveiy sentouco ovideuced not
nieiity the novelty of the Hubjoct, but the absurbmg luteietil taken in it. It
IS cpiestiutuib'c it five persous ot the native nndicnce had ever before dreamt
Uiat so much could bo ftoouratelj^ known of the uom.'oncuts of the soil they
have been soiling treading And trying to make prolirable. Tho subject was
divided into six secttoiH—'namoly, the oiigMi, t'o^ forrniitiori, tbo itHtribu-
lion, the physical propeitios and surrounding conilitioris, the classification,
and the chemical composition of soi 's. The entiro ininoral matter of soils,
the lecturer said, ha» been detived from the gradual liecty of rocks, the pro¬
cess going on from age to sge through uunuinbtircd years, aui boiug still m
nctiie pperution. The process is c-iused by vauou* agents, such as tmipera>
(ure, luoistuie, uud Uie action of the atmosphere and vegetstion. The first
product of pulverised rock is lichens, ihon mosses aud grass, then higher
foimsof vegoUition as the moistened dust becomes more and more mixed
with oigaiiic matter, Tho physical nature and productive powers of a soil
depend on tne proportion lU which its conslituent parts ore blended ; those
coustiiuent paits being sand, clay, hmo. vegetable matter, and mineral
fragments or stones, lionce it la the duty ot tbe farmer to Asoertam the
clemouts of which his soil is coinpoaed and their propo ttioti to one another
and select bis manure and his seed accordingly. To prove that his advice
iiioant more than tulk, Major Nutt volunteored to have all simples of Boil
' Siut to him for analysis thoroughly te>tod by a proressional choixiiBl.y and
liought an extremely useful lecture to a close by urging his agricultural
heurers to turn over a new Irnf by going despor down an I turning up the
Migm soil that has 1 im undisturbed iu almost every field in India since no
ono knows wbooj waiting only to be brought to the surlaoe to prove ite
strength by prodocing heavier and iiclier ciops. This was much*
i -Aod coimsJ, for the naiive cultivator seems never to have heird the
burden ol the good old rhyme,
I*loogh deep while sluggards sleep,
And yon’JI have plenty of corn to boW nnd to reap,
And plenty of money to apeiid snd to keep.
The next part of the ft ret day's woik was tho judging of gmlns, vegetable,
and fruits. Therr was n very good show tJ ihrao produete.aud ikiaiiy
Hpepimens were of a high chwMcter. Among grains it was notifSscMe that
a Chnvtian colony near Gogo hod jotfoduced scicral kinds into Kat(ywar, ^
which had hlilierto been nukuown, fxcept in the shops, and had introduoed
(hem most succissfuHy. It woe commonly believed (Jiat these Sorts were
not adapted lo KaUyw.ir soil. The fruit .and vegetable stalls also showed
marks of cnterprive and udvnuco in the form of foieign products, among
which (he potato, cabbage, tomato, turnip, ^aUd| and English apple were
eonS(icttous. Tbe gardens of the lihownuggur Garbar narrlad Oft moat priaas
but oihor States and private gardeners hod also a ritafe» Bonka pt iUf' fruit
and YegetpblfiSf both nutiyc and forsigp, were eiceodiiitly fine.
THE ■
hi
, S«ao«o DAT, .
■^3.5r£rs=
Sir? rj“»==
?o» they »te both A 1 ,‘^fjTZ u.f^tethe^ ooii.ido.ii-
il ,«.greed to pl«« -Reddo" . to he^a l„4,gea.«.
tion of to moetiog being ^ b ,4 o*or hU Aoreb compeer w
breed then for wy TOperioelly to Komy “
firrt clMft unimAla. . country-brod of suck exccllonce
Among to mere, thore were non. of to CO y ^^^
„ to .»TP«. to imported m««. of to Ibeno^
: bigb omte Amb. ‘•f diplomeoy *iU. .« Arab
expenee cud by menne of a good d p,litena Tbakoro, and
Chief. Uor.e-b<eedtog » •« P „oIamat.one of high opprora! which
ha had good romiou to P'^ * The Arab mare above mentioned
.omeof hi. ,t,e produoe will bo flrat ola-a. There
la now in foal by * Analog j i • o nffaerine a very fair proportion of whioh
«a. a geod .bow of - Mdo . “J/Xo To allUcct.. except to hm
aecuTod pnzea. Ibey rcaemb .jropor developmoot; but
“n^Ur., which, ra to “f ^“^!L,rto^
thcTholiOJOofBbowimgRttr ^ ia^portaut mutlev ot hW-breedm^;.
alreiMly Palituoabad oacb about 30 UorBCS for com volition,
He aud tbethakore ot ^ of
uud both gained several pmcB generously
of tbe Tbaltores took Ibe prize winuera. Tbie, togotUor*witU tho
Uft them to be distributed cxhibitora gratis, shows that
abundant anpply ^ of the duty of rulers, cncoaniKm- iheir
1—■» ““ “'“ •■“
■irz’T'—
tomarkablo »mplo. cf “ ^“'^faebetoged tothoTbakoro of ni.ownuggai.
thanmEattywaroc Our^Th^^^^^ g^^^ ^ the enormooao
The main peouharity ^ mauud a day), ue a ino-t
llieir bodies or the quautiy ^ niaas of reduaJant floah
aiogular down on buth bides of »bo face hko a huge
rests tm the crown, |•rt-,mulotely covoiiug the eyci. 't‘lio horns, i
hood, and, m »wmo casca, a inos i
,b.eh are extraoid.aar.ly *".^“,.tU»Uter»^
^gea of to hood downward, .ad theu tain up w« ^ ai.t.ugui.hed
lha aUoulder, *°^*rt“”*hri'a now making a akoleh.ng lour U.rco^‘
lady from Loadoh. M... th^^ „,„t n^o
India aud who happon marvolloua looking hfutca
tciaptaliim of haring a anlniidui oil-paiutiog ol a group. So
led m arery .hurt too "t^p oven .a the Oraj>r, c.
,.emayraeetth«lJhoweugKarbuIWce..h^ „l,
a "f.lrTt'’to Ch.bu”u‘’and aUmed lo to honour aad heonat of pnee-
taking. ^ resumed his couise of loctaros, tho
8 ocloc ‘ The latgo luoreaso lu tho aiuhouce a
8ub300llhi»^«^J^*=^”K j ftinn'ceiatiou ot the previous one. tho
this lecture eviaenoed le ^ ^ numbers pieeeut being not
en.rmous tent was , ,, ,,,, . « aeiicial
lesa than 400 petSous. I J „ umiiutes aothm , u»oro nor
Wanurca” »ttd * Specie -rtnic. arc thoso wbmh repuc tho entire lose
less than plant food, general ^ ^ plants, nod, through
sustained by a snuL relation to soil
them, of auimal mutter. oniiutils, hoaie to tho animal
products that milki w iic w maniitee is cow-cluug, which,
body, a s., a l J.l l^d lu this country as fuel. This is a
it, It to bo legretted, is so larg<> y a^tuabiHty of extra
„e.t important ,tor .pee... of fuel. Who eau MtimatO
effort for tbe supply c ^ uuivoroal waste of the
the amount of loo. lo agtiou uj „,aUor,
b„t mmmto **“ **’7‘LI the aUude-eomtort of
nery mauwhe plaul. * ^ j aecording to ourront tUooci.a. of
hi. fellowa. the supply «' the laitility of to aoil
rain, hut i. .1...« eew droppmgs lu the
by in .0 far diminmhing lb would tell powerfully ou Uio
lameweytoinlroduetionofeou^ P thooghta wh.eh are
apootal oMpa, « aupply pavtlcular e ** ^ j ^ 1 ,, oone.deration
known •■Law „ Miaimum-wa.expl«nedand
of to ••'i'to'* ^Tuimum of one or aeverai nutriiiv.
A tog. qW«*J «‘***>l*‘^ “**"*“‘»'»* »“*‘“** * ’
U. rlohuJu t ‘inateaW^eC!
Lae of the lactore M.jor Nutt ratorf J
hoao. need aa amaanra, and oulr^rted bl. J” Ugn"!
reiaovul aud axpoi tatieu of booea from toir v. age. leotnro wa.
hutio caretuliy premim and turn then ';ZlL ot
clotoil with an e.p«iiment in mating bon ordinary
U,. orowd. Th. topiicily of to prooea. .bowed "“f
lutolligonoo oouid .wily make .rtiOeiul manure lor hipmoU aad tha .
to », at the tiifliuff cost of n little aulphurio ooid* „amuh No
Chtirm boar, tho .Hotted time. Eomo of to plongUmg *« very ^od
evulont .» ‘‘'“f 7„f:,„a;'h.a with a light EngHah plough
IZpM 'to’tou. “ .nJ brought f.oro the CbrjaUim ooUmy
t„. In tin. lot tho fuirow. wo.o J .are. ThI.
h,.,u„. ‘u'u'^r'^'r^ n ..r ga..ndiy.dopt.»«
brokon. turned 00 ,npl.toly ovcr.m^..ucx,m™^
pl.iUKh wk'j tho ft mu ^,,.^,^^8 that guthered u round attdw«t$^«d it at
:r b... bee..... U.. f^ .over.t year, in another
" 1 wtnr Aliinedabad whvre moie tluu twenty me now
HtSr “ •::rv;:’J:.S'w“ TS-r C
^ TTliui> 1>AV.
The work of the tlurd and let day ooumeted m fraah «]^r.meuU wiih
^ 1 , »„a harrow, to deiivorr of Uio third lootnro, the
tlio l'.ngh,h p. og a„d the dialiibotion of pri.es which
*^'**’l'ndlv undoilakon by iho Tbakoro ol Uhownuggur. The Ihiid lecture
waa kiudly „i tlio pic.odiiig two vtilU an oxplanslioo ol
uaa a p so hone-bteed'o* and illoatrallou, of the advantagoa
Tb:wdf.n.r.ta;"^^^^ V.^■'dtoge^?
h,m,gl.lk..idly allow Tb^rwould io more
■■""Iffeir;; n. '>“■• j-™*"
lirLfufmbytnVug fortb. a..d being ... (inaorat,. would b. real by iarg.
1 -rnrrruVv
ai.il Native < h’t>l’a. __ i, i
TtlU CEUKALiS ON TliE UIMALAIAS.
llKHOttANUA ON TUP. COLTIVmON OT WUBAT AND SOMB O'JHBR FoOO
GkAISS in TIIK lllMALATAS,
C^om. at on ataragr eleratam af li,4U0/r.rf. Aamrv A rjmfe of 1,000
brlom ajolo^o U. Hituatioa, Xotoghur. m’ar Smla.
,mHE flol.U. are eiluatod at a d.-tance f.om tbe .ill.gora
i Uood)a..dthoiolo.ol,avobe..u but aoldom m.uurod w.tUl.. lb,
, ..I .h..ly jea.a, eo ibnl toy are ooncdorably roduoed in bo.r repro-
ifcUo .owJ.» They a.oo.. to N a-op. w.lb iho ..poo (generally)
tr If N Tbe 00.1 ia ot a good thukuca., cb.tfl, arg.llaooo.., orer-
Ivi'ng iun-uoeo..a-30b.8t took 1 dta.uago perfect. ., , ,
• Tho Hell. we.e .onted to tho villagor. 0.. the u,ual loop cuatom
adha per. that m, on halt .bare., the l.nd-ownor obmlu. PW-hnIf o the
ofi the .■ulDvotor .1.0 0lU.r half. Under .hi. arrangement to ...d-
Tw^’r lend, the land, while tb. cultivator fimU the aotd.ndaUo
' Utt ftii thu Uhoiir ftud imvlemetUs uecesaary fot.plttaghing, sowm?.
puivides all tlm d« ivi ry t.eing taken at the throshitig-aoor»
jeiipiugaMaihieshuiK out, deducted from
the now “'“H ^ff*‘j „^ “\vho.o Iho cuUivatoreare very poor, to
tTZ" iH-vn to*o-> "■»
titbit) tue m !,uUid m he takeu to cgosist of
•ji ““ *“**
•n.rhhlrf.uMmofr' Wb.-iV”'^"''®^^^^ "f' ‘“If’
!• *’ jiicV^ieneiCfiatsedes rvin)=25 „ ,»
»’ ” „ (Huwnatiof taUo „ )•*«* u
so path. Of Wbrnit, Indian Cun. and KollU make ^ I md. ..
«L ” "*1 ” ’’
*' „ 4/irt»jrtati pr tub e „ ) .****=1 ,♦ ••
Z.-One p.H of basmat. U reckoned eqm.1 to two P^»‘(80
^ mun wetg^vf ^Ir"* ^i'****'f ^Suiiutlv deHigiiatsd “ kucim
IbB. ttVoirdtipoK) I3i*avuir*iu|«>is)--=
maonil.-' A iwclla wcr-bl P«»*« ,n wHgbt-f ‘b*-
16 kwhd ieevM^i mun, A pnUt u a
Avoadui-oif,
, j,, ' \'' '" ';*';'''’' '
V
Do.
Do.
Do. A v«ry «tu«n
field, espeeiaily
manured.
Do. 8oit qmte ez-
httUfiied.
Do.
Do.
Do. Grows on xioe-
landwithont arti¬
ficial irtigat'ou
ff it sated down
in llic Tfdley.
July 7 Joaopl) Sana’s Mdela
and Bermut .. |
Kadehu’e Nali ... I
^ ' Ited A Wliite Wheat t
Joseph ... |
.. H
Aug, 21
T. 24
:;i5
20
Niku’s Melelo . ^ nni., ^ (Red Wheat
Baud Nantua Mclela i J^lalu J
Kadehu’s I’arado . . Adam ...
(Nortli End) i
Baud Nantu’s Melola Vaknb Dhobie
KadBliu's Parade ., \iirpat and .
'Vuhana ' Pedigree do
(Bouth End) :
Joaoph Baritt’s Matid-
bar.Clierenklu ... j iUd do.
White Wheat
lUd do.
d
2
Hi
i
02 I 1
I
i
1 2
^ !
83
1 4
8 !
i 1
‘i
10
1 i
1
24 1
1
6 1
28
' 2
!
26 .
[
3 !
22
1
= 1
ll
34
5
ifi:
3 1
IG
0
iii
1 ;
12
TT
jisj
1 j
J
i J877.
60 j Sept. 2 I
; 1878.
3 ; July ' 3 j
IS ilMay 23 :
! i
4 ' July 1 i
1( ^ Juuc 17
4& July 3
6i June 28
3
July 12
Dy need.
Do. A very small
(leld, especially
manured.
Do. Soil I oor.
Do. Boil poor.
Do. Sown rather
late.
His seed. OnUtutn
would have been half
as much ogaiit, bad tbe
enttivutor not missed
one the(lH 0 t}watenng,
through being down
with fevm. Xu this lu-
slanco the contractor
agreed to give me
ihfns of oc'umiou nee.
he taking the Hutplns
n» bis own rharo: the
lasmaU being reckon¬
ed tho equivalent of
double its measuro lu
common nee lu the
usual manner,
Ilia seed. Fiold dug 2
ft. and manuied.
My wjod.
Seed between both,
My seed*
His seed.
Do Boll shaliferous.
My seed.
11 IB eeed. field was
let oii**one*tiiird** crop
Dusjhel of wheat
^ fii;iba. avoir.
Prom this boti *lie items are transferred into tho I'icld Ledger whoicm each uold has its own headiug, and iiy means of winch the rotation of 'oropa.
niaouriny, and other a ricuitawl operations can be regularly I’ccorded.
The Villager’s “ J* ” fields are much more productive (12*(G fold = 13-24 bushels* per acre) owing to Ih#ir proximity to the caitie-styest where they
can he readily manured t '^‘Ueie fields also yield two crops in tho year, t e., one crop of cereals, and one crop of millet, peas, Ac.
iVofec.—It is not advisable to manure the laud before sowing the seed as It produces too rapid a growth, weakening the stiaw, (knowu by the
term running to straw ”) and increasing its quoutity at the expense of the ear, which does not attain its proper development, Tho beet time for mauuiing is
just before the December ram isUs ae it la then well washed mto and mired with the soil.
The wheat is ripe when the straw is dry und y<"iIow below ear, if then cut the largest yield of flour is obtaiueJ.
The difference lu colour between tbe jud and white wheats is owing chiefly to the soil; the latter gradually becoiuiug darker and ultimately red in some
stiff wet soils: and tho former lose their colour, becoanng first yellow and then white On rich, light and mellow soils.
Some of the semiudars add to their mcjwes by lending out seed on 2fi per cent, interest, i.ai f«r each uiannd of seed lent H maumi is returuodi at thO'ino*
ceediog harvest.
The outtnm (Broportiou to Self) is entered into a Gra*" Le^glr (lift liaudside), while qu the issues or sales are entered, and from.Uiis book the
money from the sales is passof^into the Cash Book, l"’i ^ vi giaiq only takes plaoeou Buturday afternoons, at the same time that the Ikhoiiteti reOIoyo
thoir yrages, ,
•MiV '
A WjifMt<y4i|^^ «Qooe«sful et|»edB^tti» <^arrM on by tbafemost
;, itgftfuUI ibottl itaBiltutionarrtW Agti^mtMiwnl $ocioty
i^l:9rSti«4 BarmA«<-'W2Ui aeods of uielnl ooonbmio pilants^ k that of
raioijijj ta a Bioall auwory a number of aeodliagi of the CatiophyUurn
Iw^hyllum. The pi ante so raised were reported some time ago m
being iu a healthy condition promising well*
This species of the Callo^thyllum is a valuable oil->ielder, and a
natiye of the East Indies. It was first brought to the notice of the
botanical world in the year 1793 ; but in the East it has long been
known and ei^teemed for the oil it yields. In Southern India tit is
oil is known as j)oonnay or j)oon ; in Oiissa as poonung ; and in
Hindoostnn a8sur*/)u»*l?a-r<^{/. The genus comprises large growing
timber trees, and the species Imphylluntj in addition to yielding
the famous oil, gives a timber, which Dr. Balfour, quoting Mr.
Dalrymplo, says, is superior to the yield of nearly oveiy other tree
for the knees of ships, and as crooks iu general. In souio paits of
iu pl^ of the dirty, ^ gr«||ibtili:iHdor, and the bedy inatead of bairns
opaque through impurlti«ij^ ytrpuld be limpid, just as **cold dmWh’^
castor-oil. A few expeiiidenfe be tried in this direotlun.
Its timber is also anther ol^ect for lie exteuded cultivation.
The local government bas wot neglected the matter, as we ore
infoimed expeiimental cultivation with it has been tried iu some
of our jaile—Kyouk Thyco particularly, But the local administra¬
tion has ceased to publish papers of such nature in the Supple-
luonts to the Brlluh Burma an<l it is hard to get
departrnontal olficers to communicate any thing. The Inspector-
General of PiiedriB was written to the other day for a few particn-
lara of the leeults of the experiuieutal cultivation in jails, but the
inforinaliou wa« not supplied and roforouce was made-to the
Secretariat. Knowing that Mr, Bui gees uud his office are junl
now oveiwheimed with work, wo have not thought proper t<»
troublo them; but Dr. Kelly might very well have obligwl, as
iioithor the wclfaie of provincial jaiJa, lior that of the country at
large, would have boon joopaidized by the pubhp being
enijghtenod u the subject.
AGIUCULTUIUL EXPERIMEiJTS.
India and Ceylon the wood is used for masts, and cross-sticks iu
native oaigo and fishing boats, as well as for bullock-cait poles.
A cubic foot of it weighs 40 lbs. It is thus lighior than teak ;
almost of the same weight as led pine, jackwood, and the Nassau
species of mahogany ; and heaviex than Imoli* cheHinit, fir and
elm. though not the Canadiau growth of the last. Tho graining
of the wood is coalao ; but the wood itself is very strong, durable
and ornamental, and is used at times in ship-building iu Madras.
Apart from its oil and timber, the tioe is in great leqiiost both
for its beautiful leaves and swcot-scented flowers. The iormer.
in technical language, are described as opposite, siinplc,
coriaoeons, shining, close veined, entire ; the latlei (tho iloweiH,
as auxiliary, drooping, iu lacernes, fragrant, white, polygamous.
Kuch a description, however, will hardly afford the lay reader au
ttcleqiiato idea of either the beauty of the foliage or the Hweetness
of the flowers. It needs but a sight of the former to dietingmsh
them ever aftewards, as they are unlike most loaves, oval in shape,
of a daik shining green, quite leatliery to tho feel, and their veins
run close to oach other in clear, distinct, almost parallel, linos,
while a well defined vein forme a margin all round, in Java the/
aie grown piiucipally for tlio shade they afford and tho scent of
their flowers. Here, in Burma, Dr. Ma^on tolls us, that specimens
might bo seen in the*viciuity of the native monaBteries, and that
they are remarkably handsome plants. Their easy lapid culture
is no small recommendation. Becdlings, as a rule, are not
transplanted, but put down iu cboaeu sites and there the plants
remain for the rest of their existonco after epioutiug. Writing
from personal knowledge of this beautiful plant, we can slate, that
the seedlings are not injured by transplanting from the niirsory
to a locality selected for thorn ; and somo of the iiandsomest
plants iu tho gardens of Calcutta have been so treated. Tiie best
plan, we have found answer, is to let the seeds drop ftom the
branches on the soil undentluth and germinate tbeie, aflerwaids
to transplant when the seedlings are a few inches high.
The plant loves the sea-breeze and thiivos within tho radius o£
its iiifluoiioe much better than anywhere else, ue matter how
favorable the locality in other respects, it delights iu a rather
sandy soil, and from this wo aic led to behove Bangoou and its
vicinity will bo found suited to its growth and culture. Indeed
some plants here are quite as good as the best we have seon in
India. As to methods of propagatiou, that from seed is to bo
preferred to cuttings, though those root freely in sand under a
bell-glass.
Its notice hero, however, is not for tho purpose of advocating
its adoption as a shade-giver, or garden oinaraeut ; it is from an
economic stand-point that atleiitiou is drawn to it. Tlio cultivation
of the plant might with advantage become a local iuduslry. Thus
viewed, tbe oil is its most valuable yield , and the seeds are tuud
by some to give sixty per ceut, of tbeir weight iu oil. Castor,
however, highly oleaginous as are its seeds, yields only about a
third ; and the produce from the Oallophjllum Jnophyllum may be
set down at that mark too, especially as it is cuireutly reported
amongst natives, who do extract the oil, tliat this rate is usually
obtained. The uses to which it is put are not many. It is used
medicinally, but not culinarily ; for lighting, but not for
lubricating. It is never put into the coolfing pot, nor is its cake
given to cuttle. But lAoboru/ss, or native physicians, prescribe it
for rheumatism, and the Indian ditk-ruuner saturates a bunch of
leaves with it for a torch wherewith to scare away wild animals as
he speeds on bis jingling way through jungles and topes, carrying
mail-bags. I^dioinally its use is extremely doubtful, as tho Biitish
Fharinaoopoeia in silent regarding it, and our druggists aiHi iguoiaui
about it, The chances aM its eflicaoy in rheumatism is owi> g moro
to toe frictiou employed in rubbing it in than to any inherent Bpeoiiic
virtue. As sold in the baaaars of India and Burma, the oil is a
crude substance, seldom if e^sr reflned, and best suited to burmug.
As such, it ought 40> possess a value here where ooooaniii aud castor-
oil are both so; hlgli«priced, la Xndia-^in tho Hill States and in
Oaleattar^ mattua^ fetohea Its. 10 ; but some official papers
rsg&rdiug it state^ that itt, Kyottk*Bhyoo as much as Ks. 40 is
obtained for the same W^ht. ^e use of tbe hydraulic press
ri'' niS is a great ago of experiments. In all braUches of know-
lodge inquiry la stimulated to the utmost Nature is oagorly
questioned and bcsecclicd to unfold her secrots. Her ways and
meaiifl of woikiug are tested by tho scieulifio ^xpoiimentahst.
Eager to loam, devotetl to his work, ho wrests fiom Nature slowly,
and one by one, some precious truths that have long laid hidden and
unsuspected hy man. At first it may appear that the new truth
IS simply an abstract fact bearing uo relationship to any phase of
huuiAu labour and daily lite. But it docs not iemaiii long before
skdfiil mind and bund applies it to some practical use fur tho
public good. Whether the discovery be a now light, one of iho
laws of sound, heat, or motion, it is soon made available ior tho
interests of trade aud comnioreo.
Iu all departments of art and manufacture there are vigoious,
untiring exploieis. Agriculture in the present day in particulav
hos a host of dovutoeu. During the last quarter of a centu'y most
important work has been done iu scioutiUc investigation of tho
properties of soils, tho elements of plant life, and other subjects
coimected with the pursuit of agriculture. Our chemists have
boon indefatigable in their reseaichos. They have Bometinies eited ,
in their deductions, and have had to auhrait to correction. For
the moat part they have worked honestly, theii only object being
to ascertain the tnitb and not to bolster up proconcoivetl theories.
Tho ordinary farmer al'^o has acquired a taste for agricultiiial
cxporiiucnts, and no lunger plods his weary way through life with
an uniiiquiriiig mind as his ancestors did in days gone by. In
England, on the Cuntineiit, and in America a host of explorers iu
scionlilio agiioultuio are found. The results of their cxperiineuts
are always lutoreBlmg, although not uuficquoutly inexpiicrahle. A
laige number of o.xperimeiits made load to little practical good.
Thi.s will uiwnya bo cho case, but they should not therefore be
discouraged. Out of the multitude of coiiusul some wisdom may
always he obtained. But the various cuuditiouH of soil, cliimito,
aspect, cliaracfer of tho aood, and various other disturbing cauaos
rcudro' tho uilaiuineac of absolute scientific truth difficult m
agriculiuie.
Agiiuiillural experimental btatioiis supported or subsidiKed by
Government, coiinuon olsewlieie, are unknown in England. Agd-
cultuial lesoarcli ih loft to piivate individuals or tofarinciV clubs,
HocictioH, or associiilious. Mr. J. B. Dawes is the greatest privnLo
cxpciimenlalist, not only m England, but in the world, and agrimib
Uiie eveiy where iHindebted to him tor his noble work. Dt\ Voelukcr,
acknowledged by all to bo the leading professional agrieultural
chemist amongst us, has enriclied our store of knowledge with tiie
results of yeaiH of lahoiiou'S^'and oiiginal reHearcIi conducted in Ihe
most conscientious and painstaking manner. Other labouiers la
the same field, less skilful, less original perhaps, have contributed
to adorn tho literature of agricultnial chemistry in recent years.
When to the labouis of pure scientists we add the combined action
of praotionl agriculturistH, the stock of agricuituial experiments
on bund is large. Those of most impoitanco arc tho Rothamsted
and VVoimrn oxperimeuts. But in various paits of tho kingdom
investigations oil a smaller scale of great interest and value are
conducted. In bcothmd especially there are several societies that
hove entered tho field of iudepondont inquiry—aud with more or
loss Buccesa. But before any definite ocnclusiou can be ariivud at
in the relation of special manures to special crops, tiial muet
follow trial with a tedious pertinacity of effort. Hurned genciali-
zations on the reaull of a few experiments only luiaload larmoiM,
aud hind')!' the.progress of scientific agricultuie.
Ill judging of a single experiment llieio should always ho
oonsidered tlie possibility of experimental ertor, or the influence
of some exceptional unknown causes, ospocinlly when the icnult
appears to be at direct vaiianoo with gcneial cxpouonco. V\ inm,
for instance, a crop of turnips is lighter where superphosphate in
I used than vyUore it is not, aoiuo uunpicion shoulti be aroused, and
' .,.i T.ABi-trshould bo made. Xu one inataaod WO bcUovu
lartjttyatd manurd wduM t^pfm
p»ejdiliof^t Ui^ Otli«iirwi«a to tboprodaod |iifi»e(}» U oeirU^iy
coaid sot bo tiOjaviowii iud^od of m a oombiuotioa of ol«uaei»tia!f
food catwtaaooa. It |» pooeibJe iu a dry fidaooa that
masaro aafty sot yield any of Ita vutuea to the gioering plants^ and
may, by $t$ }neQhaniosrooat.ULion, alter tlio teature of the eoU to
its detriment for the tiiuf*^ but none would lUerefore think of
condemning Its use. It ie only by repetition ttiat wo can make
euro of eliminating all *sourcen of error. Experiments in turnip
growing are especially difhoult to deal with. Every farmer known
ttio great tmgulaHty eomotimea found in a Sold life* turnips as the
reerilt of ploughing on two different days, or of sowing the seed at
different hours of the same day, all other coiiditioue being precisely
Rimilar. When there are anomalous results ou the samo farm
even in the same field, what can be expected of trialn made at
separate places under totally diHorenfc circurustanoea ? Considera¬
tions siioh as tiiese should'warn us against too {pitokly acooptiiig
the apparent teachings of a few experiments only, notwithstandiug
the oaro with which they Imvo hwyn ooncJurtciC Moat iinpoitant
quostiooa to bo takou into account in iwJd exporiuonts uro the
previouH condition of tiio land, the crups grown, the uiantuee used,
uud Iho process of cuilivation pursuc(i during the live, ten, or
more preceding years. It is at this point that tho experiments of
Mr. Lawea have been hitherto uniuue and unapproachablo. The
soil of his oxpenmental plots is positively transparent, so to speak,
from the minute details ho gives of ali its present state and pre- {
vious couditiouB. lie makes us familiar with its whole history.
IIo oxplains us cnpahilitms from practical experience, gives its !
quality and present ooudition according to anttlysis, or by an J
eijually Convincing process of reasoning from its past, until at last '
the Boii plays iiim no tricks of disappoiutiuont, for lie is able to
predict almost to a nicety what will follow from the application of
any given manure to any given plot. The Woburn cxpcnmeutH,
based on a like method of procedure as has boon adopted at
Kotliamstod with such excellent remiltH, will afford an invaluablo
record of agricuJluial experiments. It vvil* l ako some yeais boforo
any teachings of a doliintivo chaiactpi* wil! Iwj elicited, but, when
obtained, tlicy will piove of iuostmiablo valuo. Meanwliilo we
would encourage agricultural bodies overywhoro to make experi^
ments for thotuselvos, and llms add to the coimuou stock of iaoU
in reUtiou to tho growth of farm ciups.
miZE FEUTlLlZEliy.
EldPEOTINU iho impoilaut display of foiUlixuig uiutims at
the Pans ExUiliition, what most struck the visUnt was tho
nlmoiice of aU show to attiact clionta. Manufacturers' latriainod
content to dcuionstrato that the preparation of urtili^ial mautires
was not bohmd any chemical oi iiiechauical industry , that the raw
matcriais of these luaiiure-i were sought for with iiileibguuee,
transformed aid combiued in a ralioual nmimei, with no s^'oroUto
coucca), and sold u( pi ices proporthmud to iutnnsic value. The
proofs were coiicJusive of tho groat dovolopmont in tho o.xtrftotion
in France of minural foBsils , iu Belgium of the rolinouKuit ot chalk
phosphates *, of llio goucrat preference for dissolved and pulvetised
giiaiif) iu pluooof thatfi'itilised iu its crude stale. tSoiiou.^ progh>i'i
was shown to have hoeu made in the touffaethm of auunnl lofu^ju.
i dscubt it U very rtbv«t^ii^fihd«ph«fiM£i^
boy^iof the earth ; to im|>blpt Eool)i America aud
AuabNjdia ; nitrate of soda from Chili^fish guano Irdtit
eoaodauayia. Not leeu imiiortana jp the eccimmic otJitsatlon of
the detritus of slaughter houses aqd kdaokb/eyhiiNja^jwid of yttbUo
tnarketii, Iu Paris, cesspool mattert ai^ord annually 7,<)00 tone of
poudreUe, and .%000 tons of ammomaoat salted At Amiens, iecal
matters ha VO charcoal lor the base of their jMiadrSf/e, and the chopped
rofuse of fiax and hemp. Velvet clippings, brewePs refuse, straw,
wool aud leather waste ; this mixture, when enriched with
assimilative phosphates, soils well. For years (he of
slaughter liousea has been iu much request in Franco. But
industry entered the lists, and by its aid, tho ulilisatkm bfhlooii,
llesU, liorns, hoofs, hair, skins, Ac., has become a speciality in
Franco. The firm Bourgeois, for examplo, conliacts fur the blood
of the chief slaugUtor houses in this country, ainoimtbig to 13
niillions of quarts annually, and they employ 200 persons to work
it up into marketable prodacls. Tho blood is drieil by three
prooomm ; contains )3 porcont. of tiihogeu, and is mixed wil)i
eiipei phosphates in vai ions proportions, Aiiotlior Company farms
the iutustines, Ac, of the killea bsasis, and when manipulated, this
ditritui is sold m tinoo classes. The average nninbor of auitiialH
daily killed in the city abattoirs is, 700 oxen, 150 cows, 30 bulln,
400 calves, U,(K)0 slioop, and 600 pigs. But os hoi ns, hoofs, hair,
skins, leather, &c., require two or three years to decompose iu the
B ill, their reduction toa pulverablo form is iudispensible—hence
torref action in ream ted to. Tho preparation of bones has many
various inotliods of application, but nouo particubiily new. On
tho west coast of France, sardine and mackerel lefiise, with sea
phuilH, are UuM, aftei being previoiialy drained, in huge boilois ;
then presHOil into cakes while hot, mid ultimately driod, and
ground. Tlie poculiatliy about guano consists in its being raioly
employod otherwise than in a dissolved etaie, thus permitting of
a fixed late of nitrogen, 12 per cent, generally, to be obtained ; of
lata v'^irs, much of tho Poruvian guano impoitedhad not more
than y oi 3 per cent, of azote, and tho farmor was invited to pay
a iiuifona prL.e all tho same by tho Poiuvian Ooverumput. BVanc'
does not manufacture either dissoived or pulverised guano, but
supplies her demands fiom England and Get many, Farmers
habituated to employ only farmyaid mauuie, gnauf), Ac, viewed
with augpioion tho use of chemical manurHS ; the honor of destioy-
ing their prujiuiicea under this Iieud, im duo toM. Georges Villo,
only ho rode his hobby to death by pi usciibi lig doses of chemical
fertili/ci'S, compounded ou the data ot the a^hes of cultivated
plants, to restitute the salts earned away, inst ns if we wore certain
of the conditions of a soil’s fetlibty. Strange, not a lu'tnufactnrcr
pieparoH arhheial manures fbr the gonenil market on M. Vilie’s
piiuciples. It was only in 18G0 that Norway coininonoed to uliliKe
the rotuso of her herring, cod, and mackeioi firtlioncB, Ac, huvmg
by pinssuio and steam, sncceecded in depiiviug the refuse of the
oil and glue, wluch piovod insurmonuliihlo olmLach-s to (he dissolii-
tioii in tho ftoil of the phoaphaks and azotised matiors. Fish
guano is now prepared along sea coasts in every purl of the world ;
on an average it contanis six to seven per cent, of organic nitrogen,
I rfud iring in tin s form the action o# the luaume more alow, certain
j an ( generally useful, and IG per cent, of phoaphoiio acid, but not
iu a stale immediatoly soluble; hence the diltctence between it
and ordinaiy guano, and the piacticid lesson, that it ought not to
be employed as a toji diosser, bill hanowod into tho soil, before
tho bowiiigH.
However, the treatment of night wDil, and its udioual lUilisutioii, |
leaves very much to bo deairod. It cannot but have aleo struck tho I
observer how imirli commcico stood iu need of a “ common j
chemical hiugnagn,’' for iho vatious prepauitiuim whichreatoio to ^
the soil, phosphoric ac’J, and [lotash—Luo thieo tonus ni use |
on the cunUneut to exprosw tho vulu<' cl toililizor, while \\\ Eng- j
laud, {iiumoiiia, phosphates, and Ihc .salts of potash, aie tho !
expressions empluyo<l. 1
it js Only Hiui'c 1810, when Liehit^ ! lid down tliM nuperiouB law !
of restitution, ihul a veritableitvoUn .-mi <^10 in the tiade and
inauiifacturo of commercial mainiies. In Frame alone, throe
milliards of francs lepresont li w annual sum omployed m the
^‘‘abnoatioii, At., of foitdiXAjrs Franco is also the riclicht country
phospimteoi Jimo, that cmphiyod uagucuU
turo ubiefiy dbwived irom the torliaiy foimatiou iu the lorui
of pbopphorjte, and asVjindules, in the secondary strata ; tho luitiv
me found iu tlie ueight'jL. hood of LUJe, Mans, and lu the depau-
ments of the Meuse, ami -Anh ues' tho funner are ehiolly obtained .
in AveMou, the Lot, UoraVih 'asn and Garouiie.Iio'ziers, Ac. One I
film, DcSttiU.), oomnumcehl j.i to oxtiact nodules m tho
AidfUties; wince then, its olticratjons have Oitunded other parts
uf Fruin-'*?. tliat at prosy,t it cuiplovr; 1,0)0 workmen, and
pn*diiee« 20,IKK) tons of phosnbal.c td lime yeariy. td which oh'j-
ihud is expelled. Rome 01 tin, pl.^rtplmtofA e?int.i,in from 28 to 33
ptr cent, of pUosphouc acid^ aud largely employed in the
picpavatiou of suporphoaph^tes, Tpe vuiuo <.f the mineral
phosphates depends mi ihoir iiieoiiauical humwi-s, ot piiiverisatio.i
loi the aHSlinilaticii ot a iquliznig matt n i« rapiil, aii tJio
points of ooiitael aie more iiU|riuioua wiiU the disaulvmg agents of
the soil—w'atcr, o.ail)oiiic acq, and organic nuttei, Bui there is a
limit to the ootmomic aetioiiof imuemls m the shape of impalpable
imvnler. Thus u ton of tflurared feldspar rock, contai (ff pej ‘
tent, of potash, and canM tV* will be iuhmtely iufu the I
suit eiuiiy obiaiuublo iui cheaper Aud more oojuceutraled slate*
BUliANDSIiAHU AOlUCULTUUAL SHOW AND
HOUSE FAIU,
j rilUK following more debiilod acoount of IhU Show baa been forwarded
I X to us by a uorrespoudent •—
I The i^eveutU anuual Agricaltural Show was hold at Oulaudahabf on
! Fisbriiai ' Ifttli aud foUawiug days, aud waa os sucoosaful, or even more
BO, than 1 the years preceding. The ebow waa first of all started in tbe
year IH7^ ny Mr. WiLlock, (ho tbrii Collector of Bulaudgbabr, and it
owe its or nu to a happy idea of his that the ouliivatirm of good varie-
ties of wbi d might bo stinmlated, if zeiumdais weie eheouraged to
exhibit sauiptcs of their produoo and subHoiibe fur piizes lo be awarded
to thdiuOB' saccesafttl producers. Theie can be no doubt that tho
rivalry wbp'b such exhibitions give rise to is a powerful stiumltts lo
. agricultural impruvemeiit, sometiines indeed acting when mere self.
I iulerest would seem quite inoperative. Tue opportunldes whioh are
given to agriculturists of oompariug the results obtained by them with
thus<* of their uetgUbours are ot course most useful, since la (bis way
experienoe is gaiued far more quickly aud oasBy than Is pofesiblu by
itidivi'lual and unassisted expernneut. Reeiug the great improvements
which these shows are admitkid to have led to hi English aeriouUure
It IS worth the consideration of Bovemm'mt whether it would oot be
advisable to give grunts of money prieas for the promotion of agriotti*
tural exhibULons in differeot parts of the oouutry, in the same manasr
as they are now being given at iho various horse fairs reoently started
As It is. The BulaudslTahr Show is sappcriel entirely by voluntary 000*
trlbtttloas, aod tt is a matter of no little oreJit, both to the offieial and
Qoii.a(&oial resideats, Native and European, that they have carried out
. the sehemo Jt oclginally started by Mr. Willnak with yearly htoroasitig
suooeBB. The Show comprised axhibiiious of agi^ioattW stook,
menu.and produce* hoiMS and nntiTQ 'maoufactures. thelattef tiere
specially good, as wight be expected under Ihe auspices of the preseht
0r<jw«e, 0* I, K, Jof tti» Wre
nY>tfthre
_ _»<M:ic. tea.) wete
foii |o l^vDs oiMM d{iitr!M«d ^ it* them ;
whiob b«i been p*l4 biszlrduif borne
In 4b« dffttrioe^ some nit^clbf exUibitncI b? BfllAnd«hHhr
drnf^Rntto lieiofi^ itpeoitilljr good both tn ^dnanitd^or&mftnatiilp. Tbs
^blUMi Of Agrlontturni prodnna itm tv^jf inlerwMijftr. forhninjt a
e&HtcUnp >n«ftrlf wllf |{ not nU, ot Um tftrinui pr«dtiot8 of tbo diAtricYt;
»tid ra nome OAie« the s«mp1«s exhibited ^re of oxtromaly good qoaiity,
ind alioe^ed rawf ul aoltiration. It is said that eery many of the more
tbteiligeot eulUrators bate begnn, far more geoerattf than before, to
Mtfiet seed for aotriug, setting aside the fiaeat of tbetr prodaoe for tins
parpose, instead of aoing on tbe happy'go-1 uoky svstom which is
.generally foliowod. The agriouHaral Implements exhibited were not
remaiiciible^, and native ideas do not appear to have h^en able to efifiot
mnoU improvement cdther in plongbs or wator-liftx It is to he
suspected, however, that more good would resnlt were Government (o
assist with apeonniary grant, as theprbns could then be awarded with
rather more indifterence to the feoUuga of the eahibltors^ As It is, most
of the ohief exhiititors are also contributors to the prise fund (is weU as
judges on one or other of the various eommitteos, and It is only to bo
expected under these otronmstances that ooensionally iu their awards
they are rather more influenced by tboir regard for the exhibitor thsu
by the quality of his exhibits.
The show of horses was above the average, the oocasmn of the 8how
having bcc'ii taken advantago of by Goveroment to make Bnlaudshahr
one of the district horse fans, which are now held under the supervision
of the Rupurintendent of Horse Dreediog Operations, A good horse,
(heiefote, had a chauoeof uhtauiiog two prises ' one from the G ivnrn-
roent giant on the judgment of the oommittoe appojnted to award prizes
from it, the other from the voluntary coutributiorisof the district, win ’h
were dial rihuted by a second oommittee
Among the most notioeahlo things at the Fair were a MoOoiua’s
wat 61 -lift, and im improved American ploiign, oxUihttud by the Oepail
meat of Agriculture and Oommeroe, both of which were knpfc working
from lime to limn, and attracted great attention. The high pries of the
lift, over Us. 200. will, it is feared, bar its general adoption ; hut it has
been found pro'dioable to odapt the priucipla it acts on to a construC'
lion of wood and rope, which could be made up for a oompuralively
tnfliug pura. Trie plough, which is both light and oHjoUvo, was mudi
approved of, and numerous applications for ones like it wort' iiiudo.
bmee it cun be conslrooted by any ordinary iulelligeut carptmter, Mr.
Growee was vviHCiy in favour of geltiog them made up in the district ;
but aliii’go uumb-'r were indented for as samples. A fact which tells
for its future intro Inctiou is that the onllivator, whose bullocks were
hired to draw ii, asked for two on his own amniint.
Tlie new form of 8Ugar*indli Invented by Messrs. Thomson and
Mv'lne, wiiioh has been so largely adopted in Slmhabad, and a couple of
liiitrsdredgors were also exhihitad. anil showed to advantage.
The 8how may be reg^ided as most eiict'ossrnl fi»m nnofliar asp-io',
ftir the pleasure i* give to the crowds of natives, villagers an I towns*
people, who freqaLmt''d il. Most ot Uia native geutlemcn and
proprietors of iho dlstn-l, were encamped round the plum on which
llie Fair was unhi, and tho opportunity allorded them of meeting osch
otiior seems to bn much appreciated, and is said to have promoted freer
and luoiv intiiuaie aoeml InionMur^e bdwwn them than formerly
oxOkted, For I ho crowds of spieofators the Show soemeJ to aifortl
unending niniwcment , wrestling suecrtodod exhibitions of conjuring
feals, and scratch horse rA<'fl« the wreaHing ; wh le illuminations and
(Irewmka brought tho Inst evening of the Fair to a brilliant doso,
Nothing Ipippeoed to miu tli^anaii^wmeuts, which were excellent
throughout and are most creditable to the district authoritien. A speuial
word of praise is due to the Tnhaildar, Pundit Hurgyan Smgh, to whoso
uuiemitung exertions the Show owed much of its sucoess.
The crowds of well-dressed happy looking villagers were a marked
feature of tho Fiur, and had one ot our modern posaimisis been present,
he mnat have felt, hew lightly the people of India bear lo all appearances
their country’s “ baukruploy.”
TQE DATE-PAIiM OF THE PERSIAN OULF,
R eaders «f IRO newspapers must have learned how tho
rtafcO'trado o£ the Peraiau Gulf has been incroftsiug of late
how the miuor.'s of the Black Country have taken to oatiiig dates,
howtheAiaba tliemsoWos almost live on that fruit, and oven
feed Ihoir horses on it, while there are few m this country who
do not know the taste of tho luscious berry that finds its way to
(Calcutta in rpieer-shaped baskets, so dilferent from the woody
substance known to the Hindoos as the date. But there are few
who are aw.aro that the attempt to grow tho Arab date in fudm
has been successfully tried. The oxpoiiniont originated undor
the aUBpioea of Chief Oommissioner of Oiidh, and the Conservator
of Forests in Mysore and Coorg has also been supplied with plants.
Borne shoots have recently been sent from Busrali for expenmout
in Baipootana, where the native date gt'iU grows in abundance,
and we sliall bo glad to hear how they have ftucceodod. Mean¬
while a meaioranaum on the system ot cultivating the date-palm
in tho Vioibity of Bushlre has been written by Mr, J. 0. hdwardB,
tho 2nd Assistant Besideut, from which wo cull tno following
details , n • i
Oifshoois which sprout roiiiid the foot of tho female trees ato
proouied from BusieU Katef or Bahrein,' and trauBpianled to
wherever the cultivator may desire to have a date grove. Xuese
oifshoots may be proouted of all sizes, Iiut tho sinaller onos-^say
cue foot higU-Hsre piHiferred. After beiiigj tiausplanted they
require to bo vratorw diijily foHuro or three years, Iho soil m
vyhkh they are plahted eUbutd l^eeoft the base of the plant
iM' ■ -
surrounded wUh manure^ ^l^emaiiuro used is horse dtmg miated
with eartii and allovffed to oioamposo for a year before being uaedi.
Where water is pienilful the offshoots spring up yapidly and
bear fmit wiihin fe«T or five yms. But where water is soarco
and llis soil hard, Ion or twelve years ellipse before any signs
I'lult arc visible. Opinions differ in regard to iho rearing of date
trees from seed, but nil agrOe that oiTHhooU no the l>oat, inasmuch
as they lake less time lo grow and njo fai n.oie stioug mnl
piodtiolive than the tre^a I'eaied from ise*'d.
Tliu date tue fiiHt shows its biossoins iri^Fobruoiy, ilm cnUivator
line tbon to decide what number of briinclies ho shoiikl leave on
tbe tioe ami Withdraws the unporabundanee. Tlic nuiubor of
bnncli idtHinoms on each iioo vaiies from 12 lo 24, but it w seldom
that nioio than 12 are tdlnwed to icinain for fruit.
At this pmod iiIho tho cultivator has to improtjuAto tin* Idossoms
of tile femalttlruo by ioiuiiig tUeioto H uno poitioii of the blonHoms
of the iiiulo troo. This is douo by simply depositing a spng or
two from the male inlo n buiuh of Iho iomato bloj>iH>>m and lightly
himiing it up with a sprig. The male tree is diMtiiiguhhed by
its blosHoiu wliich is of a reddish tingo, while that at' the female i»
milky white. The blossom of tho male tiofi w only iiaocl foi
improgtintiiig, and does not tain into fmit. It m avorred (hat jti
places whtMe tho date palm giows thick (ogoUjer, ilio wind .Moatlcrs
the polion of tho male blossom, and (iuit the fomule trees tlina
become impiognatod with it, saving tlio cullrvator further trouble
on ill IB head. When thiough neglect or oversight tho temalo tree
falls to be impreguaicd, il is assctlrd that Ibe frutl n boars does
not como to pertcciion, ia Bmlioss and nisiph).
About. May the fmtl begins to foini and frofii tliit^ limo to
•Soptembor, when il m perfectly npe,' Iho tieo phndatho supciubun-
danco winch iH used .IS food. At (Iuh peiiod (Ma\) the fmit i»t
known jis " Khumal and is Kroon iu coJom. Jn June oi July it
is know'll ns “ Kliaicdt; '*iUid in oitiioi lod oi y-diow. It is tiien fit
to ho cuton. Ill August It becomoH soft and lUicy and la known
as “ llatab ” but is nol yet in a lit Htato lor pitscivalioti, winch it
does not aliain till Beptombbr Yvhen it mknown an ‘MCliurma.’'
It IS Ihcn taken oil'tho ireos and gathered into a tank oi trough
oxjioHod to ilm sun whoio it IhrowH oH its extia juice, and luudcnu
sullioientiy lo allow ol its being packed n[> in baskets ant pupated
for oxporUilioin Tlio jnicc is g.itlimoit and slmod in skins oi jars,
and is used by tho poorer classos in Jicu Ol sugai.
Thero are moio than a huadted vaiietios of dato known by
diHuront iiaineH which it would not be cosy to enumerate or doscribo,
nor would tlnnu bo much uUlity in doing so, fur they aro only
uudoistood by Ihunaiivea ol tiioso parts to whom it is a tnaiter of
great cnuBociuonuo lo k.mw the the iiumo of the dale they puroliaHOi
a,s piieod aiolegulatodtUcreby. These i.iHei vary in the ratio o£
1 to 4. Tho bowl descuption of tiuil m packed in ttkiim ol! 70 to
iTOlbs., Ihe avoragvj piico boiug lo krAUS (.about lls. C) lor tho
latter weight.
Tho pool feed on tho droppings of ihe date p.alm fmni JVt'iy to
September, and keep tlio produce ns food lor tho next 7 iiioiitJnv^
tho blanches siippiy them with fuel and matoiiai fur huttiug^ Hie
fruit brunches wiicn divested of the fruit are used .a brooms, andl
the leaf turned into lopo or matting, the stoin is cut up and UEiod
in house bnilduig Toddy is not extracted, aa this people haVOiiot
yet acipiitud a UsLo for that liquor.
AN ECONOMIO BUREAU.
]^OT many inoulhs ago we mooted the question of an ficonotnlo
IS Ihueaii for tins province, and urged on tbe cons.deratioij of
tho loc.il udminiatittliuu the advisability ot istablishing such a departi
luont. WUut wo Ibou said WB8. It should he tho duty of the
burnan to give attention to tho natural piuduclione ot the cunutry os
well OH altond to the di velopiueut and couservation of local industries.
To-day the reasons aie stronger than ever, and as the country advances
these wcdl bo getting stiongcr and stronger. They have ft pubho
ilepartmont m India for tho purpose, but Imperial necessities are so
many, large and various, that local wauls as a tnlc do not rooeire that)
curs aud utteutiou they doserro. Certain it is the wants of Britiali
Uuruia in tins direction, have not been attended to as they require.
The ooinlry is, comparatively speaking, new, ii.s natural resouroca
" legion," and what it needs Is a spec ml deparimeiit, for Hie initiation
and currying out of measures that will develop iliese rich natural
lusoMioes. There is a wealth of oil, wood, resin, mfoeials, m tho
cotintiy, of which tho world la pArlicaihir, aud even persons living ia
It generally, know ilille. The other day uuly tho olive was fooml
glowing wild in TharawaJdy ; and 80 luxurious IS irs growth, that an
llnlnm gentleman gave it aa his opiuion that the growth of oUvos in
nniisii biirina woubtopeu out a most roiunueratlve field for Speculation*
Willie Ir. hikes filteeu years to arrive at perfection in Italy, the olive
plants here are so forward tnat in five years they yield as much as plan to
etflcwhere of iiCtneu years' growth. Theu there is lac. and tho narrative
of attempts to ostHblish its mauufnctiire goes further than anything else
to show the threat need there is of a department such as is urged.
Those aho aie (atniUar with tlio aubjoot, will acknowledge the truth of
this vcmaik. Up to 1S73, althongh lao was wall known by the people
to exist itttho country, aud although tho maunfac»ure of it was widely
practised, none of aur olficeis seemed >o ho aware uf these facts, for
when the qaeetlon of iho establishmout of its mau«/acfure was firit
Agitalod, pthsrooautrica wore asked iiut only for iostrnctlons how to
treat th^ josools, but for the insects thciusclres. Fct all thcsti years.
m
«rTi t)io daim fAH«titni af vhtvihit
tM tbt jiitlNell tti%U !^Qf«Hiind AtUtfirtWeAiiAirf ifi AlAerjr
dintHei, «fAn Ar^ka Hitli. Thin!« «M OoIoaaI - fwynm
myn Itt A letltr ,ld tbtt Cometrator of Foroitf flomo tiino
book j—•
The Cbi«! Comsifftiooot Ui rcad^Hr. 6(ret(ol'« pat^or vriOi muoh
interOtft^ It tuw now bcNin Moerisi»»U tbat tb« Cbonct Zaeca (Ttie foo
ineoet, fuuo4 in nearly ev^try dUtriot in Burmn.
lodndliif: the Arakan Hilit, from which a verv fine opecimsn ligg been
received, And vaititid by a leading drm here at lu, ISO per 100 via«.
The matter ii aHiided to here not for the purpose of reflecting tu an
adverse way oa any department^ but just by way of egtabliaUing unr
oonietition regarding tbe necessity for a 8[>eoial departibent to attend
to natural reiouroee. Existing departments are too muolt hardened
jyUh work, and to expect any, oven Itie Forest, to take npthia additional
wor!^.ifpuld simply be to expfiot wbat would never be attained. But
from the above it will be seen that while there existed quite a wealth
ofunefesouroeathome, no body, weareawareof, ever said anytkmg
abontit, and the local administration in its ignomnoo sent across the seas
for ink^ligeoco and material that was available at its very doors. A
better itiostration of darkness under the lamp would be hard to quote.
The same with regard, to silk, '-fhe tuasiir moth exists here, as well
ns the ordinary silk, yet how little is done for that industry may be
sfcn from tho quantity of iudlgonous raw silk, nnuuaUy exported. Ko
also with gold, It abounds in the Malayan Panineala, particularly
in the Bhwegyeen district and to the north of it, yet how little Is ever
taken to tbo maiket. Bo with coal, now stated positively to exist in
the Kemree district.
It wonld be easy to fill columns of thin paper with parLientars nf
local resources and industries neglected and languishing, uoeding only
A little eniorpriisa tc enrich the country and the speculator engaging
in them. VVhat is needed is that a knowloiiga of natural resources be
disseminated far and wide in order to attract capitalists. And to do
this effectually o» Economic Buionu most be ostabliahed. The Phayre
Museum might very well be develop'd into one. An officer who
undersUnds these matters, mid who will eulor heart and aoiil into the
work, ought to be entrustud with ii. Tiie present SSecretary to the
Agricultural and Horticultural 8ocitity is )ust the one to bo placed lu
charge of such an institution. Jutjmately acquainted with the country
and its produotions, his large au<l varied expenonce extending over a
number of years point hiin out as the very person to be entrusted with
the care of such a charge. It need not be very large, nor need the
initial and Hubsequent expendilnro be groat. A siiffioient outlay from
Provinolan'iinds will be needed in the beginning, aud afterwardsi a
small csiablisbment will have to be entertained. The oollections from
Visitors would go in some measure to lighten the cost of monthly
expenditure and the piodnoc of the garden would add to that. Mr.
Aitoblsori will confer a boon on the provluce by the «Atablishm<‘.u of
such a department, and wooarnoatly cunimend the matter to lilts .mi-
sideration.
After wriling iheaViovo we were sln>wn a piece of mno wood, obtained \
by Ibo late Mr. Nepean, from the forosiH m the violiiity of wti'ch he 1
HO lately lost a life that was abandantly fiuitful iti good work to a i
ttovernmeiit that did not approcnito him ns lie should have been |
appreciated. The existence of this pine, named by Dr King the ,
Msrkun^ was not known of till Mr, Nepean got it. Jt is so rich |
in resin that its growth would pay remarkably well, and if we alliule >
to it here it is only to atrengtheu our contention for an Economic i
B nr eau .—if a ngoon Pitpn\ |
CINNAMON.
f ; Ha of ciiwaaioa i« SiEijalt boir’UWWv
Alt Ikat la mc^naxy to tfuAoeas Ira dsluB atmoapW*
bandy toil, rich in deoaya<l yagam>le .wuldt Stiade aUo ja
nAosssary. A looalUy tatufying alt tB^ia ^artiontara
fiotbinjf more than to Itave the plawta pnt diotm atowiv^nlant
distances^ and attontion to suoli ordinary raAttem m oocailotiaily
stirring the eoit near the rooia and keeping the epapa round then)
clear of weeds. In six or men years the busheo attain a heigHt
o£ six or seven feet ; bat no barking is done at gaoh an aiS®'*
operation usually oommonces when the trees have attained a
growth of some years, and it is one of the sunplest of prooessqs on
the face of the earth. Tho young twige, not mery young, are first
slit in aloDgitiutiiial direction, and next transversely, the bark is
then loosened from the tender wood, peeled, scraped, sorted, packed,
rolled, dried and pul into bags of 80 or 90!b4. each as the cinnamon
of commerce. A similar process is carried on with cassia bark.
Cinnamon peeling begins in Ceylon at the close of the rains and
lasts till November. The work is attended to by a particular caste
of natives who are known lis CVmlliahs, and of them men, Women,
and childroii in scores, if not in liuudreds, engage iu the cinnamon
gardens of Colombo.
The best sticks " ate from Ceylon but Java, Bumaira and
Cochin-China amongst others, produce the tree plentifully. The
best Indian variety is that from tho Malabar Coast; bub the tree
can be grown almost anywhere at no great distance from tho eea-
coast, providod the roqursites of shade, drainage, a bob, damp
atmosphere and rich soil aro present. Such being the case ib is
possible British Burmk posecsses localities that would be favorable
for llio growtii of tlio treo, and cinnamon as well as cassia intro¬
duced here. Young plants of both kinds might be put down in
I'oreet cloaiiogs in the beet sities procurable. The preparation of’
tlie yellow pipes would not be dillioult once success is attained iu
tlie matter of growing in the trees : tho work would just suit tho
native population. Moulineui promises a better field tor
expoiimenta in this direction. There the mangoateen and cocao
grow, a.* veil 88 varieties of the natural order MyrUmm, A few
cxpertinooiK' with cassia and ouinamon migUt.be tried without
much expouso or risk, for tho prospect of gain is not inoonsideiable
if suf'oeww bo attained. The quanlity of spioo imported into Grout
Britain a\oruges aiinuaDy 8r)(i,00(ilhs. Briti.sl) Burma might bo
able to Goniiihute eomowhatto this auiuisl average.
NEW OOMJVIEUCIAL PLANTS.
U NDEU the above title, Mr.Thomas Christy, of 155, Freuoliuich-
htrefd, liAB issued another of hift pamphlets, which treats of
pioducieeilUei quilo new tocominoico, oi of llioso that have bocn
lui uoiiiu liino known but have not coiiio into general use. These
pamphlets demonstralc at onco the truth that the world does yet
contain a vast field of miappropiiated wealth, and it is only by con-
.stant watchfuinos.s, or a keen perception of what is really valuablo,
that tho fine metal js .'kOparatod fiom the dioss, ho to speak, aud new
con vn iciul products are established in our markotsf Tho
itiec'Atry of new rubber-yielding plants, and tho extended
fTinE spice trade of India is not only a small one, but ono that
fluctuates a great deal. The exports consist of hiioIi ae
geographical range of well known npecios, aie matteis that have
often been referred to in Llioso pages, and in the pamphlet under
ctminj peppnr^ gingetf cardamoms^ chilhrs, &c.; and the imports
aro principally clones* Cassia is closely allied to cinnamon,
and the trees of both, as Well as thoir spicy products, greatly
rcBOtnblo each other. Cassia is also known hh haitnrd cinnamon,
India isc «^>ablo to producing both ploute, and a group of cinnamon
tieosisone of the pleoBantest wghtH in the tropics. Evoopt in
Ceylon, tho chmnmou plant is, liowc\oi, rare in India, ami its
jdantations when got up aie attended to wiih much care. When
Ibo plants attain maturity, they acqu.ro a cyiumorcial value ; hut
they seldom grow beyond thirty or ihirty-fivo foot in hoighi In
form they are symmetrical, tlieit trunk is smooth and the foliage
dense. The loaves possess n lino polish, and aro prtuLily and
regularly veined. Tho tender loaves show a reddish color winch
time changes into a green hue. A plant putting f oih young 1
leaves looks at a distance i- io a huge bouquet of blui )h-greerj, I
sprinkled over with pink, J- ' inflorcsoeuco is ordimiry, the I
individual flowers being small, of color and inruloious. One
would fancy that a cinnamon plant would bo fragrant througlioiiL;
this, bowover, is mil tho case, and a whole plantation may bo
traversed without a bicadih of spicy odour being peiccptible.
Biahop Ueber is arid to Jiavo declared ._
“ After hearing so much abo-it the Spicy gales of Ceylon, t was •
much disappointed at. not being able to diBcoverany sot^nt, at Isaut
I'jom tho plonts, in passing thiough the cinnamon gardens.’*
On being bruized m any part, however, a distinct odour cf
cmnainou becomes apparent, and both bark and loaves taste
decidedly of the spice. Dining the cinnamon season, which comes
on after the dcparlmo of tho raitis, tho gardens ate quite odorous t
foMttsuch time the young twigs ore cut off the parent, , and
the p ocosses of baikmg, pooling, rolling the brown suckts m . oeed ^
la all diieclioiis.
consideration a new rubber plant is desciibcd, aud figured under
llio name of Urosti-^ma hogdh. Koforring to this class of plants,
Mr. Cliiisty sayH, in ins profaoo, A great many plants
yielding ludia-rnbber me now known to botaiiiats, and more are
being discuvorod every year, Coinpaiatively few, however, are fit
for geneiai <;uitivatiou ; symo whicli yield excellent rubber do not
pioduceau adequate return until after many years, others require
ceitain prciiriarities of soil and climate forlhoir successful cuhure ;
while oUiors, again, which poBsess tho advantages of lapidly
coming t(' maturity, and of being easily cultivated, yield a rubber
of low 001 nicrcial valno.”
Thero a % perhaps, lew questions in ccouoniio botany regarding
Hnhstauces it such great commercial importance as india-rubber,
where the plants pioductiig ihcui are involved iu such mystery.
It IH to be I oped that by tJie energy of coIloGtors abroad, suppoited
by euvh meu at borne as tlie author of the pamphlet in question,
a true knowi'' i'je may soon he obtained of those bolauioally and
googiaphically widely did used plants.
Ml- Christy diaws special iittentioa to Iho Ggnocordia odoraia^
or the tree yielding the Chaulmiigra oil, as one of the most
important, plants foL introduction into all tiopioal countries, on
account ot the great therapeulio value of the oil obtained from
the seeds. This oil has long been known, and valued highly in
‘‘ India uiid (JUuia as a remedy' for akin diseases aud other
complaints due to impurity of the blood, aud as a speoifle for
secondary syphilis.In the Mauiitius it is considered
to be tbo only reliable remedy for leprosy, aud so high a value is
put ou Us purity that the seeds are imported from India for the
purpose of obtaiuing tiie oil free fiom aduUeratioti, . . , ,
The pure oil iu India is expneive, and therefore offeis .a great
induoement to the natives to adiiIterate it ; indeed, aduliefatioii U
carried to such an extent, and is so difiicult to detect, that it has
' oocaHiouaily caused medical inau in ludht to diacbutiiuift jits use*
Proforcuce should, thereforo, bo given, iu purohaeing the to
ihAt «JtpTWi«d from ixwptry.” It
U eliid^ fli t!i0 tfUto of oonwmptiou that tUia oU U ttow usil, aul
«uW?o tWK«^ »t U uiw io nao^ may bo .mentio«8(f a
|p«Ur*a HoapitOl Barnora-atrftot, tU® Marg^
Ytonf^tal forl>laaaa«a of the Oheat, Oity-road, St. John a Hospital^
FiOOl the aaWitOfy ofEwt of tUia oil m
Mumy raporM owiet iUaema that Ut ganeraj adoption w
a» ill India a good daal, nay, nearly all depends
Jbe oil iuppuld, and ioinplote purity U guaranWed lu the oil
'"zs-tf Ml. -ui* d-™ s-srHiuis
ffl:s.‘as!i'—'i?.K •srr.sa—.|.j
Ss T-t. ir,r”;,z,«rrT-
^nnnilt V nf Huffur ftinJ a strontf wpint 18 disliHtid froiu tbonii very
rmffin flaX to IrU wlli»ky ; thi« spiril h»8 boau ,.rov8.
upim aii8ly«i8 to be very wboleeouio, and wliou carefully reotiBcd
'“u?b fber'ar/^wtSfof'fbrpreduols of tbe vegetable kingdom
new to ooiumeroe in tbi* ooiinti'V, tbf inliodiioHou of wbicb are
due to the energy diapayod by Mr. tniriaty.
THE TAP AW.
A T a recent meeting «« ti« Uorlin Natural Uiatory Society
A Herr Wittinaob, gave an aocouut of aomo resoaicboa ana
experimente he bad andortaken upon tbia subject,
thus suinmarUed in a roooiil number of the Plmrmceutical
‘^““Tterfcotly ilpo undamaged papaw fruit measuroa from
7 to 8 iuchos in Icngtb, and 3 tod iuebea in width, and baa
tbe appearanco of a ratber long melon ; it has a boautiful |
vollpw*^ rind, wbicb in Us taste also resombloa tbe lemon, tbougb
with a eligbt flavour of tiirpentino. Tbe most iuteroaliug aod
important properly attributed to it, bowover, is tho power of
ite iuioo to rapidly render hard floKbtandei. _
«Is far bLk as the year 1700, Giiffith Hughes says, m h.a
Hiitory of HarOadocs.-TUis juico is of so penetrating a naluro
fi ll f the mirloe peeled fruit be boiled wilb tbe tougbeat
old salt uisat, u tbm "iluol 'mito
rBr^^uf rntruuniia -“s!;::!, mi"
to wbicb tbe juice oE PW",/*;®,! \uo spit wb.le
ill suob water ‘““j i ,„j, %,|o beiliug. Acooiding to
ZlUn^’tb" Z o'f au“ a" ut^to a branch of tbe tree
Iloldon urn nus * Qmto ilio umo of
18 reuderod general, but iii Voiioauela
^^V^Coat'a llioa the prartico ia unknown. Some fuithor oxpen
rrlSiSi s-Ains
'•"SwKlSX'r™i, W> kSS"?!
rwl?cClZ to a hard vitreous white inasa, having what apimared
T Z ileum of ri vuS Iiidia-rubbcr. The microacepo
of petroleum o iruiuuou» luaftH coutannng Bome larger
fi:«S U. !*•
^*«rlotltron)is juice was dIaaeWed in tines times Ua weight
..f Ji^r and Une was placed with lO.giaiuoa of iiml^ tresb lean
of water, ana uHB wufl p boiled fo« bve minutcB.
«*?^J^lTboding meat fell into ecvoral piecee, ami at
Below the Ijimng it'had sepatsUod mto noaraa sUrede,
tlie close of the experiment it ^ the boiled
In the * , 5 ® llatdXoiU'd albumen, digosled with
meat waa ® ..r o0®c could after twonty-four
alittleiuioeat a graiue of beef
hoars bo owuly broken up papaya during twenty-four
?rr f shorrboiUng^-^^^^^^^^^^ t^uSer; .
similar niecQ 'wrapped in paper and heated in tb® same .nauner,
iSudnecF gttite hwd. Some Comparative oipanmeuU
nSewltU^peine, and the following are the oonclusions arrivoi
milky juice of the Oarloa papaya is (or “
ferment which ^ an estrawiUnurily energetic action upon mtro-
gfUCiu ittbstenow, end tiko pefsine cardie# milk.
audina«hdrtertimo<av«ba»iWto»|tt faost.) , ^
3. “ Tlio filtered juice differ** ohowioally frum p^pian^f in that
it givee no precipitate on boilih«, and fttrUier that it is preclpftatad
by mercuric chloride, iodine, atio ^ll the mineral acids, -
4. *‘11 resembles pepsioe iu beifig 'precipitated by neutral
aoetato of lead, and not giving a piwipitate with sulphate of
copper and perohloride of iron.”
uu.ll U ' .J«Ut l illllJlJttWlJUaiX < g 'BB fe *
• MANUttB.
W HEN manure la “ flre-faoged,” or cveiheWedy the most
valuable portiou—the nitiogon-^is driven off, altAiough the
mineral elements remain. To prevent overheating, U is not
refiuired to continually fork over tbe manure, but simply U»
compact tljo surface of tho heap, and to cover it with a thin feer
of earth. Unbleached ashes may bo mixed with bonernaal, if care
iH takon to cover the mixture with plaster, or earth } and the action
of the aBiies will act upon the bones to redtioe them to plant-food
but, unless the earth or plaster is used, there will be a great waste
of iiitiogon from tho bouoa. There is no climate iu the world
where manuie rotiuires more looking after to get any good fioui
it than this, ami yet ul all places it is here allowed to lie exposed
lo tho olomonlfl, to be bleached and washed clean of ^11 its fetWliaing
proper lies. Tlxere is more labour necessary to load manure ” on
the bind for culUviition than will pay for this wanton and foolieh
waste. Manuie, such im cow-tboppings or goat manure, becomes
almost uveb*8» ]f spioad for any time on tbe surface of tho g»ound,
exposed to the sun and the rain, and yet at the proBorit time,if our
hottJCultinii'tM 01 agricnlturiBts wish to enrich their lunds, they
lauaioithoi got ft supply of this rubbish or pay heavily tor a
manufaotuiod aiticle, such as animal manure or saporphosphate of
I linio and other oitifkial preparatnms. To utilise the cleanings of
stoolcyards, measures must be taken to conserve the volatile and
tioe olemouls of the maimvo, and tbe beat means available for this
IS eitUor a boxed-up space made wiih slabs above thesurfivoo of
thogrouiid, or apitsunkiiitho ground wliioh, oI the twoi <8
uroCorahlo. Wbioliever plan is adopted, lot it be reinemhereJ that
manure to have a oliauco to do its best should be always moist
QMOuirb to allow fermentation to take place uninterruptedly, and
to prevent the dry burnings such gatherings are subject to. AU
fixmirientiod men are aware that these dry heats are utterly
(loHitnictive to the best fertilizing cpmlities of the manure heap,
ami hence to present tins on all UirU cultivated farms much
Iftboui IS expended in frequent turning of the manure to chock
this. WUatovwr may bo thought about this, or whatever neglect
' mav bo aiilferod under prosoiib ciiunuiHtaiiCos, the time will oume
, wlion cultivators will know that they must manure if they would
reap and tins mauino mast be looked after to got any good from
I It While manure hmips require to bo moist the^ must not be
i whore tliey wouhl lose tUeir soluble ptirLioles with iloodirtgs, A
lilt miy easily bo secured by umag tho earth takon from the
Lcavfttion to fonn an ombaukuient all round it, and thejained
encloflin^ecaualsohopruteelodby digging a trench round it to
Liy away surface watiu. In addition to these nocesSajy
nrecautioiiH to .^^avu tho volatile oi penHhatde particles of the
manure bi^f-ro it is used, it is equally necessary to take care that
there i« no imire wiiHlo than is possible wheii applying it. As a
ruhi maniite should never be allowed to bo for any Unglh of time
expose 1 on (hesurfttce of tho soil without covering. When covered
widi soil which is a poweilnl deodorizer, tho waste is reiluoed to
u uimiinum ; and in any ca«o mnuuro should only be carted <m tlie
l,uul wln-n wanted for aciop about to go m cr already m, Ihopo
me many experienced cultivatois who prefer to cart manure on
fund wboiiciopsaieup, ftudtbento cover it with the horse hoe
or cultivator, 01 even iu bouio lustaaces they harrow it iii-//tc
Inquirer, _
I CAltBON AS PLANT FOOD.
. rilUK great mass of vegetable matter is oomposod of woody fibre
I JL (cjidluloH«). which consists of carbon 44 per cent., oxygen
4P 02 per cent, and hydiogen fi 3« per cent. Nearly ono-half of the
vegotiiblo growth of our forests and fields is, therefore, organised
caibou. This substance is known to ua in tho form of chatcOal,
I though the diamt iidis puie crystallized carbon. In its iiuoombiiied
[ form, it IS not soluble many known liquid, nor is it fnsible in any
iioat we have been able to produce. At rod beat, it combities
readily with oxygen in a brink combustion, witbout flame, and the
, pioduot IS a gfts composed at 27 per cent.
> cent of oxygen, and commonly known as carbonic aoid. *
I leeblo acid reaction, and forms salts with
temperature of 60 degrees, water will dissolve
I its oWn measure of Carbonic aoidgas ; by plants
. boiling heat. In this form all the carbon
is furoiklied, and it would bo a very natural luferenoe that to
184
THE INDIAN AGEIOtJLTtJRIST.
April 1, 1879.
fttrnith n oi car1io&io acid would be tbe firot caro of tUe
fanner. But tuU would be altogetJier an errooeoue couclusioiu
From varioRf eour^j tbe air ia alwaye aoppUed wiiU oarbonio
acid io aofdoient quantitioeto answer the demands oC plant gi-owiL;
but tlie obief tutereat of the farmer la to place bis orotm io a
farourable couditSon to appropriale tbe carbon brought within ita
reach. An auimated dispute haa been carried on for several years
between twq aohools of vegetable physiologiats*->tho one contending
that all the carbonic acid used by tbe plant was abaorbod by
tbe leaves ; and tbe other holding that a portion of it was supplied
by the roots, being held iu soluflori iu the water absorbed. The
queation, however, is one of but little practioal iiuportanoe, as both
parties admit that plants derive all their carbontfroin oarbooic acid,
and that the deoomposition uf that gas takes place in the leaf.
Tbe important matter, practicaliy, is to miderstand thecuuditiona
under which vegetablee appropriate carbonlu acid ; fur this is the
secret of their growth. These conditions are cliiofly two : first u
healthy condition of theleaf ; second, a full exposure to aunlight.
Tbe first of iiteae ia that which diieiiy corjcerns ua. Xisaves absorb
c^onio acid in proportion to tlie amount of green colouring
matter tlrey ooututn. This, as 1 have always said, depends on tt
supply of nitrogen iu a form that the plant can use it.
Ammonia dissolved in water and absorbed by the roots is th©
usual form in which tbe supply of nitrogen is obtained. This is
de(H>m|>osed in the leaf by thcagonoy of sunlight, and the nitroguu,
set free, immediately euteis into a new coiubinatiou, and llie green
lijiatter is the result. But this change demands the
presence of potash and phosphoric acid, in very minute quantities,
indeed, but still ossentia.). A deficiency in any one of those
conditions wjll give a pale or yellow leaf, and every fainier
knows wbat that means, though he may noth© able to explain why
it is so. But plants absorb no food, by the leaf, in tlio dink, and
theie is no chemical action in the ttbMeiice of sunlight. It iu tiue
that plants grow at night, but they grow by using the material
prepared in the light and by its agoncy.^U. T. Biown, in the
epunirj/ QmiUmwi'B Magazine,
THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
T HB follow lag Government Uesolutlun has boon sout to us —The
>eaf under report was oomparaiively unproductive of fresh work.
Mr, Lydekker ocptmued bis exploraUous io Kashunr, but lu couseqaeuoe
of the famine there, and of a temporary iudispositiou, he was prevented
from carrying out bis projected visit to tbe Uilglt region, and was
obliged to content himself with making an czamiuatiMi of tbs
aedlmentary rooks of the mountains of Dras and Tiluil. Mr, Uucket
also again carried on bis investigations in the AravtUli Bange m
Bajputaua, Mr. Feddeu and Mr, Koote hreke new giuund during tbe
season, the former iu Kattywar, where a large extent of couutiy was
surveyed, and tbe latter to tbe south of Tnchinopoly. Mr King was
employed in working out tbe oonnection of the formadooe inappud by [
him in the Lower Godavsry district with those mapped by Mr. liiiglies |
an the Pranbita; and Dr, Feistmantel visited the fiatpura eoabtfasiii
with a view to examining on the ground some good socuons of the
Goudwaoa series. In the Punjab, Mr. Wynn© made u preliminary
examluation of some new ground iu Husara, Laving buou prevented by
diffionlties on the frontier from following the formations of the Balt
Bauge across tbe Indus into the Banna district, es bad been proprised ,
while Mr. Theobald added largely to the cotleotiuus of the Bowaiik
fossils in the Geological Museum.
2. In Palamow, two new coal-fields were traced out by Mr, Bali
in the basin of the Koe) river ; but the coal of these areas is said to
be not so good as that of the Dullongauj field lower down the Eoel.
in Decembei; 1877, Mr. Mallet was deputed to report on eome uonl
seams in Bamrl Island, wbloh had been bionght to notice by tbe Oom>
missioner of Akyub ; but an ezainiuatlou oi them did not lead him
to for,.* a favourable opiuiuo of their praciirul value tbe coal is said
to be Interior to that found iu Bengal, whilst the measures are greatly
disturbed and difficult to work.
8. Mr, Medlioott himself was Lhicfiy occapied in direetiug the work
of the survey, and iu editing its publications. Iu Febiuary 1R78,
however, bo formed oue of tbe Committee which had been appointed to
investigate and report on the causes of the dclenoraliou ot hmd by
rek in tbe Aligatb district; and while in the neighbourhood, he took
tbe opportunity of examiulug two oases ot the tupposed disoovery of
coal iu tbe Sewaliks ot Debra aud Nabun, with the result that the
reports which bad been made were proved to be failaoious.
4, Mr. Blanford's time was fully taken up iii the woik of compiling
the ‘'Manual of tbe Geology of ludin," tbe pieparatkm of which was
directed at the close of 18.1, aud which tbe ClovornuK'int of ludia are
glad to learn has at length br. n completed. The object of tbe Manual
iato place before tbe general public In an intelligent and popular form
the results which have been atisined by the Geological Purvey of India;
and imperfect as a preliminary work of this nature must neoessarily
be. It w\U supply wnat has long beou felt to bo a groat want, aud will,
moreover, serve as a nucleus I rum which, in, course of time, the survey
will be able to deveUip a moio complete record of Us scientiflo labours
and discoveries.
5. Owing to the ciicuniBlanoee explaiuel at page 12 ot the Beport,
only oue uamber of the was publisbod duiing tbe year; the
Jtseerdtf ou the other baud, were fuller of matter than usaul; (bey
extended to three times tbe size originally routeuiplated. and coutauied
numeroua ootliae maps. Two large pat<8 of the j^aheontoUffia Indioa
were also iiiuedi oue on the flora of the Jubbal pore group by Dr.
Fetismantel, anil the other on tbe crania of fussii rummauU by Mr,
Lydekker,
T he Political Agent of Manipur jn hie Adminieiration Beport
for 187748, eays
Boring the last cold eeaeou X have introduced the following
Euglisli fruit treed, &c., with a view io acciimatizlng them iu
Manipur, m., apple, pear, plum, peach, apricot, Himalayan
apricot, clierry, currant, quiuce, vine, raspberry, Spanish chesnut
also deodars aud throe kinds of Hiuialayau pine.
With ti view to giving them a thorough trial, I have planted the
abovo ill two gardens, one in the valley at a height of 2,570 feet
above the sea, and the other in the hills at 5,250 feet above the
sea,
Notwithstaudiug the difierence in temperature and rainfiril
many of the young plants seem to do equally wellln both places;
this applies ©specially to apples, plums, apricots, aud pears,
though owing to the more stiinulatmg climate, those in the valley
have grown muoU more quickly than the others. The Spanish
chesnut however seems to prefer the cooler climate, and wliile
those in the hills are doing woll, the one planted iu the valley is
languishing. Cherries 1 have only tried in the hill garden, and
of five trees none aro really flourishing, though at first they
proiuiscd io do hotter than any others. I intend trying some in
the valley next ye n. The quince tlaurtshes iu the valley aud so
does the vino, while the ouriants, raspberries, and rhubarb are
doing admirably in the hill garden. The deodars and pines
eviduiitly prefer the cooler climate of the hills aud there, if the
winds allow.them, will do well, but litose iu the valley aie at
proHont very little iiiforioi m appoaiauce.
It is much io be regretted that the experiment of introducing
En^^iish fruit trees was not tried long ago, as any time since the
opoiimgof the lailway io the iiorlh-west it would have been easy
to procure them, and had a commencement boon made ton years
ago Manipur might now bo producing leally fine fruits.
Thtiie is every reason to believe that apples will eventually
succeed well, us tt species of wild apple, fur liom despicable foi
cooking purposes, glows well in both the hills and valley of
Manipur. For tbe same reason it is to bo hoped that apricots and
plums will do well, as an uiicultivated kind of both these fiuits
grows and produces luxmiuntly in the valley. I believe that the
exislouce of tho apricot in Manipur has novoi befoio been noticed
by un one ; it is rather strange that it should be found here as it is
unknown elsewhere nearer than tho Tlimalayas; it seems therefore
probable that it was hi ought m former ages from China, when
intercoumc between that counity and Matiipui was froquout. Tlie
ranpberry of Maiiipui glows in both hills aud valley, and is of
three kinds, tva., 3 'ollow, leil, and black Dr. Brown meutious tlie
existence of tho bluckiioity, but J have never seen it, aud thiUK
that he must have mistaheii the black taspbeny fur it.
EXPERIMENTAL FARMING IN MYSORE.
T IIE Secretary of State for India a shoit time back called for
information relative to the steps that had been taken in
parts of India to impart io the agiioultural classes generally the
lessons to bo leaint fiom model or experimental farms. With
roforenco to this, the Chief (^ommijssioner writes tliat in
Mysore ^‘no gonorui slops have hiiheito been taken in the direction
indicated, tho condition of the provmco during tho past two or
three years having foibidden any such measuies. Mr. Harman, the
Bupeutitendent of the Bangalore Farm, has recently been antborized
to rna'.ci tours in the province twice in tho year, oncom tho summer
when t m ragi crops are being sown, and again during the winter
montln when crops are being leaped, in view to his acquiring
praclic.d oxpciience in Iho native Hyslems of agriculture, and
imparting to tho lyots by personal cummunioalion aud by experi¬
ments the b( uefits of deep ploughing, as also the advaniages to
bo gainou ^ly the use of improved seed.'’
Tho Chief Commissioner has also under coiisideratioti a scheme
foi placing one or two plots of land in each distriot under the
charge of a village patol or other suitable ponon, who would
cultivate the Inndiu accoidtiiice with insirUctioim from Mr. Har¬
mon. ‘ By this means, ’ tlie Chief Comuiissloner observes, ‘ it
is hoped that the royis will have an opportunity, which the
location of tho Government Farm at Bangalore does not afford
them of judging of the results to b© obtained by a better system
of farming.’ Since these muaiks were wiitteii, however, it has
been decided to abolish the Bangalore Farm, and to transfer
tbe services of Mr. Harman to the Bombay Piesidency.’' Mr. Har¬
man is now out in the coffe© distiicts with a view to enquiring and
reporting upon the coffee leaf disease, We trust the local Govern¬
ment will be able to see its way to retaining his valuable aervioes
Sn the province.
BNaLlSH Faoix TBBSS IN MA.NIFC1I.
April
1879.
THE INDIAll AGEICtliTTJRlST.
135
SnOABCANE AX BELLAB¥.
A CQBBBSPOHDKNT from Bellary write# to a oootemporary i—•
In many parts the crop of rice has been folly gathered
]ii» and the only standing crop now is sugaroaue, which is very
extensively cultivated on laud lying nnder the different obannols.
In every village one passes by, or tUrougli, jost now, he sees either
the mills at work or being ooustrocted, boiling houses erected—
very temporary ones, of course*—and boiling going on. The work
not only goes on “from morn to dewy eve,” but far into the night,
and is again begun in “ the weo sma’ hours ayont the twall,” Bach
member of the “united," though not always happy, “family” taking
his share or ronnd^f duty.
The mill is a very promatiiro piece of mechanism. It consists of
a pit and a foot-board drmly fixed in the pit with two upright
wooden pillars cut near the top into a male and female soiow. Ono
pillar is stationary and the other is worked with the usual lover
by bullocks. The top of the pillars aro secured hy a collar piece
securely fixed on upright, bedded deep in the ground. The stalkq
of cane are insovted in tho female sorow upon vvliiuh when the mill
revolves is entered by tho thread of tho male screw, and so tlio
juice pressed out. The lever pole is very long, asd tho roar end
being heavily weighted the pillar forms the fulcrnm. The mill is
worked or turned by four, six, or oight bullocks. The refuse of
tbe cane is stored up for manure, as aUo the ashes from (ho
fiirtiaces, where the boiling is oanied out. The leaves pyove good
and fattening fodder for tho cattle.
The produce is from very cnarse jaggery to fairly good sugar,
according to Die degre6 of attention paid in the maMiifacture, some
never attempting to refine at all, but disposing of it iii its rougliest
condition, packed up in bags made of date leaves, for wiiicii tiieie
is a great demand at present. The boiling is carrie'l on, “ as
aforesaid/' in temporary sheds, in non pans from 8 to If} fool, over
and fiom 1 to foot deep. These cost from sixteen W tlurty
rupees each, and do not last very long.
The Bugaicane growth and sugar manufacture is not coniined to
laud lying under tho ohaunols, but is laigely uuitivatod on land
under tho tanks, especially in the valleys whore the soil is good
and the percolation fron\ the hills veiy free. Tlieroisnow such a
biiskncBS displayed by the agnciiUtual classes that a Htrangcr
would never believe (hat tbo distncl had but a f«w months since
escaped from tho throes of a famine. This sugar manufacture will
keep tho people employed until Die next sowing season coinmeiicos
about Apiil iiGxt. Moanwiiiio the chaunois will be clear fioiu
silt, and the various masonry woiks repaired.
THE FIRST EMPLOYMENT OF GUANO.
J N an interesting paper on this subject which has reoenDy apprared
{i;ota the pen of rrofessor Kohl, tbo author takes occasion to point
out that tho employment of guano in ngiicultural operations is by no
^ means of such moderu origin as many of us are disposed to believe.
Ho long ago as Iho twelfth ooutury the Arabian geographer Edresi
railed attention to the existence of ch(F-i covered with iho excrement
of birds in the rersian Qnlf, not far from the famous pearl fisbenes of
the Bahrein Island, and relates huvr this dang was collected and
despatched to Bassora and up the Euphrates to bo used as manure for
the orchards, vineyards, and date-groves ou its banks. Ho, too, Irom
the earliest ages the semuoivilized Peruviana made use of the deposits
of gnatio on their coasts for the improvomout of their husbandry, and
BO well was its value In this respect lecoguixed that ihcir while Iiiobm
decreed severe puniebment for any one killing tho birds that produced
it. According to our author it was Humboldt who first drew the
attention of Europe to the rich deposits of tbeCbincha Islands m the
early part of the present century, but his voice remained long unheeded.
It was not until the year 1840 that a ship-load of guano was despatched
from Peru to England at the risk of (be enterprising firm of Quiros,
Ailiok and Co., of Lima. Experiments were instituted as to its effootn
on wheat, potatoes, and oat crops, on fruit trues and on flowers, with
such wonderfully favourably results ihnt a general demand for (ho new
manure soon arose in England,France, Belgium, and Cermany. Hundreds
of ships set sail for the Ohiiiehim in searoLi of cargoes of guano, and for
many years the Peruvian Guvemmont derived au annual inopme of
16,000,000 dollars from its sile. The depth of the deposits was In
many places a hundred feet, and their total ysIuq was estimated at
£42,000,000 sterling, fiat even this was at lait exhausted, and then
oommenCad the qucit for fresh supplies. England first discovered
thottt oA the Loboa Islands, an 1 on several parts of the Sooth Ami. lean
coasts an far down as Patagonia, a« also on the South African Ulami
of Sohaboe. The dread of nu exhaustion of the known supplies was so
great that forniDiy organised expeduiooa bo all parts of the world were
undertaken in search of furiher deposits. The Bod Sea itself was .
rsnsaeked, and a Bussiau merohanb, esbabluhed at Arohanseh tent out '
an expeditlun (o the polar i^nd overhauled the Hland of Kolgujew,
And las peninsula Sadiu. ifeenwhBe the island groupt of the South
Sea were diligently searched boih by Britiah aud Atuericau, Xu the
Jhumal of the New York Oeogitapbloal Society, for ItoD, It recorded
that up to that time no l 0 M than forty*niae islands and groups of
islands rich in guano deposits ha# been dlaeotered by Amerloau ex¬
plorers, and their latitude and longitude accurately determined, and
some of these that till then hod been uttlnbablted sluce the day of their
creation were suddenly developed Into densely populated eentrei of
untiring industry. In our own OonDnent, too, the search was dilicently
prosecuied, and rewarded by the discovery of rlcJi deposits of bones
coprohtes, and bats' guauo, all of high manurlal value.
VALUE OF WOOD ASHES AS MANURE.
rpllIE experimeutH carried on with bleaohed wood ashes in
A. America continue to be favourably reported on, and to win
more friends every year. They have been nseii for many years by
the farmers and market gardenerfii of Long Island, oiul later by the
same classes in thesoa-coast towns of Oonuocticut, and also on the
tobacco farms further inland. Bleached ashes contain considerable
quantities of potash and phosphorio acid, which have a wonderfully
invigorating influonce upon exhausted soils. The on ion-growers
make large use of ashes, buying them sometiuies by the thousand
bushels. Fruit-giowora are much pleased with Us effect upon the
growth of li'ccM and shrubs, and upon their productiveness. Their
effect is said to bo immediately visible in old pastures and
meadovrs, Ruwn btoadoast as a top-dressing; but they act still more
satisfactorily if applied to the crops at tho time of seeding down.
They not only hu gely iiicreaso tho crop with which tho grass seed
IS sown, hut their infiuonoe is visible for many years afterwards
ill tho iiicroasod yield of grass. A farmor who has used ashes
freely for twenty years upon a hard, worn-out gravel soil says
they will give tin increaso of hay upon a meadow newly stocked
for eight yearn ; and then, if the field be ploughed again, they
will show tho effbet of tho aaiios for eix years lunger* Ho applies
about 100 huHhtOn to the acre, on land tliat he designs to keep in
perinaiieut meadow, and about 75 bushels to pasture land. It is
particulaiy satisfactory as an application to a rye crop, oven in so
hiuaII quntitilieB as 20 buslnds to the acre. Ho has roctauned a large
hroadtii of old fields given up (o tho growth of bushes, briers, and
brakes, and iiiado it a tiiio pastuie by taking rye crop manured
with aalic'B —The Joi^rnal of Forestry awl Fatates ManatjemenU
CIlLOrUDE OF LIME Aft AN INSECTICIDE.
rpHE virturs as n diMiifectanfc of that impure mixture of hjipoohlotlde
A of lime and chloiido of caloium, met with In ooixlmeroe as chloride
of lime, are probably known in every bouflehold, but its value in
{.'aidonirig operations, or in agricultural work on a larger scale, os a
destroyer of vermin, meets with less general recuguitfon. In calling
attention to this Riibjec't, our coo temporary, he CuUioateur, remarks
that if a little of this salt bo spread ou the soil, rats and mice and
insects will at onoe desert it. By its moans plants may easily bs
piotected fioni insect plagues by simply bruslnug over their stems
Aviih a solution of it. It has often been noticed that a patch of land
which has hern trontod m tins way remains religiously respected bw
Q:ruhH, while the unprotected beds round about arc literally devostatedf*
I'tuit (tcos may bo guarded from the attacks of grubs by attaohlug to
I heir trunks pieces of tow Bineored with 0 mixture of chloride of lime
niid hog's lurd, and Hiits and giubs already lu possession will rapidly
va^^ato their posi'ioti. Bmtcifilcs again will avoid all plants whose
louves have been sprioklcd over with lime water.
GARDEN.
M b. JAMIESON, Buperliitcndont of the Gavernmeut Botanical
Gardens, Ootaoaraaud, reports that the cose of strawberry
plants imported by Mr. H. B. Origg, C. S., from Australia were
quite dead on arrival at the Neiigberry Hills. Bach plant was
examined carefully, but not one had the slfgbtest vestige of life
left, bciug ah oompltitaly rotten, Mr, Jumieeoa regrfftg the eatire tom
of what woiihl have been a valuable importation, especially as (be plan(a
hail been packed with the utmost onto and at considerable expense.
Uc suggeats that a colleotioa of Nilglri orobida would bo mnoh
valued in Australia; with the permUsion of Government he will he
glad to make up a case of the rarer varieties to be forwarded to Sir
William McArthur in eousideration of the trouble and expense incurred
in pAckiug and forwanling the strawberry plants.
HaligYlic acid to rrtKSiSHva frui r.—There appears to be no end
to Die long list of valuable propertios with which salicylic acid in
io bo creditod. It cures nearly all the ills that men and livo stook
ai'e hcifs.to, a8 well as nmuy th,at ihoy acquire, and it enables luiilif
aud cream to set ttme and temperaiuie at defiance. The latest
testiilioiiials in its favour relate to jts power v£ preserving Bruit
m
Th« process an h^ U. A. PiiUBi Of S;ioi^termeubi!trg^
ii<»fif i»»xfcr«ittely simple, and ooonutB in laying thtf ffuil
in jars^ o! ayrap contnining a amall percentaga of tho aoid. The
proportion roooni^mondod aro 2 or 3 grammea of salicylic aoid and
100 to 500 grammas of sugar to a litre ot waters No boiling or
rookinjK of any kind i« roquirod. Berries and stone-fruit of all
sorts tbus treated will keep good for moolbs together, or even
years, without the slightest spprosoh to fermentation, even when
the vessels oontainiog them are but ioseeuroly covered, and will
preserve their natural aroma noaltered. Boifkd fniit-juicos will
keep equally well with the addition of one gramme of the acid to
every 2 lbs. of tlie juice, and with eoch addition the coloiu' of the
latter is altered in the cooking. The only precaution needed is to
secure pure orystaUieed acid of the finest kind, for the inferior
varieties impart an unpleasant flavour to the fruit.
AaUIOULTUttAL AND HORTICULTURAL S0CIET7
OF INDIA.
The Annual OenetallMeeUng ?«w IwU en Thursday^ the 27r/«
Ftshrmry 18711 .
The Hon'ble liOms S. JACKsoN^C.r.E.,
in tJte Chair,
rilHE proceedings of the last meeting were real and oontirraod.
A The Keporli from the Council was rood and adopted, q'ho Report onlerM
litsi into the raternat economy of the Siociety, eliewing that arior doducting
for deaths, resignations, and dopartares from the couni,rv, and allowiuE; ff»r
oleoticMM daring 1878, the total real number on tlio booliR h COO, wlm^h
includes,Honorary, Assoeiato, Cotrospondiug. nnJ Life Memimrs. Tlio
linK&cial position is much the same as in 1877. The best acknnwlcdgmentb
oE the flocioty are due to his Honor the LieutenmUHovernor for the con-
tmaonee of tlio monthly grant oE Ra, 200 fot* imotliQr tbr^'O rcaia. Tim
Report then proceeds as follows : -
“ Among the members who have been removod by fLuth durmis 11 »»' y'lar,
Mr. Francis Halsey of Bignnporc m the Punjab, deserves Mpccoil monlion.
He died of typhoid fever m August Usfc at Venico on hm way *o England.
Oonnectod with the Society for lb years, he bad been m frequent ooiumnni-
nation on a vatioly oE useful siibjocis, some or which aie rec ,< I in ilie
Piocecdiiigs. During moro recent years he had turned his attontio*. -peoially
to silk and sugar cuUivatioii in Iho Punjab, whicli promised tu rosjult
liivourabty. Bhoitly bofot'o bis dupartaic from India, lu took tn iclivc pirt
in the exhibition of silk couoima held at Niirpur m Iho Kmv '* district, and
I'urniah&d the Qovotnment with a repoit themon of ooii,n-h ruble interest.
The l^ociely, many years ago, encouraged thie indusi ry wlioii quite in ita
infancy and awarded a modal \jn a native semtudar in tiio .'iiiijn.*, vtiio liid
taken much luctirest in its proinotion. * No iiuonioial gencJcm.io/ vibvnrvos
Uie Secretary to the Qovornmont of tiio Puniab, iti a cojiniiiiiiication lo the
Government of India, Department of Iteveiiuo, Agriculture uud Ooiuinorce,
* bas labored with more interest and success to improve (ho native uidustruM
of the Pmgnb, andbis onlighbenod exertions for tho improveui m of tlie
breed of cattle, the mlrciluctitiu ou new sluplas, the dovelupai ini of Htii;i^r
mannfaoture, the reariug of tho silk^worm, and tho niriinifacl'ire ni ^ .Ic,
have been, op many occasions and m various reporl b-ouglu inlr- thi^
uotioo of tho Govornincut of India.'* On hia luHt visit to (Jdlouuu. m
early part of the year, ho protniscd, as soon as he rAiulJ couilim id tJ>' ueco'i-
sary leisure, to ootitiibute cortum papers Ui tUc lutunul, lUc loiuU of hin
proceedings towards the development of the silk and sio'n i iidu^Li les ot
tho Poiqab, which, had he besn able locoui/.iu ihom, would'i» doubt
have bbvn interosliug and iisoful.
** Tho death of Mr. Hulpiz Kura;, Curator uf the llerbanum of tiie Roval
Botanic Garden, Calcutta, though he was not a niomb'u ot the S icirty,
cannot be omibtod ui this nauual reoord Mr. Kur/, hod on .anous oeou'^i nci
uontribuied papers to tho joaninl, aiiu lipi bitc^'. aad m'Mt valu.ibk' uii the
A/tiWacsi» pubhshod in Tol, V. I'ar*^ o, han been toft uu(]u<di<^d by tun
imtimaly death lu January last at I'.aaiig. whilher he Iml uT'iceedod m Ibo
hope ot restoring bis hoaltlu lii'i botanical icsui,rclu4s in L'.io Malay4.11
Arohipotago, Buruiab, and India luvo been con'llJCia'jU IIh de.Khin
the pnme of life has deprived fcieuoe of nu unn^-^umiui; l^ub most aide it
votary,
** Work has been well lod to during (he pist year in UarJon.
AppUcationS for delivery 01 ers t23J) ha\<' bc-'‘n duly mot. Hciido'.
chose, many sapplcmentary ordv <- t i.vc been issued, a fact wbiuh shews thit
many members have availed thetuLtiive<< of their privile.i;<' of indenting on
tho Garden. Of ornumetitil plants, «,0ih> have beau distributed to member-,
and of economic plants 4,6tu, boaidoe lalss to memliura }.riil gtbera of
fruit graits, and 1,115 orriameulal pW.ts 'Puo d'miml fn ri>.iie plaiitn has
been so great as almost to exhaust the old stock ; imd as tivs cl uh of plants
coiiliDUOS to be so popular, it is proposed to lutr .da. 41 . uoxL year tlarVj a
further stock of uew varietios.
The Council has to express thuif obligalloui lo corn^xi>onilcut$
for donations to tho Garden; among these may he imndmi.ud the
Queeufilaud Aoclimiitisation Boei^y, the Directors of Dotamo (>at 4 easab
Maurititti And SingapoEA, Ahd Mr. T. M. Fraocis; and for - tn Dr.
of the Royal Botwie UaWon, Calcutta, tlic Baton Fr-rdoipi. dnoller
of Molhpuruc aud Mr. H, K, Abbott of Tirbook
'^A fiover show was hst4 in tUn GAr4A»i the first bC in
JnealUjr ^ and though R took place so late in. the jsetoou m the fiud of Haroh
the collection of plants exhibited WM tolerably fidr, and tho attesdaaoo Pit!
visitors, membora and others, was large, The amount feeelved by
of tickle, at one rupee each^ from the latter almoat sndleed to meet '
. ordinary expenses. This was iho first occasion on which a ohArge wa» made
for admittance ; but tho innovation parsed unobserved^, or at least without
objection. Ladies and children wore admitted free.
** Allusion was made iu the last Report to a very importaut subject, namely
blights of various kinds alfeoting the tea plant, and to the efiforte which
the Booiety were making to organise a full inquiry towards its tbosooi^ ^
investigation. Thess efforts have baeu oontinued during the past yiiu^ <
Bcveral Agonta largely inUresbed, wore quite willing to lUppOrt the
proposed scheme, provided others would join. As however tho^ have,
failed to respond the Society have been reluctantly oon^ollod to abandon ^
it albfigeihcr. ^
Tho demand for useful plants and seeds has been uuuiually large duiiug
the past twelve months, and has been responded to the best of tho
Sooiety's ability. Among others may be recorded applioallone lor tea and
tobacco seeds from Rangoon, Arraoiu, and the Andamans; Bamia cotton
seed for the Bangalore Botanio Garden ; seeds of various kinds from tb«
Director, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, N.-W.ProViaoos, tad
from the Minister of Public Works m E^ypt.
Various subjects of interest have been communicalcd and discussOd
daring the year, more especially lu respect to sericulture, flax cultivation
for the sake its fibrl, manures for tea gardens, Arabian date pSlm <iwad
its cultivatirm in India, and tho ntiHzation of certain plants la times of
scarcity, and several oUiors, of which fall particulars have been rooorded in
the monthly Proceedings.
“Two parts,of the Juiirnal, 8 and i of Vol. V. have been published during
the year, and Part 1, of Vol. VI. is now m the Press, aud will probably be
I-sued in the early part of 1872
" «doction of Gfficers and Council was next taken up with the following
ro>i'U —
i‘< esideni —TJie Ilon’hle Jvouia S. Jiclison, C I. E,
Pii mt'/eufs,—Mv W. H. < ogswoll, Mr, W. StalkartL, Rajah Sutlya-
Duiid Ghosal Bahadonr an l BahO'» Kali Prosonno GUose.
S<>rrefnt>y, —Mr. A JI. BlochrnInn.
Baboo Peary CUand Mittra, Mr. E Broughton, Mr, R. Bloohyn-
don. Mr .1, W, O'Koefe, Dr S, l.vnch, Mr, W. W.ifcor/l(»ld, Baboo Protap
Ciiiindcr Ghosn, Mr. J. E. MacLvlilan, Dr <iloo Xing, Dr. J. B. Barry, Mr.
S, ir. PobiiiBjn, and Mr H .T L'itch.
Babi'O Protiip Cliauder Gliosa’s name, wa^ added to the Tobacco Oommittee;
tbn olUi’t Mandmg Cum uittees u ed no stiouglhoniiig, and remain, there¬
for 0 , as 10 18T<)
I'lift following gimt'e nen wero riocled nemhers —
iMcKsrs, T. T. L-xiinrd and W, St Clair ({rant, tho Managers ol the
Lalinchoria fJardc i, Caohar and of (he Paikpuia Eal.alos.
Tile iiamus of tim f.dloivirig gentlemen wore submtUod ns dosirous of
joining the Soi'ody * —
A Wjlsoii, Esq , McreJniit, Cali'aUu,—-proposed by Mr. W. II. Cogswell,
so (irided by l.'io Secret iry.
ved Fiirhir Uulmuiii Mogul para, Patnaproposed by thy Secretary,
'<'1 iinded by Mr, S, H. Robinson.
Mister Markint(>Hh, h-iq., Doovci factory, I'lihoot,•^proposed by Mr. H*
11, Abbott, «i‘rtoinled by Mr. F M Frrwici .
Mr. Sfursing Row, T^^nnudai, Vi/,figapaLarn,~-propo!sPd by Mr.T, H. Mosley
nc'oub'd by tho i^corttarv.
Lcitchlield Mosuley, Esq., , Dooars Toa Company, Julpigoree,*
[rapnned by Mr. J M.i< bill scan, fK^o>Miil<il by Mr, S. Cresswoll.
W. M, Nor'li, Fmi . Propricior, Bogmco 10 Tea Estate, SiUigoroe-»*piO-
l>ci«ed by Mr. Cre'i'^woll, rtoooti bnl Ij> the SuciOLai y
|», G. Carew, Khq,, AnjisUiit Manager, Dim-Diin Garden, .Tulpigooreet*-**
pr..p - 'd bv Mr, Crs'SBwcll, socondoJ by tho Sociciaiy.
Pii; ( Miihoined Fnrrock Slnh Jtu^iafiipugbi,—propofol by the Secretary*
aocom d b}^ Mr J. f'l,MiicLaclilau.
Man ;«'i, iimplann Hill Es(.fi‘erf, Soob.saugof, AsRam, proposed by the
ilun'bb A 11 Toglis, necoiided by tho S“Ciotary,
Babo.' Karinilra Narain Roy, Zemindar, Jemooah Kanlhi, Moorsbc-
dabad,— [Jiopufod by Dr <» King, rfcc-indi d by Mr. J. B. MauLiChUu.
R^jnii >( —'toii’ble If. T, Pr nsep, CilcutU ; Capt. J, P. Pogson. iSimla;
TToward li.*win, E«q , G. E , Miduaporj ; VV, C. Tresham, Esi„ Gitwupore,
and E, A, Tliiitbufn, Bhj , Calcutta.
Gaudisn' .
Tim Head U i.dvner a icporL wm subuiittod, of which Ibe followmg ar*
citiaotn 1—
Tho work since laBt rcpoit has boon of a raisoellaneons character^ the
.goucral tidying np of the garden gromiijs occupying a cousiderablc shore
of our attention, Propagation and p<^t» big of vadous plants still continue.
Ju laokiug over the coutnbnimus roado to Uic gardnn, I find that Gte
violets sent to u« by Mr, T. M. Francis of Tirlioot are looking very healthy^
The seeds of Bhghia Saiiidu scat from Cawuporo farm were somewhat
imiuatute,' and though they germinated, tho aoedhngs were weak and died
off iu tho course of u few days. I have uoti> od from the trees iu our girded
that tho Jmltnearly always falls to the ground iHsfore attaining ^the. si«e'
it ought to 'aitavu, the fruit is exceedingly pretty,imd should tw ci^ NX u
Yf'getabloi whilst small aud Undet; its specific name is tkell de(iifilrve4,
THE INDW AHRICtJlTHRIST,
f , 1^1 ‘^'1''nitT g:a m L ,ii.''i»-.M'i .. . <,..1
m
ba^ Sn wriit itw
oiMiL sanv^M^i tbiHM()i they Aaft been town iLaoefHth Augeet 1B78. I
tioUi!e«Waiefl«w0r gbritera^^^ Yerbtha mA* liave
Ktra^iwiiet v||r«totMdyilteir having lain in the Rurden aeU eiiiee )a#tiptia«t;
J Mpeottbia jf t^ftringtelheir eaoiailenfroin the Ait i thia thrbwe tome
light tn the pfeeWfatiQtt of aMd packed in the eafth £ftr impett the wao
garden hae bean itnertaned up, but many plaote banag died a long time
ago» eanaea it to aheir too meoh aoU in proportion to fiow 0 f$* It would
be an Improreraent to re»introduce the aatne diteot from England. If
we re<iaport tbeae roaea, we might get wew new bind* airo,—a few
eBlediume{i o»toDSi dwarf habit palma, do,, and aleo Liberkn coffee
aeedfiegn in large quantity. A portion of the garden might be act apart
for their ettlttmtion, af thia coffee ie eagerly looked for by membera and
otberainteNatedhiiiaintrodnetiononalarfreaoaleiato Indie. Weahould,
Itbink,take aamuebintereit in its introdnetlon aa prirate partiea, who,
thongbwlUIng to order for tbemaelvee, have not the earao fecilltiea of
Qommunioatlon aa we mnit of neeeiaity have from our long experience.
We hate only a few planla in the garden, and what few aeeda they give,
prcdnea planta after an citpemely long interval—the aupply being quite
inadequate to the demand. Plant honaea are being cleaned ant] regulated
and general preparation! are being made for the protection of plarifa during
the eoming glare of the hot weather.*'
Tobacco.
Mean a report trora Itfeiaia. Anderaon, WngUt k Co. on aomo tobaooo
submitted by Mr. O’Conor of the Department of Keveuue, AarrionUnre. and
..Mtft.wnuub iir;wuk*ivttug In Arraoaa«IIill Tracts,
and eared at the Government tobaoeo farm at that place by Mr. Sohoene*
mann, tha Superintendent. The tobacoo is oonaidered a good article, not
nnllke what la known in Calontta aa Hinghlee and which ta tnaoh appreciated
by the Ooria buyera. For export in the present state of prices in Eujope it
would be but of little value.
Cotton.
Bead the following report from Mr. W, H. Cogswell on certain speotment
of cotton (New Orleans, Upland Egyptian, Bamia, Naukin, Hingunghat)
raised in the Sahamnpore Botanic Garden, and forwarded by Mr. Dutbie,
the Superintendent 7"*'* I have very carefully examined the aamplea of
Cotton grown at Seharunpore notauical Gm-den, which I consider most
eredltable. 1 should have been hotter able to give more of a detailed report
hod some of the cotton been removed from the bolia giunpd m the uaual
way and tha seed removed. 1 place opposite the names of the samples the
clasaiffoationa, as 1 think the t'ade would acv^cpt them in England, on the
assumption that they had been gg:>wn in the countries from which the seeds
has been imported and not in the garden above-named, aa I am of opinion
tliat the quality is very little, if any, inferior to those descriptions grown on
their own soils."
Bead another report from Mr. Cogswell, on some cotton raised in the
Meerut District, by Emtar Ali Khan, a Zemindar, from seed brought from
Mecca, and of which a SinAll samplo was previously received, too small to
report on. '* This sample as now seen in quantity," observes Mr, Cogswell,
4113 at all like the small sample sent to you in a letter, it is very red,
most irregnlar in staple, the bulk of it being almost worthless, here and there
portions of staple equal in length and character to lUngoon j anything
but a desirable article of ooramorce, and probably not worth mote than
Bs B to Ri. 8 a maund, as against Kingoon at Rs. 14 to Ra. 15. From its very
mixed quality and condition, I think it has been badly prepared, and that
more might be mode out of the seed under a careful cultivation, picking
and ginning. Caocomi.x Oil,
Bead the following report from Dr. Kanny Lall Doy, on a samplo of
Crocodile oil received from Mr. Puroell of Agra, Mr. Purcell intimates that
if of any commercial velne, he oonU obtain a large quantity of this oil.
** I submitted to comparative examination the Crocodile oil with other
animal oils, with the following result J—
** Crocodile oil contains a larger proportion of solid fat than either the
NeatS<loot or Codliver or other fish oils. Tt solidifies at the molting point
of ice, while Neats-foot only slightly thiokens, and the others scarcely
thicken. 1 have also tried the softening quality of the various animal oils
on leather, and on comparison I find the leather treated with Crocodile oil
remoine meoh etifler than others treated with other animal oils.
From the above resnlta 1 do not consider that Ccooodile oil has as much
commercial volne as Neats-foot oiL"
Lac on Tea Bubhks.
A* B» Mackintosh A Co. sent some cuttings from tea bushes at
Inaeiepore Garden. Kurseong. The Manager thought buehea wore being
covered with loo, but this seeming doubtful, they oak for a report thereon*
The Secretary stated that he bad refenod these iufeoted twigs to Mr.
Cogswell who had obligingly reported on them
^ I hate examined the smell twigs of the tea bath which beer a deposi t
nndfov which yon seek a name. It ie most difficult to do so. It is an
unmistekuble resin and 1 am half Inolined to think that it la the deposit
the Ipe insect, kennes lecce or • Coccus, locons' It contains dye or slight
coloring matter in a verp unalt extent only, at the enclosed test I have made
will show, koweve:?, may he attributable to the fisot that the insect bed
only initdepoKited th^«A|ga Which hod not time to mature'when the
* Mimi^m«BdiotitlMiitkiN/esBttksri{Nrtq^ti^the^ li&tto
BOifibA ^ expvliBeat not to the
acoompenying ones. A close inepectiort qf the two win show you that the
differenco is in the Utter sample hkVlbf the deposlbi of a greyish while
oolor and muoh lese matured than the fo|Oier«
*’ 1 am sorry that the deposit is not mote metered, that feet renders thie
cpiuion Bomqwiiat uncertain.
, Kvw wonn or MutTirnmo f&antb.
Bead the following letter from Ur. T. M* Fronds, in oentitiuation of hie
previous oommauioatiou eubmitted at the Oeaeral Meeting in l^otemher
last,
" With reference to my letter, desetiblng the American process of
strikinq cuttings of hard-a4M>ded planie by burying them upside down I
have now the pleasure to report on an experimeut which 1 have made.
On the 19th December 1878 I buried 20 bundles of outtiuge, taken from
the prunings of my rose trees. The* roles so treated were (ivUr alut^
Alba Boia, Beauty of Waltham, Deull do Prince Albert, General
Jacqueminot, John Hopper, Jaune D’Or, La France Mareobal Kiel, M.
Kavil, Ume. Charles Verdier, Mme. Laffiiy, Murrillo, Prince Camille de
Bohan, Brine des Violets, Bolfaterro, and fionvenir de Wm. Wood. X only
put down a few cuttings of Aleroohal Kiel and Solfaterre as I was doubtful
whether they would sucooed,
" On the Stii February 1879, 1 disiuterrod the outtinga by turning the
box which contained them npiide down, (1 must premise that the box had
beea l«fi duiitig Uie nbuvo period exposed to the Sun, the earth being
moderatoly watered every morniui^aad covered with or mat every
evening.) As oaoh bundle of cuttings was taken out, I put its lower oud
into a pail of water in which the cuttiugs were carried to a Spare bit of land
which I had previously enriched with ftoonoe, i, e, well rotted indigo refuse.
Here the cnUiiigs were sorted and planted ont at intervals of six inohia.
Those which were deader had failed to form a callni, wore pat aside in a
basket. When the planting out was fiaished all the cuttings were carefully
counted. The result is as follows ;—
Cuttings origiutiHy buried
.437
Failures
... 107
Callus formed on
... 850
'* This may, 1 think, bo regarded na a snccesii, and the results would Itavo
been still better, but for a tamo mongooao of mine wbioU scratobed away
the eaitli from the cuUinga on three severoi occasionj, thus exposing the
lower ends, which were of course uppermost.
" Every callus was well formed, and m most oases the leaf buds w«iw
Well developed and ready to start. In some cases they hod oetually started
and were pushing towards the light, so that they were obliged to leverse
their natural growth,
*'In many oases T found that a callus had tormed at each end of the
cutting, t selected six of these for a furtlier experiment and out them in
halves, planting the lower ords m the plot of ground which I bad preparad
and putting the npper ends into fiower-pots with good sod, I will let you
know the rosult of this experiment. If it sucoeods, 1 can oleim the credit
of ruisiug plants from ciittixigs plantei upside down, I sbsli be gUd to
know if this has been done before. My horlicultnral library is limited, but
I caimol Kind m it any oocoiiut of this reversal of the laws of Nature, baring
proved successful m its results. The six cuttings, thus treated, are of ooiirse
distinct from the 339 on which a callus had formed; and if they lake, I may
claim a further siicctiss
Uencedorih I shall always nse the American process for hard-wooded
cutliugs, and I trust that my success will induce many other Members of
the booioty to give this process a trial.
’'About half the cuttings of Marechal Niel and Solfaterre quoceeded well,
T rejected all doubtful outtiuge in order to give a fair repoit."
Letteie were read
From F. Moore, Esq., India Miifeum, Loudon, roapeoting some diseased
tea leaves (red spider) from the Tukvar Tea Co. Gardens, Darjeeling—
(5ee pTOCoediogs for Septembei, last.)" These tea leaves, ** remarks Mr.
Moore," are infested with a species of ooccus, which is apparently, quite
new both as to its attacking tea and in regard to its spemes, so far as I have
boon able at presont to determine. In the small perforated tin box which
was also duty received, and lu which you mention was an iusect from the
Coisipore Tea Garden m Caohar, which was found by Mr. Edgar on a
partially eaten tea leaf, X could fiad no vesting of an insect. This doubtless
escaped through the peiforations during transit. J much want to
good spooimons of the Psyche or case-boaring insects which is stated to
attaok teaplaiiis. Will you kindly send me speolaiens, if possible, of both
the oases and the moths ; the latter particularly'. "
JProm Colonel W. H. Lowther, Benares,—presenting a paper on Capsicum
and Chilliea (Transleried for Jouinal).
From E. Buck, Esq., Director, Department of Agriculture, North-West
rtovinces, forwarding reports of trivia of the Prickly Oomfrey at Bahama
pore and Kuiaiion, Tiansferred for Journal.)
Mr. Lynaiu sent for inspection a well grown plant, iu flower, of Oncidxwn
{sphacelatum majus ?)
Air. Mauukjee Bustomjee, alto sent for inspection, an unusually Isrge
specimen of a native pumpkin or bottle gourd—native name Luoo {Cucurhtta
Litgenana^) This pumpkin measures 4 feet 9 inches in length.
Baboo Protapa Chandra Ghose placed on the table specimens of tobacco,
san-cutedi fire-onred And att-cured, and cigars xftade therefrom, which ha
onniidstedthikeBthe had seen. This tobacco was raised and prepared at
Mfssxs. Btg£, Dnilop, A Co,'s plantstion a Pooss,
r it.iiwM ft *i» </■«* —
ScjiRM, Dr. S«U«ffr Itwr^ ®* ““I? tiw'wfciA m
(WfjMtlf |iro«( kitkiatt ill# Tarwilo 0MI|1Ni ^ ^Ubww ol .
wfltit. ThSiaa fra th« Pklmalto, Olutiawfa, Paln^tlo;|,>in4.
Aaitraliwi Bacalyptua roitrata. The Tando wilt atlaak tha wood
of Borntypto* ‘"‘"P other ipaoiei,
A Gust TABiBa>--A patrUrdi ot tlm fomt hM bean lat«ly felled
la CJalilerojaf iVa gteiter poHIpn of the wood taken to Ban
f ranelfOo., It waa known by the epithet of “ Old Moaea.” , If one
might ^Hh aeenraoy ite age from the number of its nnge,
it rauet have been 4,840 yeara old. Its capacity ie aaid to hare
been mo groat<that aSOO pereone could Hod room within iletronk.
FavXK TBgss.'-*Chra X>. Van tennep, Swediah Consul at Mahaeik,
near Smyrna, writea aa follows to Die TVmea;—The cuftivation of
the willow la recommended by one of your oorr«»potid*x)t« £or
diatriete affepted with malaria* His statements on the subjeo^
being fully borne oat by my own experience in the well known
malaria regions about Epbeaus^ I beg, throagh your oolumns, to
oali thereto the attention of the authorities in Oypras. Before the
Eucalyptus was ever hoard of in Asia Minor, £ bad aoen the bark
of the willow used as a febrifuge.
It has been anuonnoed that ibe following gentlemen have been
•elected by the Secretary of State for India from the oaudidatee
who presented themsehea for picliminary examination in
November, to undergo the usual oourae of training in a French
Forest School, to qualify them for appointments in the Indian
Forest; Department -.•‘^MesarB. F. S. Barker, 0. £. Braaier, £. S.
Carr, M. H. Cliifoid, J. H, Lace, and J. Bawbone. It is said that
both as regaids the number and attaiomenta of the competitors,
there was an advance on previous years. There were iibont forty
applioauts, for the five appoiutmeuU which were adveiDSed, and
six nominations were made.
Fobicst PBpDOCTS OF CHINA.—The nort hero provinces of China
are very little wooded, with the exception of Sh'engking, which
stili posaeases forests of oak, oornprising about three variotiee—
Qurous ohcvatOf Q. MongoUea^ and Q. CaatanecB/oUa^ and also Finns
tlnensis. The last tree is found nearly all over China. The first do
not e^tsi in the north, but in desueuding southward we meet at
Niugpo Cunning Z.awia.ammm, and Abies kaaupferi We find
abundantly grown at Sliaiituug, the Faulownia imperials, and
Catalpa bungeana. The Cypress and the Thuja orimtalU are
grown as shade trees iu the oeuioteries and seivo to make coEfins.
Lower down are found lihus cotinus, and /f« set»iiataMy the lihug
nemicm, which furnish the famous lacquer or varnish of China, and
the Elaeooocca, the Boeds of whicii yield an oil. The poplars are
cbiefi, found to the north of the Yuiigtzti, whore there are foUf
jpecies—Populus tagang^ l\ penmii^ P. eoriaoea, UTid acuUf ;
their light wood is employed lii the constractioii of juuks. In tbs
central provinces, besides the oiUtieo JSlaeococca o«micia, we also
find the tallow tree, i^'tillngia ubffera and Die vegetable Wax-
trees, P7 i«b 8wrceda««n,/i»y««^r«»*p?obrwn, and L. japomeum, fu
the neighbouthood of 8bungha*,tiooobow, and Kiangsu large plarita-
tioDs of mulberries Morns ul6a; are met with, the leaves of which
nourish the silkworms. Fuither still we find the paper mulberry
Froussonetia papyri/sra. The pods of OlMchiu stusnsis furnish
a native soap. The wood of Afsmiti madirachta are employe } at
^nton for cabinet woi k That of Laurus camphora^ which is found
in Southern China, and espooiaily in Formosa, farnishes by
distillation the camplior of ” imuerce, and is also employed to make
boxes to keep clothes autt furs hi, as its odouris Obrioxioue to
inseots. The Cassia lignSa of Kwanglung and Kwengso, fnrnisbes
li bark somewhat sitnilar tooinnanion, wbiuh is much employed in
CUiuesecookeiy. These two proMtices, as well S'! Yunnan, and
the islands of Hniuau and Po«moHft, hH>e the bread-fruit tree
i^rfocarpui incma, the aieca-nut, cocoaunt, and other palm tfSes,
the wood and leaves of which are inui.li rtu>plo>aa m building,
for making fans, &o. ( Aanmi^rcpi djrcelan Hud C'. Fortunei proibme
a soft of fibrous thread, Employed in making cordage, biuslice, ^c.
Of the plantain there are in Formosa more than t worny varieties
and ontle 'ooaets of tliatoslaiid and ot Bam^u, we meet the
pandanusjthe mangos, the banyan fig, the F*icu« repen$j and '
tropical treeii.
aM»Miii)(««tiqa rtnlwd.':^
P«r^r«,b 4IJ) H**!*!* W*,4,
trees has beeox hfought to g^est peffeelM Ja'Beotian^, y0q4. i|
understood in msny parti ot Bnf)#^,, bi»t fevestry in pi^at we
are Informed [a ssvisg clause],cistUaiitedJOempilJoaJ skill in certahe
operations which succeed wcB under oertaln oonditlcos ol sell and
climate. Xtiere Is no system and no cclsnoe of forestry^In.Grea^
and the forest estates being with fewexoepUc&a private propetljt avklM
mooh smaller then the State forests ol Franco amd ^ntaanyv ike eMwt
educated in tbs forests of Great Britain ooold only under;t|ie' «n6||t
favourable circUmatanoea learn ocMaib cperWticns^ the suacesH of Wkla^'
[nitf] based eutfrely on empiri6a] knowledge, and the advaafnge of this
sort of knowledge In India weald be fusignifioknl'.'' 'This Isa severe
reproach to British forestry, Accordthg to the ludien Forest
ment we'depend entirely on ebanoe for success. That forestry In Great
Britain has no more claim on the ecience of arboriculture than is
tvgaiaied by io)i and climate, anil that onr science and practice
of forestry is limited to the planting of larch and oithef
trees. It most be admitted that we have not etoOiedHniB iolepce 6f
forestry ne maek m «e oqght to have donb, bnt It is a libel to State tWt
our arboricuUnral knowledge is purety vuiprriuiW > «•
well posted op on the physiology of plants, who ere quite as able
treet on plent pathology empirioaiiy and mechanically as can be fpond,
anywhere else. Talking of what the etndents learn at Nancy, we heve
U stated in para. 20 of above oommonioaticn that **'they learn it is
poMible to protect end menage State forests efflolently thoagh they are
not fenced. They become familiar with the natural regeoefatlon Ot
foreiti [this is stated to be of paramount importance to India], and
fi«ey learn to understand and to respect the management of extcniiye.
foresm according to a regular detailed plan of opetaiioDS." Bvery
Hitelligent forester will concur with me wheal term this a mere course
of elementary training, and in principle it ia thoroughly otaderitocd
ameng British foresters. Again, we have on the authority or Dr.ficbiteh,
the Oonservarof of forests of India, ibaf “ the training necesesvy eannot
be learned nnywbeire elee out of ladio.'*^ At the same time he admitn .
that •* the twoyeere* training at Nancy gives young men saoh an iusight .
into the principles of forestry that they are at once able to bp usefcl in
ludia, and they come prepared, to acquire in a short time mere practical ^
knowledge^** The bare fact that titter two years* training in a school d*
forestry young men have only got an insight into the pVieciplet wl ■
loresiry will 1 should think, stagger some of your oorrespondems who
are oiamoaring for a British School of Foreotty. No. the time has not
come for that yet, but if the SoutHsh Arborioaltural Society would
inaugurate competitive examiuatiops, makiug it abeulutely necessary
that a certalu standard of proficiency in the elements of geology, botany,
chemistry, and mineralogy, must in every instance bS attained by pupils
having a praettoai knowtedge of all the various duties connected with
estate managemeui, the Secretary of State for India could Jheu have
difficulty in selecting hfs annual complement of five young tqeu well
qualified to proceed to India. 1 bold that the science of forestry Is iu
every country and clime identical, although its application slightly varies
under different Ciroamstances. A British forester trained from hoylmod
acquires a thorough praotioal knowledge Of the euItur* and manage*
ment bf trees, their adapation to soil, their phyeioIogUsd properties
rheir habits, growth, and their relative value , uor dpe# the soopaol bii
experience end here ,* even though we have men at the pres^n^ day
arguing that youug foresters ought not to trouble tbeif heads with ^
any thing outside the planting of trees, he is taught to lay out and Soper*
intend various Works besides those solely furestal. Although having
stated this muoh, I am not to be taken up as recommending young men
to be kept as mere drtidges, as 1 regret to say they muet feelthCmselvee ' <
according to our oresent eystem, spending years of their time leamtog
not a soienas, but a mechawleal artt 1 t herefore repeat whatl stated, in
a former letter, that by the boottish Arborioaltural liooioty Issuing ah
exhaustive oode of Instroctious, and iustituting annual SXamiklsDohf,
the same will act like an ’'open Miame'* to India.
D. SYM SCOTT, ’
Bullinaconrto, Tipperary.
TiiE EFFECT OF COAL TAB PS.QCICKLIWK OS "
UNDERGBOUND .
iFrom the Brasil and Rivor Flats Jfhr7, Dsc, 7).
A t the Ffwmwollgate Colliery, sothe time an exj^rliaeiifi
was made to ascertain the Oompafative filFeServfhlf powWr<of ' ^
coal tar and qulok^lime upon the, underground tithier^ ah'oom|par4d*
with each other, and with unprepared timber. On Bepleifil^r '
1849, three larch tramway sleepers, each three feet; long, twn jmd^
a quarter inclme thick, and fi ve inckee wide, were i^tpA and ^
placed in the air course of the.Hutton Asam^ No. 1 tdeenei; wm ‘
prepared by receiving iwo, coats p| ooal tar. No* BwM iiiW
unprepared or natural state. .The toe sleepere were hhpbortW/
at their pqdf ^7 pdto.of bfiqks^ and weighted ifi '
with fiftyi^ pounds qf ihetat' Oii Jauukry 6 W
n d sleeper wks fbund brokefi knd duite'dlody^.^^^’
fouqd-iwiia "•M'* !>
0i
NS; S, or ^be ^fred Mkt^ tmt ll^« iod «
lolf m. t|Or tU limod BiB«|Mr* «t}d
^Mtlojii tut $44 yoaro beyond tbo tmpMporod pclo, Irbilo the white
yMbOd olebper oottlved the temo fo^ fire ydOTi, and tb# tarred one
far 210 yoore.
TBE FLOBIBA ALLIGATOR TBEE.
noeeo tfi JStmlyptu$ fflohulv and of other Euealyph are
out of joint I It has been discovered that the Florida
Alligator Tree will not only destroy molana, but that branches or
even twige^ if kept in the rooms of our dwellings, will prevent all
aorta of diseaaes whatsoever. No wonder, then, that of late
huoftredbi in fact tboasands^ of happy men, and ladies, and children
rnight have been seen passing to and fro the streets of gieat New
York with a branch of the Alligator Ties in their bends. To
almost every street bundles of these have been ofiered for sale at
five or ten cents fr>r each branch-^** take your pick.'* " The great
Alligator Trep of Florida. It will care anything, Sii You have
only to put one of these branches in your room. It will exude a
sweet, balsamic odour which purifies the atmosphere and bids
defiance to disease 1”
In the moiit delightful woods of bill or valley of tlie Noitherii
States running weetweid to Illinois and southwaid may be toiiiid
the Sweet Gum. Its leaves are like (hose of the Maple, except
that in the aiitiiinii they change to a deep purple, sbmetiuies
beautifully mixed with orange. When bruised, the leaves emit an
aiomatio odour at all times , but in thespnng, |U8l after they are
unfolded, and especially after a showei, the air is redolent "with
their refroehuig odour.” The gay grey bark, especially upon later
growth, IS curious for its < orky ndgss that soraetiines form oor>
nigated plates an inch in width Its botanical name is Liqnidambar
Styraoiflua. Milhous of trees may be found within fifteen miles
of New Jersey. Dut how could out city people be expected to
know that t When thry go to the woods they are too ouiaptured
over eveiythiDg to notice anything in partioulai I
When, therefore, twlKS of Liquidambar Styraciflua are ofiered to
them iu the stieets of Now York as the Florida Alligator Tree, and
they aie assured of their wbuderful powers, is it not quite natural
that they should buy a twig or so for ten oente each and hasten
oil to their homes with a lighter step? American Fapet.
AUSTBALTAN TBKE8 IN CEYLON.
W E aie much indebted to a corresponrlent whowiites on
the altitude at which blue gums may bo expected to
grow, but the latitude ot Poitugal must be taken into aocoanfc,
and there is cold to CDnutor>balance the exceptional heat notaod.
In But ope the Eucalyptaa grows at sea level, and it is Lost whuh
hsa to be guarded against and not heat In India the blue gum
will not fiourieh on the plains, e\en no fai noith as Lucknow.
Here, m Ceylon, weliave novel seen the blue gum giuwmg undei
3,000 foot, though we have seen it llourielimg on Horton Plains at
7,000. There is one of the moet beautiful and most valuable of
the Auslralian trees, liowevei, which wi4l ultimately be one of the
most valuable additions to our seeneiy and our timber resources
We refer to Ormltea robUsta, spocimeus of whioh are pietty
oommon in Oolombo-*notably at Mr. Cecil Fordiuaud's house, in
the Cinnamon Gardens, and which are readily reoogntred by tlioir
exquisitely beautiful fern-hke foliage Tlie Grevdlsa will not
■taiid the full force of the eoa breeze like the camannas, but will
grow close to the eea if eheltered. Theio is a tree lu front of Villa
Sorento, on the Kollupitiya load, which proves this. Tiavellers by
railway will notice a handsome group of Otcvilleas opposite the
Peradeniya railway station When up country at the end of last
year we round Gisvi/feos which had been planted at a bungalow in
Upper Dimbula in June 187d, tlirowiug out iich tutui of deep
oiange^ooloiued bloasoins, and we suppose seed has followed
From considerably older trees at Mount Vernon bungalow, selt-
sown seedlings had been obtained, and the Peradeuiya trees were
shewing blossom and seed. The GrevUltai are seeding ui many
other uTsoee, so that now there le the piospeclof a plentiful supply
Af locally produced seed of a tiee which ie superior to iho blue
gulp for purposes of ornament and use. It is a ospitsl break wind,
and thd timber fe highly valued in AnstraiU. The reasons why the
blue gniQ {Biuec^piuM fflobulm) is so general a favouiite aie the
the needs genninate freely and the trees grow eo rapidly. But the
trees are liable to be blown down or btoken, much more so than
the GfSoBfea, wbleU we have jseen at 4,700 feet altitude, hocoimug
a fine well-^owq treb^ {troduelug bloesomaod seed at a httle over
fivey ears old* iVgvObei both blue and red are valuable, but
qther Anatifeea from other countries should not be
ueglWted.^ The timd te ,^a|>idk approMhinof, we euppose, when
AVSSUBS otr nistatoT ROAuek
trees of the best
11^ B. dnAS. 8L NOBLE writes to a contemporary .**-1 have
recently seen the great suoetes that has attended a aimple
measoie adopted eleven years ago by a former deputy cOinmMcuer
in the Unao district, a measure by wbiCb the district roads thero
have, to a largei extent than 1 have as yel seen elsewhere
in Oudh, been piovided with well grown avenues of mango
and mahua trees. ^The trees too a»e lemarkable fof their straight,
vigorone growth (a feature rarely seen in avenues planted and
reared by Goveimonl offloials), showing how peifectly they have
been preset ved fiom iiijniy by cattle. The plan that secured this
desirable result wee as follows ^-Zemiudare and cultivators were
invited to plant tieea upon the roadsides, and wereassorcid that
Government would m no way interfere with the plsnteps right of
property in the trees Many pereons accepted the imitation, and,
os 1 have already described, their labour and oaro has worked, end
IS woikmg, a gieat public good. Trees, as they giow to suaturity,
make the sou on whioh they grow unfit for other oiops, and, for
this reason /einindars do not enconiage tlieir tyols iq planting trees
in khets that border Government roads. I make the following
suggestions, wliicli, if adopted, might perhaps induce many cnlti-
vAtors to plant useful fruit beat mg tiees on sides of Government
roads. Teuinldars end mauageis ot Courts of Watds' entates should
moke it known in those villages that lie noai district ibads 1 —
That pennission will bo given to plant trees ‘‘within” the load
boundary, at adistanoe not oxcoodiug A feet fiom the edge of the
road 2 —•Thai “ sauadn,” signed and sealed by the deputy com-*
miBBioner, will bo given to oach person who wishes to plant,
specifying the number of trees to plant which permission is given,
and the particulsi bounds within which (hey are to be planted.
.3 ^That a legistei of such "sauads' will be kept tahsilwer,
pergauawsr and inou/abwai at sudder, and at each tahsil, in which
legistei ail ohauges of proprietorship in the trees will be noted as
they occur 4 —riisUho trees to be planted will be limited to(1 )
mango, (U ) tamarind (Ifl ) mahna, (IV) jamuri, (V) ktttbal oi
jack teuit. The term ot sanad mi|,ht be as lollowH —•
BaNAU.
Ramdiu, age 30, J\urini, icsidontof Pirpiir, son of ECalidin, is
hereby given permission to plant %H trees within the liinUs of the
Government road loading Irom Ltae Bn eh to Garbaklishganj. The
Bite for the treus is as follows - On the east side of t he road 14
tiees fioiii Khasra No 107 lo Ithasra No 190 of MottVah Pirpur,
On the west mde of Mio load 14 trees Irom Kliasi a No. 209 to
Khasra No 237 of the same mou/ah. The trees are to be platiiod
not inoie than 3 feet within the extreme edge of the road, and tho
thalas ate to bn yaids apart from each other. The trees are to
be mango, tamariud, mahua, latnun or kathal(i(ick /ruit). All the
fruit and income fiom the frees wiH be the absolute oioperty of
Itanidin Baindiu shall not at .niy timeout down or lop the trees
without 6iAt obtaining tho peinussion of the deputy commissioner.
Kanidiu sliall hn\ o the power to sell or mortgage his title and
iiiteii'Hl tu the titos and he shall notify the fact to the deputy
oommiHsioriei withiu 15 days of sale. Should Govoratueni have
to lop boughs, or to out down atiee altliogether, the value of the
wood, aftei d(dit<tiDg losi of oiiUmg will be Lauded to Uamdin.
Some impioiomeiits on this scheme may suggest ihemsetvss to
dinriict ofiioeiA, bill such as if is, I send it (o yon with a request
that jnu will kiudly pnblish it in yom paper pro ^ono puUtco.
lilanters*
TEA.
A COKODING toretuinsprrsenied to tho Government of Iiidiui
there were in 1876 77, m the Madras Presidency, forty-
four tea estates at an aveiago elevation of from 3,500 to 6,000 feet,
Iho acreage “ under mature plants,” was 1,514 , " under immefuro
4 >lants,” 1,628. In addition to this aiea, 2,341 acres have been
taken up for planting, but have not yet been planted, in the
whole ot India m 1870 77, there were about 130,OOB acres under
matuie plant
Tas Indian Jea GcatHU intoimed its leadeis somo time agd
that “ a noticeable feature in relation fo the tea industry iu
Osyion is tlm formation of a central manufactory in Oolombci
for tea from estates iu the Island The loaf is sent down
withered, and is then manipulated. The experiment is only fo
be regarded as a aaCo one it the withered leaf tan be delivered
in reasonable time.” Fiona enquiiles we have made m Ceylon
we find that this iiiforwatiou is not oorrect. The leaf n
maanfaotured at the estates and sent down to Colombo where there
140 ■ TtiE April 1879.
is m «»t8ibli«bm«Rl for hulkinff too, oimilor to mUbliohnteoto
«t tho i^Hoolplo oxport %t«tiOiifl of Chiaa The control
uiaaafoctorjr in Oobmbo 10 « bolkiog house.
la* 10 not «t all improbable that tea will before long be
exported in a conpreeaod state. Macbioerjr of a veiy in-
lereeting kiudi is in operation at the factory of Messrs.
Qonndry and Co,^ in Upper Tliames-stxeet, Imudon, for tbs
purpose of compressing tea into that *8olid form which has
been found to be the most convenient for stowage, and in
many respecis advantageous to oonenmers. Of lare, to8ti>
inooy has been borne by high authorities to the important
benefits which are to be derived from the system of crashing tea
in 80 forcible a uianner as to preserve all ita qualities, while
greatly diminishing ita bulk. Tlie tea before being pressed is put
up in quarter«pound parcels, and each machine employed in this
work torus out 0,000 paokagAS, or one ton per diem; and a
piesanre of no less than 40,000 tons is brought tn bear on every
140 Iba of tea. Hydraulic machinery of compound power, which
is obtained by a patented appliance, enables ti>iy pressure to be
exerted within a very short lime, and the rapidity of the prooese
lA one of the great advantages possesBed by this Oompauv as
a defence against imitation. In tlio presence of a few oonnoiBseurs
and experienced tea-tasiers, a trial was made of the Goundry
compressed tea against tlie same leaf as that from which it is
forrned—with tlm reanlU that a portion of the tablet, weighed
against tea in a loose state, was found to yield a liquor of much
deeper colour and strength. At the same tiriio nu infusion v\'as
made from Ioobo tea, 60 per cent, of weight being added ; and
tide was about equal to the yield of compressed tea, whicli was
but two-tbirds the quantity. Thou a second draw was ti led ; and
though it might have been expected that au exhaustion of the
crush^ tablet lind followed on the first brew, such was by no
means tlie case, the relative results being the same on repetition.
As to ilavoiir, it appeared as if the process of compiession,
which had so reinaikably changed the colour of the tea from
deep black to an Autumnal green, had likewise restored the leaf
itBolf by the fracture and blending of all the internal particles to
that virgin freshiioss of uroina wiiich is agreeable to all tastes.
Tub fifth annual report of the Pliumix Tea Conq* oy of Cachar
Limited, has been submitted to the shareholders, and we observe
therefrom that the year has been faiily Buccessful.
Had severe bliglit not attacked the garden ^;'>nera11y, and a
hailatorm not devastated the second division (Appin) in early
spring, ibo outturn would have been considerably exceeded, aud the
profits proportionately enhanced.
Oarefal inauufaolure however has made np for the diniciency in
the crop, by producing good marketable teas, that have sold
well.
The expenditure has been sornewbat greatei than estimated, but
this was imrlly due to the high once ol rice ruliug iu the provin.**,
partly to the unUealthinoss of the season, thus iucioasing th i
force of sick and feeble, and partly to cost of extra oxteiisionH
undertaken, after the last report Wtis issued, which was not provided
for in the estimates.
Besides the 28 acres of garden opened out and planted prior to
January 1878, other 50 acres of low lying fiat laud weie dtainod,
and are now being planted out from old retterve nurseries of
*' hybrid” seedlings, which, when yioidmg, will give handsome
returns.
It appears that there are some him'ireds of acres of tbisdosciip-
tion of land on both divisions, Uiat can be reclaimed, and made
available for tea cultivation.
The system of siiipping the teas direct to the U^nne raarkel has
worked most satisfactorily ; imt only have the chests arrived in
good condition, but tLo weights iiave been fully luanitaiiied.
KeBult seldom experienced in Calcutta bought teas A Dividend
of 7 percent, has been declared.
The operalioub for the ensuing season aro well advanced 1
Priming la neatly finished and all the gardeiis are under good
cultivation: buildings are receiving the ordinary annual repair,
and most assuring accounts have been leoeived trom the uanagers
as to future prosp»^ hi.
The estimates for 1 ^'79 are as follow
JisU^naUd crop at n.^ndookmara'^’ '*
1,950 inaanas>^l,&d/i'j0 lbs. valued
at iBannaii per lb.... .. Rs. 1,,*46,760 0 0
A'stmaCed crop at " Appm” 700
mauiidfl-<n&6,000 Ibn. at IH anuas G
pit per lb. ... . 47,250 0 0
--lie. 1,74,000 0 0
l.xpeaditur« at Ruudookmara’' K<<, 0 0
Ditto “Appitt*^ ,, y8,2'i7 0 0
——Rj, 91,507 0 0
Burptui svet Facto/y empenditioe ... ...» 62,493 0 0
/. fter dedaoUug cDst^ot ttorea aud agency charge, &o. „ 20,009 0 0
MMinaUd ntU prolil for d%ayoul oj ... , 67,493 0 0
Calculailous which the Uifectors have good grouiiri^ for believing
will bereaUied,
■ ' ■■ ■ ^
The Directors observe at tho dose of ihdr report
The rates of * Bonas,* given,to t}mo-expi7ed J™!*^*-*
of agreements, have been gipatly reduced, «na we hope
to see tliis objectionable nia burtneusOjne item of e^rpeiwitW'i
entirely abolished. ... - i •
*» The introduction of wacbittei7, and the Stoppage of extensions
in the province—by lessening oomFetiHoa-^bava brought about a
better feeling, and established^ a higher tone throughout the
dintrioK which is much to be lauded/'
COFFEE.
A CACAO planter in Trinidad states that he has trees which yield
him 15, and even in very good years 18 lbs. of oleail dry cacao,
at a gathering. Ihis is a great but not an incredible yield, since
Purdie got au average of 11 lbs. at one gathering from some old
and negleotsd, but re-triinmod aud properly cleaned trees in the
garden, and Lunan—1814—relying probably on Blume—Xfi72—
says the annoal produce iu Jamaica’s cacao period, two oenturios
ago, was generally estimated at 20 lbs. a tree, and averaged, good
aud bad seasons together, 1,000 lbs. par acre (^8 lbs. a tree, at 18 ft
apart—the .usual distance there, at that period), although in poor
soil, aud under bad management, the yield per tree rarely exceeded
8 lbs. a year. Cacao cultivation in Jamaica died out iu couse-
quence of the excessive duly then imposed on it at home,” and
the wcetohedly small consumption of that day, partly owing to
that fiscal imposition ; and only now is painfully aud with efi^ort
struggling to regain a place as a regular cultivation. It is very
tai from being worthy as yet of coming under the title of a staple
of the old Colony.
From the last annual fieport on the Gorernuieut Garden at
Baugooii we observe that the experiment of introducing and ac¬
climatising Liberian coffee has up to the present time been entirely
successful. On the 4th August 1677, the Agri-Horticultgral
{Society of Madras sent to the Government Gardens at BangoonfiO
very sniall plants of Liberiau coffe'e, which had been originally
soul out from Kew. These wore distilbuted as follows
Aari-Horticultaral Society of Uangooj
Dalbuusic I'aik at Uangocu ...
J. 11, Gilbert, Baq , liaugccn . .
Commi^satiul Oiiioe, Thayetmyc
Geverameoc Gardous, Jiaugocu
Died ...
18
6
6
S
11
a
The 11 plauls retaiued by the garden were kept in pots until the
22nd May 1678, when they were planted out on a sloping piece of
ground, the site being selected with the view of trying various
degrees of shelter, from perfect shade at the one end, to full
exposure at the other. Small pits were dug, aud, the Boil being
very pooi, little manure was added ; but no unusual care has been
takeu of the plants, it being considered best to grow them under
the condiiious to which they would be subject in mi ordiuary
plantation. Fiom a height of 12 to 18 inches when first planted
out they have now increased to 2^ and 3 feet, with fine healthy
Ueop-greeu leaves, some of which are over a foot in length. A
further report on these plants, we observe, will be made next year.
Tho ordinary coitee shrub (^Coffea Arahica) has long been grow^
iig in the garden : it fiowois and fruits annually, but can hardly
')c Futd to thrive.
A cobrbspondent writes to the Ceylon Ohserv&r A Liberiaa
c dfee plant, one of a few planted out on trial on au estate
it this valley, has just blossomed. This plant was aomo
6 1 ' 'hee high, witli two pairs of leaves, when planted out in
November 1877, and in August 1878 threw out its fini primaries,
then 2 feet 9 inches high. It has now, in January 1879 (height
r> feet 2 inches), thrown out a few blossoms, and most of them
have set.
Three of the other plants ou this estate are from shoots, which
were removed fiom young trees, aud immediately put intents.
These are now fine healthy plants over 3 feet high, m4 Tvbfo
only planted out In September last year. Liberians, thirbfoif#
would seem to thrive iu this valley.
Some cacao nurseries have been laid out With the view ol their
being planted next season, and will no doubt receive a fair trial,
for good forest is now being foiled for the purpose, besides plants
intended for vaoanoies in patches of oocoanut:
, Theeftectaofthedry weather are already visible, ttonghoat
til. T«lley. rmcMi>tmilar»,,iA otUn: Uwm full ol Imm u»
now nearly bare, ^d branches of the oocoanut are found droop¬
ing on all sides, the young bsariog trees seeming to shffer most.
Apia
s',.vir iii'4<iiiiii^i)l
(Ebeii^ir'tM KoUdenij^a to UvtgwagMta^tiifk li4cr boon
oomplotid^ i^lt^olipody to tbo railway i;ao«lyta'»t ita
ititiop ot Uxxlkm^, iato H,bop«d faW 'wmaioin«
biipigeipot mh the frim^tive^ itylo (of juAglo itipba covwrM
bmtri^ ^fui) w^U^iEortljr be repUi^d by Wra durable oae«t
otbaiwib tba road will aoou be impraotfcabte lor yrbeel traffic,
It'baa already a heavy cart traffic of BUrea for oaeka aent to the
railway for deepatch to Colombo.
COFFEE leaf-disease.
THE INDIAN AGRICDLTtJBIST.
141
wood were dieeetntblef SevOrtH of the plaaia are now ahewlof
from three to four palraofpHj^riessAud eOrrying in aome inetanoae
leaves moasdring ^a plimts ard now a Hit la over a jaar
old> atid are from 5t0 Sleet^ii heighli^tbe elevation of the land
ill which they are planted beiyg aEout, above eea level,
and preserving a n^ciat, warija, and wy, forcing climate. One
plant which wae sent to another part of tlm\o^ptry lod planted
under similar clrcumstapoeB, but,atanyl|tyidi 9 nof ff^a 4^feet
aboya sea level, and with a western asp^^ baa. titled peen a
T he following letter which Mr. Morris has addressed to the
Hon^ble A Talbot and which is published in the Ceylon
Ohidtififf, gives further informatlonr respecting the efficiency of
flowers of eulphor ae a remedy for leaf disease
‘*aoyal Botanical Gardens, Feb. 13lh, 137^.—After working out a
seffee of experiments with Mr. Wairs fumigating process and notic¬
ing the great vitality of the filaments and spores of the hmiUia,
eyen after applying fames which almost destroyed the foliage of the
I thought It desirable in the intere8t;o£ the great consequences
involved to go carefully over my former experiments in order to
pUpe tfie efficiency of flowers of sulpliur as a specific for leaf dis¬
ease, beyn^fl qnestioo. .
/‘Dr.Thwaltea was also very anxious to observe the various stages
of the experiments, and apply sucli crucial tests as might enable
him to speak with confidenceaud authority respecting the value of
flowers of sulphur as a specific for oofEee leaf-disease.
We accordingly devoted the greater part of this week tp critical
examination of leaves from sulphured trees. 1 hope to give fuller
details of our work at a future date, but you will no doubt be glad
to learn that the oonolusions arrived at in our experiments at
Wallahs have beeu very fully and satisfactorily borne out. Dr.
Thwaites desires me to say that he is compUUly iatisjied that
flowers of sulphur can be applied with every hope of success iu
cheeking the ravages of the pest which baa so long afiected coffee
enterprise in Oeyloo.
« Though the efieota of flowers of sulphur ou the trees were very
gradual during the present dry weather, we watched with great
luterost its slow, Imb certain action upon the filaments and spores
ofthe^miieio. lu no iustauce wore the young leaves, tho buds or
the blossoms afCocted by tbo application of sulphur, and the result
of our observations lead us to believe that if flowers of sulphur be
generally applied to coffee trees, this year ought to see a great
diminution of leaf disease on all well cultivated estates.’'
larger growth than «ihoso at Strathmore. „&ut aUhough J^ssrl^ fl
feet in height, it shewe a tendency to be ucm kiniqr and, ptihapi
less robust or hardy looking. Another experiment wa» tried On
an estate possessing particularly fine and friable soil, at an
elevation of about 1,400 foot above sea level, and even to tble
instance the appearance and rapid growth of the plant are
everything that could be desired. 1 regret, however, to obeerve
that, even in the case of the two Isolated plants just referred (0
this species of coffee shews no signs of pcseeisiog immunity from
the dreaded leaf disssse {Bmiltia vaitatriee ); bnt on tho contrary
the plants were, almost without ezcepClbn, all attacked with
fqnguB before they had been any length of ^me in the ground. As
yet, however, it ie not apparently of a very virulent type, and I
hope ill a future report to be able to state what efteeUthe dltei^
may have in the beariug oapabilitles qf this description of coDEm,
lu conclusion, I would suggest tbe extension of the cultivation of
Libel inn cofiee in the lower ranges of the Travapoore HUIa, where
the ordinary description of cqffee oannot be success fully cultivated
owiog to the protracted drought during tlie early months of the
year; and iiiu of opinion that both soil and climate are well
suited fur its proving a remunerative speculation." It wae
resolved, that Mr. Grant and Mr. Anderson ;he thanked for their
Beportand informed that the Society will bagUd ,ta have further
leports, as tp the success of this important experiment.
Tbe Honorary Secretary reports that one of the Liberian coffee
plants received from Kow on ITth July 1877, and plauted out in
the opeu iu the experimental gardan, ou 25 j:U February 1878,
produced ten blossouH on the 14tii pecamber last, gud seem* to be
ui good health and likely to mature its fruits ; also that anothjRf
S lanted in the shade has several buds upon it; and that the
0 were aie 10 large and beautiful that he tUiukis the plant worth
growing for them if not lor its fruit.
AGRICULTOaE Foa PLANTERS.
LIBERIAN COFFEE.
A t the last monthly meeting of the Madras Agri-horticultural
Society, the Secretary read a letter from James Grant, Esq.,
Manager, Scottish Indian Cofiee Company, Limited, Colachel,
Travancoro, dated 12th December 1878, forwarding the following
interesting report on tho Liberian cofiee plants sent to the
Company on the 10th August 1877, wiitten by one of tlie
Compenv'^ Superintendents " Owing to the case having
misearried and bemg broken iu transit, only twenty-five of the
fifty plants forwaided from Madras were received alive at
Strathmore Estate. On breaking the small pots, the tap roots
were found to have become very much twisted and entangled
with the fibrous rootlets, in their endeavours to find nu exit from
the small pot iu which they had evidently been too long confined.
Great care had, therefore, to be exercised iu transplauting so as to
disturb, ae little as possible, the soil iu which they had arrived.
The tap roots, owing to their great leugth and twisted condition,
had to be freely pruned and dressed previous to transplanting ; but,
ae since been proved, this would appear to have acted
bep^dally in promoting their rapid growtli, as, of the whole
twpq^-five plants received, all are alive and are shewing marked
•igaabf tb*|r aiiaptability to the soil and olimato iu which they
arq now fiourishing. Holes, about two feet square, were made
for ijhelr,reception, iu a small piece of forest land otear ed speoially
Iqp the purpose, and were filled with virgin soil from the adjoining
Each hole is about eight feet from tbe oilier; but the
pvsisut appeaeanoe of tbe plants would seem to iadlcate this
distance ae being a little too close for the future full developemeni
of the trad. Theplants, after being put out, were at first slightly
iha'ded, end watered, when there was no rain-fall, every second
day. The shade and watering were afterwards gradually dispensed
with, «fl the i^ante ibewkd etgne of having established themselves
flimly in' the grennd and wh«u indicationa of their making young
BY A, C. Dixon r.o s., m.r A.a.B. B 8c, A 8 pr. u a., (London.)
Cmtinued frop^ page IC^iS.
A LTHOUQU cattle mauare is most valuable yet its supply Is no
equal tu the demani], iior will there be but e very limited
quantity nntil more nttent ion is devoted to tbe growth of fodder crops
for con version into flesh snd manure. There is e oonsidernble demand
for animal food, and tbe profit which might be derived (rqm the sale
of oattie reared with that object, together with the manure yielded
would amply repay oost. As matters stand at preMUt cattle mao are
IB bulky and produced mostly in the low oountry t thlc coupled with
oosliy transport stands iu the way of such free use of this manure at
would otherwise be the case, therefore the only way to meet the
difficulty would be to gtow large qaentitles of fodder in eoim§etloti
with estates,—and further, 1 do not advocate the use Of fat meat in the
warmer parts of tho Islaud, but for those who really prefer euoh, it
could be produced up country. Fattening oattie down here is not
natural, and it such practice bo pursued, we may then look forward
for a whole train of cattle diseasea
1 gave the amount of nitrogen or in other terms ammonia, that
occurred iu cattle dung, but planters must not run away with the idea
that it Is tbe vital part. 1 put It lu such form as cultivatori are
accustomed to look for it. It f« not the nitrogen or its sueoessor ammonia
that has tbe lasting eflodt which farmyard manure gives, but the varied
mixture of moombastible ingredients*
I am rather inclined to think that too free a nie of nltrogenoot
manures may have somethieg to do with the leaf*dis*aM», R seems to
be need ful at the present day to add sometbfug of thl^ sort to mixed
maoures or they cannot be told. 1 do not wish it to be a&(|eritood that
no value is to be attributed to such, but it is small compared with other
portions. These balky and decomposable maoures play a very .important
part in oauitiag the ground to he opeoQd, and to keep it open
by their decomposition, ^
If ail countiiff iojtsod employing the quaniity of nitrogsnqoi matter
or ammoiMa, as is .done in England, wfadre o^n we fio^ a supply f
Aoothei;,^!PSOst Wdsable mapure ig Wrdp* drp|^p|ag#,hff«^T^
is appllad to the more or leM decompoicd sxsrems&u or ••• Wrdi which
mu
hui MUfntMiti. whttli ltM:i>Mn toutmti into liiilH« imU
III* luhlnd, ihfl ofbtMf ^1# nol
bMn^bfw^ tofuofc wMh. M lor IMwoe PwrUn Otwtto mtXi bif
» good proporHoii of nltwgwi « woU M pboi^bbto! ibli ia d«« to tbo
iditoitbo of nMo in <bo ootintry• ^
Tbit tafuiiifoiaof too atouMng t ooturo to bo uaetul for ooOoo : it
ft jotO tbo iblng for girltig vogoUUoa o itut at a oerUia period of ito
lWo*OfpeolanytbofOplaftUVWobaroebort»TOiij itoaotioa ia aimilar
to 0 ^whooV to aa «ogliie» itcArrUs the plant over aerlavo dead or
•luggiahperiodaof ita exiatenca. Its affect aUo ia abort lived. It
might bo ttfled for mixing with non-atimulating mannrea, but itia not
good alone, noHber would oatllo dong were it ooHaeted end stored for
long per(oda in tbo aame manner.
We have yetanolher guano of very great value, but like the last, too
elrong to use alone, and that la from, JBats, Large quantities of aitoh
guano are found in Arkanaaa, Texan, Southern Spain, Jamaioa. and
■everal of the East Indian lalanda. It consfete of the dung and dead
bodiea of bate with earihg metter, and la found in oaves which
innumerable^ati have frequented for agee. Soma of tbeae gnanoa
eontain up to ten per cent, of ammonia, and of phoephate of oaloinm
from thirty to forty per cent.
A somewhat poor sample of bate* guano from Penang wa4 analysed
tome abort time ago, which analysis 1 now give.
m
Moislnre
10 6
Organic matter
*«•
... «)-.2
Phosphate ol lime
... 38 0
Carbonate of lime
... K'7
Enlphate of lime
..e
... 13-3
Magnesia
«*•
... 07
Potash
**>
.. G‘0
Siliceous matter
... 16*0
The organie matter in this was equivalent to four per cent c t' ammonia.
This manure is muob valued by planters in that locality. { have no
doubt that cftvea ooenr in Ceylon which have been frequented by bats
allraofced by Iho great number of insects, for long petiod^i of time end
in which great quantitiee of valnahle manure are stored. 1 think rjne
region is oalled the Nitre Cava, here the dung from the bat has yielde l
nitrio acid which uniting with the calcium, ooourriog in such cares has
yielded nitrate of calcium, This like bird guano, might be advantagp-
ously mixed with others. We will next consider pondrHtf or human
excrement, which is of great value and might be utilized to a ranch
larger ex lent than ia at present tho case.
Pondrotte as Sold, however, contains a good proportion of useless end
a very small quantity of excrementiiloua matter, often otmtairiag
only three per cent, of phosphorus, and about the same of ammonia.
A A far as pondrotte ia concerned, we might well take a lesson from
the Chinoee and Japanese who know nothing of the exhaustion of tho
soil, whose fields have yielded in abundance for thousands of years and
this is aecompllshed by tho nse of pondrotte. Human excrement (here
Ishic^'ly valued. Every care is taken of it , It forma one of the chief
articles of trade after grain and food. In Oeylon, excrement might be
utilised to a great extent by the use of proper absorbents. The Chinese
and Japanese have fully proved by their svstem that if the mineral
matters are oot restored to the soil, exhaustion must follow. The air
supplies a portion of tho combustible matters nitrogen and earbon
to the soil, and the excrement whijh they return supplies the rest.
In Colombo alone if the same care were taken of oxerementitlons
matters as ia the case there, we ahonld have an annual supply of manures
containing 220 tons of phosphoric aoid.
Another and exoeedingly valuable manure of the animal el v^s is
bones, many tons of which ere annually imported in various couditioufC
The general composition c i bone la
Water
... 6‘2
Organic Matter
... 3J)-1
Calcium phosphate
... 4B‘8
Lime —
.... 2*6
Magnesia
... S3
fialphurio acta
... 27
Silica
... -3
The organic matter being equivalent to 4'8 of ammonia.
Oommercial bonea vary ver/ greatly j the Australian aro preferred
to the tndfan, being richer in phosphate, and why is this f It ia
beobnae *<»d *• Agatealia j
'f |pianf ’i
„|iaH» ^ planU
phoMte^ehtar Into the com^U^ ^ ^
they do fa animala? Oau a vm who hnewa dt'liiehtikr -
paaa bne briefly throogh molt patig ol thhl fslaQd' as^ dbfMrve thg
natural vegetation, and aay that Oaytoa adilt liidngularly defloj^olln
phoaphateaf 1 recently aoalyaed for a planter the atb of, a oomum *
estate weed and found ita oompoaltion thus t it yielded, 7^fi par otitt
aab, and ihiaaahcontained JS percent, of potash an3 par eenK,
phoaphorio acid, and many other plants I have no doubt wodld abow a
fair proportion of these compouenta
Bones before being applied to the ground are aublected to vavtoua
modes of treatment which affect their value*
They contain other valuable iugredierita beyond pholphatea. They
aro often boiled in order to extract tbe fatty matters which are ntiliuea
for soap making ; this removal of fat accelerates the decay of the bone
as such matter prcvonls tbe free acoesa of air and moisture.
Boiled bones aro the best for oouversion into auperphosphate, as the
sulphuric aoid with which they are treated acts upon the oarbonaoeoua
matter which allr[pounds the particles of bone and so prevents ita foil
action.
Again after the removal of the fatty matter bones are often aocum*
mulcted in heaps, whereby the decomposition of tho nitrogenous matter
they contain, great heat is developed ; they soften considerably and oan
then be pulverized with greater ease ; lastly they may be subjected to
the action of superheated steam in order to extract glyoerine and
sim'lar matters which are much used for stiff juing various fabrics, the
Iviiies are however, still valuable on account of phosphates which are not
removed by each processes.
To get the full offcot from bouas they should be pulverized well,
without haviug undergone tUass boiling prooesses. The pulveriziug
may be greatly aided by steamiug the bones provided care is taken not to
allow various matters^resulting from such, to escape into tho air, they
can bo absorbed by coffee dust, or the ashei resulting from tbo buruing
of chaff, &c,
Bones applied to the soil in such form ooiitain the normal or tricaloio
phosphate, an insoluble compound in water yet aaflioieutly soluble
when m the soil for the purposes ot tho plant.
Buporphosphates are well adapte<l Cor several rotatiou crops hut not
well suited for coffee, as they have too groat a toudouoj to force tho
plant.
What is superphosphate is a question often asked. Aa 1 said before,
the phosphates aro somewhat dilEouIt to understand. The normal
phosphate of calcium att found in bones, is tke trioalcio, it contains 2
atoms of calcium, this ia the most insoluble form. By treating this with
fl.dphutic acid two of the three atoms of calcium: unite with the acid
10 form aiilphata of calcium or gypsum, while the two otoms so removed
eve replaced by hydrogen so forming a monosalcic phosphate, some-
limes called biphosphate, a much more soluble form,
I'Uo manufacture of superphosphate is earned on in Eoglaud to a very
largo extent j there are at present about a dozen firms who produce
from 45 to 5'),00J tons annually, as wall as smaller firms making from
10 to 20,000 tons a year. The quantity of phosphatio material imported
to supply the demaud for artificial manures is about half a million tons
annually.
I' >h manure is one ol groat importance to the planter. It is one of
the . luef sources of phosphoric acid as well as of lime, various alkaline
salts md nllrogenons matter. The hard parts of fish are similar in
oomi osilion to tho ordinary bones of commerce* Those of tbo bird hold
the 11 St place wilh respect to their richness in pbosphorio acid. Next
in orcer we have the bones ot mammals, and thou fish. The relative
ralae ot thes'i afo nearly in the same ratio as the unmbsrs 16, 16 and
14. The .otter parts of fibh contain a considerable amount of phos¬
phorous, whioh by slow oxidation IS gradually converted into phos¬
phoric aoid, so increasing the value of fish manure as a whole.
Fwh manure is capable of being largely adulterated, |f cate fs not
exccreised in tho process of drying, and making ready for exporta¬
tion. It i» usually dried on the sand, and a great quantify of
this adheres to the fish during this process. In some cases the bodleaX*^
of the fish are crammed with ssod —and in order to ensure a la rg#
amonut adhering to it, tho drying grounds when they have become
caked and firm Are broken up. Offish manures at present imported
Massey’s patent appears to oontalo a minimum ol sand i viv^ under 10
per cent.
In sontfl gkinurai this adulterant has reached 6Q per eenti
'i]rii(ii«ii^i^'k^iuks,|«C(t««[k>w^ h
' tlt'o orop ia {w^mmtiy iill liowtrarf la a
iitoa^M whan tha waeda upxixii the iraeii m bairled in hoiet or
s with ft aoil io a good de|>th and i^lniiie tt would he better to
return them In ^e locm ot ooDi{>oet. .
The pulp of theooSee although eoneidoted by tome, not to be of mooh
niu^, ibonid bdreturaed totbeeoUi ae tieelemente will aiwaye furnish
matertnl for fresh supply. The matter of whiob it is cotnpoeed Is not
woody dbriE^ and tl^rotore soon decays: it also ooutalns a great
quantity of saochhrlne matter which is valuable as a source of oarl)oa.
FOOWAO or Oakes of various descriptions, Ju'-a pulverised or crushed
condition, hare a very beneficial Infiaetioe on the soil. The arc com¬
posed of seeds of various kinds, mimtt the oil that has been more or
lese extracted from them. They all contain valuable ash oonstituenis, as
well as nitrogenous and oarbouaoeous matter.
These cakes rosultiag from the seeds of various botauioal families
having dillerent habits of growth aud requiring diliereut substances
for the formation of their seeds, are of various relative value.
It is difficult to give them in order us valuable for m''Anu'L'ial {jurposes
sinoe they vary oonslderably, however, it would geueraily be us follows :
Ohiua bean cake would take the first place, followed by decorticated
oottoo, rape, gingelly, linseed, black castor, coooauut aud do,mho.
The ash of some of these cakes oontaiiis over per cent of potash,
and about & per cent of phosphate of cnluiuin.
The nitrogenous matters of some uie slightly soluble, but become
mote so, by decompositioo, aud are then more readily diilusod through
the soil than those from many other manures, consequently, lb is not
long before their effect is evident. Their chief action is the formation
of wood and foliage.
MittUBAli MAVUU£3.'-Of these, we have a great numbpr, each capable
of doing Its particular work for the soil, or for the plant. One of the chief
of these, is lime. It occurs naturally iu Ceylon, mostly as carbonate, aud
is found in great quantity to the norlberii part of the island. Along the i
coast, as coral and shells (shells especially on too irearl liaiiks, where |
greataccumulationshavetakeuplace, aud which might vrell be utllmed)
and in the interior as masses of crystallmo dolomitic limestone of a
mottled grey appearance, someiimas nearly white. Cue sped won
which 1 have auulysed contained 70 per ceut. of carbouate of lime, and
15 of carbonate of magnesia.
Carbonate of lime is useful to m'jdt plants, hicic 3 i: is readily soluble
in ram water, It would be best applied m the form of grouuu coral,
lor the crystallmo limestone and sUeile would not bo so oamly
orusUed.
It is of great value on stiff heavy s iils, .uciiug 'meohanlualiy, as well
as chemically, on the latout stoics of food in the soil, liberating the
alkalies.
Lime is osaentitil for the licdthy growth of agrieulUral produce,
without it, many crops are subject to diseases, and roofs sometimes fail
altogether cveu U they have been liberally manured witb cattle
dung.
Its preaeuco has a great iutluouuc on the change which soluble
phosphates or manures containing these, undergo m cuulact with
the soil, On all soils defioout in lime, manures rich m soluble phosphate
do not produce such a beuetioial effect as upon soil containing even a
small proportion of lime.
Lime is often'applied not iu the form of carbonate, but as an oxide.
The oxide is readily prepared by subjeciiug auy of the vaiious forms of
carbonate to the action of heat m a kitu, driving away the carbonic
aoid gas into the air not to be lost, but to roturu again lu some form
or other, U may be to harden the mortar with which we build our
bouses.
For bailding purposes we buru the carbonate, reduce it to oxide,
iice wiffcih' fthi lepftiittea.
eattftble fw itiepihf
being Okie of Ikift by^p^hi^V
Wehftva also gaetl^ofa
weeds iu cheek, and lor aidlsg
In addiUou to lime it eonthins vatloak al eoal gae, ifteb as
sulphur componads and hydtn^rbent. Tba ^nantiiF obtalfiable iw
however, very
Mineral phosphate of lime as coproUtes whleb dfi the «4wre<
monts of the great reptiles of former ages, eoeur in seme of the geologt*
oal formations in vatiohs parts of the world, large qaaotUSes iff tbsae
are suhjeoted to the action of sulphniiq acid, and converted into
mineral superphosphate which Is almost on a par witb that derived from
bones, as fares phosphate is concerned,
The general percentage of phosphoric add in Bpgllsh coproUttea Is
56 per cent, fiombrero phosohate ocoots in the island of that name in
the West Indies, and is valuable as a source of mineral phosphate of,
time. The island appears to be composed of this eatthy maiter, it is
thought to be fossil guano.
Alxaunb Balts.—P otash is a very important element for colfoe,
but the soil here is generally very rich lu that element containing almost
an moxhaustible supply, provided the soil is cultivated to a good depth
so as to admit of the latent potash now m the form«of silicate to be
dvcomposod, but where auoU is not the case it will be ad visible to return
potash in the form of manure, but not of such a stimulating chacacler,
as some of the potash salts, for example the nitrates.
There is a valuable combination of alkaline salts whieU has already
found us way to Ceylon, the kaiulte aud strussCurth crude potash eaits
obtained Crum Germauy. These are used with much advantage in
compost heaps to acuulerate decomposition aud fix volatito matters.
The composiUon of this salt as aualysod by Dr. Vosloker, is
Muisturc, loj,»4 At 212' F. ...
...
... 336
^Yster of combination ...
,r.
... 10-83
rotusbium sulphate
... 2448
Catoium Bulphato
...
... 272
Maguchium sulphuto
... ]3'22
Msiiuesium chioiiac
... 11-88
Bodiuui chlorido ...
...
a«s
... 80*85
Insoluble siliceuuH matter ...
...
... 71
The sulphate and chloride of ammonia arc sails uiefal for mixing
with other manures, they arc too forcing to be used alone, they render
the earthy pbuspbates soluble. Common salt has a similar property.
SV^ood ashes are valuable as a source of alkaliiio matters, more
especially potash which they yield lu the form of chloride and
carbonate. They aid of greater value if the wood, Ac,, has not been
luliy burnt, leaving a quantity of charcoal useful for absorbing gases.
Ashes should always be mixed with earth iu order to prevent *the
waste of alkaline matter by wash.
Oomposttt may be of all kinds according to the varying Ideas of the
planter, All animal and vegetable matters should bo utilissed in this
way, different substances may bo applied to the heap as ashes, cattle
dung or other refuse to form a general manure. Ho must guard against
adding nuiuc lime to substances licU iu ammonia, lu conclusion, I
may remind the plauter that the great oompouents of his manures
should bo yfmylutno acid, potash and mtrogon. These are what he has
to obtain m order to feed his plants that they may make a fair return lor
the laboui bestowed upon tbeia. He may purchase these separately, and
form hia own special manure, or he may buy them already mixed, taking
caie that the value is regulated by the quantity of essential ingredients
ui a certain price per unit.
TOBACCO.
TOJJACCO CULTIVATION.
mix with water and sand then place boiween^tha bricks of cabook or
stone for what 2 To take back a similar amount of carbonic aoid gas as
was driven from it by buroLug iu order to burden it, and this gas it
obtains from the air. lu the same way the burnt lime applied to
^ the soil or to the compost heap will rapidly take'up moisture and after
that cacbonio acid leturiiing to its original form, but in a morn liuely
divided state, to Us burnt state it is highly onustio aud welt suited
tor deoomposition of yt*getable matter hence its saitabitity iu a boggy
or sour aoU, Its great work Is to aid the plant in obtaining
its food by Its meobaniqai «ud chemical pro^ierties. Lime may
alio be applied in oChtrlaimeUfor exampla, we may employ the sul¬
phate oommonly called gypinaittuohie not found in quanuty in the
Islandi and its use will themforjS be iimtied unii) ve bare a aalphutiQ
ftoU ittfe&ftfMiWT*
(Fi-ovt the Madras Athenmm.)
E want uduoatod young uion to cultivate tobacco. Good
Amovlcau seeds civu bo obtained fiom Ibe Sydapet Farm
aud if ten acres of laud were cultivated with tobacco, we are
bui’o that the proiUs aocruiug from those leu acres will bo
considerably larger than lUo mouthly salaries of clerks lu public
ollioea. Mr. K. Buck, Duectorof Agriculture iu the North-West
Fioviiioos, says that an acre of laud pioperly cultivated v'lth
tobacco yields a piofit Bs. 167,
Au acta of laud if properly cultivated will yield 600 lbs. of
tobacco, la Maryland tUo average yield is 1,000 lbs. According
^ Warden ** a hogshead weighing 1,360 ib& is oonsidr red a
ftVapi Ontbe fresli rich lands of Kentucky, fiom l,00d to
m Iromthif ibati mi
of t«od ttiy naore tlu^ ;6ni; we thUolt W oro
•ftfe ^ we tftke Ibik m tjbe eyerie’ yroduoe en' ^or«."
Bui^iibe eleipli, tide celpidation. ^ price of one ikia iiie
Bogtlih ie M. The following 6gareg indloetei eocor^lng
to Mr, Book*« celculetfon, the prodte Which may bo 4eHved
from the onlUfttion with tobacco of ten acres of land.
^0 acres at 800 Iba an acre,
For ettUlfotloo at Bs. 4 per manod of 80 lbs. ^ Rd. 400
Fermirtogat „ 8 „ 80 „ ... ,, isoo
For etpoft at 8 pica a lb. about .,. „ 330
Freftl .*. ..4 ,4, .. ' „ 430
Total 10 X 800 X 5d. .., Rs. 1,660
It will thus be seen from the abore, tliat if an educated taau
took aome ien iaorea of llnd fit for tobacco cultivation, (and we
are sure that the tiature of the soil in'l^outherh India ie enitable
for tobacco cultivation) and ouUivated the eama properly, he
will get a profit of Bs. 430 or more than Bs. 35 a month,
besides the profit tjiut wiU aocrue to him by the sale of the second
growth plants which spring up after the first cutting, and which
yield on asi average, about 5 uiaunda or 400 lbs. an acre. It is
thus clear that the proper cultivation of ten acres of laud with
tobacco, will give the onUivator about Rs. 45 a mouth; and
this Bs. 45 a month, in an independent line, is immensely superior
to Bs. 20 or Re. 25 a month in a public ofiioe. Let the educated
men of' this Presidency consider our suggestion and see if it is
not one that ought to engage their attention. Many Raggeatioiis
of a kttnllkr nature could be made, but for the present we shall
rest eatisflbd with this one. A word in oonclusiou witii regard
to the saving of tobacco seed. This is done by attention being
paid to tlie following direction Allow a few of the strongest
plants to produce their flowers ; they will have a flue Appearance
in July and August, and in favourable season each plant will ripen
as much seed in September as will sow a quarter of an a^ re.*’
On the same subject the Ranffooti Weeklf/ Revieio lias the
following remarks :<-It is estimated the outturn in good tobacco
leaf from a properly cultivated acre of land ought not to ho I
less than 800 lbs. In America the average is reported to he
usually 1,000 lbs. East Indian tobacco generally selK hi Ijondou
for or 2d., aud excellent varieties letch about «'></. per lb.
The Myouk-touug tobacco is so favorably spoken of that we may
with acme safety expect the latter price for it. Then if tiie
Government farm there consists of 200 acres (this was its
proposed extent) 800, X 200 x 6«800,00H., or Bs. .13,333 per
acre or Bs. 2,777-12 per month. Not an unprofitable specnlat'jn.
Nativo calculations, however, give 370 lbs. as the average yield
of an acre under tobacco cultivation. The calculatioiis then
would be 370 X 200 X 5--370,OOOd., or Us. 15,417 pei acre or
about Bsy 1,285 per month, even this is not bad. It is probable
however, that the native growth would not fetch so rnucli os
fid. per lb. But in the Government faim at Gbazipore, and in
Bengal farms, 800 lbs. have been readily obtained, aud there
is no reason why the supetior soil and situation of Myonk-
toung should not yield as much under proper care and scienliQc
cultivation.
II.
I T ii with pleasure we notice the local adminiairatton persevere in
ibe matter of improving tbe cultivation and curing of tcoaooo
if tbe ooBUtry is to advance more Its natural products must be
attended to In greater de^'ioe than has tieeu the case; and of all
vegetable prodnotions there is neue which the country promises to
soeceed so Well in as tobacco. Tbe plant grows iu all parts—on tbe
ekur$ created by the rivers, as well s« on the Uitls. In Northern
Arakin it IS fbiiud in tbe same dlstrlot both on high lauds and low
lands, aud all over the proviuoe this ts tbe case. As far as quality
is eoneerned, tbe best experts have prououuc.ed it to be equals any
of tbe Ameiloon grown, Manilla or Havaniia biod«. Tbe Kyonk-kyee
tobacco if admirably suited for tbe mauutaoture of Gsvaudisb or pkg*
tobacco.
It wil be wij^bin ibe memoir of most readers that about 1876 the
local Giova^nient made, a decided move in this dirnt*tio4; The
earviqst of'^e'laV Bmwn were obtained on frdmthe
aatk^dttSAtof'B^ikiriEftd thk worthy doetdr, lo^vlog t^ya rio ^e
^ hitti Md tnm, tMtiOa w Wiii« ■uiWpinA W m s*
. Wds tbdk dedpatdbed to Thaystufo, dad Ante; Xi is
k pHy bis tom bf InspeotlQa 4ba vepcrl ‘Was Act better planted } lor
tbe timd was so il^ bhokin' th»r WteeVil he wegtht oottld Aw Uttlo
better than analyse soils, and report od gfoWItig crops. Ttmeonnliry
iliBi lost praetiCil denumitratfoii from an expedmsdpetson of how
to efleet Ibe proper cure of ths leaf. )h Tbayeimyo be was too
early—the plants were growing and 'would hot be fit to ent lor
months. 6o it was in Shwegyeen. In Arftkan, if we mistake not,
be was alsotoolate. Had be been oent totbepiaoe pntdownlast,
first, reiults wonld, lb nil probability have been dffarent. But, ^
however muoh it is to be regretted no practioaL lessons In oming w^
given to tbe people. It will alwaye be matter for oongratttjete,
euoh an offioer'e eervioei were secured, for now the oapaotty of the
provinoe for growing tbe plant has been established beyond doubt
Tobaeoo growing smd oure differ in distrlote owing not eo mnoh to
difference in eoil and elf mate as to local habit and prejUdioo. In one
place the plant may be' seen on low>Ien<Te whtoh the riveWfio'ods have
left an d where the trouble for preparing the land IS least i In aod^ber
I more o«re is taken in ibis direetlon. In some parts the leaf Is shed
green and dried, producing a strong tobaeoo, as on the Shah hills of
I Kyouk-kyee; In another the entire plant Is strung up to dry over" tbe
kitchen, the produce belhg a mild flavored one. But the soil In most
dislrtots is rioh and suited to the plant, that on the Arakao Hills
j produolng the best kinds grown. The leaf from Bandoway, Oheduba
lUtnree, however, is small and woody end ilUsuited either for export or
tbe local manufacture of cigars. What the people require instraotlon
in is to grow the plant properly and so cure the leaf as to develop the
proper aroma. As at present carried out the oultivation Is indoteotly
and oarelessly done. When leed-sowJng is done the natives fancy all
that Is necessary is over, and no care Is given to see the plants mature.
Ill some places tobaeoo is grown with paddy, and when the sickle ia put
to the latter, the former is plucked up, taken home, hung up to dry,
and oonsnmed as required. The soil and ohmate are so favorable that
almost invariably a good crop is seoured, In the eastern parts the
taking np of the crop is done before the rains, the hottest season of the
year, it is therefore not to be wondered the drying ruins tbe leaf. The
natives need to be taught to grow the plant thrifugh the rains en the
high lands, and cure the leaf during the oomparatively moist months of
November, December and January, and, whomever the aovernment
may appoint, it is to bo hoped hts atteution will not be oonfiued to work
only within the fence of the Myouk-touog farm.
Myouk-toung itself is the best place fur growing tobaoou, end therefore
the beet eitaatiou fur a farm euoh as the Government has. It enjoys
special advantages, being close to the erabrouohure of the Pee and Mee
rivers, confiaents of the Koladan. Labour is available from a Bhan
oolony at hand, the soil is rich, and the oHmate all that oau bo desired,
K.‘ .rriage to Akyab, from which the place is distant about 71 miles, is
easy on aooouni of the river, and the prospects are the Oovemmeiit farm
here will. If properly managed, open out a souroe of revenue
and most likely one of wealth and prosperity to the country, The
main object of this institution ought to be the imparting of a knowledge
of cultivation and onring. To do this effectually natives wiling to
learu should be admitted as farm-hands ; any native wishing to become
aoquaioted with the methods pursued should also be informed ; and the
place thrown open to bond fide onltivators and tobacoo'growera at&ll
times. There is no reason why the place should not become a eentre
for the radiation of better ideas and improved methods of oultivation,
and on appointing a Superintendent, it is to be hoped this improtant
poin^ will be prominently brought forward and impressed. The time,
however, isebort, for if anything appreciable is to be done, it must be
done by July the latest,—/Zaaguen Paper,
CINCHONA.
'FILE alarmingly increasing rate at which the oliichona trees of
Peru are being tepidly exterminated has at last led the
Government of the Beptibiio to take legislative meaauree for the
fluppressioii of the evil. Gathering the hark will he permitted as
heretofore in all departments of the Republic, except only in tfae^
Sandia and Tambopata valleys of the province of Seodia, where
the Cinchona lancefoHa, from Which the so-called '^calisayg*'
quinine is obtained, chiofiy grows. Bdt feliiug the trees is
ahso lately prohibited throbgliout the whole oountiy, and tItS hark-
stripping is henceforth to he conducted only . under ' Cittlitt
stringent oondltions as to manner and time. To gasrd agkinst
possible oQuUngeacies, it is ordered that, in ease of needv the
Prefect ol Pnrio, in which department tlie above-named vailey*
ore sitaaledf iS authorized to place thm under miUlAty oMfiml"
146
April 1, 1^19: THE IHHXAN AGRICTJETUBIST.
CINCHOHA CULTUBB: HOW I'O SAVE THE
LABOUB and expense OP « PRICK-
INO OlfT’’ SEEDLINGS.
M b. BENRY POET wnt«a from Bambod* to Ct^/loit
Observer :-*Eirer aiaoe 1 bad anything to do with cinchona,
it haa Blruckmo that the ayEtem in vogue for leanog plants is at
laolt. 1 haTo an idea, aud that idea X will, with your perrnis-
sion, ventilate through my old friend the Observer. The usual
coinan adopted, as you aro awaie, is to plant seed broadcast in
t^Oversd beds, and afterwards, when the young seedlings have
attained a certam»size, to **prick ihetmout'* into beds which are
also covered* This method entails a heavy expense.
How what 1 am doing is this : X first make a quantity of beds,
3 feet broad and any length you like ; these beds are divided
from eaoh other by drains 15 inches broad and 12 inches deep.
The soil removed in the making of tho drains is thrown on tiie
.. ___ y
trebled. In the case of suceiniln^a this is manifest ; the renewed
barks Of other sorts were yet too young for a definite conclusion
to be arrived at iiS to the ohan^^ caused in them by the mossiug
sysbuii.
The original bark also, which hae^ been a year under moss,
improves by tliat means the amouUt of valuabJe alkaloids.
Tiie analyHee 71-76 deserve special attention* They are from
4-yeaiS‘old ktigertana seedlings. The plants which resemble the
inoLh«r-trt*e Isaat (76 and 76) had also a bark of inferior quality,
whilst tlio bark of thoao which approached noarpst to the type of
ti)o inollior-tiee showod a percentage of quinine which for such
young pJauis is alrciidv very high. The chemical analyses will
e&pci Lilly iu this diioction be proceeded with, in order to obtain as
speedily as possible certainly wilh regard to the quostiou, how
till' Udgeriana seed plants agios in yield of alkaloid with the
mothei-plantH fiom which they ato derived.
,■1 ■■U"' * a I iff*
centre of the bods and drawn down on either side so as to give
the beds a " bariol.’* Over this I place a dressing of sand and
mould inch thick, in tho piopovtioii of 3 of mould to 1 of sand.
Over this again I place a very Hue diessing of sifted rivei sand : 1
mean the very iiaest small-grained sand you can piocure. The
object of this you will see anon, ,
The beds are now ready for receiving the seed, Theiuaniier
of sowing is this—mix your seed with lorty times its bulk of
sifted oartb. This part of the ptoo«‘sa is simple, but inquires
patience and accuracy. Take a tumbleifnl of the earth
place it in a box ; on this put a tuuilderful ot seed, am]
thoroughly mix the two—then put into this iiiiotlier tuml»lfn of
earth and again mix intimately, nud so on till yon have 40
tumblers of earth thoroughly hlondod wiih tlio one of seed,
continuing this piocoss till you havo all tho seed you wish to
plant so treated. This mixture of. 40 to 1 of oailh and seed is
iheii to be very thinly scattered over the beds, and tlie thin coating
of white sand will render it easy to see that this is ovouly douo.
In my opinion if this becaiotully done you will by this method do
away entirely with the iieceHsity for “pricking out/^ and thus
save largely in time aud outlay.
THE INDIAN AGfilCULTDNIST.
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In year, luolodmg postage ... Hs. 12 o
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Agents in London.
U rco Hi} K STltK Ef, Enq . Cor Ml,
F. AbOAB, Esq,, . 8 , Clmenlit Lam, London, E,C,
NTUllOLLS Ar CO., ... 1, Wha^-ft'iant-strevt, FUrt^strort,
BATISK llENnV Si OO., . 4 , Old dowry, London, E.C,
lli>-AO OtriCV—-8, CnowniNQirKE, Calcutta*
REPORT ON TOE GOVERNMENT CINOIIONA |
ENIEHPBISE IN JAVA EOU THE itn 1
t^UAIlTEU, 187«.
{2\‘anf(laied f\ji'th^ Ceylon Ohserver,^
HE weather during tho past quaiter was voiy favourable for
operations. Tho rains began m the very fiiBl day ,4 of Novem¬
ber, and have coni inuod steadily ainco. In the last putt of DocciuboL
strong winds did Bonio damage, especially on tlio Nagtuk and
Keiidong Putulia establNhinouls, where the Imildinga sniTered
much,.uid some hundreds of ciuciioims were uprooted or biokon.
Nine thousand niue hiuidiod and ten days' woik wru. per¬
formed by tempoiary liired labour. A groat jimnber of tho
plants in the nursory bods were ablo to bo put out : they
eomimsBd 47,310 ledyerianas, 43,485 o^kiaaUs, and 21,550
succirnbras, Thoir planting out was favoured liy Iho most
desirable weather, and tho young plants arc progressing exceeding
well.
Tha gathering had to bo discontinuod at tho boginning of
November, when tho rains commouced. Altogetlioi tlioio worn
gathered 121,343 Amsterdam pounds of baik, of winch 112,324
Amsierdatii pounds were reserved for expoitation lo Europe,
whilst 9,022 Amsterdam pounds wore kept for iho uso of the |
military medioal department hero. |
The despatch went on very slowly during the last month, as the |
draught cattle, which are asually hired from tho natives, are now I
required for working at the sawahs. !
The distribution of C calisaija ledyerianu seed has gone on >
steadily. The blossoming of the Udyerianas is beginning later 1
than in ibeprevious years, since scarcely au> buds at present oie j
visile. Tho seed will therefore also be lipo later, and in 1879 will j
probably not be ready for distribution before November aud |
December. K '
The results of the ohetuieal analyses are given in the annexed
atateinent. The experiments with tho paitial stripping (mossing
iyatem) were continued, and from the analyses 161'175 it is
clearly aaeu how the composition of tlie new formed ittcctrubra
bark difEeta from the original* The value of the bark is miK-h ;
greater) ainoa by renewing Um peroentage of quinine ia aimv i ^
IHB
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14 «
THE INDIAN AQRICU LTPBISl*. April t, tm.
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27th November 1878,
se
THE
INDIAN AGEICULTIMST.
A UOmUL't
JOURNAL OF INDI^ AGBlGULTURE, UINEBALOGY, AND STATISTICS,
--
VOL. IV,]
CALCUTTA : THURSDAY, 1st MAY, 1879.
[No. 5.
NOTICE.
TU iKDXAN Aobxculturist will U mx^>lkd to all SchooU and
MUiimxrU^t in India at half price,
E. KNIGfHT.
Oaleatta, let Feb. 1876.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOfi.
CONTENTS:
Paqx.
Letters-*
Bidley’s Beapiug* M&cbine ... H7
JClevatiog the MahRjan ... 147
The purchase of coffee lands in
OoorgM* .* 1^7
Koteghar notes ... ... l^B
Tube wells .149
The sterility of ludian lields 149
Tuner silk filature .150
Forests aud ramfuil . . ... l.'ii
Lkadino Abtiolks—
Ilow riants are Fed ... .. 151
Improved Tlotighs iu the
Boibh-WeisUru i'rovinces ...* K>'2
Real riuianlhiopy .15:i
. The SetUemeub aud the Bun-
niah,,. .. ... 15.1
Indian Horses.155
. . lob
Loti
l*AOB.
. 169
... 169
... 170
... 170
... r<o
172
Mjrubaluus
EniToaiAL NotEsH
Communicated & y«Li(icricD—
t.Hdy Ihrds ... .. . . 159
Expdtimeutal Uorgho Cultiva¬
tion in liriUah Bui'uiaU ... 159
The CuUivotiou aud l^repara-
tiou of the soil M. 16 I
Hr. Vuelcker ou Agricultural
Cheuiisiry..
B^alive lirigtttiou ... ...
Nogpore Mudcl Faim
A HisoUvery lu sugur
Barrou's TruufepUuuug Mu*
chioe ... ...
French Agrioatiurc
*' Uebiuseineut ”
The h'lbres ot Burma.
Hr. Auken ou the Cbemlstiy
of Agcioulture
Aloe-Fibre for Paper
Jute in tbo United States
Vanilla.,
Sewage Cultivation ...
Sulphur Futnigation ...
TmK UARDaN-^
Notes .171
Rose Ulouo do Hi joij ... 171
The Boiuntcal Gardens at
Ootacriiuuml
Agritiultural and Horticultural
Society of ludia ... ... ]
FoiiBsa’Ki—
Notes.
BriUsli Forestry
The Ot'kjwih of 'icak .
Minbealoov—
Notes .
TUA PLlJtlMRa’ ClAZlUrK^ I
'lL\—
Notes pji, .J/ri
The China tea ITade , , ... 177
C'oPFtth.—
Libenan Cuffoe .17^
Coffee Fiuiluctiou ... . 178
.'f the
IlIDLEY'S HEAPING MACHINE,
Sir,—I n the AffrmtUurigt of Oolober last, page 341, in a article
headed Wheat Cultivation in Madras and Australia,’* I find lb#
following pasHuge
The expense ol cnKivatiou (in Australia) is small and the gathering
in of the crop when it is fully ripe costs a mere trifle, thanks to HiAUy^t
Mfaptng Machine^ which reaps and thrashes tbo wheat hy «no simple
proeeSH.
This machine merely clips oil the ears of the wheats and leaves tbo
straw staudiug on the ground.”
Would uny ot your readers kindly let me know where this Ridley's
Heaping Machine is manufactured and sold.
B, HATTA.
Bishwauatb.
N«»m—Mu. ir M llogprMlflte B 0. ft) 20, Corn ExohsrWis BulldiDgs, London, will
laiiusih our cormbpondcat with information on tho sub]oct.^Si>. A 4.
I/O
l7y
in
, 176
World .
. . 179
lo2
IGl
1<)0
Tomaooo—
Note .
... 180 !
1
164
lud an Tubacou
Cinchona—
... 180
167
iiucitpuA Culture
. Ht>
167
SUilKXIXUUh
i
168
168
bciicuUure m ludnt ...
. 1>0 )
fej (k of tho T*^ai• Wot m
.. lal ‘
169
AnvHFiTiSaMi£M'iS
. , {i'i j
NOTICE TO COiUtESPONDENTS.
Our Cotreepondente and Contributors will greatly oblige ui>
if they iaill take the trouble^ where the returns of cultivation arc
Stated by them tn Indian weights and measuresj io give their
einUvadenUi either in the text fin imrenikestSf or ui a
The bigttlx w 2 >articu(tti* viirieg so muc/i iit the dif
jerent Provinmf that it is. absvluietg necessarg to give
English v^tte of it in all cases. It would be a great re/onn
if the Qouemment itself followed the mm course in all the
tffiBud reparti puhliihed hp iit ,‘,
ELEVATING THE MAH A JAN.
Sir,—I t IS aoknowledgod that the low class of Ullage so universal
in India, is iucapable of iuipruvemout wuh tbo amount of ospltal
devoted to it. It is the maMiuooi jeauU obtainable from a minimum
ot expense. If we could mduoe oapllaltsts to move money ImIo
agnoQlturul woiks, there is uo doubt that the return would justify
tho expense iucuricd. Thus with a stronger class of bullocks, au
improved plough could be seut through the soil aud new layers of
mould brought to the surface. With small outlay improved water
lifts might be made that would permit double the laud being watered
at no Liigb cost. With a gieater ezpenditni’e of manure, the same
urea of laud would yield riuher crops, and ificrcaue tho surplus for
export. Can wo bring these facts home to (he village sowoar, so as to
iuiimc him to lend capital to men who would devote i( to these
improVemeuts / Hcie and there iu the conutry we have experimepial
fauns, whoio these innovations ^are Adopts], hut they are too few
to effect much go.)d. Yt>arly luorcased uumbotsof iron ploughs, and
improved aaier lifia are being sent out fiooi them to purchasers in
difiiMreut paits ot ihe couniry. and in the district of Coimbatore the
Houbte Mhoto for raising water la fust superseding luachiues which
though oosiiog lens in the liist lustance, are iu the long run less effliotive.
The deuire for greslrr agticuhural knowledge than can be ob'aiued
generally in Ihe diittriote of India, Is mauifested by the namber of
ap|)iiua(lous for ndrniflsioij from a vaiiL'ty of clamsS aud caatcs into lb«
Technical Agrirultura! bobool at tSydupet—applications far in excels
of the loom and iosirwoiion avaiiuhte. We have in tliese examp'M,
evidence that a desire exisiB for Agtlcultural knowledge with a view
to improve in Ha’s future prosperity, aud Qoveruuicut should use every
endeavour to a iieot the attendoii of the monied classes, luor/f, especially
the village sowcars, to the subject,
F. B. H.
Bangalore.
THE rUJlOHASE OP COFFEE LANDS IN COOHO.
Bib,—I t will be Inie'esllug lo the plant mg portwiu of your enb*
gcrlbets as well as a warning to lutcuiUng purobasers ot coffee lauds
/rosb O/ wram/'Ht m Ooorg io be Iniotmod ot tbe following tacts
In the mouth ot Beplembw 1676 aHer some >ears ot waiting aud
delay caused by ihe iudolenoe aud intUffereuce of the Ooorg Forest aud
Hevenue pepattuisut, 1 became the purchaser at au auotlou sale
under ihe wasia land rales of the Theewar-beUa jungle for Ui, 13,060
and wbioh was ataied in a speolficaitoa published lu the JUytai'e and
Owrg to mula acw# 186 - 16 , •
148
THE INDIAN AGEICtJlTHBIST.
May 1.187ft
Oa 4ib of Oololwr follotviog 1 became ^he pofcbuMir
Goorg Ottvernmeitt Obder Uie wft«ife Uitd ruleff of the Bfejitiotll Jniigle
tajoiufog tbe one 1 M porcba^eU nitd for thia Mcond
1 paid tbe eom of Bi, it,206 ttio lend being repreeented by ii»eoiflaetipa
ftimilfvtly publiebed ei the fortxmr fo oonUio 20»lO ftctoe*
I may bere obierve tbet my first purchase HToraged Be. 70-641 par ^
aore, end my eecoml Bs. IlO-O-d p«r acre, being some B*. 40 end 80
mote Ibait bas ever Wen paid in Ouorg before or eiuce for the purobftse
mf iaud under tbe waste land rub-s.
la May ]878 and after inoessaut aud urgent applieatiODi my managiag
saperiuteudent (urarty two ycara after the sales) obtained from
Qomnmeut the eurrey plans, aud upon an exau^iaatbu ut them with
the laud, disAOVeied that the area of my aeoond purchase (the Meymotti
jungle) was iuoluded iu my first porcbase (tbe Theewar-betta jungle)
and that instead of my two purobases aggregating 205»26 acres as
misrepresented to (ho public ’by Government, (I prasume not wilfully)
they only aggregated together 185'*16 acres or the area of my first
purchase*
By the date of this discovery myself and my pariiiar(Mr. U. M.
Grant) had expended on the oteaumg and cultiration of the land with
cofiee and cinchona'some Bs. 80,00i> lu excess of thi amount paid to
Government*
Wo not nnnatarally concluded that we were euliiUd to a refund of
Iho money paid by us fur the second luistukeu purthnse, and 1
aooorilingly represented (he matter tu the siiperiMUMideiiL of Coorg, and
applied that the moupy namely Us, 2,206. we had paid by nus'akc
and which wwat the same time uunoiuded they had taken in equal good
faith, should be returned to us.
At 1 happened to be on the epot at the time my personal repreaenta-
tion was favourably rnougb leoelved aud the matter was at once
referred to the 1st asbisiaiit Nupeilutewdeut of lievenae Survey, wlio
with clmracteristic promptituvlo oouliimed niy sratemeut that I had
paid twice over for uiy Mnyniotii land or second parchasi', <ir what was
tbe same thing that oOioor repotted ihnt ii had been siirvejcd twice
over being already included in luy ftrsl parobase, ibo Theewar-botta
land.
We were (ben promised a refund of the amount improperly demandod
and paid by mislako, but at (he same time informed '* cot tarn
fortnahttcif'" would buvo to bo gone thinugh with the Aooouutaut
General at Bauguloie. This occurred so far bank un Apii' 'ast year,
nud allbough myself, my partner and om maua’^er Mr. J. . Gerrard,
have since been ooutiuually uiging a speedy settlement it 1^ only on
Iho 17th of March iuataui, ibat wo have received an intunatiou that
**tbe OUteC Cummissioner regrets that ho la unable to gruuL the
refund soiici/id.'*
1 will not trust myself to comment at ony length upon Iho aotiou
of (be Goorg Geverument (and 1 challenge a ootiCi.iiUoiiou of the
facts above Staie<)) but 1 cannot forueur tcmarking upon the haidnbip
to which myself and luy partner are siibj'ict iu being put to (he
expense, delay, aud nnxloty necfasiiatod by probably piolnngod legal
proceedings in a remote uon~rcgulaiioit, Tiovinoe iiud in a Court
where the presiding judge i» the huad /rii'Mrt'* oOmcr to recover
(with abut litlle bopo of sucocsu you may imajiniO money uppropi ated
uudwr ciicuwaUnCt'S that I am advwod bad our vendor Ocen a
j/tirato indIt nival luMnud of a /nfri/ (furorHindHt might propprly have
been mude the subject of a ctiuiinal pioHixulion uudoi (he ludinu
Bciial Code.
lu oouolusion for the piescut 1 may bo pormilb'd torenmik ibal
Ibo 'ircgoiug will givo yiivir readtrs bu oppm-tunity of mmurkitig
what reliance is to bo placet in iho lepealdd aasuvoralioiiu oC Govern*
niebt tiittt they are wisbfid to foftter ih^i plauting interest aud iuvitc
tbe In vest men t of Eutojnau ci'piial in ludiii.
A. COOPEU ABBS,
Madras^ 26lh March 1879.
KOXBaUUliNO'IJiS.
1875. 1676
1077 '
187K
1. 1 ' '
«
i
i 7
9
--"
0
SeA«$onable
Cold, 1
Dry. weather*
vegetatfon
retarded*
. _-iJ
dry.
.JC-.M.
'th«^;thiuider)« growling, and the llghtantfig fiashifig, etui altoget^ a'
Wtyr tclerohla Imitatloo ik a vyoione 1« geiag on oyi of .dporf. r
The following Is e oomparatlve table of (he pa«t five a«a«ooe
Snowy days ...
ip,ly „ ...
Unny „ ...
Wind m theesrly part North, then voc(red ioN.-B., aftervtarda to 8,
When 4110 wind is in tbe N* quarters it generally brings rain; 1 presame
from the tact that, passing over the snowy range it displaces the hot
air ot the plaint) causing a vacuum, which, ooHeotiug the rooiatnra
lloahng about in the ulr causes condensatiuu aud the falling of the
luoioturo as rain. There has beou pfenty of thunder aud ligbtenheg,
modeiale lu sound and intensity, i
The ibi’riuomeier (Fhi), hung in an opon verendah, W. aspect
H about •i7‘^m the inoriiiug, 63" iu the oveniog, lowest 80*, highest 64*.
Tho iialivcs have a saying that if the weather has been dry up to tbe
HtbFobiuaiy mid coiuiuiu‘8 dry all iUat day, that the winter will be
alateono,and v^ill be exiended into (bo summer. It was dry on
that day, and for about five mouths pievioiiily, aud there appears every
prubebiliiy of the saying pioving into thin year.
Iho male ooue-i of the koid {fctlnnf difOilom') are out; (he obil
U^iHus Ivngjfolta) aad im {Ih/iHg ea:ocJsa} aro putting forth their new
leaves , the shogul (wild ponr) IS putiing forth Bs leaves and coming
inio blossom the two open aiions being ''almost siumUatieous ; tbe
H u ^'ayaa honey siu'kie (vein, kliu/tiit ibang) poplar, b'r<l-vherry and
wamat are coming into leaf ; the rhodoiJemtrous (verii, bcag) both the
juiilvcolourod dud scarlet coloured ones are out in all ihoir maguifioeuoe
the uoxuitts-ieavrd vtburiniim (vj-tu. ttis-tna) is coming into leaf
Wild ii'jwer, vioieis are out lu grt^at profusion, though only a few
ot them—the darker kinds, those growing in moist shady plaoea<—are
scented ; the village children gather large quantities of them and soil them
to native dealers who boil theiu.aud convert them intOA syrup winch is
reckoned cooling aud is specialty used in the hoi weather : the juice of
Iho leaves is an antidote for snake bile . then there is a sweet smelliug
flower ub'irnbiing beliolropw, the coin-tulip Cveru. ghcltt) now abotiods
lu the co)iMlebi»>, its pretty pink, and white petals making a charming
contrast to die grooii wheat. Weeds arc coming up iu great profusion,
j sptuaUy the dock (\eru,/wa/Wii) which Isa Hpeoml curse ot tho fields
aud rtqmrus ooiiSiunt diggitig uuL lu keep il under, Daudehous are out
III plenty, HSulio the buMeroiip.
The Woodcock has Itic us and migrated to the plains ' martins are
now prepunug their nests . minnhs are pleiiuful. For true sportsmen
i us 18 the eud ot the seusou’s shootuig, ns tho birds are mating, build*
lug then uesis. and aiiangiiig tor the loiihoommg hatching operations,
.vrangeiosay next mouth and until Oolohor the hills, will swarm with
cookney-Mpoiisiuea who will maicU about with extensive batteries,
IvilUfguny uud ovety bud (^bpocuUly liiose eilting in thdr viests,
11*1 tlioy arc ‘ such nieo cavy poi ehois.”) I that comes wuhin raoge
ot ttnir bullots, while liny make one quite uerviKis lu see the
ici'lvloM way iu which they fire oil (heir shuoUag irons ; though the
chief diiiigtii IS (f) to thuiuselvfs (2) to auy oae standing behind
thuin. Tho uaiivo iahiJtartei make capiial out of such people and lead-—
or rullior mislead—(hem iiuu ad sorts of impossible places under
proft ulo of "showing them a thing or two’’m the shape of coveys tif
bird oi herds of uuimuls, wlnub turn out to lie so much tnoousliiae*-
aud < peiise fur uotbuig ; wheu found fault with the shikaritt give the
stciOo >'p<'d answer "woudtiriul, never kuew this place to fail ipe
befoto always full lust year Jiatnuf Sahxb'* (evidently a relative of
Ml e. baili>») “ killed enormous quautLues here and was so pleaeed with
Kir,—TI iO weather during this muinh has been satisfactory We
have had fine growing t' n vrs, and (hough there has been soru^f hail,
yet coiuiug at this snasurt it has done hardly any haim as the ears of
the ccteals arc only just to . and wlnirc Ihtiy havo been injured
there is still time for thorn ' recover Ihcmstilvei- or for now hbools to
come out; tho real doiiger fr"in tudl is whou u comes Unrtng the
iiionths of Aptil-May wiien tho Im.Uy is po*t u-adv foi harvesting, lu
which evrnt the grutn IK ktioeki'd >ut of tho cars and strewn on the
grouud to the lots of tho (uiiivatrr. the v ai^o theu bulfeis, as
although a mouili behind bui toy in the iiiim ot iipenmft, still it has then
reniihfd that singe when ii.i«i') to il pMclu'ltVM.y ihimce ot its^making
fresh efforts at fcprouuoibg ili».j'f. The r»iuo nmniks apply to the
fruit blos£')ms» There is a heavy storm now i aging, the hail is rattling
cm tho rcofi tho wiciU ia roari(% itund the house, the trees are loftwipiRtg,
luo for |jiiii^;.nghim here that ho made me a handBume preoeat" &c,, 9i0^
all of V ch our worthy cockney swallows and — »■■■■ ■■g, f meau
blesses, Ins own ill-luck. Hpnlers, liaards, fish- worms are out much eariioi*
owing to the mildnsssuf tho aeatsuu, Bees are swarming about the fruit
biohSui'imn great iiiimbeis. *
Fui d grains aro slighily dearer than last month, as this if an
oppurMiuity lint to be lost by our noher Zomiudars, so luao/^of wlloC^
uic Gjvoinmeut nfllomls with power to abuse their position, c8psoia']ly%
wiiou thoy aro under the imrnediare proteciiou of (he Qorerumecit^
ICuropean servant of the disr. ict : (he poor are thus ground down under
offiotal Sanction. Villagers are ploughing and preparing some of thetr
fields lo sow uplund-rree, millets (verb, koda and kdoni), a species of dfifii
eatled bharrdt ft»*d hiil-potatoos (tern yiaAaH fi/ij) oar poAig^,'
wheat was topped durmg the first week iu the uto&th and, the
(HDi^,4W(:mLiiFni?7' '
itoF^tifd ni^ lif^} to tho Cittlo who llkid II ttnoh} fehli ilwh
' ft til titd In fito nuy hoh)o4 Ui» hill whOftN gi^wlof
io »o 'Whteb hftiiiot be«o top^.
LoiiUli (vifu, iMs4r) $n growing; tha b$tUf ii well loto Mr; the
whMt Mt k^lofmlag-^ihe'orop wmiNi Itee than in former ywre
but ihoro Will hotuj^le to eotblo theooUifntorstotMeoTer aalll tbe
nutn^oropihrorenped* YlThotetbe gtopnd hailwen well and oon-
liiiiWtialf mnnur^theoropa are floortihlng and will yield a full return,
I'd ahow hew graal has been the drought of the paat winter 1 may
ment^n that Vhtre wheat wai lown late (Deoeimber) laat year» It
baa only, wow conunenoed to aproat,.^i^.i after the anow that fell at
tba beginning of tbe month. The new graie le eprontlsg and looking
dtlighifnliy glMn.. Olorar la coming into flower,
6f ftttit trees there are the apricot with iia red and white
petal#,: the peach wUh Its pink petals: the oberry and quince
with tbair wUtn bloiaoma: the apple (about a month late this year)
with Its delioata pink and white blouom almoit as obarming aa a
yottag maiden*a ohaake; this year will not be a good ooa for apples
whioh only oome in plenty avery other year; laat year being a bumper
aeaaon,lbie year will give ni leee, and the vine, whioh li juat hareliog
Into leaf.
In gardening mntteri all kinds of flower seeds are now being sown :
pinks, the tulip crocus, and other perennlala transplaced, Ooiooa
transplanted, potatoes, peas, Ice., sown. Paths are being put info repair.
Koteghur, ) O, i>
Slit Mareh 1879. } _
agiuiL'-iiia'ii I'ft^jjagaeasr
TUBE WELLS.
( fa iha JSditcr of tho l^urjotlin^
81B,—In several of yoor recent publications I have noticed a
correspondent of your paper speaking in praiseworthy terms of tbe
Tube Wells, but 1 cannot say that I tborooghly oomprehend or that 1
understand the particular description to which he alludes. Tube
Wolfs are no doubt beneficial fo certain soils, but why your corres¬
pondent should iudlseriniinately reoomaiend tbem as generally suited
to any and every locality seems to me suspicions, inasmucb aa we know
from only so far hack as the Abyssinian oampaiga that they commenced
well but ended badly; if a (air conclusion is deducible from the results
obtained at Zoulla Bay and subsequently further into tbe interior,
white rocky soil was met with ; when the Tubes eignally (ailed and the
Government, notwithstanding the laudable eflorta on their early
aaeceases, eonaideted It advisable to provide for a possible emergency,
eonsequently had other resources to fell back npou, fortunately for tbe
Army, otherwise the disaatroue off eels oousequenton the army reaching
tbe interior, and rocky soil, might have been a terrible check to an
otherwise triumphaet foroe. Korton's Tube Wells are doubtless good
bet are not equal to indiscrimuate application any where and every-
wbero.
The Tube Wells may be likened unto the Artesian Welle, whioh are
applieable only to looalities with natural springs and to be c ^ed when
such localitiM suit in spring and soil. It must not be thought however
that I do not speak without experienoo of these wells and tliat 1 am not
aware of exaotly their capabilities. In admitting that they might be
used with good rasulla in psrhaps 10 per omtum of the gardens about
tbe district—and this ratio Is what to me seems tbe outside allowance-
in aed abonf the Terai there is orttainly a probability of their being
used pretty exteosively, provided plsuters did not see in them more of
a toy than a practical and servloeabto engine, that would answer fully
the requirements of tbe ordinary well or spring. Of course it’s alt very
well lopplylng tbe coolies with pure water for driokiug purposes, but if
there ware any anmber of wells In and around a plantation, the gr<»it
nnwmihed wonid prefer to visit the yVesm where his thirst for water
wodld be eatlated in spite of all the planter's warnings as also bis
appetite ^or a little wholfsouio flirtation with hmeJno allowing
that the welle—as it would be natural to suppose—were only placed
within so^ limiie as would tend to keep them from injury eay in and
abtmt the oooUe lines.
__' LIEF,
THE BTERILITY OP INDIAN FIELDS.
C ^ fAi. KdiAor of tko *■ Timm of
BxSf'>wYear eorretpoudenr, “ S. V. 8.,” in your issue of lat lifari^b
aootrlhntee a *ety^lii0reetiog letter on the want of that sort of praetieai
agthmUnral ins^etiea wfafdi eCa be so benrfiolally imparied to tho
cultivator by rovenneoffleera ofArury grade in their pariodleal progress
through their diitrleta, the exeoetive revenne offleers of
distrieti ire in a peciiioti to eaggeat to tho ryot many oountevaotlng
meiiareeio prevent the growing 4eH% of eur fl4ds, and to enable
him (0 render to Oovenitdent ♦ha tegulai^ u* oo wi ptoduoe without
imporerishtog himself In the Your eorrsspondentk letter, at
the same ttmoi f urnlebes a good eiample ot the indlfisretiee of all mere
theorists and system*makers to the praetieai dlffleultUs to be eaocuntered
lu carrying out their suggestions end remedial messores. It Is an
instructive circumstance that no specialist or amateur basconfidence
in any but his own pauacea for the ills of this world. ** E.V.8.*'
expresses his opinion that the true methods of profitable egrieulinre are
(1) deep ploughing, (2) the application of manure to giimnlate tho loli
and (3) close and moeasant attention to the operations Of the field, in al]
which, says IS. T. S.,'* toe Indian onUivator is defloient.
Aa to deep ploughing, your correspondent thinks, no doubt, there afe
Btoree of ierlilising snbatanoes in the subsoil which are untouched by
the tuperflolal action of tho plough. He may be correct to a eeriain
extent, bofe the utility of deep ploughing has not been eo decisively
ascertained as Is perhaps generally supposed. In tbe first place, we
cannot be sure if the action of tbe sun and air would be bMefioial to
plants io proportion to (he depth attained by their roots, If It wonid not
be positively harmful beyond a certain depth. It would be altogether
fallacious to argue (hat because (he aotioo of them Iifs*givfog agents il
beneficial to plants to a certain depth, that tberefure It would be bstteflU.
oial to them to any doptb. As Burke observes iu one of bis excellent
letters, it is as uostfe a way of reasoning in physics, aa ft is to morals,
that because a given proportion of a good thing le advaotageona, that
therefore tbe double of it will be twice as advantageous, or thi^ it would
bo advantageons at all to any degree. In tbe same letter, written, 1
may mention, to Arthur ifoung, the distingnlabed promoter of egrtout*
tnral science in tbe last century,he mentions another praoiloat objeetion
to deep plonghing entertained by farmers *—** The minerals, in general
stem nnpropitious to vegetation. 6ome clays seem to bo of the same
noxious quatiiy, and this, if true, makes an exception to deep ploughing
upon bottoms mixed with such sabstauccs, lupposiug the principle of
deep-ploughing to be otberwiee generally eonnd. Under this bead
comas the general objection of farmers against ploughing up the dead
earth, or going beyond what is called the staple } that is that body of
dirk-coloured mould which seems to be m (lart formed of rotten vegetable
and animal substances. All these are doubts and questions not to be
passed over lightly, especially the last, beoanse it comes from men of
much experience and is not a local objection, from a pertioular nature
of a oertaiu substratum, but supposes an universal inaptitude in all soils,
beyond a certain depth, for tbe purposes of vegetation ” The Indian
ryot, 1 believe* entertains lUe eame objection to deep ploughing,
WbetUer be is right or wrong, is a question to be decided by eoieutific
experts on asoertaiuoJ data, But to assume as an established fact iu
agricultural acietjoe that deep-ploughiog is essential to tbe proper
nourishmenttif plants, and (hen to reproach tbe ryot (bat his mode of
ploughing is but a mere eoratebing of tho ground, icaroeJy denotes
a thoQghlful or dispassionate mind.
As to the use of manures as stimulanti of tho soil, no doabt “ E. V, fi.'»
givee very seusible advioo. It is very good of him to advise the ryot to
couierve lefuie matter and utilise human fertilmers ; but what does be
know of the resources of the ryot In this respect ? Tbe Indigenous and
local manure in a village is searocly ever sulBcient in quantity for the
requirements of the fields. The application of manure to auy soil is, of
course, inteudrd to restore the exact quauiiiy of iitorgauio snbetanoes
witbdtawQ from that sod oo each oocasloa.' That can only be done
whcit the produce of the village fields is entirely ooosomed in the village
by mail ami animal, and ihe refuse q£ the food (bus cousiimed by man
au<l animal is returned to tbe eoU lu the shape of manure. AS, bowaveri
there is not a village in India which does not export some portion ol
its produce, a large portion of the iuorganio substances is (hue
permanemly withdrawn from the auil without being ever returned to
It. The cultivator must, therefore, import artificial manure to make up
the quaniltles of fertiliaing substances wUbdrawn from the eoil. But
tbatisaqneationentlrelyof money, and If he is unable to buy manure
for hiM fields, (hat Is no reason why he should be charged with bsiag
*'laxy ” or indifferent lo his iiitareet. The sterility of ludiau fields is
owing, not becaose the ryot does not apply manure to bis soli, but
'because he does not possess tbe meaaa to apply it in qirantitfec sufBoient
to ensare the successful cultivation of his foo.l-plants. Other eonatriei
are able to keep op the f'.rtility of soil because their peasantry are
rich euough to supplement their own manurial resooroes by artificial
manure imported from other places. It has been too much the fashion
to represent the Indian ouliivatof as suuiathiug of a growo*ap child who
IS utterly iOMpuble of miaiiiog hiB own interest, so much so that the
manure which to him i« more valuable than gold, aad which is supposed
to4ia about and rot at hlf very doors, U allowed to poison his air out
of sheet iaeineis, wtttiout being ntilixed for pu'^pirsis of profimhio
agrtoolture, while the fact is be uses as meek manure as ha can obtain
or eonS#m with nil pomihle diligenes, Be is aware bis sol! rsyeiriy
delerioraMiig, and be is awaxo^ too, (hat ware ahondimt mantirs Would
restort Us firtllity.
160
THE INDIAN A6RICULTUEIST. Mayl, l8t9.
** B 4 V. third ooEJit Agiiintt thtf rojt—that he it not
attentira to hie irork« and 10 wanting la eoerg/ and a^pljnalion-^itfa/
beditiaUaedinafew wordf, S, V. IS/’ ailegee no propff worth tba
nam^ in anpport of hia asaertlon, except peraonal knowledga of tha laot*
However exteiudve that p^raoual knowledge may be, and howam it
may have been ao^ujrm]» agaiuat it may be set off the experience and
knowledge of ow revenue servants, of those who possess an intimate
ackioaiutanoe with the ways and habits of the Indian caltlvator. There
is no peasant in the world who works for, the bare neoessarles of life «o
iueessantiy, aod| wlihal, with such cheerful resiguation to hts lot*
With a etannoh belief in a relentless fateltsm, the ryot works early and
late to earn that Utile which is left to him after the Governmetit have
raok»tent6d him, and the sowoar has plundered him. And he it
remembered, that la spite othis hard lot in life, he rises superior to the
tnlseiles or his oondition, is a loyal and couteuted subject, living in
peace with his neighbours, and kind to the very bullock or ox that helps
him to till his field.
Id oonolasioo, I might mention that the tenor of my retuarks is intended
to show what 1 inyeelf am fully convinced of—that under present
oircumstancos there aro no ameliorating measures the ryot can adopt
which can increase, to auy appreciable degree, the yield of his fields.
Hero and there, by costly and special appUances, the yield of Indian fields
might sho^ sumo peroeptible increase; but, as u rule, not one of
those numerous remedies eo glibly suggested to counteract the
atei’iiily of ludiau fields, is capable of stimulating produce to any
extent. You ask the ryot to employ good seed, to use abundant
manure, aud to rear a better breed of cattle; but you do not refieot
that oeilber good seed, nor abundant manure, nor a better bleed of
cattle, are to be obtained without money—a commodity rather scarce
with the ryot. Thus it is that whiln population is constantly and
rapidly iaoreaj^iug, the food-pruduciug capacity of the sod is us
certainly detorioraliog, aggravaliug year by year the distressing condi-
tlou of the ouitivaiiug olassss throaghout India.
1\ l\ T.
6th March, —«-
TUSSEll SILK FILATURE.
(To the Editor of tko " MngliihuianT)
6ir,—I n yottt paper of the lt)lh ourreut, you givc« credit to Captain
Oouasmaker for having first brought the tuuser cocoon to the notice' of
the Qoverumeut, or words to that effect, and declare that he was
Worthy of receiving the " Grand prize medal,*' vVeC.
Without wishing by any moaus to take away from (he praise due to
Captain Ooussmaker fur the time and trouble he has bestowed on the
tusser coooon, 1 must point out to the public (bat wbat Captain Oouss.
maker has beeu attempung to do without suooess bad already been done
long before. 1 allude to the rearing of the tusser caterpillars in par a
of India other than where it is indigenous, and the unieeling of tuuer
silk from the seed cocoons.
Captain Ooussmaker appears to have attempted to rear worms on
leaves not generally oaten by them, and of course he failed in rearing
tUiirn. Had he only studied the worm first in its jungly home, be
would have learut what to feed (hem on ; ho appareuliy did not do
this,and used a 11 umber of leaves that others toll him to use, and
1. led. No one up to this has taken tut trouble to disousa the matt«r,
and what he has placed ou paper stands goo 1* He gives a list in his
report to the Guveramont of thirteen different plants ou whioh the
worms have been fed. and there are only two oni of the IB that are
really fed on by the tusser womu m its jungly slate. In 1862 1 bap*
pened to bo employed lu the Palamow district, and as I had just left a
firm under whom I had seen a good deal of silk reeling, the tusser
worms aud cocoons natutally attracted my atteutluu. 1 made experi¬
ments to unreel the oocoone, and after repeated failures, in 1864-65,1
found ont bow to work them off. 1 then made sopio skeins of silk for a
friend, who scut ihe"» off to Jinglstod, wnere it was reporteu ou and
valued by Messrs. JDutiu t and Co. Unfortunately for me, this friend
left the country, and as 1' my time fully occupied with other bustness,
1 dropped the tusser ooco;n‘i. Iti 1868-6'd, 1 addressed a letter to the
Qovetnmcut of India giving information as to the tusser worm, fitc.,
aud asking the Govorumouc to asBist me in otiiisiug the tusser Silk,
and oiheiwise giving It a po‘i'tiou in the Kiuopoau markets; but 1
novsr had a reply to this. In 1872, I again aUdreMod a letter to
the Government of India, Agriculture and ilotticuliure Department
(to Mr. beorotary J, Geoghegan), setting lorth all 1 knew about the
tusser cooou 4 «, atatiug that 1 could uuiael the silk from them, and
j|)roposing a scheme to open out a tusser siih filature, offering
too to supply land, free of •cost, for ereotlng the filature npou, and
asking (or aid, tUI 1 could place the raw tusser sUk on tlna Haropeao
mat'k<its AS a recognised aritcle of export, aft«r w'> t t woaUi find
I BOv'le 10 tttk«t H over from iho Ouvei ument I heatd tu naswer to ihU
(I name to hear from, ontsiderx) were printed by the Governnient, end
sent out for the opinions of the Cepunisilooera of DivisioAS. Leter
on I got a farther reply of « negative obaracter,
Aboat 1876 J again took tervice with my previous employers ip the
•ilk buiinoss. I then found a lot of tusser cocoons at tbe bead-qoartera
of my manager that bad been sent to bim by the Chief Oommisiiotier of '
the Central Frovinoes for expeiimentiug on. No one knew the prooesa
of unreeiing (hem, so 1 was asked to take them In band. X made silk
from them, that 1 sent to the Chief Commissioner *^As howe,Ser
iho cocoons were old and considerably damaged, I aikefi the Chief
Commissioner, Central Frovinces, to send me a fresh^lotoh f this be did,
and I reeled off some more silk (or him. I then had eommanioatlont
from the D<>puty Commiasiouer of Chanda, and the Assistant Com-
misflioner of HoMhiarpur, regarding the tusser cocoons and silk, and
1 sent thorn some tusser ailk, Aiterwards, 1 wrote to tba Chief
Cotnmissiousr, Central Frovinoes, proposing to open out a tnsser silk
filature withm his jurisdlotion, if ho would assist me with rent-free
land for the works, and grunt mo certain other rights and prlvUegea ;
also give mo the sole monopoly of roriing silk from the tusser cocoon
fur a aeries of years, lu answer to this 1 got the following
No. 3371.
Fiom—CVptain.W, V^ertua, Deputy Commissioner, Chanda,
To—J. Deveria, Esq,
Chanda, the 14tli of October 1878.
bir,—In con<lunation of piuvious oorrespondenoe, 1 beg to say that
I duly forwarded your letter of 1st July for the information of the *
Chief Commissioner, Central Fro vincas.
1 am dirncted to inform you that Mr. Morris thinks the Central Fro-
' inoes are too backward to offer a field for the speolal knowledge you
possess. Mr. Morns thinks that you might perhaps find it advan.
iageous to put yourself in cumtauuioatioii with the Government of
India, Department of Agricultural, Ksvenue, and Commerce, aud
Captain Coussmaker.
1 have, 4^0.,
(Sd.) W. VbbtuE.
1 then wrote to the Indian StaUman fitating my speoialitd of
reeling off tusser coooous, and asking for Captain CuussmakeFs address.
This letter was replied to by Captain OousSmaker, to whom 1 sent
thttie skeins of tusser eitk reeled off by ray process, as also speolmous
of coloured stuffs woven in the Buncoorah district from tussec s^ilk.
These upocimeue wore all woven with fast-dyed tusser silk. 1 got
thanked l»y Oaptain Coussmnker for the silk 1 sent him. He wrote to
nac,—"the three skeins aio the very beet I bavo everseen ; heaotifclly
clean, biigbt, glossy, aud even ; perfectly tree from smell, and if our
cocoons can be worked up like that, they must bo well worth collect¬
ing," Bo you see, the tusser cocoons were unreeled by me in the
oruinary filatures, long before it was done m Italy, and Capt. Oouis-
maker has brought nothing new to bear on tbo tusser silk question. I
guarantee lo make as fine silk from tbo tnsser oocoons, as any of the
Italian or ll’reuch reclers. And more, toy silk will have the gum on
them, necessary to ensure a firm and even thread whioh the continental
silk does not possess, Another point too is, that the silk reeled off the
tnsser coGuoiis in Europe is puffy, and from want of gum the thread
unravels and shows all its fibres, very much after the appearance of the •
'• iltjss'' silk that is used for carpet work and embroidery purposes,
and the question is whether the trade will accept of such a class of
mik. If silk of this description were unToelcd from the ordinary silk
sMCoons and sent to market, it would probably turn out unsaleable. I
1> .VO found that the tusser cocoon oanuut only bo uuroeled in filatures
ills'] Iho ordinary silk cocoons (with the aid of solvents), but more,
th' V can be worked up Into stuff very like cardboard, and If filler the
cai aboard is pessed aud dry it had given back to it the albumen and
tannin, which it lost in manipulating, the cardboard or "block silk** as 1
call It. reeumes the peculiar bard leathery texture it originally bad ; 1
am <i yn^'.sed to ounolude that such prepared block silk will eyentually
supersede gutta pereba and caoulchouc (Indian rubber) to a good exten
because the subsianoe appears to me lo be a non-condactor of “beat
and not susceptible to lose its elastioliy. 1 have, however, not
been able lo carry out any extensive especiments with this ptepartd
uiaterUl. Ifa would, however, be of the utmost Importance to science
and art that the properties ef “ block silk’* should be tested, and ila, '
oapablUties experimented upon. The Government ought to be able to <
andsrtake this investigation. H necessary, 1 will explain to the ^
Government offloials how to manufacture the " block silk " 1 allude to ;
and if required 1 will supply eight to nine mauiida of tusser cocoons
at prime cost, to earry ou the experiments with. The Government
eomohow make no memion of my previous oemmonieations regarding
the uDHvedug of ibe tusser oocooue, aj|id Oaptain Ooussmaker also does
no^ iti his pubiiotitions seen by me, make any mention of the
specianefi I have w(;tke»l out. Be (his as it may, tliero is a great deal
...... *u... ........... . wfi.tAniniiil 1 ami
May 1,1879.
THE INDUN AGRICULTURIST,
15 (
it k to Uop«<l tli«t tlk« Oovemmeat will «ptr« no ooat or «tooblo to
do tbo Id miter.
In tty preriOde cooittttalodtione, 1 tabmitied to tlie Oovernmeat Ibe
nedddiitty of prooariog fall Infonuttioo regirdiog the bleeohing ead
dyeldg of tbe tuieer ytra, os praotided in tb» mlooe diatriot# of Bengal.
I el«o aiMlited In the matter to a amatt eatent, but op to this 1 have
sever been able to learn what haa been done, if gny thing, towards
ranking pnblio the information obtained on the enbjoet.
Finally, in the papera published on the taimr ooooona (allnded to
by you) there 4ro a great many items that eoald be disoafoed, and erro-
neons reports eorr^ted. Wit) the Qovommeat not ask Captain Cooes- j
maker to give hie aid towards the said dleoQaeioos and oorreotlone /*
i woald like to lee what he eaye on the reeling of cocoons at a tempera*
tore of 200 degree#.
J, DEVBUIA.
FORESTS ARO RAINFALL.
(2b the Xditof of the '* Xombay OauUft')
Sib,— 1 read In yoor journal of the 6tti iiiataat a very inferesiing
article on "The EfiCect of Forests on Balufail." ACtuc having given
some data obiaiued on the Coattnerit regarding tbis very Impurtnat
•abject, you conoiode by saying that the data obtained are of no use to
prove that the forests cause a greater atmvnt of rain to fall wh(>re it is
most essentially needed, Vi£., m surrotindwig cultivated lands, and that
tho searobea made on the Oonilueni have led to no mafenat remltA,
at least this is how I understand your argument. 1 perfectly agree
with you on the first point, for I was not aware that it 'was ever
intended to ehow that the benadts of forests extended av far as thi.s.
But as regards material remits^ the Continental forest authorities
hare arrived at very important results, and they arc now laid down
as absolute laws in the sobools of forestry in Qermauy and Frauco,
1 shad ooudue myself to only giving those which relate to the question
ofBaiufali aud Forests." Uiveu a large tract of forest anywhere,
ita efteot on the country around is>-Firstly.>.The same us a
large tract of water. It modoratos all oUmatic pheuomeua in tho
sutrouodiog country, keepiug the temperature more or less near
to a mean. And in iuoreasiug the number of times (not neocassarily
the amount) of the rainfalR] lu a twelve mouib. This last is nothing
more or less than modifying a chnaiaiic pUeuomouou.
Hpooudty.'—fiincreases the water supply of tho neighbouring country.
Thirdly.—It slops tho ravages caused by the rush of sudden and
great floods of rain.
Tho QonsequuDoe accruing from tho flrst is naturally this. If in
place of the ooeau we had a foiest our »South>Wsst monsoon would bo
but slightly aker^d; but if in tho place of tho ooe iri we had only
cultivated or buic lands the eflect would be certain death to the
greater part of the coiamuuity. This applies also to forests on a
small scale. For when a hut wind blows across a forest, its air absorbs
a great quantity of moisture from that forest, aud by passing over
several series of forests or one large forest, it gets more or less
charged with moisture, aud provided the source of obtalmug moisture
does not cease sooner or later, it condenses, in the form of rain, on
that land over which it may bo at the time when it is overcharged
with tuoislore. Of course to lower essentially the temperature of a
hot wind and to overcharge, ita air with moisture, the forest lu
question must not only bo of large dimensions as regards area, or u
oontinoed series of tolerable siaed forests, but each forest must be
complete—that is, it must cover completely the ground on which it
stands. Scrub forests and forests of poor growth are next to useless.
But given the complete forest us above it acts like a sponge, always
retaining moisture in the land and always giving it out little by iitlle
to exterior evaporating agents. Then, it wo have in India a series
of tines of Gomplcte forests on all the hills a large trauts of forests in
the plains, when a strong hot wind blows, the consequence will bo (hat
this hot win dwill get a aeries of coolings aud also will cuntinnatly
take up moisture. Now, if Ibe wind ooutiiiues to blow it will blow
the water-charged air over the land lying between the aeries of
forests. This land or the air immediatnly about it must get more
or less cooled Itself; and then will not tho ram fall outside the
forest? Whore does the water come trom that falls in the South-
West UonaooDS ? Surely not fcom the land an which it fails.
On the other hand, If all the bills are bare or have merely scrub
or grhve, the hot dry wiud blows and blows as Jong as it^ likesi
evaporktiog at first moisture (hat may be wear the surface of
the land» if the sun has left any, and then this air can never cool
eaoagh or obtain enough moisture to cause any rainfall. So dry wind
•ucoeeds dry wind, the gets parched to an ImmeuN extent.
Xtttet Oft when tbe real rain wjndi^ blow, the time the air takes to
eool end Its wftler to oond«ft#» to in direct proportion witb the heat
t>Bt this soli fioatilai w ftoioftito of iu potMfV to *‘ 0 ?
eoudensaiioa} and this heat is less in couniries with forests ^ than
those without. Hen^^e ic is very easy to see tbe benefiotol eflects of
forests here, vk,, of ensuring a rainfall as soon as the rain^hargecl
clouds appear; or, in other words, forests, U pteicnt in a lui&ciebt
quantity, will ensure a regularitf Ift the period that the monsoon
should apiioar, besidtas keepiug the land surrounding at a more moderate
temperature. Who has not seen the clouds tbst pass overhead for
weeks before tho monsoon commencee ? These .oloods cannot cemdense
because the land has to go through the oooiing pri^ess, which takra
longer and longer aororjiog as the amunut of forest land is less.
This, then, is one of tlio eifeota of forests on tho ramfall, and
arises from the fi\ct of forests beiug able to prevent the too rapid
evaporation of rdui, once fallen, by their regutaling powers of respira¬
tion.
But forests resist, amongst many others, one great force, vh., gravity,
whicli tends (o take away water too rapidly when once fallen, aud
ita eflocis can proceed but slowly in presence of forests. Ou bills
especially where forests exist, directly (bo ruiu has fatlea It is held
by tho forest vegotable soil to an amaxing extent, and gravity only
carriMS it to lower levels by degrees, mid thns we have pcrinansat
springs, livuletv, Aii. Ou the other hnn ), wheu rain fails on a barren
country or a hill aide it nearly nil runs ol¥ at once, OArryiug with
it the soil as It cuts deep furrow'i and iiullaha which increase every
year iu sizi, lu fact, it devastates iUe country. Tiiiv is, of course,
impossible wiiere there is a forest. «
Of the water that falls m riilu a small proportion sinks luto tho
depths of the groaud. This is bad enough ; but what is worse follows.
This rain is not followed, X will ssy. by any moie, in fact, tho hot
weather commeaces Thun the foroua of gravity and evaporation
have full play, and in a voiy short time llie whole of the water
has disappeared, never to bo seen a;'ain for another year, t do
not say (hat tUero aro not peruiuQont npriaga iu countries without
foreats; but by wlint I have said bufora it will be clearly leeu that
the supply to cxialmg springs will bu more lasting. Hpriiigs and
streams whiuh last only a part of the year will become permanent,
and many (hat only last hut for a month or so will have their
duration perhaps doubled. 1 cannot enter into a long explanation
ou the subject of spiings, and what iti particular ptaoes they form and
iu what places they will not. Bat ot course such places there are
and (ha theorioi in'!/ be ktiovvji to ail your readers. I would
therefore, in conclusion, aid that fo;o4H may cause latout sptinga
to come again into action, but oC couise where springs never were
aincu (he geological finuatiori of the laud, foresU here onniiot be
expei^ted to mukc tlirMu, But (hoy net benetlaially otherwise in
moderating aud regulating ohmutio phenoraoua and atoppiog the
ravages of great fhods of rain, Bo (hat if the Commission now
titling In Bombay cannot arrive at auy proofs as to tho tsffoota of
forests on ruuirait or ou tho direction of tho winds (over which last,
by-the-bye, they have none), it will always have enough grounds to
go on to declare force's invaluable from .the points of vi^w that the
OoutiuentttI iiatiuas consider them bonollcial, and will doubtless sec
bow indirectly they olTecc famities.
FOE1SST8.
■■ ..." . . I J ' »■
®Il[f
CALCUTTA, MAY 1, 1870.
/ HOW PLANTS ARE FED.
_ _
rpIIE life o£ a plant, like that of an animal, la a mystery. No
oiio can toll why it Uvea, or why it dies. Wo get no expla¬
nation of tho roul matter by saying that plants are propagated
and die, in accordance witii certain fixed laws. We are not one
whit nearer tho secret of oxistonoe even when we know many of
the oouditions imdor which growth, nutrition, and propagation
are possible. In tho cose of rn;iu, “What am I, whence came
I, whether ani I tending’'?—these threo questions, which havo
formed the central magnet, round Which the best thooghts of
all iite agoB has gatherod. are likely in all-time coming, to bo as
fniilful in thought and speculation as in the old clays.
llowcomoa it, that a seed, a germ, oast into the eartli, and buried
out of sight nhoald find thero, those voiy coiiditionri which are
ubsoliitoly nooessary for its life and growth? A plant may bo said
to have begun to live, when tho lieat and moisture of the earth
have set up in the starcliy wubatauce of tho aeod, a chemical action
by which thi« starchy matter is changed iutosugai, airigtyou
up i/s food to the young plitMuk and rootlets. It is quit®
152 ' THE INDIAN ASRlCCLWfilST. May 1,
trn«y UiAt tbtt teed ooQld got boot ittd moioiaro wltbotii Mng
buried iu tbo ground i but it wauto eomotbing worOf U it is
to eomo to maturity. All that tho beat and moisturo do for
tbe seed at ibis stage is to tnako it possible that it may feed
imoU till lUo embryo plant sends out rootlets and little leaflets,
dotfu into the soil and up into the air to search for food in
erary direotion, after the stoie has been exhausted with which
every seed is baturally provided. After this has been expended
in producing rootlet and jphcmu/e, after a)l the albumen stored
up in the seed-leaves (eotyledom) and under its skin has
been used up, the plant is then nsnally able to feed itself
from tbe various sources from whicji plant food is obtained,
lliese aro the three following, the soil, air, water; plants do not
directly teed on solids. Whatover mineral matter enters into the
cotnpoailiou of plauts and forms pari of their tissuoF, is brought
10 them dissolved in water. No solid substanoe can enter a plant
as food. All plants are formed of colls, litllo bags of nearly every
shape and varying iu size, within tho walls of which are certain
liquid and granular buhstauoes. Tho walls of these colls are
composed of a substanoo called cel/uloge, they are extremely
thin and often transparent, and the cell contents are albumen,
a substance having much the eauie properties as white of egg,
woody matter, starch, oil, sugar, gum, and colouring subs¬
tances.
The coTls of an orange are easily seen, as are those of
other fruits; but cells are of every shape, round, oval
flattened to a disc, few or many sided, produced by pressure,
drawn out to a spindle shape, their walls touching, aud some-
tinies broken away, forming short lubes and vessels of different
sorts. Some are full of haid woody matter, others have a fine
juice as their oontentH ; some are neaily filled by spiral thread-like
structures winding round their walla, others again ooutain colouring
substances from wiiich come the varied tints of stem, foliage
and flower. These cells aud tubes and vessels, whether they can
be seen by the naked eye, or only under the micros, «pe have no
direct open passage from one to the other. Even the extreme*
ends of the little flbres of tlio root, called by the elder vegetable
physiologists gpmgioteSt have no opening, they are closed cells.
Some people are under the iinpresalon, that the ends of roots are so
many open mouths, leading into open tubes, through which food
(sap) enters, and is carried over the plant, us blood is circulated
bythe\eins and arterios over the bod 3 % Plants have no sap
vessels no tubes with open ends sucking up noiirishineut. From
tip to crown they aro altogether cells, big, little, hard, soft, all
shapes, serving various purposes iu tho economy of the plant, but |
all closed at either end. Whatever then, gets into a plant must I
be either liquid or gaseous. The qaesUou naturally arisfs, but if ‘
the oells aie all closed, how can either air or water ontei ? That •
they do enter we kuow, and in the case of water we ran see it
enter ; by placing the glowing bulb of a young hyacinth iu
coloured water, the colouring matter is seen creeping up tho long
white flbres and ascending the roots. A plant then has the power
01 taking water in at its loots aud sending it over the whole
plant, and the only possible way it could gain an entrance is
through the cell walls. This it does iu accordance with
a well known physical lnw called tho law of osmosts or
impulse. Briefly stated, it in as follows :^All liquids of
unequal density Boparated by a poious partitiou have a tendency
to mix, aud in this respect it resembles the law of (he diffusion
of gases. This law can be illustrated iu many ways. Here is
one : tie a piece of bladder to the end of a fine glass tube, aud fill
the bladder with t^. ';cle aud water, placing it in a glass jar
of water. Iu a short time you will see, round the bladdei, the
water getting disooh uM'd aud you may be sure the water is
going through the bladder, for the treacle and water are rising iu
the tube. Tho same exporiniont may be peiformed with sugar
and water, or with alcohol and water, or with any two liquids
of different densities. This is precisely what takes place in the
plant; outside tbe root there is always moisture, and during the
rains, abundance of water. Suppose a cell at the extreme end of the
root to be resting in water, a little o£ its contents will ooze out, as
iu tbe case with the treacle through tho bladder, and be replaced by
a larger quantity of water.from without. This cell now conlams
a mixture of water aud its onginal coutenb, fMsatituiing a
liquid much leas dense than that contained by the aijoiniug cells,
to wluch it IS attached. Tbe some process is commopioated
from cell (o call. All jplMts liave not the sa]^e'e«|p«^ of
imbibing liquids, some take ha more, some ^as* A sun
flower has been known to absorb thirty^our cubic iucbea in
an hour. This of course is exceptional f but if we j;em«iu-
ber that this passage into each other of liquids of difBaraut
densities is ooustautly going ou in countless numbers of
cells, we may readily believe that a plant will have
DO difEouliy in supplying itself with abundance o^ water
if it is to be had in the soil. It may be^i^^e true tUat
there may be no perceptible difference in the dstfstty of the* sap
after it gets up the j^lant a short distance, neveftheleka there a
difference, endomoiea and exoBmo'iea still go on, till the sap trachea
a part of the plant where the swaying of the stalk add hranchos
forces it higher, and the evaporation from the leaves oarriss off by
exhalation part of the cell contents and so carries the sap up
further.
IMPBOVED PLOUGHS IN THE NORTH-WESTERN
PROVINCES.
W E.have for some time past heard little, officially or otherwise,
of the operations of the Department of Agrioulture and
Commerce In tho N.-W. P. Notices, however, have lately appeared
iu some of the local papers of the exhibition of implements at
Bulandshalir and Aligarh, which Lave led ns to ma]^ enquiries
as to the progress which the Department has been making in the
^ilreolion of improved ploughs. We remember publislifng several
months ago, a paper by Mr. Buck in which was drawn up a list of
the Jiffoullies” which that officer conceived had to bo overcome
before an English plough could be offered to a native cultivator
with any chance of his accepting it for horn fide use, the four most
important couditious which had to be satisfied being the
following
1. A reduction of the actual weight to such a point as to
enable the cultivator to caivy the plough on his shoulder with
tolerable ease.
2. A reduction of tho draught to vvilliiu the capabilities of
ordinary oulttvaiors* bullocks.
3. A very considerable reduction of the price.
4. A simplicity of manufacture which would render possible
repair or even construction by good native smiths or carpenters.
Wo have now obtained the following particulars with reference to
the operations which have been going on under the Department
since the publioation of the note to which wo havo referred. In
the first place it appears that a very large number of ploughs were
brought over by the Department from America and England, and
that at tlie same time Messrs. Ilansome and Sims were personally
cousulted as to the possibility of modifying the native plough, of
which a speoimeu bad boon sent to them. It appeared evident,
however, that the principle ou which the native plough is oon-
stracted is m itself vicious and that it is absolutely impossible to
accept it as the basis of modification. Ilia only course whioli
remained thoreforo was to take one of the Foreign ploughs as the
^vo^klng niodol aud iutroduce such rnodiflcatious as could make
ii satisfy the required couditious. After trials of varions ploughs
ii was found that the weight and draught were universally pro-
ht'>itlve, but it was at tho samq time decided that one of Messrs.
Ri uaome and Sims lightest ploughs (the “B. F. 0.*') gave ths
befit promise of success. A modified form of the plough was made
in ihe bazaar, the price was reduced to Bs. 15, the work dohe by
the plough was extremely good and any fairly good pair of
bullocks could drag it with ease. But it wasnot light enough in
actual weight; was not within the dragging powers of tbe lighter
bullocks of tbe avoiage cultivator, was somewhat complicated in
make, and was still not low enough in price. Another model, (one
of the American Eagle swing ploughs) was therefore subsUtUted '
for the lost described plough, which, of all tlie English patterns,
bad seemed the most likely to succeed, and is still to be greatly
recommended where good bullocks are available. Experiments
were conducted under tbe superintendence Mr. Fuller, Mr. Suck's
assistant, who succeeded in introducing some effective fUodifleatione
in the American plough now taken iu hand as a model; the make
d the plough was simple enough, and It wge seem foqnd^'tideklble
I to reduce the actutd lyeight to wiihm the r^oired llmlie b^ a
‘ few immaterial aUerations in pattern ; Uie draught however Vm
A
Xd;^
May 1, THE iJNmAJN AlxttiUULTUlUbi.
wtill too gr«»t md nomo farther iiUerivtions had tb be rftade Ut order
to lessen to resisUiiir force. Finall/, enmpics of tUo plough wore
turned out in the Cawnpoi e Bazaar at variona prices, between
Its, $ and 10, which flettK*il dowii to a oentrset price Us. 8-8. Tho
oonstrnotion of tlie 'implemont ih extreit^y simple and to steel
point which is the one part of to plough which is liable to more
or less constant renewal is sc riveted Con an American plan) ns
to bo replaceable by any ordinary good mktn. l^l»e weight of
tho plougli as now turned out is 18 seers, the average draught
registered by the clyiiniionieter ohout 1 fj cwt., Die price i** (as
above statVd) Bs. 8-8 and the repaiia or construction of the im¬
plement are Vitbin the powers of any ordiiiaiily good native
workmen. Tho average depth of the ftirrow is about 5 in¬
ches.
Ito condition of the problems which tho department set itflolf
to work out have therefore been appaionlly fciUillod so far ns they
have already hoen stated. Bnt it hns J'ct to ho proved that
tho plougli fulfils all the conditions requiicJ hy iialivo
cultivators uni that they will tliomselves adopt it arid
bring it into pi aoticnl use, i?von if (an eooina likely) the plough
can be used without leal difficulty by tho Indian ryot, y.ot the
vis inerticG which has to be oveioomo is so powerful that much
rernaioH to ho done befoie any extcnairo iutrodixolnon of tho plough
can be hoped for. Tho fiint stop taken has boeu to bring it to
public notice at tho Fairs lieltl in tho Bulandshahi and AUgaih
districts, in tho former of which tho fail has bomo claim to be
called an AgiiouUutal Show. Among the '/omlndais of these
districts there »&, as it liappe ns, J|Jie most inlelhgen* ?;oaloiis sot
of proprietors to he found in these piovinces and the ‘vsnlt of the
exhibition of the plough at the above named fans has
intoicf>t these gontlcmcii tliojougldy in the matUT. l^utit le
raoio satisfactory to Hole thattt uei tain luimber of cnltivutois,
among them the man ill whose field the experiments weie ti.'''‘^»
have expressed tlicir practical appro\al of the ploughs by giiin/'
orders for I hem. The next slop will bo to tiy thorn on Court of
Wards Estates, and it is expected that hy the end of next phuiglung
season tho voidict of .the native cultivalors inuy h»vo boon
obtained.
The plougli, tt« now irjodilind, cannot ho brought sutliciGiitiy close
to the hullooko to enable tho dnvoi of tho plouu;h to reach iiis
bullocks* taihsi ; but when cdlilo uie laitly trained li is ipiilo pos*
sible for the ploughinaii to dri%etheni himseli, and an a matter ot
fact this is regularly done hy one oi two juLolligont culijvalois who
have taken tho piniiglis, while both at linlaiidishahi and Ali^ath
fails,it was demoustudod oven with tmlramcd bullocks, tliul this
was a matter of no groat djlliciilly.
it is umlorstood that the Dopartmont aie still piiraumg tlo^ study
of the plough and that it is veiy possible that fuitlior modihcatious
ornew models may yet bo adopted. But tlicy consider that tho
results alroaily reached suffioiently meet tho rcfpurod condilions to
justify thorn in making n commencement in iiitioduoing an iin
proved plougli to the notice of native cultivators. Several ofiiuul
and native gentlemen have voUuiteeiod n lecpieRt that ploughs
may be sent to them, and there is no doubt tbat a piactical
And elHoiont trial will now be made in vatmus pails of the
provinces the results of which will he m.olo known n«>vt
year,"
HEAL rHlLANTUllOrV.
W B havo heatd of an enterprising advertiser, who “ kept a
poet on the preruises,” but to start a philarilhi-opist must
have been reserved for Messrs. Warner and (Jo., Agricnitnial
I^gineers of Cripplegato. Messrs Warner and Co., mo much
interested in the iutrodtiction of windmill pumps into India, as
A, eimplo means of raising water, and they base their inleirst
in this matter not on sordid considerations of L, iS. JD. but on the
more exalted principles of a pure philanthropy. I'licir spokesman
is a gentleman of the naroo of Gosliu, unfortunate in its'^. ihgges*
tiveness, end ha has lately “thrown olf*' several literary gems,
which reach this eenntry in company with illustrated catalogues
of^ his patroti’a maohinery. of hts prod actions circfulatod in
this way is in to fCrm of a latter to a corrospondent, interested in
windmill pumps, apd, at to risk of detracting from its excellence
as a whole, we cniinct help quoting u eoutetico or two ns
studies ill Syntax asVell as in Indian Economy. It must imt bo
misginod that Mr. OesUu writes Jnoonsidoralely, or without ftomo
«oit of oxperionco in Indian matters: “My attention was
*' directed to Ibeso (/, s. Indian) famines when quite a hoy by an
“ uncle who lived in iny father's house foi some years, after having
*‘ spent a good portion of his oarller life in Madras, Oombay, and
“ Calcutta. The inoiisoons (the hot winds) and the want of
rice have been thorofovo fui'in before me as facts recorded, which
“made a ijASTtNU iMraiiMSioM iqian my mind BOine 2f> or more
‘‘years hUKie.” INfi. Cjosliii'H ideas of tho monsoons must be as
dioll as lluwo of tile unlliov of “Chatty Letters from fodia'*
coijcornuig rim perfoctiims of the Indian climate. But ub hough
the Famiiu' Quostum aoeniH to have, to some o,xtonl, ©ugagod
Mr. Guslin’s uttoiiUou smeo his eailiyst luEaucy, it was not till
18711 that hiM hlciia t,;ok definite ebapo in commimicathm with
a Maior Ilogeii*, of whom ho gratefully, hut nngianimatioally
wntofl .* “ Major IhigerH, who w’^as a gonlloinan of great inlelJigoiice
“end obsei vation and wlm evidoiilly had not only been in India
“ns vno of Iho Dcngal stttfl’, but one, who, gifted with feeling
“ f(a iho ^»<iiloiings of Hindoos, tuod his best to save them on
“ Iho 0110 hand fioui the ravages ot tho wild auimals, and on the
“oilier fiom stiuvation (but whom (w) ah I galUor with my
“deep Boiiuw died Roun after his reluin io Indy^i iu 1875) and
“ had his mind much exoici^nd as to tim introduction of sotne
“ small hiiL fitrong and simple wnuhuills for pumping water
“ wheie as he n.ad not oni.y woio the Uindoos famishing hut
“ also tiie Imlloc'ks which woie used for iniBiiig the water, hut
“ whoso labour was in.adctpKUo lo produce tho desired elfect
“ wiiii them. I Lied with him sovortd ©xperimoiiLs with
“ windmills of dilTorent niodolh, nioLions, and constniotionfl.”
The mind fails to follow tins hibyiiiith of sonteiiooH, wliicli indeed
tfi scarcely parullolod by tho lamoiis nonsense story of Ooteridgo
hegiiiniiig “Klie wont into tho gaidcn to cut a cabbage leaf to
“ make an applo-pio.“
But, elrungoly onougb, Mossra. Warner and Co. do not rest
^oUtoiitud willi tlio oOmU of thoii “poet” and have added a
painI- '^itb the modc.'it titlo “Famines nml
l)r,)ugb'i« ‘ A ProMsing Q’loMtioii Aimworod ” Wo recommend this
to tlio p'lo nsal of the Famuio Cominihfiion, if it has not alre.idy
icccived thoir a.tlentH>n Tyxte Irotu Iho Bihju, religious and
moial rwHoclio’ne, sta'iMtJ'Jrt piotuios of the beat things in pnmpa
mo .nt(ort]»erscii x.'^ith A slightly howiblpiing effccl, and Uh loader
iri prepaicd foi riio Biq;ge.slio», which is inwio ‘ii tho last few
pagr.s .—That a socioly bo etartod lo piovido tb» Hindoos
with Iho wmllrt they aio #<>'» poor to mafco for thoaiwo)vo,s, to bo
woiked by windmill pumps—which Messrs Warner and On.
will ho happy to supply, nl moderatein'lcen.
THE SETTr.EHE.^>T AND THE BUNNlAII.
T he Bengal Kent Bill has cxciU'* in corlain
qimiters, Ihan tho Afigh.in War. regard it as a wi'io
moasuio calculatofi to proveiit land from* P®®®ing iuto tlio
inihaliuwod giusp of tho numoydendor, and we omselvos
eager to wcloomo Mio provision which aimed at
of a Jess hopeful disposition, can hoc notliing iu if,
Partingtoirs policy of keeping out tho Atlantic by
the linmbto doruestio broom. And wo fear tUoro is force ni’
the Aiguiuent that, if the social and economical oxigeticies of the
present time, wliatover ihoir origin may be, tend to induce tho
cultivator lo raise money on In's land, their operation will not bo
hindored by any regulation whicli professes morely to place
restrictions upon them. Could omj indood discover why tho
tenant is unabln to retain his ancient status, and why iho
man of money bags, in these days, is so invariably the master
of the mail of acres,—some tangible result might be cxpectod.
Eitlicr we should apply ourselves to enforce a remedy, or
we Bhould honestly acknowledge tho evil to be past our skijl.
But merely to aim at preventing effects, while the oaoso is y«*t
uiidiaoovered, is a procedure which has been arraigned, and not
unreasonably, as somewhat preposterous. It has been observed
with oonceftt that tenanti enjoying right* of oooopnncy are
pron^ to pawn rights, or even to sell them outright, The
£54
THE INDIAN AGEICUITtTBIST
May 1, 1879.
mortgagee or puroliMer ie of conree tiie inooej-lender; atid the
coneequence ie that the laud ie poaeiug from the hands oC tlie
yeomanry into tho olutoliea of usurers who regard it jqerely as
A profitable investmertty and iu whose eyes that estate is the
best which will oudare tbo mo^t outrageous rack-renting. To
meet this evil, a uuinber of experienced men assemblo in
coDolavef and decree that ionant-right shall be alienable only
to persons who are really counected with tlio landed interest.
The bond fuh agricultuust, in shorf, is to take the place of
the city inotiey-leudei, as tho help of his brother pensaul in
distress, rnfortuuutely, there is not thi loiuotost chance of
his becoming capable of undertaking any such responsibility;
and in tho meantime the Bill provides nothing as to the removal
of those burdens which make it nocessary fur tbo peasant to
find help somewhere. The only socmity which the cuitivatoi
can offer is his teuanl'right; the only man to whoni there in any
use in oileiing it is the moneylender ; and until the tenant
is relieved of the need to offer eoeurity at all, he will continue,
by whatever by-paths anti indirect crooked ways, to pledge and
sell his tenant-light to the banking cttBlo of the towns and
Urge villages. But wlienco at isos the nocessity V Ah, that ih
a question which many are ready enough to answer, but which
no Indian Goverumeiit has ever set itself in earnest to solve.
Perhaps v^ shall not muoli wrong our rulers if wo boliovo that
tho reason of their mdiffereiico is a secret conviction that any
realiy clEectuol remedy would imply—if not in Bengal in othei
parts of India—a considerable diminution of tho icvonues of
tho State. Their boiiovolence knows no bounds hi theory ; but
in practice it keeps to its own liinits with obstinato modesty.
You shall have long minutes rccotdcil on the desiiabihty of a
Depaitment of Agriculburo and (Jomrueico, aiid salat los ot equal
magnitude aitaobod to the pnncrpal ofUcials thoieto b&longtng,
but when it comes to a simple act of charity, such as foigniiig
to an overburdened landowuor some part of his debt to tho
State, high and mighty ptinciplos of policy compel tho
Qoveriiinsut to tniu a deaf car to all eiiltealteH, and with
averted face and streaming eyes, to pocket its dues f(oui
estates under the auctioned’s hammer.
Piivato persons, wo liavo suid, boiiig blessed with loisme and
uufotlorod by tho luiiuiroinonls (d statecraft in its moot occult
Itranclies, And being thiiH qualilied to fool some i^oit of Bympatby
With tho decaying foituueH of tho agricultiifal 't^tiost, have
made iheirowii guesses at the roason why landlord <ind tenant
ill those dajs uro ahko iuipoveri&bod. It has been surmiBed
that the solilomonl has something to do with tho matter. Of
course, this will not explain tho alienation of tenant-ngh*
in Bengal, where the Rottloiuont is like the law t f tho Modes
and Persians, and alteretU nut. But reasons are not asphotiful
as blackberries, and one must take them us one linos them,
content if after all one can attain to a piuiial ami local
explanation of a pUenoiiionon common to all p.iits of India.
Alienation of tenant-right is not unknown, by any tuoans, in
the North-Western Provinces, though it i-> theiu iiu.sancli<'iu)d
either by law or rocognisod custom, trid must, iu fuel, opoiau
to destroy tho alienator’s right aUogetlior, if only tho Jaudloul
thinks it worth while to put tho reguhir legal iiiftchimsry in
motion. Possibly, when the systoui of vidago rououls has
been perfected, we shall he able to colloot statisiifjs both of
the ooinparativo fiequonoy o'' such alienations, ami also of Iho
relative status of the leuaut-right ciiltivatur in vaiions
districts. At present one can only make rough M«timatos in tho
block, striking out very general resnlta. Ptif in.stanoe. we find
the tenant-right cultivator most well-to-do in ilm peruiinontly
settled districts of th-Nurtli-Westein Provinces Next to them
come the districts of i . ’ bpper Doah,. whore tio? settlement is
notoriously light, having h^en made in days before impurial
exigencies began to lie heavy upon the h<»uI of proviuoial
Qoveriiois. Worst of all aio the dir^tiicts w'hero the ussoB.siU'mt
is known to be heavy, and >vhore, ever since the settlemont,
the revenue couits bavo been dolngad with opplioatioiis fur
leave to cuUauce renla. Suioly we may fairly suppose that
tho facts are not; dovoid of u oerlain sigoifiuant connootion.
Whore rents are for ever rising, the state of the tenant-right
cultivaiuT is the least to be distiugniahed from tliat of the
loranl-at-will. But the enhkucemdot of rents is a nhonomenon
as demoustrid»ly ooimected with the settlement . the tides
are with the movements of the moon. It is worth while to
say a few words upon a matter of such grave import^ though
it has hitheifo remained iu the obscurity which delights to
cover ell important qiiesMous bound up wilh the every-day life
of the population of India. A wave of seUlement passes over
the land, swooping into (he treasury suras unknown before.
From one point of view, the result is satisfactory, and the
attention of the Government, peiiiaps not iiimaturally, has
hitherto been engrossed by this aspect of the matter. And yet
wo should do wisely, in this as in many otlior qiisstions of
Indian administnilion, to recall the words of ^ihe BcotUsh
luonaich—though far be it from ns to snggd'st any invidious
compniiaon between his style of managemoiit and our present
paternal Byntem—
If it were done when 'tia done, then Hwere well
11 were done quickly: if the rottlement
Could (raimoel up its couseqtiences—
and wuH not followed by a second wave of rent suits, we should
be spared some painful doubts about tho operation of our
main revomio macliineiy. Eitaics are assessed upon ilieir
putential pioductive pow'^rs ; and landloids soon find it^
Tiocessary or' expedient to raise rents to the level of tho
suttlemont olfioer’s eHtiinaleb. Hence follows the abolition of
all those little piiviiog^s whioh help to lighten the prevailing
penury of Ibo agricultural condition. The village hoadianii
ceases to enjoy his few acres at a nominal reut; tho village
carpenter, blacksmiMi, and ^Iher craftHnion, aie obliged to
m render their patcho.s of land to tenants who will pay for them
f.l a Inrgei figure, (ho «x-landowner finds himself deprived of
the coiiKiileiation hilhei^o voucliHafed him, and is placed on n
level with noiphbouis who have [not his title to tho plea of
docay’od geutiliry ; wliilo the common tenant-light cultivator jh
called on to fight fur his lifo agaiuht a sudden Incieaso of Ins
hurdoiiH by fifty or a hiiudiod per cent. U is true tliat none
ol tlioHu cliaiigoa can bo niado without the oidoi of an English
oil)cur who ha'^ rendeied hmiaolL’ personally acquainted with
oveiy muri's cnao But not tiio most hihonOMS and judicious
olheu < lui wholly savo tli« oullivalm fioni the legal worsoning
of Ilia hit. If all cnhnncomrail. auitH weiu sumumrily thiown out,
iupi'^ru'o would Im done to the landlords with whom the State
has just concluded n haigain on tho nHsumption that tliey can
got muio than they have hitherto done out of their lenanta,
Tho hluvv may ho eneod off u litlle by duo allowance for tho
teuaiil’s prcflunfc ciicumstanccs ant tuluio expectations, but in
(ho end it is sure to lull. AdjudicatioriB of thiH sort are painful
en^>ug}i to a hoiihitive officer, liis duly tokos him into the fields
an 1 viilfigoH to wander all the moining over poorly cultivated
ihdilH, yielding indifterent crops, and owned by an nndergrown
and undoifod peftBaulrj. for Iho most part in debt, and all half
clnlu'd and wholly illiteiiiLo. On one side is tho landlord,
lenting fabuluirs uloruvs of the produotiveuess of the soil ; on
the other luv tlm tonants in a body, crying that tho earth
lofiisoa In yield lier increaHe. Neither party sees the slightest
ciihuonco holwopu tho truth and a lie, nor feels any touch
ot vshamo when dotocted m tho lallor. Amidst this Babel of
pr ‘oetation^, ohimgations, and invocations of all the gods,
the h.iploci.s EngliBliman uiuves from field to field while
the &>iii is gotUiig liighor, trying to mnku ids notes and to
uni « at a fair averago rent-iato for evoiy claes and condition
of Hi il. Happy is he, if, aftor nn exarainatiou as thorough as ho
can *'» ko it, ho feels himself fairly able to refuse tho enhauco-
lueut aemaiided. But it moio frequently happens that Be roust
rocoid a dociee which, while amply warranted by law and by
tho facts of the case, still leaves him sadly awaio that he has
ailded another straw to tho burden of that patient and oveiloaded
animal, the Indian agriculturist. Nay, it will be said, is the
tiller of the soil to lie exoniptod from paying to the State his
fair share of llmt iiicrcaBed valne winch has be^n conferred
upon tho soil by the State itself V An answer that would square
with economic principles might no doubt be found. But a more
practical nuewor is affutded iiy the actual condition of the
peasantry iu BoldIkhund of thq North-West,—tho most fovourod
tract of the most intelleotually governed province of British
Xudta.
May 1,1879.
THE INDIAN AGRICULTUBIST.
155
INDIAN H0BSE8,
Tlio
ar^
TTERODOTUS $om«wli«pa praUea tlid ponies of Tii Jioof* **
horses of that courit.y,” saya the father of history, »
small, but of marvellous emluranoo." If the old Greek wore alive
now, he might tell the world hia viewaupou polo, a game to which
the Tirhoot ponies of his day do not appear to have been
accustomed, for we find no mention of it in hia oominuiiioative
volumes. The cmality of eaduraitco, however, is one common
to the Xudiaii ||^ies of his day and of ours, whether natives of
Tirhoot, or of the iJeccan, or of up*oountry districts. U U in
truth a quality which is often put to the testj' Native ponies
are constantly called upon to traverse long distances without a
halt, The feat performed by Daya Rain’s pony is historical
That obstinate lord of Hatras, in tho first quarter of the
present century, put the Indian Government to tlio troiibJo of
shelling his fort a whole summer day, by way of u coeicivo
process for the rcftlisation of the revenue which he refused to
disgorge. In the iiiglit lie fled, and befoie another night had
fallen, his pony had cariied him to tho fastness of a biother
chieftain in BuudelWmnd. History does not say wind bocamo
of the brave littlo animal,—whether the long maich«killod it,
or whether it lived, as it deserved, to an lionoured obi age.
Judging Irom tlie treatment of modern ponies by their masters,
wo fear thoio is small reason to hope tlinb JJaya Rain choiiHhed
much gratitude. Peihaps tho fault m one (diitracLeustro ot
horse-owners all over the world, Evtm the romantic EiU James
in Scott’s deliglilful Ladif of tho^Lake, has only a fow
fomniou-pliices of vegiob for tho good steed which ho has ridden
to cleulli , and we all know how an Immbhu' poet, wire could
liowover, plead piiiclicul in tho matter—-Blooinfiolil,
the fanner's boy—has ilepicted tho funnel Bonding old Buyaid
to the dogs. Btdi, if an English master has little pity for his
hoise whoii past scivico, ho does not, like the native of India
kocp it at tho point, of starvaliou dining its woiking days. The
Indian Govemiuent, Ihoy say, buying up pomes for the C.ahul
commissariat. Tlieso will liavo at lGu<»b ouo advantage ovei llie
Indian camel, now bouoruo almost a thing of the past. They
are mucU better accustomed to starvation. The camel, being n
vttiliable beast, docs get logulav nioals when at hums, and one
may pieHumo, from leccnt nioituary returns, tliat it feels tlio
want of them if diiveii fasting inoio than a week or ten days.
Tho pony, on the othoi hand, costs about ono-toiitli oi tho price,
nud is supposed to food iiiiusolf, wlindi lio generally mauiiges to
do after a fashion. He is, m fact, an old campuigniM fioni libs
butb, aud theiefore butter adapted to koop body and huiiI
together, without grass or grooming, m a land which produces
for the most part nothing but stones and men. lie is abeady
accustomed to match tUiity miloa on tin empty stomach, with a
iat old landlord, oi peibapa landlady, ou Ins back, and expeiMs
nothing at the end of it except leave to do a little gia^mg on
bis own ac<ipuiit, or may be a handful of thin grass is shaken
down under his nose. Poor little fellow, he has need of all his
historical viituo of endurance; and nobody can suppose that it
wdl not be tested to the utterraosb, if the day comes, among
the rooks and deserts of Affghuixistain
The other quality, that of smallness of stature, is less desira¬
ble, but equally permaiieut. It is a tiite saying that Indian
horses are all undersized. So, too, for the matter of that, are
the men and women ; and the cause is no doubt the same in
both cases, to wit, iiiButficicnt nomishment, nud climabio coiicli*
tions nil favourable to tho development of robust vigour. Tiie
legs of tlie ordinary native aro a lamentable spectacle; and
those of bis pony are worso. This results, in the case of tho
latter, usually from oveiloadmg while tho animal is young. It
often shews itself in very pitiable shapes. Tlie curious
I aturalist might discover iu India an equine species which is
plantigrade, walking on the whole fool, like the beai, instead of
on the toes only, as a horse should do, Yet even the cornmofi
pony of the country, when he gets fair play, viadioatea the
national reputation tu size and strength as complctoly as the
tallest hikU or the sleekest Poorbea sepoy. There is no dearth
of polo ponies, though playors nompl^^iu of dilfieulty in getting
them,—a difficulty due not so muoh to any real deficiency of
supply, as to the want of a mefijium between the viUage-owner
and tlis laan in oantonmente who dming to bny. A oood Bonv
i>i!>ni'i nhodper in Ipdlathnn in Knglaml, nm) if ^ littlo
Sinollor ,0 probably for il,at rtmaoa all tho bottor anited to tho
gamo. lit nfter nil, ft ft not by ito ponioo that the inorile ot a
h(>r.«.br«.dmg counter mnnt bo judged; and when ono turn.
to tho h«r.o [.roper, there is no denying that India falls far short
of the homo standard. One has only to talcs up an Englisl,
and sn Indian newspaper, and turn to the adTOrtissments of
hois... f„,. „,vi8. Ti,„ ^
found to bo between fifteen and sixteen i.ends ; iu tho latter
holween fon.teen .md fifteen. And tins inferiority in height is
necoinpaniod hy aunilac inferiority in bouo and sinew, Tho
Junian horee in light, like tl.o man he is uiesub to carry. Our
iMcgnlar cavalry rogimeuU ride, on an average, fro... nine to
(on stone per man; an Iluasar, with Ids aocontromeats, will
weigh tom lot'll or fiftoeii, Tho ditfeiouoo is ns old as the days
of tho CViigftdos, and as oxtcneivo as tho geographical distinction
hctwec.i tiM* warm couiitiio.s of Asia an.i the temperate climea
of Europe Ou tlio gicat Asiatic table-luud, another breed of
horses IS mot with, • ivullmg tlioso of Europe in bulk and thews
and largo appoaiauco. It would ho woith wdiile to try the result
of el chhb between Hio Turkoman liorso ami the English
thoiouglibrcd. Tho vast steppes of TurkcBtim seem inteaded by
natmo foi a bioe.ling-ground. Nothing oorfospondiug to them
IS lo bo foiiiul ill India ; and tlimr pure bracing air imparts a
kimloC lifovoiy diirorent fiom tliiifc broatimJ by tho hot-honsa
atmosphoro of this country. Yet India also has her breed of
horses, moio than tino or two. Kattyawar has long been famous
fin- Its little horses of high spirit and iincortain temper,
iiiaikodwithlhaLoddcervic.il stnpo which Huoms to argue some
distant stiniu of blood from the wild ass which stilt haunts the
Rimu of Outch, lately left unvisited
by Sir Kicliaid Temple.
TIio Duccan has its wiiy race of foutteen-handers, descomJod
from ancestors tliat cariiod many a bold Mahnitta Cfttoran
safily fioui befoio tho Enghsu gnus, lu tho Upper Doab
Bill vivos a breed of hoises which boasts an Imperial origin.
Aiiiuug/olie, leturumg fioin conquests in Southeni India*
brought back with him, a« a piocioiis pri^e, two generous
, uwiiosfor Uio royal stud. Eivcampiiig on the northoni l>aulc of
I the Jtimtin, iu tliat dillicmlt country of raviuos and scrub, the
Empoiur's wealthy tiain oHVml a splendid chance for booty to
llie wihf Jilts who have liml thoii abode tbeie for ages. They
came hy night and cut out the two maios, and earned them
away northwards, wliero tlieir offspring are to he found to this
day, each with its family tree to prove a descent otherwise
abiiudatitly ovidenced by iiauiistiikablo signs of blood, although
tha uiiivuiaal defect of lightness is not all redeemed by beauty
and .spHod. Ill RobilkUaiul, along the Jtim Guiiga, where broad
uvL'i meiulowH, rich iu clovonmd grass, presiml the best pasture
gmutid tlie pciiiuHula has to show, a strongoi race of horses was
bled ill more favouniblo times, and still continues, though loss
and less, to furnish remounts lo out cavaliy and horse police.
Cultivation is encroaching upon paeiuie ; and tho old land-
owiieis, who prided tliemsolves on Ihsir mares, are gradually
Hiiiking under debt and improvidence, while their successors,
mere usurora and senboi, value nothiug liigher than an ambling
pad. The sportHuian who seeks duck and wild geese by the
margin of tho Ram Guuga's many pools, will still often notice
a piomising young foal trotting away soared at hU approach,
or grazing by the aide of its tuofcUei, whoso lean iutelligont
head tells of good birth and bottor days. And lieie and there
he will find ail English or an Aiab stallion lent by the Govern-
nioiit to the laiid-ownets, who have liail liielr mares approved
uod branded as fit for biceding purpose.^.
It is a piiy that some little trouble is not taken to improvo
these vaiious breeds of horses by tho wholesome stiinulim oC
compotiliun. Ifcre, as in most Indian matters, much rosiM
with tho powers that be. llorse-breeduig in this country will
never go on satisfaotoiily by itself. There is a market, but it is
tpo distant to exercise the required effect upon the horse-breedor.
Wo mean distant iu point of time, rather than place. A foal
needs four years’ keeping before it becomes a maiketable
.commodity ; and it is vain to expect a native landlord to look
so far forward. Ha will not devote oarfi and attentiou to an
object removed from him by the space of four whole yoare. And
. THP/INMAif AGfelJLttilISf. May 1,
flo it happettf that thd foal is neglects*!, iw<i the young horn
is l«ft to grow up «e it likeei, ami to pick up A living where it
can. Before the period is oal, the owiifcrgruwa liro4 of keeping
itM auitotti for nothing, and takes it Into work befuro it is fit to
carry ft load. Tho conseqnonoo ie either immediate breakdown, •
or » strain uliioh shews itself in ofter yoftie j and tlms many a
line young horso U spoiled for life. Now, the Government
might very jmlicibusly Interfere to prevent Ibis, by substituting
n more luieiefltiiig object than tho piospjot of sale after so
long ft torm. The owner’s pride in his young horso might
wisely bo stimulated by gfforiug him au opportunity of
Winning tommeudaliou and ft prize foi it Heveral times dmiug
tho interval. This could bo managed by menus of annual
horse-shows in central places near ilie principal broediug
distriota. Probably the outturn of horses would be poor
enough to begin with ; but in a year oi two tho system would
liavo become fttiuiliftr to every one conceiuod, and horaa-bioodois
would bring their yoiing stock loadily for iuspeotiori uml
judgment, while the piizos, besides being valuable with a
view to future sale, would more ilnui oovoi the cost of traiimt,
EiUibitions of this kiud already exist iii u iUlul sort of way.
Certain piinciples of judging have been appiovcd by tho
Qovetnmoftt, and ihoio is oven ft supply of printed certdieatew,
so that no details are wauling. But all is mariod by tho long
and capriciims intervals at which the shows aro held. Umse.
breoders coaso to take any iuterost in them whou they como onco
in half-a-dozcii yeais. They should bo auunal institutions, like
any other largo fair. Every liorao-hreoder in tho coimliy
should bo encouraged to bung his wb'jlo stock onco a your to bo
oxamiuod, and to got i>iizoB, if judL'od up to tho mark. Such
mcoiings would bo ficquentod by purohasois, and tho Jiorsc-
breeder would have tho double advantage of a good market and
of tho instructivo lossona to bo derived from a wide field of
compariaon. Competition at these anmiul coiilosts would soon
become an imporUiil factor in tho impiovomenl - f the br.<cd
oC horses. Every exhibitor would tiy to biing hi animals to
tho test lu tho best possible condition. Wo should soon ooaao
to SCO IboKO ragged coats, prominent ribs, piomaiuroly tusktsd
legs and back, with un oocaRioual galled abonldiu or withm by
no moauB miwrnng, whioh deftico so largo a piopeUiou ot tiio
young stock at Um pio«ent hoise-shows, i’no ...ihjtHt is one |
well deserving of altentiaii. The stud ayatoin ha'i liglUlv m en I
iibohshed. No Govoiiunoiit can brood hoiHO'i foi lUolf, nuy
more than it can undoitake to give latious to all its Hervauts. !
But there i« u medium bolwoou this and total nesrlnct of the ,
conditions under which the olfspring of Goverumoiit stalbon^, ^
HUppUcd gralirt to land-ownora, is allowed to giow uimIu]. jg the
decisive yeais of its life.
MYUOBALANS. |
rT'tWBi fruit ot the Beleiio Myrobalau ('Icf'minaltn ; N, O, j
JL Cvmbretaoaf wtu, ^Buliera; fruh liar, Haim). Krteu^ivoly giown
m the Punjab ; Kaateru part of tho Sewalik tiuot ; Kaugra diHtncl ;
hilia Olid north of tho Peshawar Yaday ; and generally in the noilheru
and eastern parts ot the plain - oi the Punjab* where the cliuiute is
tolerably moist for the greater portio?. of the ysar, us in the dry
arid parts to the couth and wa5i it does not thrive.
It flowers In the spring aud the fruit—which oonsisU of a nut, ondoHod j
ia a thin exterior riud—npons in tho ousmiug autuiau. The tree |
altaiusa oonsidoratde slas, 70 to 100 feeb higli, tho trunk being regularly |
shaped, tall au»l sM-^ght, up to 10 feet in girth (oocttsioually
15 to 20£eol) . thnhrau'i' H rtprtjoiing uorisidcmblyv forming a broad
massive crown whioh gn « ll-o tree a very haudsorae appearautic.
The trees are T.i'iiahle, tho produoo of a single one has been known
to sell for Us. 2,000 ; the aeads are obtamahU^, generally, at fiom
nine to twelve seers per rupe**, thottgli on® seed hiH baeu known to fetch
one rupee !
IScon&mio haven, in Kaiigm, are oin'iMered tUa best
fodder for miloh cows ; and they are al«io used in dyeing. Tho /ntU
h employed nsamordaani in dyeing cloth and huther ; iu tanumg ;
making) ink J used as au aperient medicine, a tonio, au astringent,
and m mucoas discharges from tho lungs aad bowels: when only
half ripa, it ie «sod as a purgative; it ia also eaten by cattle, 4 eer, goats,
moukeya, and sheep. The kerr^lt are eaten, but iatoxloa-
Hug s they yield au oil,' Tho hark yields an Insipid The mod
is yellow or fight-grey, coarse opmi grain o4*lly worked, bat wot
durable obiefly owing to its ilabllity to lUo altacks o! white anU
aud other insects ; in Kangra tt Is considered unlucky ib use it for
bnlidlng purposes« previously to being used for building, U is advis¬
able to season it by sleeping it tot eomo time iu water ; it is al«o
need for psckfng ossee, email boats, planks; a cuble foot of green
wood weighs about t»0 lbs, ooodhird of which If loses In seasoning,
A second variety is T, c/ufbuia (vero. Bar, barSr), which is occasion¬
ally oultuatcd m the Sewahk tract up as far as the Peabawur valley.
Tbo mod is durable, hard, heavy, ycllowiah tinge, wavy outline, making
up Into pretty furniture, It takes a good polish. The Is need by
dyers aaa niordaunt ; also in tanning siid in modloine^oa an astringent.
The b,if7: ia also used for tnmiiug and dyeing. The {;alU make writing
ink,
A third variety is T. arjunu (verii. arjan) occasionally oulttvaied in
the Vunjahtts far west a^i lUe river Uavi. It is ft floe haudaoiue tree.
With groonieh bark—seldom entirely leafless—attaining on fiUitudc of
70 to 100 feet, the trunk having large buttresses for the first dosen feet
from the ground. There ure surne very fine trees near Kangrs. The
w'wid splits in sou^onJiig, iH Huhjeet to tho attacks of white ants, and ia
only used for ttgnoultaral implaiueutfl and carts. The hark, in Kaugra,
U used to heal soref<.
A fourth variety is T. tmnd/tioM vel Pentaptora tomeniom. Grows iu
the Bewulik Ira^ t, as far ns tho river Ruvl, and in places is found as high
as 1,000 feet. Tho nmnl is used for building —IbougU its durability is
nnoertHii) and it ajdits in Heosoning—it makes good charcoal and potash
ami lu bniniug as fuel il Ihiown ont gieat boat; the branches make
good catllo fodder. Tins tree coppices well. The havk ia useful for
tunning.
The foregoing trees thrive mui||^ or less all over India, though this
iti )!‘C doBcriptioii merely refers to the I’unjab,
G. P, P,
EDITORIAL NOTES.
M U. A. DECLOSETS, O.E, bus appsalcd to Government in behalf
of Boienco us woll os of public utility fur the loan of the horvig
apparaim In the Palilic Works Doparlment Stores. Mr. Dt'Closeta
sayia —There la a gentlornan who 14 willing to go to Iho expenHe of
boimg ftu Artesian wdl in tho tcitiary and cretHceous formations
about eight iitile'i west of Puudiohirty and upon the English ground
under my nireofion. Ihit b»’has tlof a > lo leiioh the
depth icijuirod, aud as such woik requires much Cure and good Iiiiple.
meiits, 1 have been Induced to make you my dciuaud. Should you
agree to giant it, 1 will bo bound to return the boring ftppaiatus to
Go’sernment ftftor having used II, and in gnol coudition. On a
similar occasion when 1 was bonqg in tho Madras Islnud ( for a
projected harbour) I had tlie loan from tho Public Works
iJeparlmcnt >Stoio« of ft boring apparatus wbichr I returued safely
after.*’ Mr, DeOIosets lefers to what has recently been done at
Pondicherry 111 sinking Artesian wells, and thinks these wells will be
viiluablo for irrigation purpose; ihofa am now many inquiries
about the pracliouhility of lUesu wells in siivoral localnies, and several
boungs Imvu commenced. TTis opinion is that the water obtained
at I'oridioheiry pn'oeods fiom the Poncar imd perhaps GIngee livers,
poruftratiug tho sands 10 or 12 milcH wentward inland, The boring
iv'iparatiH ftflko 1 for by Mr. DeGloscts will be supplied to hiia on
1 ,nj, Tho Oovornment regard tho Buhjoot ns oho of great mterestp
a I will be glad to team the rosults of Mr, DsOloseis* attempts to
ol aiu water from Artealau well-i.
dcclino in tho mulberry cultivatiou of Mysore is a rosuJt
wo pref'jmo of the famine. In tho last administration report
fur uio provinoo, allusion is made by the Chief Commifisionei
to thia dooline. Mulberry ja cultivated of course with a view to
tho fec'ding and roaring of ailk worms, from whioh the law matoiial
is obtained for silk manufacture, and formed tho principal
means of subslsienoe and inromo of many hundreds of families,
specially of the poorer classes of Mahomedans. The ctisbaU town
of Oacottfth was at one time surrounded by niimeroqa gardena
of the mulberry tree ; tlie old foot ditch of Kolar together
with a good deal of land below tho Kolar tank was cultivated
with tho faamo; while thousands upon thousanda of mulberry
trees were cultivated near (josepolt, Diddad, Chanuapatam,
Kingorry, ftud other places, whicn ail belonged to or were tended
by Mehomedftu silk weavorB. Within the past few years, hew-
eYorv tlsis silk 'industry, which *at one time formed no small
r>
I, im*
THE INDIAN AGEICULTURIST.
t
167
portion of looAl produce, bas eo far declined as to attract ibe
attention of the local Governmeat. Many years back, it will
be in the reccneotion of eome, that a silk factory, on a large
scale, waa projected at Kingerry, where pucha buildings, maohi-
nery, Ao., were all erected ; but tbs speculation nerer paid,
and after sinking a large sum of money the Kingerry factory
was finally abandoned and brought to the hammer. The
silk worms do not appear to thrive so well as they did formerly,
whether it be the fault of feeding—for perhaps there may be
some diseao” ,in the mulberry trees—or any other reason, we
csnuot say, buUit is a matter to wbiob, should the Government,
as it promises, give consideration it will result in to benefit
tbe province and a laigc class of poor people.
Tan average prices o£ middling Orleans and fair Dhollera
cotton during the past S5 years, and the present prices, are given
as follows
1.
2.
1.
2.
Per lb.
Per lb.
Pol* lb.
Per lb.
d.
d.
d.
d.
1854
... 6‘37
... 3*62
1867
10*84
... 8*53
1855
... 6*76
... 4 05
1868
10*76
... 8-60
1856
... 6*36
... 4-8C
1869
13^17
... 9*81
1857
... 7 82
... 6 31)
1870
10*18 ’
... 8*13
3858
... 7*00
... 6*50
1871
8*79
... 6 58
1859
... 700
... 6 26
1873
30*85
., 7'Cl
1860
... 6'f)6
... 4 36
1873
9 32
... 616
1861
... 9*06
... 631
1874
8*.3|-) .
... 6*28
1862
... 19*17
... 12*32
1875
7*62
... 5*00
1863
... 24*35
... 19*59
. 3876
6 56
... 4*50
1864
... 27 68
... 21*14
^1877
6*50
... 6*19
1865
... 30*50
... 14*721
1878
6 31
... 4*87
1866
.. 15*78
... 11*95 i
Present
price 6*63
... 4*06
The period of very lowest depression in the Indian Export
Trade was from about 1846 to 3854 when the Ciiineau War
became llie occasion of opening the tiado in oibseods with
India. Tlie figures in the above table are very discouraging.
Prices have gone down steadily for tbe last 15 years aud are
now lower, than tbey wore 25 yoais ago. The staple was just
five times its piesont pric*. fifteen yeaiH back, while there beems
to be no limit to the fall tliat yet impends.
GrkAT efforts are being made to improve llio agriculture
of Guatemala, yet the wheat crop of 1878 iailoJ, and the Go¬
vernment was forced to reduce the duly on iiunortod giaie ono-
huif. Coffee cnllivatioii is being largely oxteuded, and liboial
tenns are offered to immigrants to settle in the coimtiy and intro¬
duce peimanftut improvomenls iu tho way of iirigation works,
roads, Attempts are being made to open the oil deposits on
the Atlantic coast in the neighbourhood of tho Lainpara and
Viuceut rivers, Tho trade of tho Republic is steadily moroasing.
'J'he exports during tho past year reached noaily 4,000,000 duliarn.
us against 3,773,185 dollars in 1877, or half a iiiillion more than in
1B75. Tho principal aitiolc of export is coffee, which icpmscnis
the great bulk of tho figures above quoted, but cochineal, wool, mid
sugar are coiisidered items of trade. England stipplioi^ more (Iimi
half of tho articles imported into the country, Ermice, Gerni.uiy,
aud theUnited States tho hulk of Ihu lomaindci.
Tiiii plantain has never become a favmito fruit in England but
seems to be prized in tho States. The annual amount of bananas
imported into Boston during tho season is about eight cargoes,
worth 6,(X)0 dollars to 7,000 dollais each, making, with .50 cargoes
received at Now Yoik, n total of about 375,000 dollaia as the value
of receipts at New York and Uustori. Tiio banana season begins
in March or April and extends lulo August, The North Coast of
Cuba Heems to furnish tho fruit chieily, shipments are also made
from Aspinwall on the Spanish Main, from Trinidad and Jamaica.
ALtHOuOH Indian Model Farms have not been very suo^essful,
they have been the means of diffusing valuable knowledge
amongst the cultivators. In tbe beginning of last year the Secretaiy
of ^tate requested to be furnished with infoimalion regarding tl»e
general working of the ITaYmel throughout India. A prim of tho
reports has beenpreparod by Mr, Uume, aud Madras of couiee is
far alioad of tho Hither Eresldeucies owing tlyi o»s*'gy a«d.
expcrienoo of Mr. Bobertion. who is revolationlslug the agricultural
woild of the benighted Fresidenoy.
In the Madras Fretldenoy good and useful work is being done under
the Bupervislon and guidance of Afr. BobertBon, the Buperintendent ol
Qoverument Farms. Attached to the Sydapet Farm, on which ex*
perimenls of various kinds are tried, is an Agricultural College in which
a complete course of agricultural instrnotlon is afforded, aud which is
intended eventually to accommodate upwards of one hundred students.
In view to a farther diffusion of Information, Mr. Bobertsou has
proposed the estabiiahment of small agrioultural experlmentat stations
all over tho Presldenoy. each being placed in charge of a trained
agrlouliurist, who is alio to oonduet an elementary agricultural
class. This scheme is, however, al present iu abeyance tor want of
funds.
Mr. Bobers ton's servicea are al last eagerly sought by all who
would make the model farrus successful, Tho versatile Goveruor
of Bombay has decided tiint tJie Western Presidency is to hftvo an
Agrioiillural GoIIcgo, and is doubtless proparod to deliver a long
leotiiio to the students on practical agriculture, as ho gave tho
medical studonls the benefit of his views on tho theory and practice
of uitidiciue the other day, and has instriioicd tlie voUuitoera in tho
science of musketry. To make the Farms altiactive it la desirable
to httvo Agiicultuial Schools attached to them, and the varioua
Local GovernmeniB are at last requeHled to bring abouO some such
arrangement. The Department o£ Agiiuiilturo and Comraerco in
the North-WoHt under Mr. Buck bas beou attended with such
excellent reaults, that Govcnimont contemplateBimilar departments
in other parts of Indio. Lord Lylton aska for an early opinion
from the Bengal Goveinment, and the Local Governments and
Adininipiratiuns.
Tub aliuo.Mt general practice in India of sowing mixed crops was
* reCcnIly made the subject of some remarks in a letter to the
EngliBlman signed “ D.N.R.” Tho writer says :—
** Thou shalt not sow thy field with mingled seed*’ it one of the laws
laid down In the Bible, and an uiiconimoitly good one it is too. I quite
lielieve that the pernicioni custom of sowing mixed seeds has as much as
anything else to say to llin poor slsle of iho ornpa and the lands
Moreover, I am prepared to swear that more ruhhee was mined during
tho present season, by this system of agnoulture than by dronght and
fro'^t put logetlior. T particularly nolioed how promising crops of
wheat and barley lodged and spoiled after the muslani plant was
gathered.
Wo commend these remarks (o tho nltontion of Mr. Hnmo’s
rlopaitniont, and paiticulorly to the very able Director of agricul-
i till al inattors w'o have in tbe North-West, in Mr, 0. 15. Buck. We
suspoct, however, thut the niattor is far finin lining so alinple as
** D.N R.'’ iinnginos, and that the ryot is able to givo Bound reasons
for a practice that is almost nniverBul in India. In pioseciiting
some enqmiios in tlio Agra district a year ago, as to the condition
of the jjnoplc, wo found that they were living upon clmppatiea made
of what is cttJlocl hejhurm ilic (flotations of the local paper, and
bfijhara in Carnegy’H TtclimraUiks^ a mixed crop, generally of gram
and bailey Rtiange to Bay, none of the gentlemen weepoketo on
Ibo ftnbjoct, know what tins bqhir meant. They insisted that it
must bo hq/ra, a millet of the kliarif crop, while hejhara is rubhte
produce. It was not utilil we made oiir own house servants biing
ehuppaiies before ns in the actual form iu which the poor consume
them, that wo ascertained definitely what thia hfijlmm was. It is
a common enough Htatemont that the people prtfer chippaiies of
hq/m and to tiie superior giniiifl, and it was made to us at
Lucknow only a few days ago, l>y gcnllcMnen who ought to have
known licttoi. It is the (le<-p poveity' of the poasant, and nothing
else, that cnittpels him to live upon the coarsest and least rjiitrifcious
grains, and to see tiie whole of his wheat crop taken to pay the
dfuiaiide of the Slate, the landlord, and tho mahajuu.
Mil. Burjs: is, we iKjilove, going home lorocrtut ids liealth, but
we liavo little doubt ilint tlds subject of ‘ mixed crops ’ will
tommaiid hia notice, now that thN.R. lias made so important
a Btateinonl concerning if. The nnceriainty of the raiiiliill v^ill,
wo suspect, be found to bo ono main leaion for tho praclice, the
cultivator sowing two cic^ps, that, if liie one fuU, Jio may at
least obtala eometbing from the other; the crops nut being equally
dependfolr Ofi ib« iA'm cab know very jltilef boiyever,
««tfc# p«pl«, whwilijS
tftft 'MOtottt
f Ifrfhtf'ot ^'' •('
'’•ibt'iji^, ^for.biitttair (kin. flMin,' Okod* Mtit*
da^t <)rer tb«i« u*a 00014 tbofii Is «bi0ki M M'*
Oittb snd tl>« oro|Ki tbtroos will forsftb olMO wilnesie* reqair^difln
A 0ioe faroTigtti! bf «itbef poos of ryot* It; woold sol tsk* losg to
shock Alt tho tAXAblo Soldi to a vUlAga ; istAed orops of ol^oedf
isd food*grA!tf8 should he eharged for as if they ouly bore taxable
prodooe. This iu lloelf would check the evil of sowisg nisgled
•eed/'
He then proceeds to ihow that the opium boII of north Bebar
is III process of exhaustion, and says :—
'* If the average profluoe perheegah of opium In north Behar for
periods of six years from soagoa 1818-i» to 1871-72 inclusive wag as
follows
mds. H. ch.
From 1818-49 to 1808-M ... « G 44 per boegali.
„ 1854-56 to I85n.(;0 ... « 4 ^
j, lhCO.61 to 13G5.Ga ... 0 5 24 „
„ 186G.6; to 1871-72 ... 0 4 8
Tho above pbows a decrease of nearly fifly per ceut. m the pro¬
duce gathered per beegab during a period of thirty years, aud the
result of the last six years will show a still more alarmmg decrease,
as I am certain ,thc average produce of north Debar has not been
three seers per boegah from the land cultivated iu opiiiiu. If the
present system is oonliuucd, what will the produce be fifty yeais [
hence; and yet the cultivation of this crop on a large scalu
in India fa still in its infancy, Laving been introduced by tho
Kngligh.’*
We nro under the impression that the last statomeut is an
error, but do not stay to verify it. If H.N.R. is right, however,
08 to lliis rapid dcteiioralion of tho the opi i ii asencios
at Benares and Goinckporo should be required to loport upon
the matter, at length and at once. As the inanufactiiring
season has just opened, Di. Shepherd’s bands will probably be
full until Angusl or Septombor next, but ho piohably is the right
man to muko tho enquity. 1). N. 11. would have the opium
monopoly abandoned .and poppy land assosHod instead at IN. 10
thoacio. How lliiH would improve matteis is not by any means
(slcj,r, but D.N.R. will poibaps leturii to the subiocf. As it is,
ho simply says:-“The opiuiri inouopoly should bo thiowii uu,
and a heavy tax of, say, IN. 10 poi aero might bo imposed '
“ instead for those who choose lo cultivate this crop.”
IJrt this is not all. Tho unhappy cullivaloi’s way.4 are to he
coircctod by “a light tax lai.l on all hm crops, except fond-gruins,
loots and tubers, to check the ©vil of sowing mixed seed. O.cat
pc nanont benefit will thus be done Lo the ngriciilluro of llio
country, aud tho Govoramont will realise several milliouH sloibng
of leroiiuo without iiuy oppression or bother whatever,”
But the cultivators ns a cla^s already groaning, literally
' groaning,’ under the existing taxes, not because of Iboii weight
til tUemBulves, but because of tlioir abjoct poveity and total want
of regoiirces to meet tboui, A iwo-autm tax por ncio is light
enough, it will bo admitted, but what is llio man lo do who has
not got tho two annas to pay V Now this is tho vUte of the peasant*
cultivator under our rule so widely, lliat wo eio Imginning t/. rogaid
his condition with de^, .dr. Tho Licenso-tox, light as it may seem
to men Hitting iu tbo Oou.icil looiu at Government.Honso, tn
ifflUctino the people 60 that m arc rejiecting upon ourselves
con^tandy for having gioen u our support,
Ouv leaders know tohy we supported it, and how the Government
that imposed it, has broken faith with os and with the people, and
im^appiopualed its proceeds, “a inihdoed of tho fiist order,” as
Olio of Eiiglaud's greatest statesman, writes* to uh. But D.N.B. is
both sangmiio and heroic, where wo are drpressod under the
prefleiilimoiit of coming evil. He says; —
*■ If lliioughmit piviliBh India non-food crops wets laxednt fiometbtng
like tho followiug talcs, the agriculture of the country would flburlib,
and the GoTctumeut would derive from 8 to 10 m I : ItAJUng of
fivsiioe J— i
' 'i" ' C'' 'vV'
^V ^
' Huetafcd ^ ^ t *,*#; ^
"XiAseed a» 4 otkir ie04i, ' " ' 'V' ' '
^ FIaaN lAeniioiied abo^dl ^ * 4* ^ ' w ' j
^<Yoa way say that Ibe ryots would rebel au^ee^ to.
oropi. S;> wttcb the better for tbeubselves and the fdlare |)ros)pools of
the country if they 4o, say t ; as bettor mn tbia tAe;|r frodld lAke up
the onUlvatioD, and wltllngly pay tbe lajctw wetitiotted AbbVei*' A
All we OAU say is, lei tbe Qovornmeut find out wjio
and try him with those new taxes by all means. As to imposing
tliem upon the cultivator, the proposal is simple inoanity.
Wn hear that Messrs. Begg, Sfitherland and Co/s OAperimenis
at the Poosah faim witii the cultivation, and more especially
tho curing, of tobacco have been very successful. The public
would be glad to know something of tbeee experiments we
are sure, aud, the Bengal Office moy possibly be able to tell us
vrhat has been accomplislied. Tbe Poosah Farm was presented to
tho local Government about five years ago by the Government
of India, for tho special purpose of improving the agriculture
of the pi;t)vitice, but we liave heard nulhiug of it since. Indian
tobacco hitherto has simply boon suri-driod or tiut-dried, and if
Alcssrs. Bogg, Butberhuid and*Co. succeed in ^ enriug' the leaf,
eo as to make tbe jtobacco valuable in tbe European market, we
Hball veiy quickly see Indian tobacco forming a new export of
great importauce iu oui Gustoras roturne.
Mr. Bouertson, tbe chief of the Madras Agricultural College
has boon putting his students through a course of gyinuastios
and bos reported the rosiiUs In Govemiuent. He formed a
class of twenty-eight members who weto exercised with
dunib-bolN, vaulting, and paralloi bars, &c. The students who
went in for gyinnasiicR, Mr. Boberteoii tells us, ” have onjoyed
leinaikobiy good lioallh ^nd aie much better fitted for their
tiaiuiiig for ouL-of-door einploymont than thoy were previously.”
So satisfies] is the Pr/ncipai of the c/ficacy of a good combiita*
tion of gymnastics and agrioulturo, that in a subsequent
oiumuuication to tlie Board ol Bevenue Ire proposes lo hold
an atldetic oxhibition. He says, ** 1 have the honor to request
that the Board will be good onoiigli to permit me to ofier prixes
lo the aggregate value of Bs. 50, to bo competed for by the
students of tho gymnasium class and other students of tbe
School of Agricultuio at a public competition in gymnastics,
&c,l propose to bold soinn time about Easter, or eailier if
airangements can bo made.” Such an outrage on ofliotal
sobiiety as Mr. Liobertsoii proposes to commit is too much for
tlio Bocal Boui'd of Kevetitio, who reply: Tho Board are of
opinion that the tenchiug of gymnaHties is not caicuTatod to
(uitliorlho causo of agiioultural scienco. Tbe case of yoitlha
V.. 10 B 0 studies are sedentniy forms no paralloi lo that of
g( leially older men whose training is largely conducted in the
fic 1." The proposed ]>tiblic gymnastic competition seems
cul ulated to raiao public doubts of the soriousuess of the
agi cultural oduoation imparted at tho institution. The Board
s(ig,:eHt that tho gymnasium be discontinued. Wo are glad
to lit) 1 howevei, that Die Huks of Buckingham declines to
bo bound over by the rod-tapeism of such a respectable body.
Tho Government Minute on the subjoct says “ Tbe Govern¬
ment do not agree with the Board in lliiuking that the
gymnasium sbould bo discoutiimed. The public dernonstrAlton,
however, winch has been proposed, is inexpedient.” So Mr.
Robertson will bo allowed to retain Ills gymnasium which is
not calculated to further the cause of scieuoe.”
Tbk high estimation in which sewage irrigation is held by
the cuKivntors is proved by the fact that the ground of the
sewage farm at Allahabad brings in Bs. 20 and jls* 40 pei*
acre. The latter prioe includes irrigation. As market-garden
grenadt' iht faTm holdings are eagerly songht after) aad a
mi i^rii«M»t« W *«* wlpnw^ iif# ,i>6T«i! W«ii*l»g* ^
^ M«4 JjljkiJi^. i»»d >>M l»»n l«t »t' B»w tl>wR».20pe‘ao^'
1»iBiiBciB4opM8««MO«'<'>*®»®“P®'* w«.d«\ fam daring
thrpMStrar. afollow.:-Tri.l.of Englinh and imprnwd
SonS? r”t.i ot B.W .*ed rrUeat. .aperimenU .n anbno >
dratea^, trial, will* waterlifta, and mnnnrr.ng hy •
TUe drouglit wWch pravailed laat year interfered
i^tU tUa gLeral woVk of the farm, and wHU meet of h
operation, detailed above. 'l-Ue /f
appear to appreciate the Euglisb ayatein of plougliiog, altUoii li
fiS'^JInrhave been .pared to t
of the process to their own primitive system. J
iclpai objections appears to be that they arc unable, when
driving an Boglish plough, to roacii tlio bullocU tail., and no
well-conducted animal of that species, it i. aaserto.l, will wo
thoroughly without having his eandal a|.poni ago J
twWcd. Another objectiom is that the ploughs am too heavy
for tife oattlo. 8omo samples of the American
were sent out by tlie Secretary of Slate arc Ibo meet suitable.
Id arc more likely to bo adopted by cultivatore tban any otUci
£ C l ave refeired to lUc subject of tbo iiitrodno ion of
ZmvoTpiougbs at length elsewhere. TUo trials with new
seed wheat proved that the native seed was iiuite equal
To ttat experiiouted with. The roaults of the trial of winnowiiig
iv machinery were very favorable, and it le probable t at
these machiLs may meet with tbo goiieial approbation of the
cuUivfttors.
Y.r i. mooosod to start ii compeiiy at Agra, to bo called Uie
C„?tan1l®irlriSrad ^ pXaetus telle us
wood tor airlou p t Ibecom-
require very HtUe e'e» “*> oouBdently expected that the Bret
mcnoemeut of the o^ra , almost cenlrically
harvest wiU ho ,“J* , n’mhay, and Madres.
mtnatedse regards the PtM Hursood or Kiikian station
s„d foul, five mUeS distant from the Hur o ^
experionce g aliaioa liavo boon taken up.
Sr'projo’et wS U entirely « native ono, dosorvos the support
If atl who desire to eucou, ago agr.ooltu.al advancement amongst
tbe naiiveB of India,
* “Tn” hS" rsr s” t
“u i
llQU of oowfl that ill its properties,
atialyrod ^ produolioii muotmearer approaches cream
riirrr^ifiuiiTt r;! •^'^ynaa.i;^::'!::,
dta^brou ; the native, call it palo do vaoha. It gta'*** “* “
tor.«t., and attain, a hriglit« lOO test or awr.,
TB« P.p*rt»*“tof Aiiioulwr# and Oonimoroo m
w2 ProvfocH and Oadh h«t tatrodaesd a sy.t««
oollwtioB of trade *» Uk.ly to leai.ta vaJtjabln
accuracy' .'vriikiii ‘dii dwiri^^ f i*
thofottgbly wrtab8iA*^
dfmppoar. Mr.,Bock U. W.'^'
hi. hand, the whwae i. p««tty
oonuMtionwlththia mattsr, «e «ay *!». ttptwt ,th*
AvUicJi lb© samo Department haa been making mmi .
tioii of trades Audemauufacturoa. The maimfiMitttre of lihoo
fibre baa engeged atleiUioii, and also tbo roaunfaeture of glwe
and pottery, and tiie devolopmonfc of the silk and tobaoco
industries. hTbeao are some of the more important mattem
which have ooonpied the bead of the Departuieut for the past
year.
I I - ■i.im i ' I
OOMMDNICATED AND SELECTED.
LADS' BIRDS.
rfMIKSB little insects feed on the |ilaiit-lico (ap/iid«»)—parasite.
X which I'lcy on and injuio plants and Uoos. ,
They appeal in KuRland, Homelimea in immense BWfirms, and
binoadnig ovei the Qelds, liavo caueral needless aUira to the former
ro wtm. far finm being e post, they a.e o blessing, from the
tierce wai tlit'y wage enemies the
lu 1807 Iho shores nt lirightou and neaily all I m watering,
dIucos on tho south const wore literally coveted with them, to
Kieat surprise and alarm of the iiihab.lants, who were ignorant
thul^lheir little visUois woio emigrants from the neighbommg
w irounds, where, in their larva state, each had slam ns
Ihousands and tens of Ihousiwds of tlio flyi/tn, which, under tho
name of the “fl," so frequently blasts Hie liopes of the hop-grower.
The peasants in France collect and place ll*em 0“
Hhrubs'^infested with and stylo Ihottt Wtes-a-Lieu,
honouring lUe.r neofui qualities; wliil.b tho English name of
‘ Lailv-biiu” doea \iomago to then bounty.
Pome of the spocicn are widely distributed, Buoli us the very
cmnmcn ccccmsKa >.i,um-panciata, "“6’^
a Europe, and parts of Asia and Africa. 'n.eyai. frequent^
tmi on tim samm.ts of mountains at a very great elevatio,, m
high a. 9,000 fact ; and the species m such pieces socin to bo
cliaraoteri-stie of lUo locality. AphUlu are scarce in such,
”*^ 1 **it”p^i>adildc to intioduoe those useful little insects a. a chock
to the tea uud cofieo p^
EXlMSHUliilNTAIj SOKOIIO CULTIVATION IN
DlUTiSU BUUMAU.
TiUYKTMYO DiBTKIC'r,
milEsorglio seeds forwarded to this distriol for experuMiilal
T Llivation.the dcspalel. of which was advised m letter
iZ 15 X 75 dated iheSid August 1878, from the Seoretary to
^l*' rn^ r (’muiiussiouor. was received in this disluot on the 12th
ul rrir -Ih” seeds i« anantities of 10 lbs. wete
dis ribntod for cultl’vatioii in the Uoaday, Miiidoon and Kama
Jownlips To tho Buperinteudeut of the Tliayetmyo jail was
«a;riSretTcnltivation of the lOlbs. of seeds in ^
SCI feet The «eed was sown oJi tlio Ootnbdi 1878 i a
sandysoil, and looped on the 28tb December 1878. TUe produce
was Le basket, weigliing 4Glbs, and the manure iwed towards
enriching the soil was cow-dung. According to the report of the
Assistant Commissioner of Meaduy, some of the seeds appeared
to have been oaten up by insects, and the consequenoo was a smali
“X"nnsea«mable rains too, bad mncl. to do wiih this poor
resolt In the Uindoou township, only 8ibs. were sown on the
21 st SenSer 1878, and 21hs. kept in reserve for enlt.v.tn g
daring this season, of ,e„paj „n the loth Fehrnary
measuring 1 acre - annas. P • p„,iion of the seeds were
1879, the onttum was over a basket, a poiiion
town wi libij tm totee bftii bean growo, dad m mwMtord
wltdWvat wid aabd to imj^ote tb« soil TUa aaeda wwo iowik
broadoAst .
In tbi Kama townaUip, iho «ee<ia were sown in tbo inonliie nl
4agtttt and Saptembet* 1878 in 8 cirolee, in an area q£ land maaaur*
it)g 1 aora 0 anuaa 7 pie*. The expericnenk proved a failure in
all except tba Natunie circle. The crop reaped hero on the 1st
January 187n gave an outturn of one and oue-eightliof a basket.
No inanufe was «»o<l towards the improvement t)f tho soil in any
of tbe ch’Oles. The seeds were ao wu broadcast.
Tho cultivation in the jail garden was vnado on ordinary soil,
10 lbs. were sown on tbe 7til September 1878, on an area of laud
measuring 2,520 sq. feet, no inauuro whatever was used, and
the seeds were sown broadcasL No qonclusion can be arrived at
from this cultivation in llm jail gardens since tlio plants wore
destroyed by oattle at a very early stage of their growth.
The Ibiitnese Are not very favourable towards tho cultivation
of sorgho os it would seem fiom accounts given i»y tlioin, that
the new shoots, that spring up after tho tirst crop, if oaten by
cattle, will kill them. The “ Pjyouug nan Isa” which cattle feed
upon bears a great lesemldauoe to Sorgho, and it is reported by
Captain Creaswell, that tlin Barman lives in fear of bia calllo
mistaking oue^Ioi tho othor.
ihiih
<ifse«dwfl» gathAwd At itttemisv..
Tho Aecond sotting (5tb November 1878) vww two month# Uter,
when there was no rain; the beds wer^ watered by hand but A
third of the seed foiled, and the remainder was not swooess^
ful. .
The tliird crop was sown after another nfonth'i interval about
the 4th December 1878, just before a heavy fall of rain ; tbe seed
came up woU, and tho crop is doing fairly wel^but requires
irrigating.
The soil on which tho sorghum was siwn being cold clo}^, wns
perhaps not the best adapted, but it Iiftd been lying fallow for
some time, and was well ploughed and manured before the seed
was sown.
Tho soighnm is nn hregiilftr-growing crop, some plants being
much in advance of others,* it is therefore necessary to out and
coino again, or tho speedy-growing plants run to seed.
Dining the rainy season, or with plenty of iriigatiou, it may bo
a romiindrativo crop for cows and bullocks, but 1 do not Ihiiilc it
will over equal the lucerno as an irrigated crop for liorses.
For caltlo it nviy also be stacked and given as dry forage, but
thou it is not' equal to good hay for horses.
PiiOMK Dirtuut,
The Aorghe seod rocoivod was distiihntod to each inyooke and
sub-divisional officer in this district in qnautitios of 5 lb$. each.
la Pounday, Thaigon and Mahalhamaii (he result has beou
most satisfactory, ihoplitulM growing £>om 4 to 15 feet iu height,
and dowoiod iiudor two months aftci sowing. The result of tho
sowing in Showelay township is not so satisfactory, lu Pudoung
the crop is progresaiug satisfaoloiily, but owing to late sowing
has not attained any height yet. Tho same as regards Shwodouug.
The Assistant Oommissionors of Padoung and Pouiidnv consider
that sorgho will grow iu any Buil piovidud there is a iiffioient
rainfall.
IIenzalu DifiTuicr.
Tho sorgo seed was distnlmiod to the Fxtra AHidlstaut Coin-
miseioiiers in this district, and sown i>y them. No dircotioua
however were givou to them, and tho esporiinont was rather
haphazard in oonsequeiieo.
Owing to a luisIea'Jing term in the vernacular letter, forwarding
tho seed to them, they sooiaeJ to expect the crop would tum out
a kind of Isugar-cuae, ami tlioir ropoits merely exp* ess their
surprise khat it is not sugar-cane.
The Extra Assistant Coiumissiouer Kanourig however ineuUons
inoideiitally that some spocimeiis sown by hiiii roiched heiglits of
iiiueor ten feet. Other Bpeciinen.s sent in from Zaloou wets about
the samo height, and one from the Extra Assistant Oomrnisaioucr,
Henzada, measured 13 feet 3 inches.
The plants appear to yield abundant s«uJ, but bofoie h can be
known whether they can be readily accUmatized or not, I would
suggest further exppiiments with tho seed yielding by them, to
ascertain whether they deteiiorale in this soil and climate.
TllAIlBA.WAl)DV DlftTlSTQT.
The sorgo seed received was sown in this district just in tho
middle of the rains and proved to be a total failure.
This species of seed like that of cuzco luaizo seed, I am of
opinion, will probably tlirivo ou hilly ground when sowed iust
before tho eud of the rains, I believe tho wetness of season and
soil were the sole cause oi ns failure.
II.
In Madras Colonel A. Drury reports on tho experimental
cultivation of tho fior</74ttJ» Sacc/iartto ut tho Madras Bemount
Dep6t Farm, as follows
The first sowing was on tho 2nd September iR78, dniing the rainy
season, when 1 lb. of seed was i»own iu ridgou 2 feet apart covering
an area of 1,086 square yards.
The first eattiog was on tile 12ih November 1878, or after
•eve&t>‘on 0 days,aqd realised... ... 2,087
Second cutting after eighty daji , ... ... ,, ^^54
Third do, tUaety four days ... ...
I, S||^
THE CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION OP
THE SOIL.
V I' a rpci*pt luoeling of the Cliester-le-strect F.irmore’ club, Mr. Qeorge
Burnet', WnshiriKtou, read a paper ou * Tho nr<*parflti jn of the soil*
and lUe oppliostioii of manura for the production of crops/ Tiioro was a
good attaudaiice—llr. Clirystii* tho pn^sidcnt in the chair.
The T.ectuior said I have chosen for this paper that part of agricnlfure
which relates to the mechaiiioal condition of the sod, iiud also the qaostiori
of manutes and their application. 8o interdependent, however, is the
soience and art, or practice, ot af^rionlCurQ on each othor, that it is only by
reicrung to tho science of chemistry that wc can got a reasonable answer
for even mecliauiciil prooos'ioi. In the laboratory ia subjocliug oortaiii
compounds io analysis, it is cnsLomaiy to roduoc it to powder. In add wiitei
to it and a littlo ucid, to placo it on a sand-bath so that by the iipplicalion
of moisture, heat and the ooiil, yon reiidpr very rapidly soluble 111 w.dor that
which IS lusoluble ; so it is alsoin.the ]ftborat> ly of the sod, wo have the
lientoflho sun, th c rains, and in the atmosphere an luxhausliblo supply of
carbonic aoM. The labours of tho husbaiidiii'tri Hupplemenl this chemioat
notion more or lens, by steam, by Ivuse power, and by manual labour, ho
rodneea tho soil to as lino a tilth as possiMe, and an deeply as his roaourccs
aonut, which thou pr*riuit8 the circulHtioii of the air, mciadtng its otygm
».n I oarbontoacid, of moisture also whidi, besides permiting ohemical notion,
M the medium wheicby tho salts necosstiiy fir the evistonce of the plant are
conveyed by tUr» roots for its suppoit, Tho soils of our country are so
variod tii'itil Would bo a mistake to assume that an invariable rule of culture
would succeed in all. Some londu, lodiioed to a fine tilth, would run
together hkccement with the fiist heavy lains, oapecially if it commences to
ram us soon as the work is,done, and before it h is di icd a little on the top.
Dr.auage has done boiuoihing for this laud, and its condition bos beau
amelioiated by d-'ep tiilniro ; u jiulicious oouiSGOf croppiiijf helps also, c<m-
eiderably. The contouli of our ash-pits aro uho useful. Still in rainy, and
consoqneutly, dilBcult seasons a farmer may see the seasaa passing away,
and Ij^caii iieitUec plant potat oes nor sow turnips. Whatiomedy isthero
here, m the gioen crop fallow is adiuittodly the beat time for the thorough '
cultui't. of the soil ’( We agree, 1 presump, that land should be ploughed
lutho utnmn, and deeply ploughed also, I.havo seen lends cultivated, bat
nii.h SOI 'e exceptions it is loo retentive of moisture, and too muoh inoistur^
prevents the cuculation of the air, and keeps the land cold also; aud
as the oondiUoua for chemical aoUon arc wanting or impeded, the land
will not Kiiiirore in fertility as it otherwise would do. There is also a great
natural r^nce m the quality of soils, salts of phosphate of lime and of
ammonia being the most valmible, that the labour bestowed on some soils
would produce more crops than double the labour of others. Cfeologista tell
us that tliis arises from the varying nature of the rocks from which our
^oils arc formed, aud that the soil of the Lothiansandol tho Coal measures are
» groat oouifTast. However, all soU« more or less coutaiu tho otements that
plants require, and air, water, and tbe heat of the sun are to be utilised.
We oauuot increase the surface of the soih but wc can the depth, and thus
(Ad to our producing power, with the addition of manures also ; and that he
who does so in the most effeoltial manner will best suoceod in anlocking the
treasures of the soil. Just as the wind and tide are always on tbe side of the
best sailors, so the skilful agriculturist draws most largely on the great labor,
atory of nature, and renders the richest harvest for the service of man,
supposing your land ploughed or cultivated in the autninn, « is seldom, if
ever, too dry for that operation. The season is wearing round for putting
in green c»Ops; one of two things may hkoly happen, eHher tbe Season I-
u good one or a bad one. If it is a good one, then is little to be said, as the
iMa li InSlfi «l> .ndjrnu: gn>p« pnt ia But
Total of green Conge
wJ^i'WAe,'^'* Wnno# trf<.#i(b,i|i)i«»i««H*M.H't«y.«»“^
eBt>reiiion.*w« h«d better be in bed end eeleep try to ttuythliiif the
kind* Batiidiet is to be dotto—ere we to look on wiUi folded eems and aoa
tlie aeMO® T»««*»<r Certainly not. If yea oannot f^Wn^U or ooU-vato,
werheps it way be grab harrowed or harrowed with the oommon hartow, op
laet resonree, drills way be rafted on the »tubW« furrow. No doubt
many will object to Ibis, and say justly what become, of our theory of
oultivation with snob an msdequato praotieal outcome ? WeiJ, it »a bea, .«
keep before ns the highest standard, and steadily work to that end Wo.i
or input K however, year ffie«n crop ft pftriJed and sown, and wo ^
braird and no summer fallow. This is of some i.nporfcaaoe Oar atfcen
must now he directed to the after cultivation of the gmou crop.
was not well pot away will lequlro a closer atteutma ; tho season ^
period win be suitable, and such land will reqim-.. a>i ortru
d.ilUgnibber; and long before the end <■£ the soasDu an esput.oncod eye
could scarcely toll in wluiU manner you had arrived nL the rosulU lao
drill-ffrubber of modern oonaLruotieti is of stronjith sufficient to boar llio
strain of two horses Woilcng up to thi-ir power. Thus simple mstranicnt
has contiilmted very materially to snocossful results lu greou crop g<owin,%
Prepare the land tor green crop, il maitcs not how well, the cnlr.iN.x-
liou odds oonsideiubly to ils vuhie . nub when badly prepared its uKer
«,u!tnre beoonles ull impurtaut, so that in tho aulunin, when the gioou crops
are removed from the soil, its condition la Homc-thing approaching n ih on
body of tiell.caUiv.ito.l soil, ht for tho commenesi^eat ol the loUhon.
CoooGrning the propridy of iuce.i.i.K the depth of the soil nuu-li may be
said Ftw ^oils ore so t,ood but that tho subsoil willdamaKoit when jksl
brought to the surf-ico Yet all soils contain tho acuft and bases nc.easaiy
for tho growth of plants, la mme or less abundance, uud m more or I-hs
available condition. Some auhstanoes roquire oiVdi/>oK. ai ptotoMde,
or black oxido of lion, which, bccdmiug conveitod into peroxide, n hcai.iy
.iiid neceB.ary for plmiu. Also jua.t vcgeUblo maUor is highly nselal m
active decay. Caibmiato of limo is not as.imihitcd unlil it is cotivoi
into bi.ciirbon.ite, which thoreloio loquucs the action of the air. ilio
BHtest ilou. m my opimou.lorthedcepoiungonim soil IS o plough y.iuc
oiditiary depth mantumu, and 111 spring to go deep. i wiiJi Uio cuH jvato.,
so that the subsoil is giuduuUy prepmU lor coming to the surl ier m
another roUtioii. There is au objectmu to this course, tl.at bv so
dfcplv sUuing the soil tho surface fiml which h.is boeu mellowing >} -i
wintei's frost diaapponrs to Some oxteul. A icmedy fm th'it maj »o
found by uultiv.tmg .ally, so that Urn b eueliual uctmr. o l.o«t, oi oi
wet and dry wcallier nfay sl.ll be attamuble ; and some lands may bo
cuiuvaiod m the nnluiuii. No doubt, on many l.uids, m d.y seasons t-. loose
iho soil mellowed by t.uit ronders ilio biaird oC tho turnip cropi very
prvcaiious, and to cnlt.vivo deeply w1«m tim noil .« damp i. often J.o
a IuiI.mk eiop. But l.«a ouuUo .u cull.vaW uudei u* r
COUdiUou,. It JOU («IUW potutocu. tUo MUIO .CU80...1.0i .u.l WW- '
wUbbaioKilIow.it youUa.uauv. il tl.o ... «n . icb <l.ci , i
ewbrotton. 1 «huuhl u.y ,t.« mlu ouoUKb ! uut iv.lb couba,.u.u .u o.
wcaiit, lima join laudiutJ, aub y»a uau alfoci tbu outluy. pluujsb tb,
land a loot or moio <o doi.lb, uud lu ibo aucoa l loUiioB yott will loai
the bauHi.. To apply manuru to tho ao.i >a oao ot tbo importarn.
aatiw ot Ibe taimor. It b» tarsal that, bo baa lorButloa oaeijtbiua, lo
it la tho one tb ng ho can tba least afford to noalocl. I'bo qaauijty ol
inaaare put oa tbo .u.l la to a groat .stout, Uio nioatmo ot tbo clop
you toceivo iruin it. No doubt fuo ooil Jiolua a potlioii in proponum to
It. natural woalUi and troaln.eat, obdiul or othorwisu. broiu t„a U
lourteou busbol. ot wUoat per ac.o, J am told. .« aoiucthiug Uko lb„
piodact from soil, in A...eru-a a. the
Uappcara, tbcr.toro, that i£ wc wiob to groiv .a oi sevo.i or om'bt qu.u ois
of wheat to tho »«'» allot Beayy gioon I'lop., bow lamily wt iiu ■
irurd to our mauunal resouioo. , and tbo kiud. quality, tanl.ly ^
roL:gCt.:....Uicy.trik,too.^,^
HowdaweionewmoBebaiv puUtoos, and bee*,
natarally think we wmdd g fuj.a_«reci 80 ly wbut wo waut. Nothing
had gone, to bo had giuuud
could be better—nothing a g ' o when put on tho laud and
to powdor-tbu.
gr«duaayg»b>e '-'»‘*^‘"“’^“*^ ^ ,. 1 , Boron von biobw told
„d vogcUblclff. ot corn; ho told
va that apoondol bono « off lu. ..i, all it orer tooei.cd
. «..l.o that .t webuma pUat wo T„.„ty per
fyomtbo ooU. IViio .mall quantiuco HOC f a .roe wi jn. u
cat. poftou aolnbl. pboapbat. bat it toqu.ruo au
bbual doM witci iWt addition ol ‘ 1 “'“^“ . . ii^^. i,ouo roudoiod
abnaoaibi. tot he growth, and it “ ‘ „i,elon» loqauc i
Mlnbloluwatot bynMeu..oI a . yot tbo main
for .Oil. .d. no doabt wobdormt i.ia.cr. <rf t, tb„
• drain. t.,cl tho a, 1.1 m .bone, ato tba
■ier
' ■ f *i
draina reveal the aecia6.or la. mans
S’-jjJrt'T.w
•deuce in tke 4ee<«ai>b8itfoji b<''4WWa bouea than, in a »edp« «b^ unjkieg
bkoknig. as tiehig t61«^ w,'w« ka VMi origmafor of thd eyrtastta
I Wheve manutactutera genewlty thr^^ in h aaeh ef nitrate ef eoa» et
sulphate of ammoaa, and aoniatlmet famer appear* tube ifcstbnJ«had
at the result l^erbaps the annual appMcMlou of guperphoaphafos id aioall
qnanlitw'S may be a jndieiou* inveeUaattt Mr. Fruat* Who grow* wheat
alter wheat in buccossiou with iwttual fop-aressinga, appears to ^ have
found it profitAbJo. Hi* crops, which / have seen, were very creditable.
'I’hc mbabuaaU of towus adopt no means to aDsisfc the agclowUnristp bat
tUo tovorse, Thoir amlntma m to liave watercloscte and sewerage fci
diafi, oil Tcfuiue ioAoeea. Now the lo8.ii from this oatise is inoaluuhible.
Worosomc Kyatem ol oiEth cloaota adopted, fnlAiling «t the same time
all wimtary comlilious, as out fnemls the Chmoso appeal* to beaWo to
do, and Uia enoimona inanumA woaltU. from the motropuUs of BiiglanJ,
to snull proviiici.kl lowiH, brought hack to the Uud, 1 should »ayUiit
cur cxioudcd rotmnorco is very good, mid gold from Austr.ilU i* good,
guuno from Iho I'aciho is ^till boLtor; lor a nation with ft mighty com.
m.ufjo mid Htarviug enift at himo ia not ta a good way and shows a
dccimitig palrioLia.n Wcie Urn enormcinrf inariurial wealth returned fo
the ^oil, .iiiotiK'i*. ft ^roatcr atnl more solid foriu of wealth would be
adiUatomii Uinl, ani would iiriko tho nafioii noli beyond tho dreams ol
ava.uA'. Tho JiUornatuo IS lu'io also. At mi enormous expemliture tho
sitwago ol Luud'm hin been taken farther on befoio it i» discharged im-o
the Thames, ftiul that haii only put oil the evil day. It ft no rotaady,
ovHii m ft saiiiUry uipeoti, fur us I he tide rjse$ it carries it back up to tho
liver, and before it geti to tho nca ft is ttgaiu carried back like a
chuiuiiig iii'no=ij ur tin antunfciu of hoait, and ft h nof unlikely to browd
ap.;ft>iMi.co. Wi-h uigardiotkmiti.plicati.mol manuie, farmyard mauuri!
i).aur.»liy o.>mc.s ilrit unJoi touBidt ratim. It is a coiiimou practice m
many dibti'icU to eproad it on Atnbbhi in the nutiimu, and plough ft m, and
as this la done by iiimy \vho«o oi»iuioii uu o her insttcis i» highly valued, it
IS mtitlod to Kotious ottomion. TUo land Jias a wonderfully letcotive hold
o« itll maiiuii'd maitoM c immiitod lo its care, and farmyrnd manure only
gives out tlmfo'i.U'or pi uiU suwiy aui groluallv. lly bom? iiftermixad
with tho soil, It H in thn in'sl. nv idank coudiiion for the use of j/l.iuta.
MiuiuiiJ pill on Hic land m dulls buH’ois irom liio diaiwlvantage of not boiug,
rnopeilv mtormued ^vitli the and. Thu pftut nas abundance immediately
undBi' tup rooU, but ft 8t,ir...a in other direciions. J3u), a* you oiioiiot
grow crops on a dui.i-lull, flo the stoimg up ol nmuuro in drill* without due
adiuiuuro wilb tho soil d..os not apptni to bo altoifeLhor desirable. Worn
th» mauuio lu dulls t J bo mixed ut. by moiti.s of the drdl-grubbor, it would
enuioly after tim miftftr ; but. with rogwd to farniyaril manure, I iiuestmn
much thft It H praciicftijlp. AnotUoc gevat advaiftago to be derived from
this au’uniu inauuriii;* is the gtcU. fatjihtuia it oflere foe gottiug a larg^
breidth of I'rocn *-“n) nnd plaiftcd in tho spriug j and thittisou*
gioat I'puiou which o\‘iipowers other urn m ideranoris, even if it wer
i object louablo. Tho aJvauUigo of uuuurmg m dfilU la ft practice that ha
iji.my ftdvouatHS , uiivl peiliip!i tho iargec breadth of land i« the county i
Bomauuiud. Tho bitoft-made mauares aro made speedily iivailable, an.
do not, tuoror^jio lequuo » > laigo u rtUick o£ mauu o to be grttUe<od u|
belorohmJ m thk-iitlici system ; and if tho soil aud the laauur* aw no
lutoiiiuKod, they coine voiy much m contact, uud the effeota on the crop ar
uumi£,iiilv..l>'y. indeed, you would tuturaily suppose that in the cat ho
Stages oi the gimvtu ol the pmat, ft Weuld giow quicker than when tli
1 ‘ouU had to strike a hint? way to piocure iiieit food. In this place I hiv
ua compavauvo v.tlH.- to effur ymi as to tho ho.t ot tho two .y»t.in
tl.oaKi..ao.l..al.t,...mcBcni;ou.mh,™w.ll have .OT.oth.n* .obrtaatial t
oltv- in- With togard to »ca» cusw muiiiia from towaa, and wUicli w mat
u.od... lU.. o-mutrj. I have hid .oino cxpciionco of it. .ffccl.. It oagt
to ho tho Rical maaatial .ai>pli- ot Ihi. coaatry. hat with a oompW
.„t.o.luoUo.. ol the .cwaRo.,.tom d would he ol no value whatever, and
ara Olraid tnc .laalily H doterioralioq, I object to ploushiag itduwai
BUihbh-. My roa..m iv. ti.at all mannciaJ matter, have » t*"'**^ J
“■“u sr«rr'E:.“i.'~”’X ^
L« r«.on I would hcc|. all manaroaM u,»r tho.urUco a. poM.hio . a
wvto Boot tor the ..vayc of the volatile aiumou..i and to. ““““‘V
to.nmaoMlioii Uioy might bo onthc eailaoo. lh» moohaaical oonditi
„C tho «fa« of .own. enable, you to put it on .tuU^Mo and
or plough Btttbblo. ftud uPldy tbo manure and grub .
manarod with it, and you nan manuto after you have ""P’ ‘
all c«.,. have fio .,,1 re.ulto. Umow " 77 *™“"/
ploURhea io with tho .tubblo ta the automa , b.d ) have
result wa» always dii.ipp‘»‘«i'iftPl t^ j.(,r
my pittctico. It I am wroug, I hope you wi ft .iirwto knoiv Un
ar^Lamo,.. Wo a.pUio 2 ' :^“«.ar:« fr.
BO that we may gel a benofiL from 04 CI 1 . ' .ledUiui w* p-it im lU*'
tu oach other. Wo have tw “‘‘‘“'*^**,5 < No admittanco except
and we never pul uP a Tcriewago to |be l«»d" ^ amatc«a,oano
boaineifi/ Tho lipplicatioa ot wnaha
m ' THE INI)I^ AQRICUITIJitiST. . May 1,
U limiiecli |HirU«!« ttt 4 locftl. U i 4 not suitable for all mton$ or fclade
of oropf. Km Mr. Mecbi, I should say, would eoaioely contead tint
ibo irrigaUo& of the soH by means of liquid manuro had been snoeessfnl
pecuuiarilyi and he has advaotnjfoa that the iiihabitanfcs of towua have not|
he ean choose hta time of apphi^atton, but those must have a eonaiaut
Otttfirjw. However, therefore, yon may admire his farm aud crops and
ayalein, you gradually perceive on reflection that hia tank and pipes,
hydrant and hoa<^ would cost large sums of rooney, and the resonrcos of the
farm atill inadequate to render hnok snflictent menutial matter to tlie soil,
and that it waa uot adriaablo to distribute pupplfMontal mauurcH such sa
horso and cow mdoure, dissolved boaox, and guano, or evtn bullock
pudding, ill that way. The kind of tnanuro dopend.>, to amno cictent, on ihc
course 0 / cropping, and also oil the naturo of thi mu), riiosphato of lirno
is as necOMsaty to the plant u» bone lu tu the body of tho animal , hut rnme
soils require special treatiuout, and the iipjtJicdtiuri of linic is bOiuetinKis
directly benstloial to tho growUi of the plant, ap.^rl from its chtuiical
ACtiott on other mat,ter, in tlio soil, Luiid thiit w,!*? once considered uniit
for green cropi fiiHow, by good in Aii<igcnion( uitimntciy hocuiucH so, being
aiueJiorftlcd by 1 lie addition of vegetablo matter from iiiaumo, (he roofs and
refiiSO of gicoii crop*!, dramugo and doep tillage, it heoonies altered both
in colour audlcxluro, I liave seen tho piUi at the bottom of the furrow on
which liorsoa had tioddsii perhaps foi tcnturiei) broken up by eleaiu, und
Urn change for tho better iu Ihc rlner mid mellower condition of the muI
waa aomeUiiiig eitraovdiunry. The qiiestiou to wlnit exleiil laud sliould
be cuUivalsd 18 mi open ono , grasn land without any cultivation whatever
continues to*vrow good crops without any manure ei<eitt the droppingpt
from cattle, yet in tho preparatifio of land for tutmpa it genoriiDy looeivt-a
an amount of labour equal to throe p]ou{;;lungH. Mr, Hmitli ol Woi)lr<tun
seta to work with lua steum^cogmo and double mould-board jiluDgh and
grulber oiuubitied, ttnd rauoa drills fioin manured stubble. I liaienot,
vehlored to follow in hn loot stops, but inuat admit Ins land was in
oaofillent conditbm and clourily , and if bin’..nd is saflicjfUlly cultivatod, and '
1 am not prepared to say it is not, ho ocrlaint3' duca it wiHi « lainumim of >
labour 'Tiio npjjliiiJiUoii ol steam to tho cultivation of the soil has one
great .idvantAge over hoisc-power, in so fur im tlic power of the htemu bemg
trapHinillcd by inoans ol wire lopo avoids the tiaraplnig tlmt m caused by
tho fool of horses. J dam my you iii.iy expect wo to give you niy nlo,is on
tho comparatixo cent i»f steom and hoitc power. This id difhciilt; but it
is not iicecBSiiy to h'lro MO iimny openitimn Oil tlio sod with <am, as the
ti ending of liorHes utidoHM part <'£ the bciienl., 'T’he want 01 iieccas which
haa fallen to tho lot of many companies nnd even piiviiu *o>Mors is xcry
little aigument iiKaiual tho stcaU'cuitivatur, t^r it him lut heeu liiKen lo
‘ with love.’ iLirirut part of the Hyetem, and a duo pn i)ariiti"ii bti lU
mitodnci um, us legards gates, road®, and lu’ldH, bus m t been pciiuU'd to it.
'riiese thuigs aio changing a little , but the liirinor i« slow and Yet
we have seen great clmiigos ill our liiro’i, niuro, I sbiuihl siy ib;i() during
tho aninfl poiiod ki pievioiH bislory. A law of tiie aneieut Hnloiu
compoHoJ every nnm to in ike Jin'ph'Ugli before ho ^Uollhl giiulti one .lud
the driver hud lo luaKc tlio tiaccs from nirlies ol twi.ded willow, No l.ito
us ItSt th' lii«h J.ogiKlatuio p.iS'icd »u Act, enlilled, ‘An Aet agturn*
plengiiiug bv the tail, imd pulling the wind of living sluep.’ k .'iprnoiiM im ^
LegisluLiuc httd disco'crcd tU.iL it w.is u b-iibaums juaclice to'ithuU th* I
ploiigJi ti» tho tinls »d the drnuglit tiunn.'lH. Tiu'ii we conio doi\n to *ae lino
tigure of Jothio Tull, the fiiUipr ol drill hushindrv, und oetl 1.' iiivctliA
discovery of drainage, and last of all, when everylhnig la ready, 1110 ebomist
cornea on tlio pcoiH) and iiulotks tho socrets of the soil and tho moi pberc
—ehows ns their beauty and utililv. The skilled tnccli.'tnu* islngiiiniiig to
be skillul enough to help us also, auI he got a hint, that ]»o Mould have
to d'' soiiivLUing, hui seiviees bang reqn. o, ami he is bettoring the 1
ineliuclion, Oiu taim hibouietH ar^ getting tho quabtifutiO'is ot
iriechaiiu's 1 ob.'.cned 111 a loading ihIk\'iii the Nnri'afltc J>aihj CJn'ttuu'lfi
ot November Hit’ll til it u sliort tune ..go luriiie.rswnM tlui resoJute foco ot
education, that, vvo i.oitiier gared fin o oniselvuM, n.ir uit'hed our i/ibouuMS
to acquire it, that in taet ,i kiii’vl'iL.of aro'snnlu* wo ild nun liieiii, I
sliould. like to know whim that tiiiiri was. rui‘. it a\)pc’U '4 ive hail soruo
excuse, ui wo hdlowcd a\eiv’luiljarnod oceupa'^ioii. No ed'iciti-m, wo lU'O
informed, toohiuoal or oUinnyiso, is required ho work thy siql'io 01 Dio
sickle- Good iiiowors wer.i novel very plcntitnl, niutlier ivoro good sheiirors.
Itad mowers worn conataatly tinkeimg at thou sc^<his, and half killing
lliemselvea at thoir woilc. For to giaith in-, own h'vtho, to con ndci tlio
Angle at wliith ho bends i< back and Ins height, belore ) < sets tuv scvtlio
to grass, be is 1 ‘CSolriug ncsti >ns in tnat)K'.ii.atios Pniy wind sweep
should his scythe have that .n' y eut, evenly fioin JiOel to jmint r* Workmen
huvex»Hlc in their vvoik. iinieris in«»ii like this writer are iibla to dciilioy iL.
Wo have compluiuts einiugh of scamp work. Itihern is, notliiiig to Icaru ui
mowing, tli«ro i« nothing to Icani on iho (atm at ad, and no noccssiLy to go
to school or coUeg'j, but wo know .eltor. Wo g* to ricbool iiud college to
iunpUly and coubnii oiu pmcUcul kimvilcJsje, I'ducutiim we niquitu, but
.niithuietic holpa u» a littlo. inii men rcquiie ii uiiowiojgo ol aiiflloinv,
physiology, pathology, and ulicmistIV, and, 11. l.ict, lUi-wholo cirolu of tho
sciences, but tliey muril bo ubb to inamige a pau u' lior^cs, to b(nc''i:i plough
nnd mow. Attd to know when the cow will culvo, when im, «wo will iamb*
and to detect ib« fust eymptom ol diset-jc m the. -stook, and know when the
hind’s a htimiiiittg. They imagine t]n*y Know the rglit uu/ e f r laying up
uhiughiUg; and it any ouo thinks Im 001 do tutuT, lei, bun “Ve cunnot
do without lutclligt'uoo ; and ut tins d»y the taiid labourer i ,* <,i,a couu'ty
iiie amongst the best paid of any class of laboi ors in tho kiagdoui.
DB. VOELOKEB ON AQklOUETUBAE OHEMISTBY.
D B. Vcelokof delivered, At a meetlog of the Midland Pftrmera* Club in
Birmingham, an interestjug leofcare cm • AgricolfcnrjiJ Ohemiitry in
Ilelalion to tho Exhaustion aud Improvement of Land.’ Hr. Voelokor
having been lufroduood to the meeting by Mr, Hownan, vioe-prosident of
I ho club, said—It would have been a source of very great pleawite to him
if, m giving his address, it had been in hia power to congratulivto them on
III© high price of corn, an unnsually favourable season, general agricultural
prospenf)', and bright prospects for the future. That pleasure must, how¬
ever. bo denied him on the pi ©sent occasion, for he feared he bad rather to
condole with a good many British farmers on account of the heavy lOHses
which th''y suatttuied through no fault of Ihoirowuduring the Ustand
Hov'criil preceding seasons, and to express his sympathy with themiu these
Jiaul times, which, although he was gUJ to say they had not affeuted hiv
own pocket, had seriously affected some farmers m this oouutry. The
pie^eni poaitioa of tho British agriciilturist, it oQuId nob be denied, was not
ii V ery taviable ono. What with tho low prices of corn, the largo importn.-
tionH from the coru-growiug districts of Ameiica, Australia, nnd oveu India;
tho importation ot live stock fiom America, ami dead meat fiom the same
country ami Irtmi tho Continent; the moreasing pnce of ngriouitiiral labour,
the insecurity of tenuro, tho difficulties regarding compensation for improv#j.
ments, and otUpr mhevsc circuTostauces, the position of the British agn-
i iilluri'^t IS not tin ou\iablo our, and must be oueof continued auxiely—
(hcai, hear). Still, they luubt notloso courage ; there was tho bright side
ot every thing, and certainly thcv did not mend mattors by looking only at
the dnrk Hioe. The J'lugliMh buraer in uhK bo prepared to meet the ioreign
rorapelition by winch ho was now threaloned, and tho questioa was, how
wiiM that to be done? flo had ihougiit a gieat deal on tho subject, and ha<l
tio to iho coueliiBion Unit the only way to make farming more romuuera-
ir"-"—for In nil probability they would not g^t the high price for c irn
M Inch they obtained m former years—was to grow more coru aud every kind
oi ugiiouUural produce, aud rodue© aa much uS posiible the cost of pruduo-
turn. It was quiLo line that they had foicigti btock unported into lliiS
couiilry ill lttrj:« luimliera , and a-> tins foreign food waH supplied at n very
low piico, it became all iho iiioie necoHSiiry lor the Eaglibh farmer to direct
moro iitIcMit.ion th ui bad been JnUicrto given to tbo {noductiou of meat at a
.lii'up rate. Ill the piescnt sea.'^on tlioioliad been an abunduiige of groeu
jirtiiluCM owing to tho ©howtry weathoi, and many fiirmera would uobdeiivo
1 h.. udviniUgc wLioh svab to be obtained from purchasod food when given lu
luMiti jIi to thfl natural produce of tliuii l.iiid. The low xiricc of foreign gram
I)ml cake nwed for food purposos wad hiomI Ui%lmii‘?hing (0 him, ami it was
leiiiirk.iblo tiiftt fuUeake, winch was iil present obtainable at snub a low
price, ivnMucitmuro freely used. The rarmeiM replied that they had an ubuu«
il.inci'of gicen food, and tiny n»>ed not buy luiv foieign food, rcrliap^lhey
ivtiuld al!ii\v finii to •'ay that Hum wan just the time t > boy tuud, in the niiipe
(>t lormgii corn 01 oil-i''tlvC to eupp!«niicnt the limue piodnuc, and they would
litid lb would retain them a high perccnla^u foi the outlay ; but if they tod
Moi" st.'ck ptiuoqMlIv upon ptirchaiicd food, they would hnd the bill of
iheK i-ake nierohuiit very nuirniM. Now was the time to gi\ o Home addi-
1 mnul food ‘ u iho toxin id oiUcako. The subject, however, upon which he had
c.vnc to iiddresH them was the cheinietiy ot the hUil, and not tho cheiuistiy
«d fecdmi; or fattouing cattle Thorn was n gical difleronco of opinion With
r e'-anJ iv. w ii.it could bc got Out ol l.md. Some farmers were cotistanUy grum-
luing abmiL the liiul cbiiracter of their soil i they maiutaiucd that it was
inct. levubly bad, ami that nothing could possibly be got out of it. Ho hail
hf'iivd that moimiig of land which uas so clovor. 8 )ok that they could not
p>i<«hibly grow unjthing on it, wliilc othet» luaintaiuod that thmr land was
(-(i rich that llw'\ I'cnlil apply to it no end of nitrnta of soda, and grow
fie ivy crops otcoin ; aud, in fact, the more nitrate of 8 oda thoyapplimi the
h' -viiir wonid be tfio ciops, and tboy might go on from year to year without
e •..luMting it. Now, when cue licard such diversity of oinnion, they generally
fo > id that the truth lay Hoinewhcro near tho muidlo.audho piiipo^ed miking
HOI I j romai 1,8 upon vi hat woh tallod the nai ural ferUIily and the acquired fei-
Uhl ol laud. It was, he believed, an undisputed fart, th.it a l smls had a
nati al })rodactivOMiMH which they uuuld not pornnincnlly raiMC. By Buitable
man jiiol dresbing the foi Lility of Jurid could be iiicreasod foi a time, but as
soou a. limy left off the applicalion of those manuiOM the land relapsed
iiiidU'" cuial uonditi in. They Knew thil land might go out of Conditiea
very nipidly by bud farmmg, ovor-cropping, or treatment with improper
kinds ot uMuures. They could got la>n«l jiu good condition with tolerable
nipnliry aldo. nlthough thoy could got it out of couditi.m much faster. It
must, of OOUI.SVS be the aim of' every farmer to keep his lAnd in good cundi-
twin tm hiH own sake, if no), lor the sake ut I1H landlord ; and while it wav
qmla Uvie that they t.imld not materially increase whnt liu Would describe as
Us permaueul fertility. That led Jmu to observer that iJiore was no need for
that fear, which was doiucLimes eut^rtainod, that dsmage would result froifi
rcliUqiiiahiag the usual rotxtiou. When they Jiad to de,il with rich clay
Hoiis, they could make themselves mdepondenh of at noi. rotation of crops.
They uiighi, follow a number of wheat crop.s by barley without materially
dctprioratmg tho piifuiauent lertiliLy of the land. That coarse of cropping
would, however, bo iiaposaible it it \ ere followed on eoil* of a naturally
low fertility. He was quite ccrUm that if the farmer m Mura wished to
meet tha competitiou of iho foieign jiroduoer he miist give up farming iti
a niora routine faahxon, and be guided by a more rational s]^atem of pro-
oedow—he mual* give to the ^sci^ taught by moderu aoieuca » more
prMdntiif 4 ';|#’ "wi«i»UiH m 4 Mw t» Itmt'ti <ib(t ffb|<i liiw,«»»»»
o^llmla$4o«;aad.ft»^^l|^'0^ ,!«*<»).,, It
ira»^ ot Fci«a«s ftiid tU»b
» remettjr to me«t th» 0 Qtap«t»Mon ti>
ifldch Ui« Briilfdi foirmet wat expoaed. Aft Wg aft tberft i«a« auoli
tk vftgtift aotiao of irbab iras feurtlle Und* aud wbat was aafruralt^ a good
pfodactire ftoil> ibejr could not b« aarprisod tbai many farmfti'ft commitbod
gfftVO eJhror#, Tliere wore varioaa reaftoorlor bad farmrag—some bad not
anffioient capKtftU otbera had not Buffigient inioUigonco, aud mauv' did not
bring to bear (be neoeasary oalculatiou. They mnat be aware that fertiU(y
of laud depended upon some material aobetanees which were found in the
soil; and it was quite clear that chemistry threw eonsldorable light upon
forniing practice. There were souio soLlft extremely poor in particular
substaoees which affeotod moro thau others the produotivo powers of hnd
and they might at once inquiro what thoso inutonals won*, 'riie moul
important ou^ was nitrogen in bome shape or other* eithov in the shape of
nitiatos,which were moat onergotio m Ihoii* action* but at iho siuuo tmu
Very perishable* as Uiey rapidly passed into laud drain ; oi it nny ho
nitrogen iu the shape of ammiuia, or auitnoiua nalis, or m the shape of
nitrogenous uiatters, which enter rapidly into docomposition tuul fuiiiiHb
first ammouia and fiuolly nitrates, which, iu his view, were most olluctive
piauUfeeders, from which albumen, glutou, and other nitiogeuourt
compounds were derived. Available inlrogen in some finni or other w.w a
most important soil constituent, and esisted iu soils m but smalt quautitiea.
There was another important conistituout of the soil* and that wai
phosphoric acid, which existed m land I'l sin ill prrpoiDioos, and ill p mr
soils lu very sTuall proportions; so it lollowo.d th iL l.iiid wh ch was con-
Btanlly cropped roquiied to be Bupplicd with manur-js which lijntainpd
phosphoiic acid in some form or oUioi. Another imp irUut oustiLueut wis
potHsh, which, however, was found m ooDhideiat>Ic pi»p*oiti<tnM lu tho Ivdtur
desoriptifius of land, such as moist clay soils, with the excofitioti of p.»oi elsy
soils m the coal measures. Iu oiJer to give an idea oi the pomneas of
some land, he referred to an analysis which he nude fc imo yuMi ago on
seme very light Stiil, and which was proved to cmtaui pi*r,cimu oi sand.
Some ten years ago he tried some expennicuts on Loid Wculock's citato
with a view of ascertaining the best mciiis of growing clover on hgut lunil,
lie ttmnd the land oxtioioely poor in nitiogen and potish, .iiid very pooi m
phosphoric acid. They could Iona nn idea ot the povo/ty of the 1.ind from
the fact that it onnbnn»a'»* per cent, of sand .nid only of phosphoric
and ’M of potusii. The munnros usod by him were mtrat« ol siida, wulpluie
ot aniiuomu* miueial siiperphosphate, cutmnon Mtir,, a uiivlure of ininciai
euperpboKphute and nitiiiie ol; toda, and also inincrul superphosphate vriLh
potash ■alts. UefouQdlhj.tniiner.il suporphospliaio* iJut was, HUpcip'ios'
phate made of purely luincMl matter without iiuy oigame substunoo, bid
MO effect whatever on the crop and wiion im used potash aloiio tiioio was
the same result; but wlu^i he nutUiu mineral euporph ir>pU.iLe .aud tti i potash
togotlim. bo not a mobt moiicllousincrease—tui., iVotu 8 tons 6 owts. 4Ulba,
to lit tons 15 cwts. 40 lb<ii. The mineral Bupeipiiosph.itc alimc wtmhl not act,
because there was iiu'ithor clcmout wanted to bring it into aoluity, and
when that wiiB fliippliod they saw what a marvellous c(loi,i. was produced.
That showed how uocesaary it win loii-dioo tlio ohemici) qu iliLics of the
flOil, lie had made nuuioroua cxpmimcntM ia wiucii potash h id iii effee!
wliaiever, either ulouo or lu euujuiujtiou wilh supcipUojpUato. yomc
farmers prcHCiit might know dwtricU wiioio booos had no (ff tot—ihoar*
lioar). Unless they took into consideration the uatuial oharactisi ol the
liiml, they might waste a great deal ol expoiiuivo manure, but if pid'ciously
applied they would get a very good leturn lor thoir outlay. INiirato of aola
was a roost u.sicful runnure when propoily aipliod, bit wlini it w.n
injiulicioutly used the money might be wusteJ, aul afc tbo saiuo tur'^
serious injury occasioned to the laud—(hCT-r* hoiirp Timiid ttMi-id
expOEiiueub Oil lioid Wciilock’o estate that iiitrato oi a id.i, appiiol
alone to land, hnd the offocL of cxhanating it lu ou'5 sou'-J > « auloutm*
othei hand, where he iiHod Muporphosphulo lU ooiijiiuotiur’ ''Vd-h pouidi salt
there was a couBidcrable incrcaae lu the pioduco. ^h-i smeotiou
propel hinds ot manure they might do tUeiu'noivcs good in ruMHJ'; larger
crops and leave the laud iu a better coiiiiUou, but he won** witii tUeuj
against the lujiidicions use of nitiAle of soda on vo'’J light U'ld Ihcm
woR another circumstance regarding the uao of
soils : when there were mixed seeds the like lauqu wlun
it was usfed, aud lu the second cuttuw dftou noi, a single ]>!aut ot clover was
lelt. They could gam a grp-<‘ alvautugo from the use of uitratc of sol* it
they applied it to pioductive land Ifo
had tried il -c Cireucestcr for a uiimbor of years, and found on Imavy
land au lacreaso which over and over paid for thvi outlay Uo touad 14 cwt.
of nitrate of soda mixed with the sumo quantity of cotnmoa salt to ans.ver
very well, and there they had proof that the very miiume wlncu wai the
farmer's friend mighty when misappliod* hooouio his enemy, Jf
they put uitrutc of soda on soilft^whicli were specially Uch-icui in tho more
important ramoral aud essential.couatitueuta —pot.lali aud photpU uic arul—
they wero sure to do mischief, nud got the laud out of coudilion ; bat if
they know how to make the right uau of it, which ihm could only do if they
had ftomc knowledge of the chemical properties of the eoil, the requiremenu
of out crops, cud the best mesns of supplying tliaiu to the land, they would
find it of oonsiderahle advantage. He would give an insj|»uui» of Iho
succeftsful cultivatica of laud not iu accordance with ordmury praoltoe* and
briefly vefer to a uoyei system of enlUvatiou which had been practised sow
lor thirteen 3 'ears by his Iriend Mr, i'roni!, of SawbndgewortU. fifteen
jeari Ur, bfttt# to Mm wd aeqaaiAMliimof toeCa^ Wh^
bad takm ipme , wMeh the reputallott of being •xeeedtngly poof*
He expieiied OrdAto tot»e »»Indapendonit ju poasible of »toefe» nnd be (Dr.
Voeicker) advised Mm to d*ew the land well with «taMe dhtig* Mf.
Trout tried that but gave it ujr nt the end ot two years* when he earnt to
him again, and Haid thfti it wee too expensive a kind of dresiing^pattended
with most inadequate reunite. He (Dr. Voeloker) enggeated to Mm that
probably ho had net »sad «4*flctent manure* but Hr. Tront replied that he
ooiild not nifiud any mote. Upon that hs (the epesker) went down to tbo
farm and xnado a thtou^h exammation of the laud, atid advised him m
regard to emtain roannreft ^^hieh ought to bo put <m. Mr. Trout ftdlowod
the course which ho uaggesttKt, and it was carried out in a very admirahlci
irinnnci*. He hud fol.owcd it out now for fcbirtoen yearu with mout
Batiaf.ictory reftalU. borne of theta, might probably bo awaw that
Mr Tiont sold off the whole of hiS prodneo. Ho did not recom-
moud that as a goiieial practioo for a toaunt, but he pleaded for the
inudhgont iouani that ht cUoald bo iillowed'uicre frcailotii of action
lUati he KwierullY possoased—(hear, hoar). l£ he h.id a lease* and
with oeituiii projicr restrictions were allowed to do what paid him
best, it wool I bo betlcr f.ip himself, and also ol beueftt to the landlord
—fheur). There they had an example of how a tenant might do hmis cl f
goodil he was lit the sniiio lime his own landlord Mr. Trout bought hi^
faun, which otmiprised 450 acres in J86], at Ihe rate of £53 por acre. He
spent upon it auoflicr CtC nn acre in iinpiovomentu. The land wan of a
hcai/y doeccjption and not of a light kind, on which they should not iwe ftiljr
jiKiato of soda* 1ml it was of a dcacri[lUon which he might call fcriilc in a
iiatiinl way whon propm-Iy ciiUivatftd, Afr. Prout produced wore than
Iroui 4'} to 60 huahels «.f wiioat an a-ji'e, aud I he gi eat secret: of his success
Jav in Iho iutt that Lu never sliutod tho limd m ttrtdloial manures Ho
fonud Uinl (111 an iiveingu ho epaiit from £2 foX^.IOu vutr apseia purohasod
iuauurt.M, jiiil what ho rotiod upon weto bouo dust. superf||^ouphato, disHolvei
guano. Mid a moderate dtcuijiiigof nitrate of uoda mi tho heavicMt dimciip.
lio'i ot laud AiioLlior groat aeerot id Mr. Tioui/fi eiiixim wj«, that Iho
plmigh w.1.^ put lohiB Uml aluiostau Bonn at tho crop was off. Uut perhaps
Ui'^y would allow him to mukc a little rciuaik lu pass tug with regard to
Bioain-pioLiglniig. ti nno po iplo bad an idea that one advantage to be dmivod
from tho srosui-plongh was tliab thoy oould go over the ground with it at
any timo, no nijttei whoLiior iho limJ w'lm wet or dry. A gre.itor misbik i
had hover hOMi made. 'Puey oould mi moio go wheu the land was wet
tlittii they could go willi fo.ir h u'sjd on wot day laud. If thov wanted t.»
t’uhiv.ito cl'iy soils properly, they nimt imt go willi llie flteaai'ploutjh on
the Jaiivl whon it was WLd, or they lont all the advantages of uultivatioii.
It was not merely the horuoB* feet, but the |it(*suuiu of the ploughuliare
Ih.ti coihsolidaltid the laud it’i.l Mi.ide it work ho badly, Tho steam.ploogii
dll 3 iihb the Biimn ua the horBO'pImigli. ft they wanted to dorwo ttm
groatcafc advaiitagit from ('team-ploughmg, (hey should (akc tho land whon
It was diy, and koep the cloila .us lOugU as possible. Tho weather w mid
proJueo the 11101101710.; elt.‘et htdlet tlian any la^imeat tUoy could use.
'i'horoiu wa«( Olio oi tim grcit succcasecj of Trout’s ayutoni of farmicig.
ll>j hrykp up his laud m uutuuiu bofojtf 'iic lains set in; he broke it up ai
iliy as p(*,-nibl«, and tliud goi. ii d oi “ tr''oat luauy ol the woedu* which could
only bo oxl.enuiu.iLc'l whoii t'"' c'lkod up. On some of htullii(t!i
All J'rour h/»d grown wh''**' sm’oo-»siou of years, lu some caaos ho hu>l
giowa fviui ortjjis f suoi-O'i.si-M, uii>l hail f<./lIoive(l those with a ciop of
biiriey. Ini'*
, ou all 111)
b 'avy l.md lie would go oa qrowiug wheal cropf
u/UiI th booimo (oiil, when he would uko tw a oleauiag crop
lOvei, y.jir;iio H^ld -df ins clover, hay, stinw, but novorthele’is mids
I a VMv fair pr-jtit—.lot .in wiiav.igint o le, Jjjt stdl, by ba ug Itiu
own Uudloid, by bom,; abowod to do wUit Im thought boHl an 1 id oat jndi-
ciiuH, aui h) liu'iig Hiilliv'iout capital to fuvn. Iim laud woU. hi rcnliacd
about Hi an acfo. Thm wiH no mere theory, booausj he would ;ivc them
the uCuirn l..r aevaral yours pasr, )lo found that m 1864, Mr, Pr.iut
r<isli/'*(l by Iho suio «,i his < fops oir about 4^6 acres of laud, JSlJiQ ; iu
Jli.>,.J3'l, in I.SJi), ; in 1872. £1,743 ; m 1873, £1,070; ia 1871, £1,628;’
in lH7o, Al,5iS, In 187b, £1,072 , and in lB7f, 4,461, Xt would tliere fore bo
peril Lhil, uotwitlutandiug tliu fact ol low pricou, somehow or other ho hul
'iiocriidiiJ lU ohtauung lliij a uno leUirus lleuoe, if the price of wheat
wont down, and his retuius coaimuci the Hamo, it was to be inforrtul Unit
Iio bad giowu more wheat. And tho laud, too, was in no worse
couJifiou than whou he commctiooh fiidccd ho ;Mr, Voelokor) had recently
c.N:auiiiiod the soil, uud found that if anything, tho laud was iu a bolter
agricultuial condiUuu , and ho behoved that if it wore brought
luto tho in.iikut at the prosout lime, it would reahzit more
than double what Mr. Ihvrut gave fui it. In 1875 the land was Vuluod by a
very coniprtent durveyor at £31,0i)(l, aud now Jio might venture to say that It
was woitb Jt'JfPbU more, whereas Air. Trout puruhased it for £16,POO. la fact*
tho laud was in a bettor i.giicultural coudiliou tbanitwasa fow yearuago.
JilvtMi liist suison, which was tulruitcodly a baj one, hts Baiou, exulusivo of bis
clover crop, umounted to£3.820.I5s, Uiu wheat evei'uges were £10*3s.*'7d. au
acie , bailoy, £9-l,is..Gd.*aQid oats, X;8-12^,-Gd., uitikiug hiu total ursiu averugs
£'j>L5<i.*Sd., wliica was nut bud for tho last fleauou* Takiug into acoouut the
clover crop, aud also about 14 aeruj of tare hay* the whole value of Uie pru-
duLC m 1878 wag* it was egUmated, £1,7TJ. Alakiug allowanoeg for vanuus
cuutmgeauies he OMtiinatol tue value oi the produce in 1878 at about £4,5od
which gave him m uverage of about £10. The cost of oultivatiou, in.
eluding the maxiuco—whioa, as he hvd said* amountodto from i'i in b2-l<i
per acre—was abeut £6 au aoiC) 8o that upon hrs 450 aorsft Mr, Tiout made a
jw lw ni aflj
E'SS;!|fk:
in^d imprav«rni»4 ;w^'
iliMly l»^^i *® donolttifWH *ff
irfeai lui iMlilUd upon tbew unoro was tniS'^tliM n wop
itamwii-bk t»; panap^M iiioewinfatly witb f>.>roia:ti produoew if
tt« £p»oir«d aw» mUac' pwoWe. md .i**d aot fcike advaota??® af tba
kMon* wbioli muAvn, «oieuoe and v^ac^f woaA oomtinjrdal principl«!»
inouiottiadi or Ottjfht to imJwUU» upoft tfho laiu^—(applauie),
N AW VIS lUniQATION,
rflUS foUow'toA Uk'ltoU fi'om.tba Pionea** KrapUioaUy poiirtrays ilin
impettoatlona of native irrigatlou works, aud tbeir costUaesB f^von
wbou made ou really floieniUio prlocipIeB.
All Mardeu Kbaii may fairly be regarded us the father of canal
irrigation in Upper India. TIi» great work was the Claoges Canal,
subsequently roviied and completed by the BritUli Qovernrnont, and
reviewed by the Suuitary OomuiUamuer, Numbeta ot people, however,
who have becoum acqnafatod with lUc giout canal lu Dr, riau'sk e
pioturevquo pagea, may be unaware of the oziateuce of Himilar eystoiU'i
of irrigation all over the country, couduoted with private capHAl acoord-
jng to tradUloual w^two rootbodSi Of coaree, u id not every nver that
will answer the purpose. The leanuroeaof »n empire, whohliar Moghul
or BrllUh, were nacdod todrawoauala from the two great rivers of the
Doab; and many of tbolr affluent though of roraparatively iiiconddei-
able siae, are beyond the eontrol of private m^iauv, becjmso they have
1(0 wnli-doliuod chanuela, but persUb in wandering at tlioir own awoct
will through gaudy waatoB, Masonry dams or p.en rubble wntre, are no
light matter in a ooimtry which does not proda stone to throw at n
dog ; espBolally wlion the river has to be kept welt in hand, uud
brought up to the obatacle properly, or it wi'I lefuso the leap, and g>)
abymg o 3 ! into the drifting dfsert on either Hide Thus it often happens
that streams, traotabla enough aa rogar-ia the voluma of w iter, and
dowing through rough thirsty tracts, prcclulni tliomselvas a^ u'S''’essfor
iitigatiou by thu gleam of white sandhi I Is from afar, bit ', oure
others of a more kindly nature, flawing hefweon unmwrakable h- iici of
aolidcarlhjhordeftd with treofl, diMpouHiig ahadn and yreenti-Mi uiMtoal
of barren glare. It is tU’f«(n wbioh are turnevl to iu*eonut bv Kl > iigiirmi-
turlftt, to bring the beloved waits p, oropw. Wuli ttinn'(o- c»mu«tiv.
uig, and levels worked out by rule or ho will comi no n Hystom
of water channola which, when in fnn {i,^
barvostaofliftyvillages* IJnfortnuatoly, ila unccrfaiti,
from variofy of causes, aud I be result not unfrequenw.^ vilLictJ
assessed at irrigation rates, are in want of water ovory ot*.
To hagiu with, lUe Uam is a groat trouble. A atone wtur,
ooeuomraonly sees abovo watermills at home, is efleotimlly pr"<i).(i..
by nature. A brick weif would be far too expenaivo. Tivi ou’y ulkr-
uativo is au euibaukmenfc of earth, Tms, agutn, canu it ho made
oyoiy wlioro ; one bus to choose a spot where thj sod cjutriMii a
maximum of clay and aminimumof saud; and thou, wKli plenty ol nImw
aud a fair proportion of*‘Indies" ui the centre of the be I (such le tho
the native name for the equivalentoi what ilio mi Uaiy mmd wonUl
call fa^cmci) ime may hopu to build a dam which w>n ii,>id u|, many
goodly fi t of water through the sooruhiug luondis. H it in order that
the water may gather head, it is needful that the dam ho bniit
immediately after the close of the rams. That would be u sulbcicnlly
BUDplo matter, is the bnddiiigof it were any one man's basmess, and i(
that man had no lack of capita* and puhlij spirit for tin* job. In rimlity,
these dams arc unually tho joint pioperty of th« landlords
of several adjacent villages, most of whom aro impecunious, aud
ovciy one o! whom is quite wdiiug to leave the iuiliativu tn all
the others. If thoro is a man uC moans and energy a<aong them,
Lo is rejiarded with auspicion, as desirous to deprive his partners of
their immeniori/Ll rights. Those rigUtcr, again, am too o}t> u of vmy
uncertain value. They are oomu only of the nature of dun from nil
tho villages receiviwg water ft oj the dam, or the sharers are entiMed
to fieo labour from those villages th noil iiug and r<>pairlng it ; but in
practloo noitbec the rupees nor the men are von wdh any regularity.
Therei», in loot, no obvious inoHiod of enrtuoing rights like those.
The rcvouuo courts oaunol lu atiiot 1 j-ality take ooguusnet of them,
and the civil courts are espeuawo aud iU.a\liipLod \o (,u,>u caiMes.
Uuesrtain aud imk-Drute as they are, however, their clcavo
to them jealously ; and any attempt to interfere with them w aura to
oauso trouble. When ai last ali dilBoultiea have biion romovod, wfaoa
the i>k iwrtix of the native character has been overcome, and the
GOnmUtve leiOlTOd (a make a beginaing of their dum^ fresU
'*'nS« ilH or tp^
dlwntod t« bnlld'ftiiotiMr.
, and Jtealouidy to work, and tbata g:oo4’atfong; dam tUe'Jivefoi
and defies oaaual finodS'*^there still remains the qu^iou of the
water which should bo behind it the dam may ^ vo admirably
oalouUled to stop every drop of water that reaches U ; but this quality
cannot well be tested If all the wa» 0T In the river h«e been Stopped
already hy a dam higher up. In fact, the villages ail along the bank#
shew tboir appmoiatiou of a stream of this kind by damming U every
four or (ivo miles ; and though there is plenty of watov for all the
dams, if thny are only made in time, yet when the business Is postponed,
the odds are increasiuf'ly in favour of tho vil)a({es higher up the stream
uq againit those below, There nrr, indeed^ recorded stipulations by
which every dam is entitled to draw upon the dam above it ; but iu
a late seasou it is more than doubtful whether such drafts will not bn
dirthonourod. A liberal discount lu the shape of cash down, Is not
unfreqnentiy demanded in suoh clroumstances ; aud illegal as the
oinim is, the wiser course often is to comply and save the harvest,
riicre ia not always time to await the raeult of a referenoe to the revenue
oourt ; muoh delay is mvolvod in the OAlllug for reports and the
re'iordiug of ovidmoo ; and after all, the coiicliision arrived at Is likely
enough to bu ill fiivoul of mAiii>anii(ig the st>titg quo^ for the letting
ouiof water has been u dangerous husuieM since tiie days of Solomon.
An lUflpeciioti oi the nvor would clear lip all doubtful points ; but
every one acquamtod wiih dintrlut work knows tiiai it is not always
posiihla for an olfieer io visit ngivoh spot at a given time,
Postulating the <lani m the fiMt plnoe, hud the |wnter behind in the
fieiond, there teinniij the questions of (Ija temporary dUtributiou and
tinul dtssposiil of the preoioiH, It HHU<priaing wimt a quantity of wat^r
nuo of ihemi duns wid liold up. Below is tho riv»*r, <io*»p sunk between
Its hanks j abn^u is a httin laki of ulfiur waKn, reflaotliig every tree ou
ils liordars, and making u fair and cheerful proppoot fai and wide.
But bo (ho |»ruspeiotu0v«i’an wida, the p„op(o of tho watered villages
will ‘ -I i it widei. They are alw.iis crj'iug “ more, oh more, we are
y t r’ They Inineut tho good o)<l days whou tue w‘lor waa up
to 1 ti. Ki a waist ill llinir fitroi'ls, I'lioy are aternally pointing out
iinpnsHibie alnrudes m the regular r'OnrdeJ Uj>’I !w»oi. At the mAuio
tinio. they ilo not. lak« tho sligh.ost pains to wxpudUa the raising of the
level by confining the aiioain, or iiy giving u acientid* frontier to their
WAUny posseMiony. Tneii oUjeoc h sinipiy to aucurnulate ns mueb as
(hey osn, rogardieas of the fact that tin* moie distant villages are
vamly waiting tor trojir oli’innois to bt fi'led, while ilie water which
hltoiild nse and replonmli ih*ou is wasMng iimdf in holes and backwatera
flpiealing latierally insirtad of l aing vetnoally, and adding square
vaiils ti( IN surfaoH. inatMad of tiin tow alUnuporlaht laches lo ns (leptli
xVni wlmu ’h'» eliaiinels do h^gm to fill the water is oheokod iu Us
euurs'i by a vimo’y ot niipp>liai^nts The main urieiies nro rnsrcly
hutuial oieoks twisting aiiOiit iti tlie iovoly fashion poculinr to the Indtaa
nulliiti, and *k* p eoougii to «JV'iil'o\n up a siuall iivt^r liefoic a drop can
I'lja'''! tho li'ii<is i'uo cbariiie*H nifi lo by inuii possess indeed tlie main
vinnuof hmiig tnjo lo'IdiJir leifels , but they are loo oonimo'iiy choked,
and even hliLii in (ho host lepiiir, ir h puit of then oi’iglnai plan to
oxpan i lino lak'^s every qu trior of a mile or uo, each of winch takes u
ooupio of days to (ill, .and vviien lillod is of uo pailioular service, except
AS .a wallowing ptuoe foi the buffaloes So immh (or the diatiliuUiuii ,
fi iiu whie'i It is easy to sen bow ruiiclj chance the outlying villages
lull*, of guttiug water, wlieu quarrels or oatelcsaucss have delayed iho
bu ! I ug of ttu'dam. The dual disposal of the water involves some
1 dll*' wUioU (Miry us back to the heginnitig. The most elomentary
*^"'l''HntttUi 5 e wtiU piactioai bydroatalios will enable one lo grasp tbu
toot tn + mi eartboii dam lu liio laius must do one of two things,—.ic
mint elUu-i the water up, or bniaU. Oveittow is impossible,
Uenefiiliy the data brnaks, because it bus not bad money
enough h{>*'Ut on i' to stand the increased piessure. Hut It would be rash
to infer that Ibis lUittwri lu iheir pristine state, aud that tbeovcie
of lam-buihiuig, dam H(iing, and dam-bieakiiig cuii couini(Uice de novo.
On 'he ^ioulrary, (ho r(d.fl^,,,d nvar nsually revenges ii 8 «df upon its
gaolms ny auooplng a hugi hole under Us pnsou wall, which cff>^<ot<ial)y
proven i any simvinr sirueHire next year upon the saitiH fouiidatious. In
Lius way, in the cijura^ of a doaen years, the dam will be gradually
driven m twii tlyj ati.Mui, wdderuoss of holes, excavations, and
romuBii’ '>l‘i >*» wkioo above,
may was ' itself at pleasure. Iheso .,>cident ,8 might be avoided* if the
centre of‘»Je dam were based upon a snTiut.,iuda>ion ot good puddled
Olay, will rubble over it, exleudiug as an apron eiihor side for some
yards; bn such an expod tent is out of tbo range oi ^.^uvo foresight
The other ilun is to buibl a dum which shall not break ; otio nx.iat.iimos
it ihfl taiUb am nasonahle, this will stiojeod for as many as seven years
togt'tiu'r. 'f f'- urao, (wine-ohauiiols must be provided at the sides, and
tiiuse, unfnn ..laloly, ha,, a habit of usurping the rights of the river
whieh fiiid*! Itself some Huh iuori,(i,g high and diy, while tho Ireuehcroui
escape chauuiil huxuimcliol off with all Hie waitu, >md is annnutiuiiig
itsolf to the (Jouutr>-sidc S 9 the ori.;mal rfver out on tour, Wiimi tlie
iiHxt dam comes to bo built., a new site must bo uhoseu, aud the ripAnan
villttgee will bavu to lainuut so many aotes of laud cut up and Ibrowu
out n£ cultivation,
One woviid like to pciuf a moral from all Ibis. The most ohymus
moral is iLe uael**ftsne»9 of ^'xpeafi.ig fio.i. the imuves of India either
ooutimiity of purposes, or unity of ar*imu, or expenditme on distant
objects. U these people will not exercise ordinary care and prudence
in using the gifts ol Nature, they must suffer for it. If a amtieoieoc at
iiTigation rates is not enough to remind them that they must orovldo
water for their fields, it s toelr own iook^oot, NeverthefaM, somethtnfi
might be don® lor them in the way of loetrucUoa, It would (tost canal
dffioor# little trottblo to make tbemwives acquainted with the
Tte mmw AGEjonLttjEisT?,
fjatfitti:
fay mu, on ihf i»U!irl|^lm^4*«r«|?,iipiiitt'i?lbfii^ *«d ' pl«]&*iwA''
t£«r« iliHt1ibMi bb4lbrth0 LA&a IttprpvtmDDti nU<th oottl<jl ool be Oneof «Wifh m^iiifitrA
DJOr® twsefany tbeo to tmten ot tbig kind*. f fe*» Iidv«rttftg0 o! lUe j«WMi mUh gwjfttly etworb wouinw «Uo
oiia«) offlQ0r*< voTlcd in thfatetipeet ^qM be i#<!hfo}d;>*^tbe semtuderg Jroiu excessjre aewp. A§ meeWoned the towry And
wmild i gei! * ronkb‘'tt9t}iiiete of the ebtretne oogt; ttttd kbey would bi^ve coeiinnoae reiu preveated b(}Qmg aud weedtagy the re8<ilt being a pour
the way iipoolbedforlfaelr epplioatlon for aieiirettod ander the Act, orou.
All thtti fioald be mnaaged by a couple of rielu to the epot io the OOHrt. The other field* uuder khetif crops did fairly wall, etill they tM auff^trod
of a year, ^eanwhlie, ibe wetter would be ’kept iu nolioe f<?r fnture of hoeing and woedioga at the proper iiiae, and fr.na iU abeenoe
ocoaatons, andeapeclnny apaluet the oonHugenoy of fntore famme. uHn-uimi Wh^n *c * . i » t
Nolblng eould be Ibore nfleble for the emplof nent of famine lebonr ® •«'ub'>“'; When the weather cleared at ih. end ef iugnel and l egln.
than worka of this kind. They would be dose to the lahonrem'bonteg. dog »*’epteiubar. there Wtw so mxich work ou h^nd that the lort tinjj
They would faraisb work to many bnndreds for several inoothe ; for ooxild not be made np for, Whai could be done m the way of weedlug
besides the buUdiUg of the daw, and the rectification of the wasteful while also prepunug the fields for the rabi, was doue ; but ou the whole
gulfs behind it. there would be many wiles of straight orderly conduits ouly fu,r crops cau he expected. The 'tiir’ promised very well until oh>ttdy
trtt 7^' r’" •''’r Trr 'r,fz r “r'T r;
meaneat basket-hearer but would understand and appreciate the valuo ' weathei oouuiug a miit the roiddle of iNovsmber, tho plants
of the work. The quantity done would miinifc of the strhdi^fit meaHuro- ; P'oked up a^^Blu ami the xycath^r siu -c ha* been very favoufabls. Tli«
m«nt, aud the work would remnln useful for ever, for if the Judian j wride m which theio crops have been cuhi rated doss sot differ matsriatly
labourer has any glimmering of soionoe, it is m the matier of love's I from the nuuvo meliioda. The * baitiir’ used on the fields is. hoivercr
tkrijl c«i.a lA*>/i4kt'iw*aAia XCiarkll htiiaVli. \'%a oisvnr) S si aiiwAwvfiCi^^akk I Ik.^v ! k, .«. .m ^ .f
i^'*lfiatetw; for
tb« ralu Ilrhtn
. nbt^af '
■ warfis 4
fields vdmmik Yeuior
After another tg^^AlU
WOM, Cm the utter l|dlmeftbe«ro|?.kjfaibi?lbd^ oAfe, aad plebaieiA ^
ferUnsoedift Sept«tnbsr, the #oilrtekabe|iiigCompleted tb Dciober, >
One or two of tb$ fields under jawaii itbiah, greatly absorb moisture also
suffered froiu eacessire damp. Ai fclroinTy mentioned the toeary and
coiitinnous raiu preveatcd boemg aud weediagy the rs8<jdt being a pour
oroD.
The other field* undei'](hAtif et ops did fairly wall, still they tfX) sufitwed
from want of hoeing aud woedioga at tha proper time, and frmn tlie abseime
Ol suuahino. When the weather cleared at lUo cud of Axigust and heijiu*
ning of Sepleiubar, tbero was so mxich work ou haud that the lost tiiuj
ooiild not be made np for, Whai could be done m the way of weeding
while also prepunug the fields for the rabi. was done ; but oxi the whole
ouly fujr crops can he expected. The 'tiir’ promiacd very well until otendy
weather in October did eonio dauiago hringing out caterpillars, but a
cliHtigo of weather oociiriug tthoiit the middle of iVovsmher, tho plants
picked up a^rniii ami the xycath^'r sin- e ha* hscii very fax'ourabls. Tlis
mode 111 which theio crops have been euhi vuted doss not differ matsriatly
and watercourses, Much miabl be saved in supervtaton, lor once Iho
lines were marked out by the engiiirnr, (up »r>iiiin<h‘r could safety i>o
trusted to see tlml the work wa* not rioumixvl, Hiid thus tlin pnnpipie
of local action could be enfoiomi, Loont responsibility mmht nlso be
, insistfd on, at least to ascprlnio extent, by making flie xemimlnrs
ooutribute aportton of the expeiisss, whether by iuimHdmte* pnyinviii
or by anrinal instatmen's ufiun tbo taveitne. The point (« uwe woriK
bearing in mind against years to come. It would be an luipiovoiurnt to
snbstittite anything for the plan of throwing shoveifuls of ertrlh by Lho
roadside, or, as has desivilritigiy been suggested in sonio qiiartpri),
digging a great hole, and filling it up again until prices mend -^CtuUtn
Observer,
NACIPOUli: MODWIi FARM.
llAhl-' VlflARTY Kb POET.
somewhat snporinr to ihc otdmnty milive onand more altimtion is ptii«i
ti; hoeing iind wuoding, Soxvmg ii done soinowhut. CAillor tSmn the ryot'*
aio nccuBtouiod 10 and in tin* sowing nf jnwan a euporior seoiUdnU is Uiadc
uhc of. Ih loives ilu’'‘oinowhut nmirer the purfaoe and euuhlns iL to
oum> up e‘X) hei. 'J’Ue umnnuL of S('e I BOwed, per ao e, is aWiP vmy much
lee* than with u.itivn cultivators. 0 il\ b Ih., nr** n*oil to thinr IJ Ihs,
Ju sowing fOtLon too Ici* .^oiid i.< u^od Unn by til» r^oU, nhoiiL I'i lo*. to
their 10. TliO *iilinuras”“iiied aUo nf u, supmior ru iko.
In Poxving ‘tur*’ advnuUge ih taken of ft dull, xvlneli h.is four dnUs in h
line nich inches op.nt, and by that luems ihu socit iti mnoh more rapidly
put III. In other respects, lioxyevor, innovation hai not bcnii nttempUd.
Of the area under raLu Sowing!',—IS acres were sown With liaseoi]l,«-*J
with grain and ^5 witii wheat,
Tho Imlds could not begot at pmpoily till yeptemher, when they
were tinned np with tliH K.igliiih hoiSo hoc, au 1 by tin) middle of October
(By Captain, F, B. Morris^ Superlniendetif )
fllUEfarm, it is known oomprises some 400 acres j but the whole of this
^ area has not this year LeCa tataiaed in our hands and cultivated.
Sixteen fields containing 127 acre<> have been leased out to cultivators. The
soil of these fields is a very eliaUow black, with out crops of luoomm ; they
will bpor only the very lightest of ciopa j they are at a distance frmn tho
steading and the more important patts of (he faim;nndns the farm hie
only 15 pairs of cattle, lho farm lands woio toooxtrnsivs tn permit of all
bring well and deeply cultivated. It was thorefoie determined to loiivo out
these fields and coiicentiaio attention on the romaindor of Lho farm. 'J'hc
Cluef fommissioner was good cmmgh to sanction the prcpogal. It may ho
remarked ihat in 1673-74, (hose hohh wire also let out to cuUivatois frmn
wli'ini an average rent of Kc. I per aero was obtained. fcJmeo then theao
fields have bom deep pluughcd, and tho cousonuonce is that cnltlvstois
have heeii most aiixiuuB to oUain them. An average rent oxoend ng
Ji^ I-IO-O per acre has been obtiuiicd, and some of tho fields arc rented .it,
inoiethanKs 3 per uoro. Those rents greatly exceed the rent for Lind of
similar quality in the neighbourhood, and they prove that tho euUiv.iiora
clearly see the advunt.igo of deep ploughing. That they do not praotioo it
thouxselvcd they explain by pleading their poverty, aud the xveakuoss of
then cattlo. The fact i* ihoy do not care to take iho trouble,
Tho fields on the farm loo which have n*»t yet boiMi c.nupletoly lovollcd
suifered atec gxcatly from scouring Certainly the inonsooii v\a* not fiivnir-
able to tho khanf crops, boine sowings woro ooinplotoly washed nwiiy
and a luxuriant crop of weeds choked othcia CoiUn and ] iwari chiefly
aufferod. In the suirounding country the lesiilt* of the cnn'iniiuas, and
heavy raiu were the same. The cotton crop it i* Cetimatud will not cxc«*ed
a (i anna one, aud the jawari a auua one, at the umst. Da
high l.'U)ds the ]owaL'i i* better, hut in tho host hinds tlie woods
sprang up so rankly, aud the conliiiuod rain so long prevented all
attempts at weeding that the cultivators in many cases finally abandoned
all thought of weedmg lu despair, and many fiolds look as if the weeds
were ti.e mxtural crop, and the jawau a fortuitous growth, in a)im,bci
way the late rains prevented tfie preparation cf the soil fui ciio i.ibt crops,
and the fields wote Vory late prepared ahd late si>wii, In loo 4 some fiold**
put under wheal were not sown (lU the beginning oi Dnoomber.
In all, about 210 actes are devoted to wbat is lulled the commercial farm ;
that poitiOii m which ordinary crops are giown lu the ocdioury manner,
but with greater cue than is the praoUoe with ordm.iv ryots. Ot this
area, about I'lSl were put under khanf crops, aud the rQinaindoi itndvi* rabi
To take the kbaiif first. About 21 aorea were put uudor Uiug.mghat
coitoii, and GO ttcrod timlei j.inaii} the other fields being sown wah tnr.
All these fields Uayo at smno time aming the last 6 ^cars been
ploughed—so tlie soil h.u* beou well turued over They were tins your
prepared for the kliarif sowioga by being welt * bakai-ed’”* m Juuo, nnd the
begmnteg of July. By the 17th Julyi all the fields wete aoxva down, and
* Vapored with the */ bakor," a kind et harrow.
meet opbeoarly vaIu fie-'d* were leady. The linseed was nt onoe drilled lu,
Uufortntialoly rani came down on the 2 lHt and 22 ad of that mouth, (irevent-
mg fnrtbor sowing hiid awoeptng away lho yoniig seedlings that had oom i
up. The fields had to be ra.sowu, The to>*owiug was coinpivtod by the 1 st
November, and the crop promises wiOl, gram was put in at ihe same time u«
linseed aud is also doing well, though hi the booinuing of Notember the
cloudy wciitlior was somowUaL nga rut the plants
Tho wheat sowvniffi we^o got in hutwoen the l‘ 2 tli and 2 l«t November, a
late date, but thia season unavoidably so. Portnnntely the seed has come
up will and tho fields pronu'^e xvoll. JJesidos a more careful preparation of
t^hu laud, iheiois this diiforouco hotwoeri lho native truatmont of ihoso crop,
aud tluit put sued ua tho funn,—that ilto amount of seed sown per aero both
in tho cast! of wheat and linseed is cousidetabiy loss than (h<) ry otv sow; in
ibo fitso of wheat, -I'J lbs. to (heir 60 ]b.v. or uioro ; in the csho of huseod
n Ibfj. to their IS Ol 20 lb*i. 'J’ho seed drills arc also somewhat heavier, and
tho sowing i* soinewli.tt dcppei. In tlio c.ise of giaui ou the other baud a
somowliit hirg'jr qiiauldy of seed is uaod.
'I'ho pruHGUt weuLlior is very faxorable to the rabi crops, and if it
coiiUnoos ft good harvest may bo cxpoctod.
f uira now to lho fiehH ui Die Experimental Farm.
In li(*Ul« No. 0 an acre pUixtod last }var with airawroot IS andei jaw.iii
*gnnafi ,'1 tlio licll xxin manured in the previous >eai aud xv.»s dop}* xilouglieil
The jawari was sown on the 20 th luly, and n. ptomises to torn out oxccpiU
itigly Well: this port.un ol tho li’dd IS woU lev'olad au I tho luauunng and
doC-p pi nighiiig miiuiftlly tell.
Another aero on wlncli gnii'cr wa** grown m the prooedmgj year was put
under iliiiginghat ootion, lb'* seed boiiig sown ou tUo 20 ih June after care¬
ful piepuraLiun of the soil ; but whether it be the result ol the 8 e.iHon
whii h luB been so very unfavourable to cotton, or of the exhausung nature
of lho giugoT, tlie cotton crop is poor.
A third ftcic iu this Holds was put under‘Jagdam’tjaxvari Kucocedirtg
Cotton. The Uud was ‘bakared' iiud the BOwiiig favuUiabJy completed ;
but the plot is nut quite lovol and part oi tho scod was xvashed awuy.
Another fioid No. 6 was deep |dou^h°d and * baiiarod'and sown with
j'vwari j bat, the he.xvy ram washed away gieat part of the seed and the
uultui'ii will not ht) ;,oud.
Ill field No. 0 , I aero oiiiJtir pu.is in tlio preoetling year was levolled flud
msuu ed, tind aitoi careful prepnruUuu was put undei chiiiiat § * dhan.
The Cl Op gjtod w*'U tnl the eud of August, bub Uxa Sep ombcc ram
levelled the wbuo field and t'.n„ nuit-ira was couso ^uen Ij uot go>td. It is
po»>iblj tliat biiti ' dhtn ' should be put out later m the season,
A second acre which bud b ca under Guinea gross was devoted to Curoliiu
lice. Hy tno end of Only, it xva* soon that the young plaut* were
lfuit.tnah’“ir* and a top dressing of cowJum manure wis applied. 'Tlio
* 'Dbuijra', iudlan lioo,
t Gauaii’ moan-ng swoet, a snperior kind of jawari
VJugdaui’, uamrsol or ooiamou, an luf.xlor kind of jaxvsri
4 ^Diiau, riov. *
166
THE INDIAN AHfilCtJIiTTTRIST. M$y i,
moJiiooit mia lio^evar Appeared to ba too iRuob for this cropi and |ho ylold
was below Uio a?emj^, Bubattfiueutl^ ilns aoro was jn Oatobori after the
nco WAS liarroetedi top <ires»4*(l with cowdim^ manure, ouTtiraUd wifib the
Jioree hoe and well 'bafcarcd' and! sown Witb Itieerne ^rasi of wbl<?li tbe
seed was got from En/i^Iand. Tbs sooJ was got iu b/ the Slot Novoiabor ;
it germinated well and thegraris u duuig woli undw irrigation.
The aero on which the crop of chirour ' dlian ' lial been taken, was also
in Norember plonghod up with the English plough, well * bakared/
Howage uianuie was appHei and turned up with tiid ridge plough. Oarlie
It 1 a only natbral tljat a uatlan wUush posuossM so vast a tarrUdry,
preseotiug suoh saried ollm^tldoooditioos, ehoiiild ondoatoar to produce
for itself an artiole of eaoh Jiaportaflce as sugar. Atfcoiopts
of this kind hare been made In diiSewnt paris of the Uoiofl for a long
time back and bare not been uoatteoded with saooess, In 180l'2« the
produotlon of cane-sugar in Xioutsiani Was more ihau 000 miU^on lbs.
aud reached, fa fact, to considerably aboro ono-thlrd ol the total con*
•uiuptloD, But tbfe oxtensire industry aUstatned a terrible blow during
the war, an! its roenrery has smoe been so slow that in 1876-7 the
and onions are being put dciwn.
Two Rorea were levelled and nianarod and plonghod up with the English
plough during April and May.-Hmd as soon as the monnooe set lu. planted
With Guinea grass,—a top dreaiing of sewage mauare as being applied aud
the plants are boalthy and promise well.
One more acre ptougUed and manured during April and Miy was again
ploughed and manured in November, and has been uudur Quinua grass aho,
bub in this oa&e iho ridgo plough has been used so as to try the ridging
system.
Ta fioldNo. 10 there arc S acres of aitgaroauo, two acre*! of ginger and IJ
acres of turmerjo, (he field had been carefully ploughed and manured. The
sugaroAUo was plantod somewhat lato. tho plsiihtig uof boiug finished till
the middle of April, and thd^plants sufTered from the great heat of May aud
Juno and tho very heavy monsoon, Caterpillars (.oo did somo dam igc aud
the fosuU of all is that the crop is only a fair one. The ginger aud turinerio
failed heoauso of the very great moiatiue.
In field No. 11 uu oxporinicol with Indian corn, and one with Banni cotton
both failed, p erhaps because the crop followed too quickly on sugarc mo
which had boon lalien from tho land,
A email oxp^nnent with Khrta wa-i not very satisfactory.
A cousiderablo pitrtion of field i« devoted to expoiimcnfca with rnhi
crops. Part of (lie plot on which (ndnin corn was tned wa^ on Uio fatluio
of that crop agam plonghod up with tho ICnglish plough, manured ivith
cowdung manure and wood>ush, ttiraed up with Uie iidge plough and
planted out with potatoes in iho latter part of November, Those promise
to come up. Another half acre wa.) nftor being plon'/lied and mtiuurod,
divided into beds and sown with Ttnliuu icd clovot. Ti a sied was imporlod
from England, but it his no!, germuiiilrd properly.
One acre after Iving plouglied and manured ill April and May. Wiis again
in (Ictobrr gonn over witlkthe horse iioe. top dressod with cowdmig manure
and sown in November with indigenous wheat. The need was selected from
the best samples obt.iinable lu the ha^sar anrl the field promiies veil.
AnoUiC’ acre having boon simiUrly troalnd ltT.<i been soya with Eugb h
wheat. Half the field has biien irrigated mid the other Ivit uuirrigab
but tho saod would appeal to have beou poor, it has nut germuuli d
properly.
An'.Uiv'i small with potat-ies in field No 17, fail id.
Vicldn, No 3. n, 20, 2.t mid ‘it, wlnoti arc not Hintiible loi eultiv.i'I'oi iiavw
hern tunicd into a forvsi. plaiitiiUon, Soim- wodlingH wok* jdaul'd out
iiiid sctvlri <>( vurions liinda hiMvti. ISiniie liave romo out—Jhc v. ^pori ^ul
hiift juHt bognu.
In fields Ji.) mid HV (wo iicrts hiK* bfuni plnufeJ with or ing.'n aufl
pldiiUiua which tiro trc'iicd iti tho oidman inmincr. '1 ht>y mo vomirig on
wolh
The iorogi'iiig romurks nIiijw whiil. lias been going on u( Ihu farm tiunoj^
the ln?>t Ha moldliw—what Cnqn arc h'lm; grown, mid wliat cxtn:runciits
have been tried. At Lhis tnno the Khanf ciopH liavc not jet been ronjied,
tho actual outturn canunt ihcriforu be given .md blalemoiit ri ^ ndiug them
must lack piecisiou.
> A DIBCOA'EKV IN riUUAK.
V
TN fllntem 0 P"s embodiod in a report by (ho English .Secretary t.l
-I- Legalmn at Washington ou ‘ Sugar Trodu^'tiou in the United
BUlra‘’ which has just Imon insnod a^ a I^arlmnjtuKmy paper, come
to bo verifiod in iiidual expenonoe, the sugtu iiade of tbo world is
likely to undergo sumo very luiportaiit chargt a liuring the next few
years. The couKUiuptiou u£ Hu,fnr m tho iJirte.l HtaUn is v^ry great
lu 1S7(), n jear when scveie ouniunMcm! depreasion had mluoed it
coiiBiderttbly below the average of the provious throe or four years,
the total consuroplioii was oloi.f upon l.l.'lO millioiiH of lbs. ni
addition to nearly ^ 11,000,000 gallons of inolnssos. Of this vnormoui
qiittutily of sweet stuff, more than l,ii:7 million Ih'i, or noai.y SH
jwi cent., was imported, and it u.» thoioforo bo eald that praclieally
the United States are at press' £ iljpendpofc for their sugar
HQppIles on foreign coiintnosi Tin g fiat bulk of tlm imported
Hugar—shout eighty per cent,, or just o.-or a tbousand million Iba.
—comes from Cnha; tho resl ta oblainm'. in inuoli smaller and
comparatively iii-igiiifionnt qnuntitms, from Titio Uioo, other Huar.ish
poseeshlouH, 1 he French, Dutdi, and liii'i^h \N osL liido'i., Brazil. Untigh
Guiana, and the Sandwieh IslandN. 'I’he average va'uc of the annual
import of I^ugar into ilr' States iluiing ilie pasl few veats has b^eti
nearly *17.000,000 slerling—ihat u including the .!iiti«H imposed by
tba Amerioau UovorniiuiiL, whi-h form a C'mHni.'rah e proportion of
th« total aum. Thc^ie facts and figures indicate that the United Btateg
are among the largest couaumera ot augar m the world.
prodactiuu was uudor 200 mllUoa lbs., or barely 12 per cant, of the
total oonaumptioo. Various reasons exist for doubling whether it will
ever be restored to its former dimensions. The true sugar<maDe, arunda
meoharifera, the plant which is cuUivatod in Lonisiana, is only iudige-
ueous in slrloily tropical regions, and the narrow fringe of territory on
the Gulf coast, where alone It will grow at all, fa extra-tropioal.
Although fresh outiinga were continually imported, and nothing that
human skill aud euterpiise oould effect was uegleoted, the augar^oane
haa never been really acolunaliaed iii Louisiana, and hag Invariably
and rapidly deteriurabod. Moreover, a large area of the best gugat-
growJug lands in the State is exposed to the anonal iuundationa of tlie
Mississippi. Hundreds of thousands of acteg of guoh lands are said to
be at present lying waste through the breaking of tho levee, and it has
been practioally proved that rosouroes of the planters, and even of the
State itself, are not equal to the task of construoting embankments
wliich will pfltnaaneuUy keep the river within Its proper bounds. Thug
Bugar-culture in Luuieiuua must always be carried ou under oonditiona
of difficulty and oxpeuse, whtch will act as effectual limilatious to Its
d«4velopemeat. Attempts have been mado lu various.parts of the Uuion
to produce beet-sugar, mad muoU capital and effort have been expended
111 tUig way, but thus far it has not been found possible to obtain boot
sugar of good quality, and in snificient quautltyr and at etilfimently
low coat, to take ihe place of the imported sugars produoed from the
tropical tiAu<> Furthermore, beet cnii only be grown lor sugar in the
Middle an i them States, and will, it is said, ‘‘only yield sugar
reumneratiuUy wheie the summer rainfall bt equal to that of springs
and the natural peculiarities are not unfavourable."
But recently a discovery has been made by a Mr, Stewart, of
Murraysville, Peiinsylvaiiia—who bas devoted his attention for some
yearsto the chemistry of aacchanne juices—which, if it bo verified to
practical cxperieiioe, will m all probability convert ihe United State.*!
from uii impviiier into an exporter of sugar. Tins discovery Is nothing
less than tb ' fact that exoulleul sugar can be obtained from the stalks
of lu'iize Or Indian corn, and from sorghdiu, or Ohiuese sugar millet.
llitizM. It IS scaroc V nt'Cc><suTy to suy, is one of tho chief agricuilurtil
prndviuts of ihe United Htutes : it is bronglit there to gieater poifeciiou
than auvwh'^ii- dsu m the woild ; il can be reared in Hluioot eveiy
jSiiite oL tilt) Uiuuii, and the yield, especmlly lu soiiim of the noh piuinn
Soils of tlin Western ,SLate'), is so etiuituous iliat slalks and grain have
often been u/; > i. fovi boeuiise theia whs no means of ptulltably
dispoHiu;!! of them othoiwise. The soighum, which has been aaclnijH>
tised lu Ameiica for nearly iwtitUy years, IS a still hardier plant than
maize, and Mr. btewaiL says that " the uilmatu of the whole teriitoiy
uf !■> ticii SiuUh suulii ot Alaska, where the soil is not barren and
the 'lie lusullioieut during the summer months, is ada])ted in
ViiiUiiH 'ivgreua to its giowLh." TUu'! the chiof obstacle which has
aiway)” ’ol in Uni way of the eooirnnio culture of the sugur-caoe in
liOUisiHtri does not exist in regard to eichor maize or sorghum. Agaiu
while iho HUKar-cuiio bus to be propagated by cutUngs, both maize aud
si>rgbiiin Hie oiopuga'e i by seed, whioU oau of course be grown at a
coiuparul.iv« y lus'ginlicant co-it, and iu both ihe juices luature in a
much shoUcr pound than in itie case of the true sngar-caue. What is
known as “ aurch-sugar a very diffeieat and gieaUy luferioi
substaLKO to Cl yslallised sugar—has been obtaiueit from maize for some
yeaiHpHSt, and an lufeiioi kind of sugar has boon extiactod liom
sorgliuiu m C'oiMtt from a very remote peilod ; but fiom neither plant
had u sugai wtiich oould compote comiiteivially wibti the pioducc of
tlirt anmdo !(ttcchnr>fei\t been obtained before Mr. Stewart uuderiook
ihe Hoientdk tiv(,Btigatp*ij of the subj-mt. Tho result of that gentle*
mau’s expert teuiH, which have been cairtud oU with great care and
completeness two yours, is to show that crystallised Bugar, oqaal Jii
ipialiiy to ibo or>b(. that is impuiled into the United States, can be
obtaiited from otii sorghum ami maize in large qnaulities. Mr. Blewarl
puts the Hverag yield ai 1,800 tbtr. of sugar and 41 gallons of molasses
per acre ; bu with oareful oullivatiun and judicious maiiuriug, he is
of opinion tuat r.OOO 11 <■). of sugar and 00 gallons of molasses per a'tui
might be oblainH?. Besides this (hore Is to be taken into account the
gioen grain of 0 Ac,« plant, and a large yield ol green fodder, wLiiiu the
refuHH of the inanufucture will sulfice, if rsiurued to thaaoii, to keep
It in good coQiliiion. The process of .fiuuufaoture, which Mr, Btevrait
lus explained in detail—leserviug only for the preseut the secret of the
chtiiuioal proo'ss which has mado It tmooesstuL —im tuoie simple th»n
that employed In Ih*) ease of the true eugar-oane, and much luoiu
economical than (hat winch is iteoti'iwy lo exiraol sugar fioin bent.
Th'ipiaulical valinuf Mr. bbewuM's dlHcovcry ana the accuracy of
bis Hiatemeiiis hocui to be bejund question. Mr Urumtuuud, our
S'lCtetaiy ot Legaiioii at Waaliiiigton, whose report on tne subject
embudies th» facte given above, aajH ho has tasted sugar extraolea fiotu
corn stulke. and tbuc “ it is very sweet and a'cll orysittllised.'* He uie.)
mentions that a farmer lu Maniu having ruade some experiments tit
sugar pioductteu from maize, estimates lh«t the yield of sugar from
one acre of that cereal will give as much profit as the produce of thirty
Korea of wheat. Kvon supposing that this is too baDgulne an estimate
TBE INDIAN AGEIC0LTUR1ST,
167
May 1, 1879,
it is still srJdeat thst ii nev produetire indnstry sDormona Tstue and
Importsnae bss been brought lyithin tbs reaob of Americnn ssrioul-
turists. Mr. Stewart oaloalates that two pet cent, of the area now
devoted to tbe caltivAlion of maise will be enffiolent to supply the
whole home demand of the United Stales for snsar. If this oaloulatiou
at all approaches oorreotness, it may reasonably be anticipated that in
▼ery few years foreign pioducers will no longer 0nd a market for their
sugar in America ; ani even if the maiae and sorghum sugar is not
found capable of competing in the Suropean raarUet with cane sugar,
the diversion to (bat market of the large quantities herotofOiO consumed
in the United States mustbavetlie effeot of greatly reduolug the cost of
the article to the oonsamer. As to the oouseqaenoes of the new diS'^
eovery on tlm beet-sugar indoslties which have been laboriously built
up in Franco, Belgium, and Germany, on rather artihuial foundatioiis,
it is perhaps premature to speculate. But it mav bo worth while to
remember that maize can be grown in Bout hern France, in Italy, and
in other parts of Europe, and, moreover, that it is imligenoiis m India ;
and if the new process proves as successful as it is said to be, there is
no reason why its application should be oonhued to the United States.
BAUKON’S TUANSPLANTING MACHINE.
ri'lHESE inacbiiiee wore originally invented by Mr. William
Barron (of the liim of W. Barron unci Son, Inudscapo
gardonera and nurserymen, ISlvaBton Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby)
in the year 1831, then and for tuany yeais gatdeuor -to Chailes, the
fourth Earl of Uurrington, and for whom ho laid out the extou-
Hive and unique grounds nt ElvaHtoii OaMlo. ll was by the aid
of these machines that the wonderful cifeota were tltcre ptodiiced
in an incredibly shoit apace of time, which afterwards became the
admiration of all who had an opportunity of visiting the gardens
ntEIvastou. The flrst troea opeialod upon were four large cedais
of Lebanon, and the following table will give the respecUve
dtmonHionB of each wheu first transplanted until 1871, which was
the last time they wore measured.
Dato of removal. lluif,’bt. Clrciimrurcuco Height. Circumfcrcnco
ofstuiri. ofsitnn.
>'cb. 1611 No. t - 98 rt. 4 ft -1 .77 It It) III 1 ft. 2 in.
,, „ „ 2 - ii2 It - lift. r,o-, - ftl fr. 8 in. * » ft K ill.
.II :if) ft. .'5 ft. ^ 76 ft, 4 111 . . 9A. t. in,
Nov. „ 4 ^ 83 tU .= t; ft.) 6S It. 10 111 , S» ft. 9 m.
It may bo ankod why Nos, 1 and 4 did not increase in the same
I alio as Nob. 2 and 3. The cause is easily explained, via., —No 1
was planted oil the soutli aide of the grand avenue, whuU runs
from west to oast, and was shaded by tall trees. Nos. 2 and 3
wcio planted on the north mde of tho aaino avenue, coiisequontly
they were fully exposed to holar action ; No, 4, after it liad boon
jibinted afow yoaia (m cousoquouooof Ruiioundiiigoh|ocds), had hh
hiaiiches foreshoilciicd Hovci-ttl foot (its blanches heiug tifty feet
diametoi); thus tho want of solai action in No. 1, nnd tho ehoitcn-
ing of tho hrauchea in No. 4, luateriully lessoned their elaborating
powers, From Novembei, 1831, up to March, IBol (when tho
demise of the fouilh Earl of llariiugton caused such operations
to cease for n time), many hundiods of laige tioes, some of great
age and sixo, both deciduous and overgroon, weie bioiight from
surrounding counties from lento thirty miles, and with unifonn
success.
For tho last twenty-five years Messrs. Barron and Son liave kept
a number of these niaohiuos, of six diilcreni sizes, for iiire, winch
iliey send out with one or two experienced men, accoiding to the
size of the machine required, at a fixed charge per day. They
have been employed in almost every county iu England ; in Wales
Scotland, Ireland, and on tho Coutinoub. A remarkable example of
a tree moved under giwat disadvantages may bo seen at Swilhland,
near Loiccstor. This tree, a largo Scotch (ir, fifty feet high, was
removed iu July, 1868, It was seen by tliousaiida of visitors who
attended the Boyal Agricultural and Horticultural Bociotiee’
Shows, when they wore hold conjointly at that time at lioicostor.
It was brought upon a No. 2 macJiine a distance of eight milos
into the show yard the week befoie the show, and stood theie the
whole of the show week following; it was again removed five
milos and planted* It stilllives and thrives, after being ehven days
upon the machme, exposed to a cloudless sky aud a broiling sun
during tho whole of the time. Nuiaeious other examples may be '
seen at Millichopo Park, Shropshire,* Lockley, Welwyn, TJorts j
Drayton Manor, Tamworth ; Dorfold Hall, Cheshire; WhilUourno
Hall, Worcestershire; Wiuslado, near Exeter; Croftboad, near
Glasgow; Lower Orounda, Aston Park, Birmingham ; tho Koyal
Botauio Gardens, Kew; and. at many other places of note too
numerous to mention^ ^
A tree being about to be lifted, say forty or fifty feet high, the
diameter of bfaaches yriil about determine how fas it will be
necessary to trace the roots, which must Im carefully denuded of
noil up to the size of the mass of soil to be removed, say ten
feet by uine. Under this ball and under the centra of the tree
a drift must bo made two feot wide under ail the routs; this
being done, two sots of host 3 in. red deal planks, 11 in. wide,
iiiiist be passed through, standing not less than 9 iu. beyond
the hall at each end. Uesting on these at each end an end plank
of the same strength, with one of Uie top edges bevelled, inuat
he passed under the hall ; that douo, two moie side planks must:
be iutieduced under all the loots, these to testi at each end of
the end planks. By this means the tree, with its largo mans ou
soil and ull the roots within lematu undisturbed, the inaeliine
being then put to tho tioe, it is then rinsed by slrong rollers
at each end l>y inoiuis of lever bars and ratohet wheel; Gtese
are placed across tho trussed beams of the machine. Bliould guy
ropes be necessiuy, whjcli they will he if tho ti«e be tall and
have ll heavy lop, they should be put on before the contiodiift
is made. On oaoli roller is fastened tlie two ends of strong tar
iopo, capnblo of bearing more than half the weight of the tree.
Alter it is raised, sirong oliains, suspended fiom the beams, are
passed under the ceiitio planks at each end to eariy the whole
weight, also four corner chains, suspended from the luiams, are
fastonod to the four cornors wlieio thu side and end planks cross
each olhor. By this meaiib tho tree is kept steadily lu lU erect
position.
When tho tree loaches ils destination groat cai’o must ho
observed in getting the under planking out without baeaking the ball
of eaith or c)tliciwise injuring llje roots. It will always pay in
having iaige trees leiriovod to have an expenoucod man to conduct
operations, otherwise failures may bo expected.
Tiecs of immense size, far too laige fur any machine, have been
tiansplonted most succe.ssfully by this firm, under Mr. Barron’s
peisonal supoiuitendeuce. In several counties (s. g,, iu Kent)
trees weighing about thirty tons havo boon tiansplantod ; in
Buney, ill the lattoi end of July and Ilia first W'eek in August,
just when in an active state of growth two lornaikublo codais of
Lebanon were roniovod a consideiublo distance aud tiansplauted ;
both aro growing us it they had imvor boon ronioved. One was
over fio ft. high, circumference ol stem 0 ft, iD) in , and weighed
uvei hft}^ tons. The hn gent one was over sixty tons, and ot the
following dimensions .—Height, 47 it. (J in. ; diamoLei of hranches,.
fit) ft. ; (iicumfeieiice of stem, il fl. fi in., and at 4 ft. 8 in.; above
ground it was li) ft. *J in. Tho Holi<l mass of H>d removed with tho
tree was 18 ft. long, 16 f(. 0 in. wide, and 3 ft. 7^ in.deep. Tho
whole was taksju up an inoluied piano one iii eleven, Ciiruod on
roUeis, and moveil by powerful machinoiy.
FUENCH AUUICULTUBE.
LlIiBNC/J agnouUuiisitf ore divided upon, and beooniing fioniewhat din-
A fl acted about, tho qiiei^tioii of freo trade <57^1.protection. In certain
rofjionu of Fiunoe, the piioeof wheat vanes fr, 18 to 22 ; consequently
It no longer pojs to oiiltivuto gram at this price. It Is also a truth,
that puUiog a tax ou Americuncoiu—for the States supply two-thirda
of dial luiporled—wiil uot reaiedy the evil, for foreign grain, owing to
expenses of piuJuction, iico., being less, uonld still suoceHsfully oompetc
with hoaiti grown, also with grain and if a tux was levied, the cousumer
would have to pay desiror for his bread, and the proceeds of (ho impost
would go, not into the pockets of farmers, but into the oofiors of the
Stale. If tho culture of wheat does not pay, fatiuere must try the
production of moat, but above all, pursue more advanced systems of
tillage, notably the usage of commercial manares, irrigation aud the
empiojment of mauhmery ; the latter is more than ever necessary at
piesenr, when the population tends to emigrate to tho mauufuetoriug
centres, attracted by higher wages, France has not much more than
commenced to lay iu bet necesBary supply of agricultural implements.
Iu order to euooaiage the extensive use of maohinery, workshops, with
able mechauioe, are to bo orgauisod to be ready to execute repairs*
M. Golfart, the disoovcrer of conserved green forage for stook, is in
tho habit of publishmg annually a statement of his exporieuoos ; this
year his remarks are not less valuable, beoause they are an exception to
an interrupted success , the system has not been at fault, but the
experiment has auiferod from bad weather and questionable seed, JUis
neighbours are not more fortunate. While 40 tons per aote of green
maiKo wore yieldoil, lu some eases not twelve were obtained* This
latter return is simply ruinous when the heavy expenses of tillage and
manure are borne in mind. The choicest seed maize oomes from
Nicaragua ; but it never arrives in lime, and is injured generally by
the weevil, New York supplies tho next best seed, provided It be
transported in barrels, to avoid heatmg ; failing both, (he ordinary
horse tooth maize Is to be preferred. It is no longer a quostum that
the best method to preserve, as well as to employ tho forag*-, is to cut
it before tread mg It into the trench or pit A machine worked by
hand is not to bethought of; a cutter di I von by two horses ought to
cUatE the green maize at a coat of 6 sous per ewt, while an engine will
do the work for two-tbirde less. It has been ascertained, that a trench
eight lest wide, and oorared with earth, will lose 20 per oent. of ite
m . Wayia?!^
will}# lib# low ]irill b« ou^f nooktii#] it tb 9 f;r#li«i
4oiibI# tM, iwUtb., Mother poiot to be noted; (jtore ie e’fieWtnK
dlipoeliiea fttneiiK fermeie tOeupIoF uutbbi||bnt tbte trenob tee#g« «tl
the jj^eitfoend., OeoereUy one men* #t Ir. 5| pee def wi^i^ leal lowed
the oar# o( twelve heed ol oettle, fed oa beet, turntpe, bajr, to eat
the ioote, and provender^ U. OoiEart reqalreg only two nteoi, at the
eene rite o( wegOi to taka ohergc ol eighty heed of ,etook led on iho
pit rationa*
Dr. JS«telQ« of Bono, drain atteniion to aome evoiEMlar faote,eoDaeote(l
with dairy etook, that, li, regarding eowe viewed ae maobiuei for
tranaformitig raw material food Into milk, He laya down that the milk*
yielding i^Ot pepoliar to auy race, so muoh as that
the mean yield between breeds is different. A good milker may be
eommhn Co any raoe, U appears that a H.de Happen, near Baderboni,
regUten every fortnight the weight of eaoh animal, and the quantity of
milk it has yielded—'testing tbue the ratio between eooretlod end geeh.
How <he dti^Ure apiitade Is proportional to the lire weight, and the
funelion ol tbemaimnifaroasoripinH to theqaantlty of nutmire elemexiie
ct>nv«'yed to them by the oireulaang blood. The aveiage weight of
thiriy cows is owts. and the daily yield of luilJc over II 4 quarts,
or 773 qoacte per year, for every 2 owla. of slock. Now one
animal with a lire weight of 11^ owts. ymldsd 1.285 quarts of milk
per 15 stones weight, while another of t3| owie. gave but 308
quarts, per the 15 stones. Here the evidunoo is stiikmg that the
differenoe depends not on raoe, though the herd is Doinh, but ou Uio
iormalionof the mammlferons organs. Funbnr (ho rtilatlon betwoon
the yield of milk and its richness aagiuents with ths abuadaoce and
eupeiior quality of the ration ; the appetite of the animal thus bnoomes
the test. Now as it clearly requires more foo l to support an aniuntil
of 13]^ owts, and yielding less milk than one of owie., the latter must
be the more teianiierative machine for irausforintug food into milk.
Street eweopings form a manure of an uneertaln importatiof', but in
Paris, that which ie produced in the vicinity of the markets is more
Taluable. At Dunkirk, the refnee of the streets la mixed with stable
manure ami sea-saud, the mass being daily wotted with urine and
faoolenf matter; its whoiesate price is fra 21 per cubic yard or ton,
the contractors re-selling it to fanners for frs, 4. As a general rale,
not more than 60 per cent, of street manure is valunbie. Professor
Heinrich of Uostoclt, has experimsnted with six different kinds of
tiiiTogenous manure on rye. the soil operated upon being deQcient in
aaole. The eame quantity of nitrogen given in spring to the several
picix. under the form of fish, guano, powdered hum, bloo J, and nitrate
of eoda, have produced thp same effect; but have been less elilo>< 4 ^i«>us,
when lathe form of sulphate of ammonia or powdered fl'ish. The
induetioe of all the manures was excellent on the gram, thus contra¬
dicting a common belief that it is the straw which is lufiucnoed. When
therms tOo much fat in an animal manure, Us acbiou is diminUhed.
Lu the present exiieriments, nitrate of soda proved the best manuro,
and iu addition, was the least costly. M Ladureau*a ^experiments
with flax are interestiag ; the most luuiative yiuiil ol flax is timt from
a manure uniting asute, pboHpboric aoHl,und potash ; the fibre, though
not 10 abundant, wilt bo of superior fiaeooss. Nitrate of soda docs
not produce much effect, flax requires very lUtie soda, but much
potash, and it baa not the pow<<r to roplaoo. like boot and some other
plants, potash by soda. Iri the north of France and m Belgium, the
plan is therefore bad, which consists iu dosing, more or 4eaa strongly,
with farm*yard manure, guano, oil-cako, animal r«fu 8 t», and '^ituiUr
nitrogenous maunies, soils intended fur flax, Wlien (ho land is of
ordinary richness, 2 or 4 owts. of the baUs of potash uud of magnesia,
sown in spring, will suflloe.
It is anttolpatod that the new commeroial treaties will give an
impulse to the cultivation of hopt in this Country. France has about
fi,000 acres under (he crop, which sells at frs. 70 the owt, Twenty
years age the price was from frs. 200 to frs. 400, Cabbage is liable to a
well-known disease in the roots, called oiuu root * it is not vury general
in France, but lu the neighbourhood of St. poieriburgh, it is a veri¬
table plague. N. >yercnin has devoted three years to the etud.r of
this disease, which he calls hornta" ; it is produced by a microsoopic
imrasites, and develops with greater rapidity m moist, than in dry
soils; radishes and turnips ate liable to be attacked by the paraeitus,
wtilob. quitting the excrescence iu the rout, seek ref age in the soil,
till occasion offers to feed on another »uol[, irrespective of age. Burning
the diseased roots, and cUanguig the crop lot a few years, are the
propoied temodies*
^IIEBOISEMENT/*
O F ibe slipping iu ol he sidds o£ mviaes M. Tiiolti gives a
grsphio account iu th Frducli review, The undermiuing
process, begun in times of heavy floods, often ends, he tells us, lu
embracing the entire slope of a mountaia, aud the pictures fully
bear o^t his atatement. The torrents of France, according to these
authors, generally present three foatur es: first, the cone o£ dejection^
at the point o£ the egress o£ the stream Iroin the mountaius;
secondly, tiiemaiu cUaunel o£ its course, which ts usually in narrow
ravines with high precipitous oliffs; and lustiy, the catcUtoeut
basin, where the cliffs open out aud lonn a wide irregular amphi¬
theatre. It here that tlie waters collect which feed the strearm
and it.ia upoa the fact wli^ether ti^e slopes oC this amphitheatri gr#
cloth#4 wiUj woods or that depend# the violence of thu
times ofhssvy nain or rapid thaws- If hare, the aiea simply forms
na humeus# fiikmel which difdos off the watem. os they ^
^touvortsa wgiefoonrsa into is raging i4w \ «
The operations proper to ^ ooni^s^ therefor^
planting and grassing the lliopss V the oatobment bsi^iii With
subsidiary works to render the lomBerlposiible tod effectli^ I (9}
of direct impediments to the vtoWoaoflbr^nt^inthe shepw Of
dams, piling, ^c. ; ^
Bspecial pains appesv to be taken with the planHng: Iftim
slopes on which the plantation is to be formed i^re irregular in
appearrnce, and out up by deep watercourses, the firsfi thing done is
to reduce them to a piano surface. A. model Is davuted to the iltus-
tralloQ of this subject. Tbs ridges are hacked dowfi, and th#
hollows filled up, or propped with sustaining walbbf pilii^; The
slope generally is also supported with pUiug aud fsanine vrorls, ^ A
favoudte plan is to use truncheons of live wood tQrp,iies,aud
iuterwine them with willo^ branches fastened Into the earth, thu#
producing a living fence. The ground may then be oousidersd as
ready, and the young trees oro either planted or sown. Jo either
case It is usual to sow grass seeds at the same time, in order to
increase lUo stability of the soil and afford shelter to the yoOttg
plants.
In the case of very steep ravines the ground Is marked off in
little ten aces or stages inclined sliglitly inwards, in order to reCaijti
the water, and these are planted with trees ou their outer edge*
The trees are hard woods of two Or titree years of age, add are
planted thiokly, so ns to touoii one another. This method has been
round perfectly efleciive in fixing such places. An irnprovemeut
on it MAif lately beau adopted Tn tlm case of the stiff lias clays,
which are the most uiitractable of all the soils that the forester and
engineer have to deal with. The plan is, instead of making a
regular terrace or stage, to make but an incipient one, or mere edge.
It is iiiclvncd inwards about two or three in ten, and raced off verti¬
cally on the upper side. The plants are then inserted as before in
the groove thus formed, and covered with earth from the stage
iminoiiatoly above. Tins is termed the cordon system.^ It has
the adv.iutagH of not requiring any pile-work tosnpport it, and of
not altering the appearance of the slopes, as in the terrace system.
Blips from above are also leas frequent wiieu this method isem*
ployed, the water is not liable to penetrate the ledges so much
as in the ca^fe of the terraces. In tlie intervals between tJie lines
of stages rioh giboves are sown together with the seeds of coni-
forous trees.
Of the dams and other direct obslaoles raised to avert floods it is
hardly necessary to speak, save that they are of all kinds, fiom
mstic woik to finished tuasomy. That in the model of the
Bourget torrent before us cost, we are told, £620. It is 23 ft.
high and about 5 ft. fi tu, broad at the top.
THE FIBRES OF BURMA.
B RUTSH Burma-Mpofts- aaimally fibres of one kind or iMMdher,
products of the vegetable aaimai kingdoms, together with their
luanufeoturcs, to tbe value of about 6 million eterling. OC gnnny
bugs atooe, a uiiiliou and a half are imported, besides raw silk and
others. Considering the natural advantages of the place, this import
trado k not a little anomaious, Few countries possess so many and
different kinds of fibre-yielding plants as this one,.'and |et local trade
is indebted to Bengal fur jute and jute-fabrios, to India for eoUon,
and (0 a number of other places tor fibres and textile manufactures.
The genera of the vegetable kingdom famous for their yield of fibre
exist hern largely. On the highways, and byoways, in the jangle
and the fields, such us Sida, Vilena, JIlb6aou$, AkutUon thovLtii*
Uangoou aud Ps suburbs can boast of a number of them, all growing
wild. Nutwithstanding this mine of vegetable wealth, little has been
(lone (ui its development. Jute oultivation was tried some time back,
but faiJv'j. The causes, however, for this are so well known, and
easy of r moval, that it is a reproach to local enterpriee nothing has
since been attempted in the line. But leaving jute out of the question
as already noted, the country fs rich in other varieties of fibr|s^
and a vie\b to the Fhayre Massum will convlooe tbe most Sceptical
ou Ibis point. The speoimens there exhibited are all the yield of
indigenous p.auta, and these chiefly of the Malvaceons order, ihh order
to wbioh tbe gaudy shoeffower and purple^ye cotton belong* They
are all cultivated wUh tbe greatest facility, and as readily propagated*
With ordinary care and troabte„a field coald be raised withoat, m«bb
cost of time or attenUon. and to very graat profit. The hnnible
weod Nida, with its tiny, pale, orapge bloom, to be met with <m th#
sides of the dustiest roadv* yields, one of (he toughest fibres ffi
existeucs, aud those from f/rsna and AhiHlon are long, fiowfug* and
glossy, like jute.
The members of the orders named have tn addition this advantage—
tbey,aii4ve at maUrUy ohe allot another at inlervals safifteieniiy
removed to permit of a field being worked up if ell aifter kmwfjh
before ioothep it put down* In this way, with a little fo^igbt and
provision, ptodaoe might be obtained nearly all the year and
the loll from keeping labor anempb)yedredaeed4n a The
mimilautajilna of fibres from most m these is WU^eV nor
ardobns aUthinge ooneideredi it a W ^Ity
ASRI< 50 LW»iSf;
1B9
ihMi joBwj #1 mtwM Ip to ttkta
dtar, lrf«M()( i>)!*4M«n^. Tli«. mat «l t) MocMttttbi*, b«li>r*
/#MI« «f|»rogrfif Md iiii^rov«n|eiie ik iktM dir«) 0 |l(m,
iu^^H U it for tho bA^kvr^id totrottiott tf ^ molt othor'
iQiiil mtoafiotuma, tiii<t«oitr timttlfitmt oft^wkoti
fiottaur 1| ittfocS oti toooont of ibt of titt Itbof ttiMkit.
VjtiVUi Iftl^f-qooition {§ »ol?«dp ili^ ii htp* lov proftmkii
ot ntiuril rmouroii; tad Ttty KttU loir ttm opealng oat
^ W tOttatry ill gtr&eril or Iko proipinty of im irtda tod mkani-
fi^turii. To ^ ftir tad trothfoli bowertr, it ouit tM tekaotlodged
tb« q^ttutlott hM not biaa ofgitfoted by tbe footl ftdfiiIi|iitr»tlon« Mr,
Tbotopioa^ Ut^a wbon t bitter roveaito oMoar woald be diffioalt ‘ to
pofQt to. MW lad^ippmeieted toe difiOttUlee in the wajp end did not
•pete eforti to ifaete ieiK>r for the looal merketi. Unlortanetel/,
however, lor the ooaatry Mr. Thooipaoti wee not free to do el be
liked. The nlatieen Ukhi of ropeei given him during the Medrei
Feihlni. to htlUie for phrpoiti oldtate Imniigrelion, w^e to resirioted
by oenditioni ihet from the oatiet, he mw little. If inythlug, woald
«rer be got with the anueuelly libaml grant, Mr, Aitohlioo. who
il more of a itateimio, leei tbe ditSdnUy in the muter as indeed
all who bave atudled ibe country and iti intereitado. and from him
tbe prevlttco mny deob for larger, broader, more ttaleiman-Ulce
mediaree. The labor difficulty forme one of a olueter l|ing at the root
of the prosperity of the province, Tbese happily solved there ii no
limit to the advanoement of thii poriiun of her Imperisl Majesty'a
£mpi<«» What are needed are energy, resolution, oommon sense and
liberal ottUay together with experionoe. In Mr. Altchisou we have
one who admirably Mtlsftei all personal requliameuts, aod in the
matter of outlay he hM the will if he has not the power. It rests to
a great extent with the Supreme Government whether the provinoe
■hall baveoapital aod labor. The present Ohlet Oomnilssioner may
be trusted to do all he can ; but in oonieqaeuoe of duanoial arrauge-
menti, he is uaable to spend pablto money as he pleases beyond a
osrtain limit. Imperial sanction is necessary for all considerable outlays,
and to acoare matters of imperial importance outlay must needs be
of an imperial kind. Ait that the ripe expeneuce aud wisdom of
nigh a quarter century of official life, in one of the most trying and
respousible positions under Government, may ba expected to achieve,
Mr. AUohisoU may ba confidently trusted to perform. But he can no
more open out the country without funds than the ohildreu of Israel
were able to manufacture bricks without straw. In aiming to place
tbe laud policy on a popular yet sate busing, the Chief Commis¬
sioner is iu the right way of removing half the difficulties lu the
maiter of labor aud capital. All that is needed under the present
rigime is sufficient funds, and with these (here is no reason why
the province ahould not before look take rank os ohieE amongst the
Indiau pio*oonsalatei.«* Weekly Meview,
PB, AITBBN ON THE OHEMISTBY OP
AQBICULTUBE,
W £ reproduce tbe following from the JVbrth Britlih 4grit<fultitri*£
A resumd of second of tbeso senes of lectures on ** 1'he Ohemis.
try of Agriculture" was delivered by Dr. Aitken in tbe hall of the
Highland and Agricultural Booiety Dr. Aitken referred to what hod
been explained in the previous leoture—that plaate were living
organisms requiring food, that they were able to derive that food
from two so^rcas-*the air. which oontaiued oarbonic acid, water, and
ammonia, or the products of its oxidation ; aud the soil, which also
oontainad these, and which specially ooutained the tniooral coostituents
<tjOf plant food. Plants, like auimais. breathed oxygeu and gave out
oarbonic acid, but those which had green leaves were able to deoompoBo
catbonio aoid iu their chlorophyll oelts, forming therein the well
known a>ibitaaoe slaroh ; and eliminating oxygen in the process. This
was possible only in sunlight. The staroli became soluble, and passed
from the chlorophyll oeBs to all parts of Ihe plant, taking part lu
tbe lormaiioo of wood. The euergy required to perform this woik
was derived from the sun aod stored up in the plant, and this stored-np
energy was able to be transformed into active work by animals
who ttsed tbe plants as food. He next proceeded to explain the
part which nitrogen played in forming the tlisuoa of plants. He
showed that though plante Were snrrouaded by an atmosphere oonslsting
mostly of nitrogeni yet they were not able to make any use of it.
Oaly eombiaed nitrogen, either fo the form of ammonia or nlttio
aeld or their Mlti,or" nitrogenous orgaulo bodies^ was capable of being
OiiimilaM by tbe roots aud leaves of plants. The nitrogen taken
Up by planti was mostly converted somewhere in tbetr orgaafsoi into
a highly complex organic substance called albumau or protein, which
ibnuUded^iu youug, teoder, and growing parts of plants. This it
dhiltioomhinlng with the starch or other carbo-hydrates present iu
Iha ptaat, water aud earbonio aoid being eliminated iu the prooess.
it went Qp in davkneiB as well as in light, and was not dependent
on the imm#dlata agency of ohlorophyll. The air oontained traoesof
emntoaih, and the leases of plants could absorb it. Halo also washed
it out of thn ait and eatrled It to the aatth. wheta U aeon be^affie
conre^ into nitr^o aoU by various proossses, the most iuterasilfii
nf these bMhg that te^ntli^ disooverod hy Bckoeslng; «$■„ tho vhiS
netMity of mhihto gerrhs living m thb sdl. Nlirle aeiS was ooavff|ed
idtrales, and In that fofagi tt Waasbtoebsd by thh foftte ofpladtA
'the akBonntolamonla Msthealr was«tn«ld.
to|Weaii|l{*^M thht bagW; to^ aiyth ba ahsnrbbii by their
WWi xo oa ansa
*
bf'iai
g^i^nTa
Itjr IawW' aaii ontwt mm# 4 twt wntlBOoni anipal.g
to ihe extent <
experiments by Xliawet and On&afi that oonttanouf oropplnf
without the applieatton ol nltrOgeb,oas hmttiira pM^ooed with mosk
crops a meagre harvest. Hanes the aeessfUy far tbe appljoation of
nitrogoQDut manures in ordeS tdj iae#a lerga erops. Tti« leotarey
next discussed the vaclons sources of loss aad gain IW the, wtmospbbra
of combiued nitrogen, end at the close Of the leotnr« .d»ewan tn^aotfva
piocure of tha oorrolatfon of animal and plant Ufa $n tha aartti.
The leoture was ilinstrated with diagrams and egperimeatiy a«d Wii
listeued to by a large aqd attentive andlenoe,
ALOB-FIBBE FOR PAPER,
II^R. OBUlOKSi^AKK, Collector of Boulh Areot, has brought to (he
111. ootioe of the Madras Government a very Intereetlng agperiment In
paper-making eouducted under tbe anspioes of tbe Tebsildar of Cndda-
lore. Samplec of the paper have been snbmitled to GovernmeiiS, and it
is stated that the oost of tnaklng (he 7| quires wss Bs. 9, *< bat tbit
oauuot be accepted si the real poet, because, if more fibre bad been
given, more paper could bate been made with the same labor. The
mauufaoloreva say they oan make paper from the aloe at tbe same aoit
as from hemp, and that the paper made from each oould be sold «t
Bs. 2 per ream. The Tehslldar tbinka that a ream of paper made from
the aloe might, if the paper Is hronght into use, be sold for I rapes Ig
annas." The Tehslldar, C. Vencataramiab, writes papers
manuCactnred from the aloe 0bre are far superior to the papers mentis
factured from hemp, and they appear to be flotr and more durable
than any other papers of country manufacture. Ink does not elnk
through them, and they are not liable to be torn when folded, The
following is the deeoriptiou of (be several processes adopted for the
manufacture of aloe papers. A eorialn queadfy of aloe leaves were
collected and made to soak in water for fifteen days. On the )6ih day
they were beaten on a etoue and washed in water when the matter
covering fibre is separated. The fibres thus seoured were dried in the
sun and a quantity equal to six pounds In weight were then out into
small pieces with a bill-hook and thrown into the tread mill for (bo
purpose of being powdered. Three men were employed to (read tha
mill while one had to sit near the pit into which tbe fibres were tbtown
to re-tburst into it the pieces that escaped the operation of (be mill*
The beating continued for eix hours, and then the powder was tskSti
out of the pit and placed in a heap on ihe pavement, and pousiug
water over it, two men trampled on It lor about one hour. These two
peraoim, putting (he powder in a olotb, washed It in a running stream.
The powder Was brought again to the pavement where mixing In it
chunam dissolved in water it was placed on the pavement. U was
allowed to remain m tbe same state for four days, and on the 5th dky
the heap was spread over tbe pavement in (he suu. An hour or two
afterwards It was again beaten In the mill and again washed •• on (be
previous occasion. Obunam water was again mixed with tbe j>owder
and hft in a heap on the pavement for another four days. The tame
operation was repeated for the third time and loft in a heap Cor four
days more. On tbe Sih day of the operation for the Uiird time the
powder ball was washed and dlssolvud in fresh water in a tub
aud papers were then uianuEacturod and dried np. Next day tbe
paste was applied on both aides iu order to render the paper to bear
smoolhenmg. tiix pounds of aloe fibres produced about 7^^ quires
of paper, and 1 herewith ecbmlt tbe epeoimena ea ordered."
The Board Of Bavenne think the sample of paper forwarded by ibe
Collector le far superior to ordinary country made paper, and, if the
material were worked up in England with proper appliancea, a really
good article would probably ba produced. The Board would euggeat the
preparation of half a ton of fibre to be aent to Mesara. Bouiledge" or
other paper mauufaotorera for experiments." The Madras Goveinmenf,
however, do not see the object of preparing fibre end sending it ip
Meeara, Bcutiedge for experiment in England. ** What ia wanted ia
to develop local manuiactare. Endeavoura ahould be made to find
some one to make the paper in Madras; it might (hen be tried In (bo
public offices. Possibly, the manufacturer of tbe specimens forwarded
by tbe Board might be able to make a quantity entfiolently Hu^
to admit of its quantity and ooat buviog a fair trial." Wo iffink tbe
Goverbment ehouid tbemeelvei aee that (hia experiment hat a fair trial.
Aa for tbe Tebaiidai who has made this intereatiug experiment, he ie
not even thanked for his exertioua.
JUTE IN THE UNITED STATES,
fiveJA^n
St’S?.]..
Ainerioans are making active efforts to grow yate egten^
^ sively, and its cultu'^o, a matter of prime neoesslty there,
promises to become a great element of pposperily and rjahea,
When wo consider that in 1870 tha United Staites ralaad 1,500
milltons of bushels of cereals, this neoesaUaled an enormoae
¥ number of eackk, the value of whiclt, if made of jute, was eati-
mated at lOO tnilltbna ol dollars, and a far higher anm If made of
cotton, flax or hMsp of European growth. Tlie oountry itself ie
far from prodjMng anything like a stiffioient quantity of raw
material for bagglfigi The AmericaoS now import about 78,000
tons annual]^ ^ of ^ hsmp, jute, and dther fibres, of thevaina ot
2,500,000 dollal*i. Many of the States, tbe southern States esptoUIly,
are no# tumiiig'theu* attention to ibe culture of hemp and JotSi
aUM^ lMstnriaaarata'be eslabhshed for making it iiito ^hag^ttg.
^ >! '••, J ', n v,. X, i '.
«f'^llMi I^^WMittlictttri. mhnif iM^kliLi iti^4
li^'ol'tfc* toim^lopgo wiwkhou*!^, tkui lifrv# <K»iif0r^M|
M jrdik.
irwTdrfc^H»4 OWoi.iwd iK^y h*w to 44y
0r 96 thutif |jto^oto0tto«dlDti«iwbiok^fret^
Agrtottitarto «fe W«ibtogl;oii^ 0XjP!«rim«9to bavd boen m^ite in South
<k»oUoft, ilontof Oborgifty Lottiftiftoft^ liud l>ZRt; iheno have
oho^ th«tth0 hemp will grow*well wherever the climate is warm
ami Wmid, gad tiie soil to ef a tight eaady elay, in faot, wherever^
Uiere toAh alto vial soil,
Hitoh oi the U^d at preaept devoted to rice is perleoMy stilted
to into I the resttUing henetito would tie immeABe, and the first
ouiu^ iMigt^fioantly etnali. To .prove the great irnportaitce
TUtouelture of this fibrous plant, let us see what has
>B w H » h I tr- 182$ toss than 40,000 Iba of
thto Indian Uiiwp'wae exported; in 1860, l,000,000lbs. ot fibre
end cordage wea exported, and 800,000,000 lbs, of fabrioa In
187^ the ahtomenU were 700^000,OOOJba, of which 300,000,000
went to England* lit 1878, the exporte from Oelouita were
5,Sto.870 owls, of raw jnte, 19,368,250 gtmny bags, and 8,632
pWto of aloth^ the whole valued at :g3,294,52L The land under
eultt^ra with Jute in Bengal exceeds 900,000 acres, and more than
one mtition of hihabitante are employed on it. One plantation
alette employs 4,600 work^peopto, and raaiiufaotnres more than
thkty tntiUotts of pounds of jute into gunny bags or sacking.
^ VANILLA.
fftHB vanilla bean is the produce of an orchid creeper which
Ju although growing from the root, is a parasite, as it will grow
eyen when cut from the root, for it takes it substance from the
tree around which it clings by means of its tliousauds of fine
tefidrilt. Like all parasites there are trees which are particularly
adapted to Its support. They are planted about ten feet ^psrt,
In tows, ai the foot of small trees which are left in oleariag
the land. They begin to bear the third year, and in
favourable years give from 400 dollars to X,00Q dollars per
acre. No cultivaUon is needed but to cut down the grass
and weeds, tio pUmgUiug or digging being uecessary. The
bean to often gathered in September and October, but
if left till the end of November or December it comes to
peiieottou. It is then gathered carefully and spreed not
fit the sun on mats, if the weather be favourable, but if otherwise
it to placed in ovens, which processes ohauge the colour from a
pale green to a rich browuieli or purple and at the same time
davelop the oil, which on pressure exudes from the bean. They
are then packed in blaukets while warm and put into large tin
cases to go through a sweating process; again put in the sun and
again in the blankets until they attain Liie proper colour. They
are then placed in a dry looia upon shelves made of some open
material, so tluit the air can circulate around and under them.
This evaporates all the watery part of the bean. When siiniGieiiily
dried, they are put Into largo caaes ready to be assoitod into sizes
and qualities. Tlie pecaoii that ratoee the beaus seldom cures them,
for Xhat i-equires a good deal of caro and special attention. There
are ahont fifieeti different claases, but they are sold by the packers
at one round price. The people will work only about one hundred
days in the year, which provides them with all they need, and as
they will do no wore, there is very little increase In the production
of hnything. When the beans are ausorted they are tied up neatly
In bunches of fifty beans each, and packed in cases often bolding
frouiftwo to three thousand. These tin coses are lined with tinfoil
and a ticket placed on the lid giving the quality, size, and quantity’.
Bome five or six of these tin coses are put into a neatly made cedar
ohes^ which is soiuetlmes lined with zinc and hermotioally sealed
so as to prevent moisture from getting to the vanilla in transport,
Wiiioh would ruin it. Th we cedar cases are then sewed in mats,
and oovered witii a coarse bag|fing, to avoid the danger of
transportation on imiles. in i^ds manner all the Mexican vanilla
«oes to ^aces of sale in Burope and the United States.
Formerly France was the great market for Mextoaii vanilla, but
the enterprise of some oi the American merchams has diverted
the trade to NewVork, which is now the great ciepftt of vanilla.*^
£dmimd /oAnien, Tnrn/itoo.
siawAae cultivation.
/oticwing totter on the utilization of sewage from Mr. Atox.
, Ai£d,,jOf De^iiaigi, to Mr* J, J. MecUi, ehculd be of iiitMeet to
maiiy,pf
*' I touted glad to ?read poor last letter to thv
knowiugaoito)4^«'m ow^ r<oxp«rtono», that your rapeatoA
appeals for th# iprmntioflr pt thw present eoermoat
ttanure nmst in time he fatiy^reccgniied and jlkim
. jtosMbie ktod^pure*danea^|ipy*fM.n«ir^^
. lirhea^ barley and rye, base JtoM
(asatteitod by the market, ageato) .thiea'^iiTi tm Mteitoml
Jaod in the province. . . . . ;
« Daring the past year our
and depatatioos from all parts of M'/
every oase our vtoltore have exprseiwd thMr
and detail arrangements are * coaVInMfig/ , I l#tot to e44^ |hai
not one EiigUshman tpie pMd us av^to. Itoat|p6rjSa|tm|fiU
general opinion thfd Dt^lg to a very dttoffMifto toe
Euasian frontier, whereas Danxig,. dan finl|y', tto Aeso^tod' as
* Nnrembnrg^on-the Sea,* surrouitoed hy.the moat; charming hUto
and wood scenery. That our anrangements hare havC: praved
saoceesful, you, as a praolioal men, Will Uftoeiilimd fkimAhe
fact of our having olosed a similar eontraot with the ntottiptoai
authoritiee of Breslaa <270^000 iiihablte!iito)| wd undertalriag |lie
laying cut of the irrigation lands (8,000 .^es) and takthl the
same in lease for a term of 12 years, cd terifis iitlsflietcr^ bdth
for the town and ourselves.
In Berlin the sewage irrigation system >hiu» already provad
a very grand Success, and deservedly so. All vegetohlet are sold
at a much cheaper rate than formerly, and. arrangemehtS hav 0
been made*in the interests ofi public health to enpmy the poorer
familiee with pure milk at a nominal rato« 1 can safely say that
all the larger towns in Uerinany are preparing to carry out the
same syetem, the Qerman Ctovernment having wisely determined
to prevent in good time the pollutidn of their riveto. t read
all the English publications I can obtain on this subjeol, and am
almost regretting the * bungling’ (1 fear this to the Only word to
use) taat takes place. Most of all do I regret, and this { consider
really a disgrace to England, that the MetropoMtaii Board of
Works has to entirely ‘ shifted the i^uestioo.* A very moderate
outlay would have sufftoed to prove results which would have
loug since establieUed the truth you and I alraaito, recognise as to
the national benefits to be derived from * utiUeatlcn of sewage.’
suldeub fumigation.
M b. hub BBS writei as follows to the fVytoa OiMnfar ;*»lo reply to
yoar oommuntoation of yeatorday, reipeotlcg the preparation of
a fuse which on being ignited will evolve thick clouds of sulphurous
anhydride without fleme, 1 beg tossy Xhat so far as I am aware salphur
when used la fumigaiidg purposes is generally employed aloue.
fiolphurous anhydride or aulpburous aoid fumes, or gas as It is Sometimes
called, is one of the most powerfol reduclfig agents kuown, and I
apprehended that a mixture of any earbonaeeoiit material would have
the effeot of very cooilderably reducing the chemical results of
fttongation. Dense volumes of smoke coniiettng of minute ptrUotes
et solid carbon with some esrbouie oxide aud oarbonlo acid fumes would
certainly not Increase the ohemioal action ot the Sulphur fumes^
' There is nodoabt that fumigation is the moat perfect form of applying
sulphur, but gibe action though uniform and energetic is not so
permanent as in the oase of the external application ot the flowers of
' salphur to the leaves, for as soon as the umbrella covering is takSn off
the rush of sir will remeve all the existing fumes, which will be carried
away by the wind*
ffamlgatlonmust ateurodly be ooaduoted with much mere eautloa^
than the oompsraUvely almple prooeeS of dusting with sulphur.
It win be neoeasary to aseerteto by praotioal experimeut the quauMty
of sulphur that may be burned under each tree, so as to dfstrey toe
fungus wUhoUtsffwUog the fruit, and baving had the ooveritigs made
of uniform stoe. It wilt only beneeesiary to have the respeettve fuees
of salphur of a pertain definite weight and so remove all poisihle dahger
from oar^^Iflssoess on the part of toe oodles. The mofo slmpte the
prodsas the less dauger of mietake.
It wou/a hr destrable to have the ooreringr whitewashed with
Oolcmbo lM£e in order to protect toe material from the effect tri tbo '^
fames, which in wshort time would soon render them Mtoo* natesgt Ip
some way protected from (he sulphorous anhydride. It has ftr^ime
that whitewashing with lime the stems of the trees as well as ^
WaUaha pnblleUed in the Dsevlawd T,
As regards (he trrepamttoa ol a fush' I uk , oi opinion that sdlidiar
will be more effmtlve w^q usto aton|, and that a convmiieiil toni
aoentate way of nslug K would he to omalii anlphor sptoteUy rSSrin"
piece# fSMemhllog very fstedt clg«^ 0to% tri fariefted |d rilte '
batobtowliees. ^ 7
sffsisJiiffiSSuiasi^
..
<^^'m ooiiui^lili^ Wykifit^t^
V#J^in^ toU^y, ^iri me
,; 'i»’}^)i''ttio jSjttperor^s
f «l4«^jt- iM t]iiWiai M| |M^aela> f rept^ til»»lrdiii l^nutUy
b^ligi^ £!y,00j^|^^j^H|P E^ 'ITiktkbif' of Oin|i^ ^uiteal
>i't4rit^itt^y^iPeM^^MH» aNiktly'Ai^opted
ibo 'W|«blo 4 ^^HBH|mi||||P^ io %rop« oq 4 ' other
^'^pttntTioi, ^'floea^^ of' Jfj^tii to 'wbioh
' iki iia^b'£»i^ J
Mb floii«kliM| pM plbe Oomotneot 0irdeii« at ^on^alore
're^ti i|jj^l|yi||KliW fanifla platite ia the '0a^Oiia
Vftoiila ‘pfaQ(I^H|HmeoUUy caltirated iu tbo Lai Bagfa, have
iiotbeoiiiD lMP^ Alter as they were prior to the drought of
1877. TbO lint crop of 1878 fell o% the planis^abortiyely ripened
and were in ooneeqaeooe ueeleee. The plants are uow ebowitig
' gi^ptoiha of Iretotniiig heedth and irigour, there is a good show o£
btoSfOfn.ai die present time (4th»^avoh) and I*am. not without
bopa that the tanilla may yet give tailfeilactory rasulis. Sixteen
pllntO put dOwnt iu a **mango tope” laat September, and thiNie
are growing vigorotiely now. Hiere are about 200 spare planta in
the nursery*
Tbb net ooet of the Botanical Gardena at Mussoorie and
Sabarunpom is Be. 25,000 per annum, but the valuable results
wbiob they yield, more than oompensate lor snob an apparently
large outlay. .We are glad to bear, therefore, that a proposal lor
the reddotion pf ‘ expenditure made some time since by the Nortii'*
)^e8t I^rovinbos Government has since been withdrawn. The
Saharuupore garden under the superintendence of Mr. Dutbie,
whoee attainments as a boianist and agriculturist are well
known, has been making rapid stiides in tiie direction of im*
provement. The botanical coUeoliou has been considerably
increased, and it is hoped that in course o£ time it will possess
one of the finest oollectionsiu India. Vegetable seeds and plants
and tress are supplied from this garden in large quantities and
with satSefaotory results. The Mussoorie gardens are worked
iu oonjunOtion with those at Saharunpore, and are used lor the
* collection of botanical products which will not thrive on the
plains. A ready market is found there for all garden products,
and as considerable improvements are in contemplation, it is
reasonable to suppose that their sphere of usefulness will be muoU
extended.
tiatBD VBGETABH 5 S.-*We copy the following from the
Jijurml qf BotUu'dtun, as a matter of general interest
to all who may desire to have a supply of freeh vege<
tables out of season without resorting to the use of those
which are preserved by, iu many instanoes, objectionable
and \mwholeeome processes We have rsopntly tested some
dried Vegetables, which have been submitted to os by Mr. Theodore
’AlkemSde, Melfose Terraoe, Stamferd-irbad, Tottenham, who
Is nowen 4 visit td this country from Nordwyk^ Holland. The ve*
getablM have been dried by a process which has been adopted by the
Allmmade family for upwards of a century, and they are iu, great
repute on the OonUnent* During the drying process '^uotbinglT^ says
the propneitor, ^^bAs been added to the vegetables, and, nottiihg,
water telrgEt from tlYem ; and when cooked they assume their
Wdfilfiat AOl'enr, Abd, to a large extent, their^fiavbUr.** Ttits wo have
tobud irbA, The Vegetables We liave tried ' are scarlet runners cut
rs^, lor ooidtuig i dwarf kidney bMoe uncut t andbroAd beans,
. ii^U ae^ of the Itofupm type. In appearance the, dried vegeta-
blea^ore uAfOvSthigr hMug small, hard, and shrivelied, but after
: biti^jpoMiedin* Water for six .bours their diange is ^marvellons,
their holouriflturiktiig and their bulk uiawsMbg InAvety tnarlAd
manner,. Whbn' <m3^ i^Are iltW]^!sed by their'
Vegetables, tbe^ approach
thtm’iy' i jixjptee^j and eo^enily so to be
f i^eptelblaas As same kinds are
SkWi AbtaiusblA ^gstlfovStieh Aft tbwttitBaf ef ecsiHiiitiu*
^ tsdteai
bu{,,,iAA4#ery
prcy’voted.^^br.fM^ will no doubting
the cAftt, Ai^ongh ts VegetoW Attt; el isAiOn, they art tWli
particularly Costly now, yet they^Vaa be ohea]^e 4 'wey
will Alm^t oertaiuly befuW|e ^emMi^^ei^mptien*^^
land and sea* ft may be noted tlmt dwSW^ bldney beana, pbpulsrly
termed French beana^ ere not usually^,idkled on ^e Oi^thieni jf ’but
varieties each aft theFrihi^ift are|rown,
.whole after thet»esha are formed in iheifi. 'The ,dned iqfeo^meiia
are of this kind, and on that account are not, we think, likely io
be popular in EdglAnd.*
Cabbouo AOit> IB THB OAADBB.-^Ths TSiy ‘gensml Mfipley*
meiit of oarboUo acid for saoiUuy pniir^A *
oorreapondent of the tieHM Jltiu^ihUi^ rfho'
his experiences in that jodrnftl, to try Whether it mj^t
not be applied with equal advantage in smud' of < the
many diseases to whieh vegetables, as well ip fiaftbr iafA
heirs. He first experimented with a eoleiion of one part of,the
acid in twenty parts of water, which was allowed to stand for
twenty-four hours before being used. By that time a layer sol fat
or oil had a ppeared ou the surface, the cohtaot gf which with
plants speedily destroyed'them. This was consequenUy wUh*
drawn by means of a pipette, and the clear fluid below slone used.
This proved an equally dangerous application, forftome/be^ of
savoys aud radishes, which were watered with it in order' (o' lree
them from ground fleas with which they were b^»sUd,
were totally destroyed by it. A weaker solution, ’ Oonsistinf
of one part of acid in fifty of water provpl scarcely less
injurious to vegetation. The application was now tried in )thA
still moro dilated form of ope part in a hundred, the, pupel'natraiit
oil being carefully removed before use. lu these proportions It
answered admirably as an iusectioide, without oaueiog the slightest
injury to even the tenderest plants. A ehigJo
efieotually freed the beds from ground lice and similar desili^ullVe
vermin.^ A very small quantity introduced into an anjb^hill eO
disturbed its busy inhabitants, that, contrary to all the habits of
these insects, they abandoned their pupoe iu their bunted fiighti' v
A cherry tree whose ripe fruit afEorded a favourite ItuhiiOg-gimund
for these ants was at once protected from their visits by a plight
applioatiou of the solution id Its Stem, though they ptuirAeftle the
at^ck in four or five days when the pungent Smeli of the aclj was
lost. Their further depredations were once for all ehe($id^
however, by a girdle of cotton-wool impregnaM witb Hie
strong acid being bouud round the trunk* M>sny. ,olW
varieties of insects were kept at bay, or driven from their
haunts by the same moans, which alee formed a most valuable
proteotioii against mildew, with which the rose aqd pesoh trees In
the garden were sadly troubled. In one instance, a rose-tree which
had borne no Hewers for five previous years in oonsequftQoe of
mildew attaokiug the young stems of the buds Immediately they
were formed, was observed to bear a mkguificeuVlfWp'tbftfiist
season that a timely application of the solution was madei
. '
BOSE GLOIBE m D JOK,
W B have seen this rose grown upon its own roqlftl but it ift
generally budded or grafted upon some strong briar as a
stock for it. There ere several varieties of briars, even aineugst
those found growing wild in the hedges, woods, andunoultivated
places I some are smooth-skinned^ having few thorny hooks upon
their stems. Buch may prove suitable for some of the weaker and
less vigorous-growing roses, but they do not answer well for the
Gloire do Dijon ; one cannot give it a too vigorous stock to grow
00. lu budding, select for it the briars having the raughest
skins and the sirongeet tboViuiy and then one may teseenably
expect to see a healthy pleni fall of Vigour, And yield^g a; pretty
general and ooutinuoue sneoession of flowers during summer, and
much later in tW autumn than most other kinds. We have seen
tins rose growingina greater variety of positionft than any other
rose that weesn remember, and when It hss a good stock it is far
from being d^e about where it may grow, lliis is a great point
inilsIatdUhimByperbapftr one of the Tsaeons why it grows fto
vigm^tti' and ’^^nMIhl in the garden# oi cottages in almost every
{kwtiien, ylaidiitg « great fl*#ar» <*«Hbg Ike
■'«:
■ :■< 1 -
''liiltiMKi
tA m^'U 'fA»' #itb.
i *j- -dul d
mmt^’xmmaUhr^^mfok ^«if (
Alir(w«iitibutd Aotr6<»iveth«»^ manaf^menit^ «4ndt
t!dt pm fn 4fwmit j»QiiU^ii« r«|ttire4 4fSdr«< la
pmaittfi <ka't ifiu^i away with tha hnh apoa it« fmb a«i4
viigQrooa growth wjitbdai maray ; to do. io would ba to detaat
parhapa ttio rety thintc which yoa dasiro to obtam^a regular and
finodarataoontinuonea of bloom for aa long a parted of tlie aeaaou
at potiible. Wo have toaii tbit roto as a st^dard amoogst othora
In a row along tho tideo of walksi and irrtbis position—how
difitfontly somo pooplo manago it from othors !—sonio persist in
cutting it back in the way they goueratly do most other roses.
This may bo done at tho winter nrnniugy but to do so during the
aummot psaaou would prove disastrous. When we have come
aorOjM this rose as a staudardf and have had to do the best wo
COUI 4 with it In such a position when it throws out its strong and
Wgorous shoots, as it is sure to do, let them grow to between 3
feet and 4 feet long, ond then geatly bead these shoots round the
head of the bush, or it may be over the head, so as to form a
dome. If a well-established plant, there may bo shoots enough
to bend both ways ; the result of doing this in place of cutting
the shoots Hkht away is generally a free breaking out from nearly
eveiy eye sooner Or later, according to the maturity of shoots.
These growths in genoral soon coma into bloom—true, it makes
the head look rather bulky, and sometimes causes it to be well
supported t8 prevent wina-waving, but that is of little iiuporiance.
we recently saw a villa garden—a very pleaeing way of using
thie round rose—there was a summer'house, the sides and roof of
which were completely covered with ivy, with a plant of cleiustis
jackmanii growing up amongst it, but concealed until it reached
the top, where it was allowed to develop itself, and show oil^ Us
beauty in graoeful, waving growths, interlaced amongst oacli other,
and full or flowers. There were also some plants of the Gloiro
de Dijon rose growing up aruoiigst the ivy, in which its long
shoots were hid, and the flowers showed well up above the ivy ;
then on both sides of the entrance in this suiniuer-hoiiHo tlioie was
raised bp to nearly 3 feet high against the wall, and perhaps 4 feet
wide, eloping down from the ivy, a sloping bank. O'liis, when
we saw it) was in full bloom, as well as the rose and olematis.
Here was a baud of scarlet pelargoniums ; there the iipi walls
of datk green ivy; white on the roof was a garland of flowers on
a green ground. These, slightly moved by the breoise, prodneed
quite an interesting piotnre.—Country QeniUmtn'e Magaeine.
■r:'* V'f'l
THE BOTANICAL GARDENS AT OOTACAMClSD.
W JS malire the following extracts from the report on the progress and
condition of the Qovernmeitt Botanical Oardens, Ootgoamand,
for the year 1877.78.-
Nxw PLAIITS,—A considerable number of new and valusble plants
have been added through exchange and purchase to the garden collection
during the pest jear; the most important being a oolleotion ot npwnirds
of sixtf species and varieties, of New Zee lead ferns. These were
purchased through Captain Campbell Walker from a nurseryman in
New Zealand, and with the exception of some tree ferns arrived here in
excellent order, and are now established and growing well m the
gardens.
A »mell packet of seed of the true Cinehmm catkaya var, Icdperiam
was received from Major Berkeley { from this seed 12 plants were
raised. These have been increased by cutUogs to 67 ; a portion of these
have been promised to Major Berkeley ; but 1 hope to Increase the
stock largely by cuttings so that a good number of plants of this valu.
able cinobona may be available fordlstributiou next planting season.
In the spring of last year a gentleman resident in Wynagd eent me a
small case of Liberian ooflee. As he had no experience in the raising
of this ooflee from seed, he asked me to germinate them for him in ihe
garden propagating bouses. This 1 agreed to do, and succeeded in
raiidog 410 plants, 8S0 of which were sent to the owner. Of the remain,
lug 60,30 were plsoted in the BuHtlw Oarden, 17 distributed to planters
in different parts of the prev^denoy, and the remainder are now in the
propagating house in the gardens.
As directed by 0.0. No. 8,060, dated 3ad October 1877, four oases
containing eoonomia plants, and cue case ot teeds were forwarded In
Maroh last to Messrs. Nlool and Co., Bombay, for tratisiiifsloa to ihe
Uvingstooia Mission in Central Africa. The cases oontsioed •
Cinchona Bueolrubta and C. Condaminea .
Tea, Assam Hybrid
CoffiesArabica
Orange ...
]>eohee...
Nutmeg.4. »
Oinamon *•*
Jalap tttbeis 4 *. ...
M. W
Blaois.
238
188
. 100
6
. .i7,,
' ‘'I'
'■-i'
iK#
mmg .ca^8i %
gtfmt portion df thsm wlM
A ease ot Nilgirl orchid^ 1
A. tawoollM, Wellington,
and New Zealand plants and seedy ^
A parcel, of cuttings of rhfoa(IXw'Mm«48i!Mesd) the
Madras Mnnloipaliiy for trial on tbek Bo^fk^v \ , » ^
Monsieur Pierre, Director of the Bnii^ioiDii^enli fnigOUf vjW^d iho
Ootaeamund Gardens In December and-^ supplied Wltk a
complete eolleotion of spectmeuf of thedlSefwnt i^ios and varieHti of
oinehona cultivated on the NiigUil, UlSO with ft ipf^niewn of
the Indigenous shola trees. J . * , . ^
A case of scions of the flnsst ktudu^of ftppleSi jpturi and plnUif
cultivated in Australia was imported ^fjtk ceaiou for ihepur^ ei
grafting stocks in the gardenSi but unf#uhhte}t they were all dead
when they arrived here, hating been packed im too green a State.
Another attempt will be made to introduce thmh'mts season.
The catalogue of timber trees, shrubs, and flowedng plsuts, Ac., for
tsie at the gsrdens has been oarefally revised eopiss priotad,
They osu be had gratis on appllostion at the gardakpffloe.
The West African coffee plants continue to grow%Uariaatiy, and are
evidently quite at home in the olimate of Bcrltar, The largest plant is
now upwards of eight feet high, and is bearing a good crop ot plump,
healthy berries Thirteen plants were raised from some seed yielded
by this plant last year. Ifrom information t have received, 1 believe
Liberian coffee «hai not been a snocess in Wynaad, except whore ft has
been planted in warm, sheltered tboalitiee. That It will nor grow, much
less thrive, in the elevated districts in which the Coftoe Arabloa
flourishes, la a point now fully settled. It requires a very mnob warmer
olimato than that variety, and in my opinion cannot be grown
snooesifuUy in Southern India at an elevation over 2,600 feet. Our
plants were badly attacked hv leaf rust in ihe autnmn of last year, but
this dtssaie does not seem to affeot the health of this plant to the same
exiifut as it does the common variety.
Some hnUdreds of young plants ot PHheooMUm taman^ or rain tree
has been raised from a paoket ot seed received from the Conservator of
Forests.
The mahogany plants pnt out Inst year are making a healthy growth,
the largest plants now being over 6 feet high.
Cocoa {Theitbnnuet cacoa), In coniequenos of tight oropi and a
suooession ot bad seasons in the coffee districts of Southern India, it is
not suprising that plsntere and others are now turning their attention to
the onlUvation of oinohona, ooooa, and other plants that may prove an
equally remunerative and less preoanons investment, That cocoa will
flourish in many of the coffee estates at alevatloni front 1,000 to SX>00
feet in Wynaad and Ooorg 1 have not (tie least doubt, U^might be
planted with advantage between the rows nf coffee bushev and in
avenues along estate roads. In the spring of last ysar 1 dlirributed
gratnitously a number of plants and seeds to planters, who find It thrive
and are now anxious to obtain large supplies of plants. Already several
thousand seeds have been sent to estate proprietors in Mysore, and I
have registered orders for the whole crop of seed that the trees at Burlier
will yield this seasOu.
The roangosteen trees blossomed very profusely last year, and are
now bearing a heavy crop of fine fruit, a email proportion ot which wiU
ini reserved for seed.
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL
SOCIETY OP INDIA.
Mr.
^ I 'HZ Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on tbs 27th March,
^ Justioe Jsekson presided.
GAnOBN
The head Gardener’s report was read as follows
** 1 am afraid there ts Uttle of interest to report this month. Labonx in
the varions departments goes on steadily, water nnfortunaiely taking np
too much of our employes time. It vre could by any means sceurs *
oonof^otion with the canal outside, we might have a channel running through
the (<ardeo, with branches from it, to diSereut parte of the Garden gypoadc,
and Gien i^ve ouv plants [which are chiefly cultivated artifloially in potsl
the bimeflt 0 $ a copious supply of water* We have seonred the services of
several maUeit who will prove useful no doubt} our every endeavour must
be concentrated in securing a suffiolent staff of moissi to commence decided
an4^ active operations early these rains. Coneernicg Liberian coffee t
must Ba^ that the experiments which have been carried out have been
exceedingly barren of results, for out of many batches of .oattings put dhtva
only three cuttings formed roots, and those were prepared wkh the knile, in
a differhut mxnher to the others, which X have tried to make plaiaar by tbe
diagi am seat herewith. 1 shall repedt this experiment. I hart seu^ cue
ripe fruit of Coffsa Llberica. This ts just about the stage Ot ^desi ,lrhieh
wafrante their being plneked, they perver colour highly, the fthit bowaver
will epeak for itself, It is now beginning to wither up near the apex., 1
have alio eent several others, titeee have grown to a ceitaln stxe, and,have
then died* I also think Uie Americsn metliod of striking cntHdgs, ae
mentiogtd by Mr. Fraocii of Tirhoot In last month’s prooeediugs. is worth
trying on this coffee. Seeds have been received as follows add havg hssn
dnly town :^L Balm seeds from Botanical Garden Mand^njil# It.
MoonfloW«fv!oq(uot,eapota, violet from Society. HL aolleoHph hf seidi
|roiuAo^i|iwe»tr<»mMr.B, H. Mam’
A fewmtiM ef eolMi pioius are herewith sent, ai nsShabl isma'sff the
^oia»dtu« vu. , i^f 'C^&mmUte*
«(fj?r»|nt^ iljifir' liai^aelioa At t^e itaU’cl ib^ Aiid; Hf* ^3ll«WOtt’«
21ifly )^Aj!Oinm 0 Ad ao order oQ lleglAnd' fUft A colltcftioii of
oiioftriieiitll (rlants of i6rt«,j>W»olpAUyofroaW»afadtkeortbti»flof Anothci
forUioreoeptiooof ilockpliiuto. Agreed to.
Tea ttA»tiBs.
Me^^r». Kd«. ftOd Hobioii, ajjeut# for M«Mri. Ohleodorfl'e apeismlljr
prepared lea fdrUlW» prewnis oba^andred might of the tnaaiite for trivl.
that it ha dUtHboted aa judioioaaty aa poiiiibld for trial m tea
gariwra^ And I^hali* baalao tried iu tbo Society’i aardo»%
Af>PLXOAXZbnS VOR BEEOE.
Le Mere were read^-Fron Banm F. Von. Mualkr, applying for eeed of
Reana Aa yet in two places only of Qneeuelaad have tlio soede
ripened/tboogb given to many parties. The demnnd for the eood le very gi'oat
iu Ruch an exlensivo country as Australia. will aend you/' adds the Baron,
*• more ecede of Festuca da>(>a, as «ooa they me >ip(* again; also I will try
to obtain for you tbe seeds of araucaria eookiit bub in the presont stato of
trouble in ]^ew Caledonia, ib may not be possiido to get iliorn rc idtly. I am
glad that the Indian Government, through tho actioaofbir Andrew Clarke
intends to republish niy '* se'eot plsfite " A copy wuh ertendive additional
notes whl go to tWcutla by this post. The work ought to bo of very great
osoto the whole of Upper India and ought (o servo also particularly tho
Indmn Forest Department*’* From C D. Feudall, lllsq., For«8t Dep.iitment,
I'hiUonr, applying for Bsed of Henna luscuriam for intioduction into the
llussahir Satlej Valley* From Col. W U. LowtUcr, nllnding to tho lu'avy
yield of seed of ffeantf. “Fancy roaua "seeding so heavily m tho Jlopal
Teiai that two uuuces gave fourteen pounds. Besides this there Were two or
thtce entiings of forage. But Uien the irrigation resonioes uC my friend
Ml. Peppo'ft lands are unlimited, he has miles of water cuts.*' From tho
Deputy CommisBioner, Damoli, applying loi a quantily of julo seed for
diHtiUmtiou 111 his district, and luforwatum as to the mode of ciilturo and
preparation. Compiled with. From <J. Cameron, Fuq., Agia, on the
eohjcct of jhea speoimous ior report, and, if nut approved of, test specimeu
to ussist him mtlui preparation of a machine (or competition ior Uoyornmeut
prue. Complied with tully*
'IIoKTHjnti I Ri. atKoteohuu.
Bead the foil owing extract o( letter from Captain Fogson :>■*“ i3onio yo.vts
ngo, yon sont me a few Bcods of ‘ Flew Zealand lie on,’ and of my first oiop
1 gave some (o Uov. hfr. BohscU* This beau has n>iw beonmo completely
aochinatiscd hero, end its seeds are called, ^Sparrows Fqga’ by the
Piiharrecs.
“ In 1871, whilst at Kussowlee, yon sent me two or tbioa seeds of a
ynagiiificcbt pumpkin, or gouid from Cahiornia, and I grew two plants, but
the fruit was cut before it oould ripen seed. If possible, in due time,!
should very much ivihh to obtain a dosvn ormoroof Ihese biicQk, and I will
Hike care to Uerp all produce, but two. for seed, and let the Huciuty h.tve
half of it I'U' diatribaiiun to JUouibera, “ 1 am now located in a plat'o
having a go od soil, lots of water, and a shell hmc deposit, a few nnJoa m
to i) distant, consequo ntly lean grow any thing, good laud being ar alublo.
1 hope (D. V.^to pavtt five years out hero, and I shall at all times bo huppy to
grow anything* suited to the cUmato, which }ou may wish to li.ivo laittcd
iindor an Indian bill sun, previous to introdootiou into the plains of India.
T am told that a vuiy good description of wild pea grows all about iUo
locality, and also a large wild strawberry, the fruit being of the beat
description* Of* course 1 shall put both under high cultivation and ropoit
If salts, sending you samples. The pea Is colleutod, and eatoii boded, and
stewed, just like the cultivated pea* It will be curious if this wild pea
turns cut to ho the father of the cultivated kind. These remarks arc equally
applicsble to the stravfborry, with its high Iragraooe and large sweet
<1 mti”
FORESTRY.
A MONGfST QUIT eeleotioas ivill bo fannd a yalriable ^lernorandniu
by Uie luBp6etor«0eiioral of Forosie on tha growth of teak.
Tho pa|lev ddats with tho finuual rings, girth ami hoight at diiCerent
Agee, onblq coaients o£ mdividaal trees and the number of trees
and oublo coiiteutB o£ growing stock per aote* Statistics have
been Golleeied fromali the teak-growing districts in India. Tim
Xus]p«etof*QAueral invitee oontributlcms from all who have ^ny
knowledge of the growth and general charaoterietice of teak.
Pioo'riw^ grand .total o)f l354^:?8p|O0^>
for'lBTM,.' wt-phtdnto tthe'
liver was boWeW' , long tfmhbF AtA
during no wWtot, boforo nip ,aii^ ;fchiug like' A etibilW
quantity been put im last,lag frhdnqt 6 M 0 fI, 0 ^
Lumkram^. . . '
BUtBagtBAtHO Tlg| OAekh, Ifews publishes the follow-
log estimate t)t .tmi of lo|^ wMeh will be attempted tho preaont
, winter npon the Au Sabip oni tine rivers, tributary tlist plftcg:—
<mt m Aii,i os^tod eut in
' BKlTIiSH fubestky;
neoosaity fdl- iho niimodiate inatilution Of the BrllftU
School of Forestry hive been so clearly proved to bo
a matter of pressing impoilauco, that it is perfectly evident
to ftU thoughtful people that the matter oontioi be delayed
luucU longer with Impunity to the national inteircsts. Bvery
Staio iu Europe is far ahoad of this country in everything
tliat pel tains to the mgrtce and ikeort^ of foi*e$Uy, although
wo undoubtedly poBs||S, insu for man, Ibo best
forestry to bo found iu Europe or any other part of tho world.
If the niaroh of inoprovoment had beau anaetad fifty years ago,
and things were always to remain as they then were, wo might
Imvo been content to rest, in poifecL ftase and security^ cti our
acknowledged suponorily m forestry, la these daysoC
somntific loaming, however, move jivuctioe witlioul^ a thiongh
kaowlodga of tho science of foiostry is of a little real use beyond
tho buuudu of iho paiisU In which it is Acquired, and will never
rnlHe » luau above tlio status of an ordinary Uhouier, unless he
iti possossod of natuial talents, which in a few instances may
overcome all edtioaiionul defects. For the teaching of the higbev
biatiohes of scicutilic forestry in a systematic manner, no praotiosl
oil'oi^ has hitherto been made, and coirncquonily we are still wiih.>
out ail institution of any kind, in which our foiesters can be
educated in tho Ftcienco and practice of all brauchos of (heir profes-^
Pion, so as to qualify them for holding tho highest positions to
which'foresters can aspire in the British duminioiiR. The want of
tho means fot acquiring a technical knowledge of their piofossion,
appears to be au insurmountable bar to the employment of our
fot esters in the higher giades of State forestry* No one can
gainsay theh ,claim to the possesaion of the highest practical eUill,
but her Majesty’s Indian Geveinmonta, and other of our Colonial
Goveinmeiitsrequite tlioir foroste^sto poBBoss a thoioughly scieuUlic
as well aa a practical kiiowleilge of their profession. With this wo
thoroughly agree,* and, moreover, wo would strongly urgeJhe
necessity of as tliorougJi a I raining for out Lome forest rs, who
desire to rank above the status of coninvon labourers, Tho lack of
tills Rcieutific or UcUtiical liaiaing, is tho only objection that can
bo rcaBonably urged against the employmont of our homo trained
foLfSters in tho Indian Foiest Depaitmeul beiioc the adoption by
the Indian Qoveiiiment nf iho expernive, and in many points
uupiotitabte, systcMu of Bonding tlicir forost sLudents to study the
sijioiico of forestry at iho Finndi Forest Sohaol Afc Nancy.
That we pnsBvss the necessary ina<d,luery for the efficient teaching
of every Bcnnuo and hiuncli of iiio art of forsHtry, in an equal
degree to tlmt of any Conliueutal forest school, is im Indispiltable
fact, that has been provwl and illustrutod over ami over again ;
pai’LiculavIy mo by Di. J. Gioutnhie Brown. Almost all that
IS noceHS'ity for such a purpoan is already in existence in con-
neetiou with oihei odiicatiouaL institutions, and only requires
to be euergetioaily taken in hum! and syaioumticnUy arranged to
produce a “ Foiest fichool ” vastly anpvrior in its teaidiiiig and
training ability to anything now iu existence on the Contiuont
of Europe. Iu the Uiiiveraitivs of Ijondcn, Kdiitburgb, or the
Queen's iu Ireland, there aie to bo foiiud all tho scientific elements
that are necesHary for tho equipment of such an institution ;
and that a University, or similar educational institution, is tho
best place for teaching tbe science of forestry, is new a generally
accepted axiom. Tlid svstoin of a separate Forest School, as
adopted at Nancy, iu Franoe, Mundoiii, la Prussia, and other
places, is now found to be both inconvenient And expensive,
and is now being generally abaudoaed on the Oontinont in favour
of foiest dopttitinents, or scliools,^ attached to established. tJni^
verHUies. lu ihese iustituiioriB it is found that many of the«
branches ot instruction rcqnucd iit tbe course upon forestry,
such as niatliematios, chemistry, botany, natural history, olimatol-
ogy, engineering, drawing, surveying, Ac,, a¥e already amply
provided for ; that better laboratories, musevuns, libraries, and
appliances for technical edncatlqu, can be inatritaiued ami bo
made more widely, useful in the Inrger institutions, and that tho
student while foliowing bis special course, cannot foil of gaining
a broader vieW of science by contact with what is going on
around h4m« thau he c6uld if hiS horixon was bounded by the
pmiucifi of Act isolated forest academy. Moreover, the atadoiits
la itor .dsfiWtQldwU ood classes of tlm Unimslty worild give
noma ka6wt«djj
liotioifc iu thftfe
i of Vlut ttiiij
atid tbo wider iteqiiiii^^^
uNcIaI profoi«0ni ’ Wikiiid be HuAcieftt to ©qoip any ft!!
UuiveroUy fot tWa partl^uiar e^^rrioe, and a Urge eaemg Woaia
betealiwa bewdea impxonuX efifeienoy lit the general reeu^Ui,
tHIl.GBOWTH OF TEA.K.
* ____ ***
flMlB foUewing meaaerAodttttt ou ibU lobjectby the Tiiepector*Oeneral of
J- Forwl* hea’beeii puWUhea t
For tbe Menual of XodUn timbors# now under preparaUonM»« woe
neooewry to brinj? together oJl. inform alion nvalkble regarding the rate
of growth of teak, end 5t nppetie advlaable to circulate the reeulte at ^
once iriih the eWw of eUcIting further data in order to complete the acoount
that will bo gliea.in Ihif ManOBd^ The following date were brought
together with the ai»iatanco of Mr. A. Smylbier, Aiaiatant Coneorvator of
Foroal*, Foreel Bcbool Circ> Korth-Weetern Provinces.
A brief aoconut of what was known reg»rditt| the rate of groulli of
teak «p to J»70. wae givon on page* 357.869 of tlio Toreet Floia of KorUt.
West and Central Judin. Since thou, fttrUier data bavo been oollcctud ;
hut the chief addition to onr informntmn on this Bub^< t has been made
by (he publioatiou of Colonel Beddome’s Keport of 1878 on tho Nllnmbur
tt'ak plantations. The data here brought together iu no way give a
complete account of the rate and mode of giowtU of teak, and doubllesa
mnch more information la available which has not yot been publmhed.
It U a moat important subject, which ahould now bo lak^'U up separately
in each ptevittoe whore teak is cultivated on a largo scale, -nd ita study
is earnestly recommended. Tiio following remarks wiU most convei.ionlly
b» grouped under tho head of annual rings, girth and height at different
ttges cubic contents of individual trees, and the nuuiber of trees aad
oLicontente of growiug stock per aero. It will bo rememberd that the
rate of growth of every speoies varies botwoen wiue limits accoiiln.g to
oUmate* soil, and numerous other oiroumstaaoea which affect tho develop-
meat of trees. , .
8 .drtnnnl n«^s—It is now established beyorid doubt that the con-
ccntiic ilugs which are souiorbed in the wood of tank coriespond each
to one vear's growth. The following statement exhibits the rings counted
eu Bsclious of trees grown in the Nilnmlmr pianlnuons, which we»e cut
in 1877. The seolions wm taken from tho biao of ihe stem* ami with
a few exceptions, the number of rings agrees with tha age of tho ttce*
Tho iivorugo diameter is the mean of three duimstwre. The statement
shews the gradual tuorease ot tim hoartwood us tho tioe grows oUior, and
It also oahibits tho number of ungs ou one Inch of uverage radius in
tha wood of troQS of different ages. But it must l>e home m mind that
these sections do not ropresont the average of each year’s ilnnts^bm. but
were aglectod from tbo dominant trees. They therefore exhibit a more
npid rate of growth than avoisge epeoimens would do t—
of
pluutation.
1841
18t5
1H4C
mi
1843
1Mb
i«iu
1861
1852
1H68
18M
1856
186b
1857
3858
1869
xm
1891
I8tt3
1864
1865
1866
IK67
jm»9
187“
1871
I87i
THE
' 1 May* iv
' _ ^ ^ ^
, A MCtlott ^at firom tha Thinga4a!S«iin«i%;pt«(ititMchla BaimUr wtjfrW
a trae-Sl year# old, planted in J95«* g*n *l on a fpean dkmetet '
16*8", thf hoirWcod ‘of which oocaplcd 14*5"* ^phli .^teUoa lihiWh^'*'®^
rings per hatch of average radius.
- 5. From other phmtatious 6lio, sectican teak trees of hpokru Sg#
ware sent for the Paris Exhibition, but appewntly they ww# not In all cssee
out from the base oftheetemj they arc, however, ihstnwdve as ihdWiaA
the rate of grcwtu and the number of rings on one inch of kiepu radius. ^
Year of plafitatiou,
Humber ot
rings
counted.
AvNnAOtt xuAMfctna of
iSCtIQH vx IHQBgS,
Wood.
Heartwbol.
XUngs pet
inch of
aferaf*
tadivs.
Hot known
Booth KaNAtta (PaRAVJ»a plautaticji.)
... I 19 I 9’ 1
I 5 1 5*6 I 2 5
g.g2
l"8f
4'5
89
3*7
21
8*7
8*8
15
»’l
2 -
2*5
2 -
1*6
1-2
6 . It will be noticed that aa far as the data go, which are furnished by the
eecuons received. Thinganneenoung and Bamuupokri exhibit an increase
of diameter similar to tliat of NUambur', while in the samples from North
KaiiaratheAnual rings are much narrower and the specimen from Port
Blair shewed an extremely rapid rate of growth,
7 . CHitk and hetght at d^germt ayes.—The following moasnrement
illustrate tho rate of growth of teak in plantations in diiierent proviuoes as
nearly as pcesibie from 6 to 6 years. Tho Nilambur plantation again
furnishes the largest amount of information
Age. Moan girlh at breast high, Total heiglit of tree.
Noetii Kanaea (Kai,ana®t valley.)
(
18
8 '
«•
Subigeri, 18 years old-J j
JT
17
8*8
0 *
76
7*
Murdi, 12 years 0 I 4 Ji
8
6 -' 1
Heartwood
It
II
5‘7 A
not distinct.
• (\
8
6*6
Kadta, 10 years old |j
8
! 7
7*5
7*
1 5-
1 4*
Bengal (Bamanfokbi.) ^
1868
187L .
l!572 ..
8
6
4
6-5
6 *
6 -
2*5
1 -
I*
Andamans (Port Bdaib.)
1873* .!
1 6
1 101
1 6 * 1
Number of
nogs
counted.
Average
dutmoter of
section (wood
only.)
Average
diameter of
heartwood.
Bint;8 per inch
of av»rii(<(<
radius.
In iuebos.
In inches.
33
20-8
in
3-17
31 !
21T
IK 7
‘2 95
31
30*
177
3 lu :
30
23*8
21 :.
2 :.2 1
25
19 7
1
3 34 ;
2M
16 1
!u‘2
3
27
11*
1*2 6
3 85
‘26
lo2
13 4
.H-28
,\r
r»2
13 5
Omi'ted.
24
If. 1
12
3 17
‘24
17-3
15 2
‘2 77
23
1*2 4
19 5
3 71
21
l.*2
12 d
2 76
20
1 12'.
1 10 6
3 ‘27
19
[ M*
1 11 3
271
18
if
• 19 9
2 67
17
lin
1 19 4
2153
10
I3*i
I i9*5
2*44
15
117
9'
I 2'56 j
14
JBO
IM
, 2 06 1
13
1 12*5
94
' 2*98 1
' 12
94
8 9
1 2 66 <
i 11
1 >*l
7 3
J 2*il
1 JO
Jl>
, «S
i l'(I9 1
i
1(. j
I *
1 171 1
1 8
7*4
1 4-8
1 2*16 ;
7
7*4
1 4 6
1*89
1
7 7
4-3
l‘8l
5
65
1 ?'«
1*53
i
!
, Average S’US
i
1
rtiiKS per luoh
of avei'dge ia«
i
1
Jius
'3-17
18-22
y.{—*1:7
29 ^
30
31
32
33
7
iO
29
24-
80
7 years
12
Nilambur p/«»taf»ow.—Alluoio/ sot/.
12 inchee . 29 feet.
17 . •»
23 „ 68
27 ,1 'J ».
8 } >» K *»
8 « ,, ... ••• 7o I,
34 »2 M
87 26 •»
Nilamhur /»/a«fa(ton,—Gftstss and lalente.
5 oars
^ 2 ft
' Id inches.
. 1 30 feet.
i 14 M
. 59
! 21 „
... ... 1 , 59 II
33 II
i.t ... 1 52 ,,
1 24 „
.* 50 n
These figures are taken from that portion of Colonel Beddome'a report
(paragrepus 11 - 44 ) which couUins hie notes on each year’s plantation, and
IhedaUreiorded are Btatedto be average figures,
6 111 R'lOther part of hie report (parugiwph 81), however, he gives
daU which would seem to shew that tho average siao of the trees In the
Rider pUntamce (all on alluvial soil) is considerably greater. He ihert
stales the liimousums of the largest, smallest and medium swelttseiin
Aon.
4. I he sectmus raugou m ago m j ww*. uivuuug mem lUtw
th’-ee gfoupi, two of fO yeais each, and the tliid of 9 year*, we obtain
following at the moan diameter i n inches of Uieaa three gro ups —
* There Is erMenUy a udslake hste. The WWch yielded this Boelitm uiast bars
iwn an older tvw stantog ta te* of 13W. .
31) years
31 i»
33 „
38
Mean gihth (pbobably
B ttBAST mow.)
LENOtW Of POE«.
Largest.
Medium*
Smallest.
Largest. 1
Medium.
8 mall«fft>«
loohest
luohes.;
Inohea
Feet.
Feet*
Feet.
67
47
39
79
05
50
60
49
30
8 U
66
03
40
89
88
or
50
08
50
48
86
08
09
The first thf^ lines shew the avoraiie 01 n uees m each casey ana tut
lait Iin« tlm average of 3 trees each. It is dittincily stated that the iMlgth
iS tfaftspf i^e hole, and n ot of the entire tree. ,, ^
> , e the tree was preMbly Oder, > ^ ,
1^, aif|)|A?T AGRICmfETO
m
m attd latoriUilww ii r«t« ot
g(nwUi( «« lilitviia toll; Ui« eUEtrAj^^^U^g: in
l»fli|pttfc,A«4 WwVtdMiaiyirth* ;
n. t)l|y. ^ j't<) ^nari' of Ago, tbfi gtonUi ia 1«i0Ui4>f i««b oa foil
, afc h ftt tli« mte of about C feet a yewr, jind ,tattc« oa It if at tha
ratf of only abpttfi I foot a year. Oo pasta S5S oftb«,Poi«ife fjoro of Korth-
W4ifi aHC^tral India, it ie stoied '* that it if probiCble ftf a rule,
teakaattamM half its length eritk a girth of 2^B Oliftf aafamptrou i«
boma out by the present fignras. The trtoe grOwa upon ailuTial soil ip
girth between SiS and 81 iuches are from 77 to 87 feet high ; and from aU
that |f known regarding the growth of teak iu* ficnUar localities, it is
probable that, nnlest damaged by stormSi diseaee, infleciSt ot other eausps,
they will attaip a height of 150 feet in soil of this deforiptiont ftiB in the
olimate of Kilambar,
10. Firnm Burma we have the followiog data. The figaies from Pega
represent averegea of plantation in the Hsngoon, Touugoo and Tbarawoddee
diatrifttc, brought together on pege 858 ot the Forest Flora of Kortb-
\Veei and Central India.
Pegtt
Tbinganneenounsr
Garden'-'Moul mei n
Age
in yearg.
Mean girth,
breast high,
in inches.
< 1
6—U
10
15
u
23 •
‘21 I
27
22
40
Total height
of tree,
in feet.
15—S7
40-45
50-60
The fourth line is the arernge of 150 trees in the Thingaiineenoung
plantation in the Attarau diatnot of Tetiassonm, giveo in paragraph 146 of
the repoii for 1875*77 of the Tenaasenm forests. jUajor Seaton gives the
average height at 30—40 feet, but ibis probably tneutis llie height to the
lirst branch. The maximum girth was 55^ iuohes. The average rate of
growth of the present plantations in Burma is somewhat less rapid thq,n that
of the alluvial porlioTi of Nilatnbur. The last line gives the averego of 15
trees measured in 1856 in a pi ivate garden at bfoulnieiu. An iostanco of
extremely rapid growth was the tree alieady ineotioued, a section of which
was sent from Port Blair for the Pans ExhlbitLon. probably 6 years* old
(said to have been planted in 1875, but 6 rings were coantod), with a giith
of 86 inches and a height of 44 feet.
11. For the Lakvalli plantation in Mysore, the following data are
giren in Captam Van Bomeren’s report for 1875-7G. Age 18—15 years
mean girth 14 inohes, height 83 feet. This is a remarkably elow rale of
growth, considering that the soil is good, and tUo climate moist, though
of course not so forcing as the climate of Nitamb'nr.
13. The plaiitatioos in the Central Provinces and Bern have given the
following:—
Plantation.
M.ichna, Central Provinoes ..
Pill. Berar
Bakata, Central Provinces ...
Pili, Berar ,,, ...
Bonawani* Central Provinces
Muohna, Central Provinces...
Age
' Mean giitb,
breast high.
in years.
lU iuches.
6
7
t!
4
7
11
A
8
9
12 [
8—10
» 1
Total height
of tree,
m feet.
15-22
10
20—25
20
30—40
17—30
Compared with Malabar and Burma, the rate of growth is slow, as may
be expected in a dry climate and near the northern limit of the tree.
18. Outside the range of the natural growth ol teak, the following data,
rCgurdiutf its rate Of growth, are available —
Mean girth,4’otal heigtit
jbreast high, ! of tree,
in inohes. m feet.
Plantation.
Bamuttpokn (Sikkim.)
Hubi (Assam)
Harkdm
5*5
11
9
11
16
12-15
291
H
87
31
The growth at that early age » fairly good j bnt it does not follow from
these figures that teak in Assam and Bikkim will attain a great age, and
produce'good timber.
14. The following instances of older trees of known age in Assam and
Bengal arnon record t—
Locality,
Number of
ire^^B
measured.
GauhiU, baa^iaf tlm Brahmaputra,,,
Xi^al Botanical Oardahi. C^cattA
Ditto ^ ditto
Gaxdsfi at Moheth, emmfttt* ^
Jft
Age,
in yshrs.
87
d
70
59
Mean glrthli
in
inohes.
85
18
52
The trsek st Gaubtl ifm at|j^ atpraga 50—59 fret high.
Treet in the a«i*,|eii/C^<5aN»v were measured iii JfiitttaJfy 1559’.
The older tme baveeisbe'beait Wdtfi) down by the oyelenes of 1364 and
1667 .’ / '' — ;
On the banks of the /Hooghlf at' Mohesh, below Seiumpore, stands a
grove of teak trees planted in 1885, Their mean gi^tU, bteast high, taksn
by moasnrrng , i? ayemge-'Siaod tre^ rjras 53 inohes. The trees wcm
measnreU in January 1873^ a^ Wer^tWclore £0 years, old. They are foim
40^59 feet high. / v
18,' la patagifaphs I7i^ and 288’ of Dr* SehlichV import far 1875^78, the
dimoAsiousof a lui-gp ttiKobes of tei^ trees nt different stations of Lower
Bengal ars given $ but unloituuutdy no^truitwoithy infarmatiou regarding
their age is available.
16. Cubic contend a of tract at different oyes.—In paragraph 4 of Colonel
Beddome's report a statement is given exhibtUng the dimensions ol the trees
sections of which were seut to the Paris Exhibition. As slrendy stated,
these trees were a^looted as simples of the dominant trees, ois., of the those
which Will eventually be selected to remain on the gronmi as the ultimate
crop, hut, with few exceptious, they w3re not selected from among the
largest individuals which had much outrun their neiglibonra. Arranging
them ingroups from 10 to 10 years, the following results are oblameJ i—
Age.
4—13 joara
14-23 ,.
21-83
Height of
tree,
iu feet.
Gtrlh at
base, iu
mohes.
Lett gth of 1
bola, ]
iu fool.
1 Msaaotibio
1 oonteoti, iu
1 oubio feet.
48—76
ai—60
82-56
1
10*6
65-110
r»i—60
40—70
23*8
...
70-no
60-105
41—72
61*8
ThM gives us the cubic contents at diflcreiii ages as follows
jIo.ui age.
9 ...
lOi...
2'J ...
Cubic contents,
iu cubic foot.
10-6
U'i 8
old
Periodical annual inoie*
meat, in cnblo feet.
1*1 to 5) years.
1*8 from 9 to L9 years,
2*3 from 19 to 29 years.
The annual iucreiuent increases alcadiy to the age of 30 years, and probably
cuntiuuesincreivaiug for a oousLiiccable lime beyond it.
17, A*u»i5er if irett and cu/nc contents of grawini/ stoch par acre,—
Itegiinliug the number ol treci? and the growing stock pec acre at diilbreut
ages, wo depend almost eatiroLy upon Ndambur for our data. Bample areas
of hall an acre eaoii wore seleulod in each of suveu plantations} each tree
was mensured, the cubic contents determined, and the fdlowiug is the
result. It is uot expressly slated, but it is probable, that these sample areas
were all seleoted ou alluvial soil ♦
i'V
y
aP.
If"
CUHKJAJ. cox’
AVBftAOa
is 3
^ s!.
11
lICKTrt IS
Nnm'^ mill year ot
phiQtatlou.
^3
CO A
Ji.
OCUIO FXM*.
UHHUIENT. W
conic fk«t.
SIS
-4 **
ja «
ht
Por
trw.
"or aero
Pit
tieo.
1
Ver aca\
Travolly Kava IRiil
4 ,.
12(1
60
0 7
41
lS7f»
3‘i
148
Elanjcrry ..
TJ
l.)K
01
7-0
30 !
4,743
•8
i4S
Blimjery .. IB4o
M
1.^0
1
0.)
7’4
27
4.S04
19(1
MoolHtimmauoo IBI?!
SO
140 '
02
1 73
27 i
9,713
*3
124
AEoolattiauiaivoo 184K;
2»
los 1
CO
! 08
31 1
8,*i43
1 *•
1 112
Klanicrry .. 185«i
}t>
270 '
j
45
C 0
1 'i
3,208
1 *1
! no
Wallashary .. 13681
0
750 1
40
!5 <1
1 ^''
3,181
*4
j 217
18. Colonel Beddomo eatimaica that on alluvial soil, the leak at
Nilaruhur will roach maturity at from 60 to 80 years ; that fellings will ho
spread in each plantation over 50 years; and that the time of onttiiig
(say at 85 years of age) the mean quarter g irth will be 2 feet, the length
of bole will be 76 foei, and the mean cubic contents of each tree 280 oiihlc
feet, lie also oaiiinates that at that oge, there ivill only be 60 trees to tha
acre, making the oonteuis per acre 16*800 cubic feet.
No fafosrauulatinqs can be fornied regarding the fatura of a pure teak
forest like that of Nilambur. Iu its natural state, teak does not grow
alone, but is associated with lir.mboos aud a variety of oilier trees; and il
is impossible to foresee the risk of damage by storms, insocta, diioast|
or other causes to which pure teak forests may he exposed. It may be
doubted whether, eveo on the best alluviul soil, the avorogo mean girth
of trees 86 years ol ago will bo as mudi as 8 leet. On the other h.ind, it
IS not impossible that the bolo will be longer than 70 feet, end it is
• The length hf stem Wthe top of sale me isutemuab. were the head bBajias, of fveiy
t'se In the plan'tiitioas of 164i to 1848, both inelusiw*, nae mea«ui»<t by ,««>diug up a
olUDber with a keua. lU the mentations of and 18S8 alargs Muaih.r of ftdled
s*P}i» 9 » weieavellis«e,of Wh^b Ehs average was tsAsn.
The mean quawUr jclrth was dt tsrmiu d 4<i the followiog manner. Tm sapltog*
were measured craast fitsk and tn the mukUa ot the sutm at hointx leugth, ou i thu
gave 6/18 as the reAicmimotor. Those trees 30 inches in girth breast h^i were found
to have a gieiib Of 25 mohse in the ttiadte of the bole.
m
liliftt it wiii h# |MtVf)iiiti&ji«oui to aUoy mor® 0 ItiiioK jw
Oo of tito n«|wrt of « ,p?ot in ^i 4 > Tniwt^wf/
in 4^nr{ti|ji4k moAonrin* a,#t3 «qn«Yo fenfci «iiia oto#^. irlilt'
8 took irt^ tfii;h ok#r jitom* *o tbo jfifot brottcJi of 60 feofe^ ^Irtb tiotw^on
4fL8ilo It,ITtn.; l>i(« 9t trt^ toibo aero« Foil Itookod
fomii 4;^'oAk nnd beoeli in Ba)ro{»e lS0-~180^€Miira old tindOr' IfttottUviblo
Oondito^<)(Ott«tn 120^140 trA0« per enbie eontontii (lne1i»dia$
foiM iuoa bimni^ei^ of about U.OOO cubic feet, AfoHtt of eilm fit In Ike
< fiatni 160 yeare otdi wni found to ooutala 04 treof pof aorei ifri^U a eubio
nopt^ of 10,000 feet. * ^
10, The totuZ areb now stoekod at Nilambur ta 3,436 uerea, of whtoli
U7^ nrO siobked With a full crop on alluvUl soil, the rest not bebjf
efpecUdito yield a full crop. In liis estitnateof the futarci'telue of tha
pWntptlotiiit f^onel BeOdoone, only abShmet 0,C|00 cubic feet at the full crop
Aif^nnlnfi on allneial boll.
In natural torerttfi, wbere leufc is associated with bamboos and other
treei, t^e uumlMr ttf first and eecond class teak trees (above 4ft, 6in. in pirth)
rarely attains 10 trees per sere over larjfo srraa The following' are
instances of forests exceptionally wolUstockod with teak
bat«) ot
s.«rr(}f.
} Kvuasn PBii Acue.
Vor^dt.
j _
j Class.
A
. ^Cfirtli ttlmro Glctli 4 ^ litj
j 8 lest. 1 8 fiMit.
1870
Blscram (Ccatral
pj'ovlncftft)
40 acroa | 4 j 4’8
1 'i
1870-71 ..
Ptipl (Proma Bhtrict)
17 square mi lea' 8 0 ! 3 0
Total.
83
f,*«
MINERALOGY.
fectin ^ irm m Yib '
OUvW Fegtef. Asecolatc 'ttt, tl
theWynittdloJStl
iacld Tinm to it9Mf9,
oevtala oanceseioni were lakwif- ^ ^ ^ ...
lutetlpp French Ouiauar pii fcdoul v,t|iajt rich ?
)e:^sted thecttgh tbe cduntry, c^ttilUof < Anftt^ljbu
He found bold reefs iateteeot^l cotlintry fkb. i^Wlnic
occttriag, taaoy of the riw beds gttlp* rlok^,y^^iic ,^
of dirt gave him fllteau franos wCrtU of ^4; ho M
homo many large nuggets of very pure natUvic goidi^if^pcuhcod In
Bngland tp be t|aite equal both in lai'genaaf p^d lo; 1^8
earliest Anslralian fields. Out informant adds that Tfit, i^ss
that ill Oniana the soil is undisturbed and pimnolii' tbhniWu, be
said to be superior to Wynaadi Cnd he thinka the Tcdt Ve'itli in
Wynavd are richer than ilia alluvial beds of Fiench fleimiai, v'^e
trust the CtofernmettC wilt lose no time in publishing Mfi lirCttgh
Smyth's report on the Alpha, as we believe it deals ,on the paltitnd
piesent oxperlenoe of gold in Wynaad, and, if favourable, ought
to he the means of seUling one of the most important questions of
tho day upon which the fiituro welfare of binthern India may be said
to depend, and it will be slrange ff. after the expressed Opinions of
throo such eminent men as King, Fegler ari4 Brough Smyth, the
latter a gentteinau of the highest reputation in his profession, e^ime
definite aoUon is not qmokly dootded upon. We have more loan
once urged the oreatton of » Kimug Dspartinenit for Sonthern India,
so as to ro'gulate and fairly establish an industry whioh must prove
beueficiel to Imlia and her people. Wo thereCorc, nrga ni>oq the
Uioal Qoveinnitfnt the desirability of losing no time in di'joueatog
the matter, if possible, before they proceed to the liilis.
®lp| flanifrs' (ia^tle.
T^lVEllY uenm of coal indicated a frojih movement of tlu*
ground j and when it is loniembored that* in the South
Wales roahfield, as many as eig^bty distinct br"*' of coal
may bo recognized, it will bo aeon that Iho coal measures offer
striking uvidence of osciilations of tho level of this laud. Between
each elovatioii und deprossioa there must have been tiino enough
for tho formalion of a thick vegetable soil, ami in some cases this
must have taken vast periods cf limo ; thus, in Soutti SiafiEurdsliiro,
there is or rather was, a famous bod ot coal meaHuiiiig as much
as thirty fiiefc in thickness. Jtemembeiing then the slow giowth of a
foreSi, the great tliicknosa of soine oC our coal seams, oud tho
number of sepanito !»eds in tho coal measures, it will bo readily
ooncoded that Iheeo slrat.i represent a lapso of time whioh is (
piobabiy to bo counted by huridroda of tho«»ari(U of yoflis.—
iiuicley't Physiography Glu'igow Herald.’*
Thw Wykaap tioLi) FiKLim,—Mr, Brough Smith has flubiuittod his
report for the inoiith of February. He says A cousl derable portion
of my time was oocupiod during tha mouth iii preparing a special report
on the Alpha Mine and Works. As soon at; ihat repori was completed
ana forwarded to the Q ivcrnmeut, I resamod operittl'ons in the field
and the survey of the following ostatoH has bseu M lav as practicable
completcd-—Uiohmoud, Biieahcth, Downham, Provident, Trevelyan,
JDhgloy Dell, and ISeedle Bock, 1 have also ex.*minod and deline¬
ated on the maps tc&U and naUvo woikiugs on the estates known as
Bandbnrst aud Qlenrock, ISltuvr the sumuiit of Chlc-Hodiahbt'ita,
north of the Uleiirock bungalow, there are n>any deep pits—for
some few feet porpandinttar and continued tb cnee downwards on
the undellie of the reef. These workings are traceable hy deep
excayatious and adits quite to the b^ue of tho hil>, where ip a swampy
spot heavy gold is s.i,! to havfl been found. There Is a large outcrop
of quarts ill tho midst of native workings, in I he tiandhurst estate.
Gold has been found in a ^atn not far distant, ficv'tn tlio Dovalah
Bazaar, and near the summit; of ahdl on tho Elisabeth Instate; from
‘leader*’ which the natives have followed by making t au adit about
thirty feet in Ungfb, several plrcevof quart* showing gold bave been
got nmlor my supervision. The nutive workings on the north-
weiftcrB face of the hill are to l>e seen over a vea-y l»rgw area. • Indeed,
the workings are nearly oontimious from lUchmeo«d to tellenrock,
and ia another direction, from Eiohmond tbrou^li Bosadala (where
1 SAW a large r#‘et with native workingn), fit, Xh omh Oatoline,
Adelistid,' and Yeltamuu to Ytillambullay (Parcherry Hill), I have
not yet beefi able to complete the experinit^nt* on the ei^oimens
of quart* rtletred la in prVvioua reports, 'ihe plaMerit to
forward pareefs of 'ithue for examination, but i, t dutli^ in the ^
field have ^vented roe Irawi bndagtakipg the testia»g of Jilwbj*’
The reporfcUaii been lorwardedtolUe<3et6[i^e»tol^ , 1
TEA-
rilllE cultivation of the toa plant in Kumaon baa been fairly sue
A coseful. Tlie present out-turn is about 300,000 pomidA The
Kmnaon gardojw u^hdto Biipply large 'quantities of green tea to llio
Contrgl itkian maikets^but recently, owing to tho restncLions in'tio-
diTCed m Ceutral Asian oommercial matters by Uiis-jia, and othrr
obstaolea which hftvo ariaeri, lh« tiado has fallen off’ consideiably.
Under these oiicumstnnoGs, it is desirable to ascertain what other
agiiouUarttri5TlifSfi!trthw^i+»y*’%«firffS'seop« for. ft i« holiov-ed
that tubacco may bo successfully cultivated, and also tlial Ktimivott
might supply tho Indian markets with a ooiisiderablo pioporrion
o£ tho dried fmits which are at present imported from Affghatiia-
tan. Fruit of all kinds grows iliere readily, and it is holioveil that
large aud well-managed orchards would prove very payiug
ooucorns.
INDIVIOUAL eff^Tts to inlioduce the use of pure ladtaii teas in
Knglaud aio vdiuablo, and should be onoouragod in every possible
way ; but uothiug short of sorno suoli comprehensive pUu as that
proposed by the ladiau Tea Safb Co., will, we fear, sufficiently
meet the want. It appears that at present there are not more than
half a dozen shops in London, one or two in Glasgow, ami possibly
a 'owelsewhoro, that dovoto Ihemsolvesio the sale of pure’ Xiidiau
audit is not difficult to understand the i^eason. ThepuliUc
ta te is yet insufficiently educated ; and it require* the capiUt of eu
Ahsociatloii; without the iutorveution of middlemen to sustain for
A 8 illioiently long time retail establishments all over <ihe kingdom
for the iiitrodnotion of pure Indian teas. Such lui q«deftaking
could hardly expect, at the outset, to be pecuniarily saocessful
in a roosonablo time profit would uo doubt follow.
, , . V yJ;''
Thr nitilU batf-yearly Bepovt of the Teendgr*^ Oo, sho^s a
profit on the season^a operations of Bs. B,464-B-10, or 7 prrcy^t,jOii
the capital. The outturn was ^hs., of whioli .
sold in Calcutta at au average price of OlOd, aud 8,4701^#. sold
in Lntidou at att equivalent of 0 12 - 6 , ora getierai,ayeif4i|[i^*of
O'lO-fi per ^b- ^lett Tho Report is also in other i^espe^jbs fayouV-
abte. The Singell Co.‘s half-yearly Report to Deoeinhei^.
quotk a profit on the Heason's operations of Ra. /Tlie
tdtdl oiUurn was S,S8,930 lbs. ;‘o£ which iu
l"o4doft,*tjui eq'iMvaleut of per|bq
per jth.' vritl 'l^e seen that ia the
.';wi'i'' :■;■'«>»*(
W ^ ^ forSifriteJ'(Mid ft iAn\mdkgWt 'Mr.
^ ftj[>W*nt«d. thftoofttdmlortbAeuoii is
iii^i^d i4 $i$i<M^
t^'Ammal BsportoC tUs Ksugra Val^r Tss?Co. t|UQttti a pro-
Mm Ml* •Nwon'iopaiSktioiii <^fii. t4^4’0,or o*sr 6 pir ostit. ^
tM aiapitei. * ^it osnno* lifut be eonslderetl «ftM*(ftoler)r« ' I'bs
ft*^Mj|*)^M{a*4 p>t aCthe ero{ibf dd^fiiaibs.
WiM ^(1 US* 044:0 bs ^*oh*<l for
Ur. ^sDoiigall, atrft1ii*(f ^«i^d«ber
biis b**n brought out hs xUaba^^’. Th* eect-
hlldrad oteWu for the' lorthcoiiiilxtg soaobu ^s;!iO,000 lbs.
Taft JRgvieto B^<>*bs b£ the great iuarbase in
the OOihmtU^ibit of lUdiaU tee* and yet pribes ebutidUd 16w, and
it'Ukay 'iafbly b* )^rid7(^Md of those low prises that they will obu-
^hde idii^ sb tbhg‘as b6ii jlsa Is tiotmdde with a eiow to its being
^ ibid ^ its own «siili. ViThea it is so made, and honestly put
thepnWre as pure and unmixed Indian tea, the prises will
‘speedily g)raTltots upwards, as surely as water finds iU lerel.
a?Hi tea bu|^ when it alights on the leaf, is of the ordinary gray,
ish ooioiir; bnt as it fesds, it assumes a dark greenish tint, corres¬
ponding to the sap which it has extracted, and furthermore, if it
lodgea on your hand or lace it inflicts the same smarting and irri-
t»bld sting as the ordinary mosquito. The history of the insect is
of course a very interesting and essential featnre fu forming plans
lor its extittotion, and we shall be thankful lor any fcrtber opinions
from our esteemed oofrespondents. We know how Varied are the
optnions of those wim have suffered lossee f^m this insect pest;
and we shotdd be rewarded if we could huggest any action that
fidght mitigate the evil. That it has been most destructive there
Obnbe no doubt, and worse Bt|ll it is still a growing evil, lor which
at present, w* know of no remedy; and whoever, oould put planters
in the way of resisting the revagoB of this pest would render
valuable sarv^, especially to the tea iutereata of Caohar.
Tfig folloib^lng is an estimate of the annual tea production of the
world,
^**’*“^ ... 600,000,000 lbs.
... 36.000,000 „
... ... 40,000,000 „
... 6 , 000,000 „
681,000,000 lbs.
Is a review of the dapan tea season 18^8-9, the yapo« Herald
oosnmsnto favourably upon the general reeults obtained. Prices
opened in May well. In June and July the quality fell off. By
the close of July, the export for the season amounted in round
ffgures to 7,200,0001bs* against corresponding period 1877-8
6,n0fi00lbi, The review goes on to say :
About this psriod ths long expected black teae began to ldSke
ilMit<4ppearanoe,and theirnovelty attreoted soineof onr eabxuine
ipirim to htViM, both for the Jhondon ehd Atoerfoan markets Ti.«
' ^ yn^tly offered were of infOrior make and -very defiorent h cup
poor Md tkpld, shd ijtaiy Iscklng chareefer ^
‘fibtte of the were fairly handeome in bel.i.,
t#4^>na solne sUpW showed a fair amount 0 *
' fa>p»rf^ly OBtl#d, •ndJnoKB.dtob.oI
Tl** wrtw, too, of siMt wm«>lM,ihomrS
ir.A bad fiiled to tqit til. tMtoi Of too BngUih ooiuniiii.n
„bot tetidon^^OMM fwoMU. v«rdiot tru Ma.to*rfiam to.
“W,ebee»'
f.
!POiN.wT.rk ... ;
«)CUiwKouid 'WH(eniOi(io, . •il,jii,487,
, „ Ptolflo (Stoif kad tkfko, StaiUjW®'
„ Canada ^
^
Ton!
II«. ho tt«'ntiou il'OMd. bf Bn^rad: '^obkktyiS^Mi^ (b.
dwp.tob wu too liffiltwl to dMMn. notio., idthobgb ovtoln Mto*'l.
wh1abwb«b«atitia Ko«« toOrtctiVOtofbtottWWywpbrtOd On, and
TMlitod fair pKofs. Th. ''SHMtlwnbWnto" ii.V!dpn%,i»irt»M
inadranto of win Iiidi*, in OTOMiuir««f«riurpoitibto,«A om-
Stocked tharkef.
STBitHwoDS efforts are again being made to raise and prodnee tea
in America. It is found that the tea plant grows well in the
States of North and South Carolina, Ceorgia, and other parts 6£
similar climate. Last winter the Department of, AgrlcttltuVe
diatribttted among the southern States some Imudredi of thousands
of tea plante, and it la confidently heliev^ that within a few
years American tea can he sucoeaefuUy placed upon the markets
bf the world, and, as ft Is put, “demonstrate the preotica-
bthty of providing our peoples with a better article of ten
than they are now able to obtain, and the possibiUty of
saving ro our country from nineteen to twenty millions
of dollars in com, which annually finds its way into the
coffers of British merchants, who have substantially a monopoly of
Chinese trade.** A planter of aeorgetowo, South Carolina, lias
already sent up to Baltimore to be manufactured over 1,000 otmees
of loaf grown on his property, wJiioh is said to have an aroma
equally agreeable to the lea of .Tapan, or that of Moyenne In
China. The latitudes in which tea is successfully oultivatsd in
Obiua, Assam, and Japan, cotrospond geographically with the
li^itudes embraoed in the States of D^aware, Maryland. Vlraiula
West Virgiula, North Carolina, South OatoUUa, (3l%otgia, Atabama’
lenUessee, l&mtuoky, Arkansas, Missouri, aud pbVtfea of the
raoibo ooaat, and the conditions of tomperataro, soil, Sta are
ttboiife the same. Wilmington, in Delaware, is bara)ld with
Peking, one of the finest tea.growmg districts in Oblua.'aiid (Jia
upper portions of ^utb Carolina are parallel with three'of the
most abuudaut of the tea-produoing provinces. So with the otuer
States mentioned. As a home industry, furuiahing highly pleasant
and profitable employment to the wives and children of certain
sections of the country, it may at no distant day become an
industry of great value. The possibility that the tea leaf may be
cured and prepared by modem means and appliances railier than
by the tedious iiand prooosaea at present employed, promises
sufficiently wall to induce the necessary oxperimenfs. fo.
If sucoeaaful, the expensive part of preparing Would be done away '
with, aud aa an industry, tea producing be placed in oomparatite
advance, as was cotton by the gin and sugar by the ceatrlfttgal
THE CHINA TEA TRADE,
r
■Ti.g.n«r.lto.tippowdth«t though Imni.ai. qo»Btit» ot to. .»
. 00D»„.din Ba,«p. ttoBarop.™ t...JriBk.r. .r. ,««. Jgoor*"t
of th. 'd.llost. fl«toar lh.t ml If gooit (.« pugiic to bomou Th.
fiiHiitf.u »» drank onlf bf 'lho ll>nd.rio., Md .»
k.pt lnDliM.; •tiath«i».th.,t^Mlltf, it It told Sdd. Itri», to
K««l^.i.dl.coo..iin.dojwls.WeIf bf tho nob!.., .nd being en«l«i
omUnd <!o*i oot drt«rIor.'.ontbeioBW.f, Mto»W.»ld to doby •
m Tojogo. Da Ibi. M U »«,-.h*t i,. whotho. «t ordto«, tolnlid
of t« dora • u.d.r m from CWn. ,7 Londo,..:
betira.o (ut^liog
ships to ering ths new s4a#6u*s tea to Loudon in as short A HAb mb
phwlble-‘ltf#hOrt,;a4'oos4u race of clipper ships, to fsrdhh ibeea
^osiuireSi^hewT meM prevail re and drekig ofihe
iretfs. re the* iil'rep|<rebtltti whether the tea so brdoght is slier all of
the superior ^mdlty atttthu^ea to It. TWe ppiaion ie la eoine extent
verified hp Mn Cchial Sliielalr}|‘report on the tea tr«de of Foochow
It I^***"' ®e sayi:—**At ilte openlag of lliem'ajket*'ja
r MnyxiiiMe 'Wes'tiauifeet^d the same esfemees aiaoUx hoyete for 'repid
Iw theqalckvit rudte^ the Mm* rifSlry rebel tlmfii^
liurnr be pet ^ *« •“ TOUf 1^1
^{ * ®¥^5SLil5ti J £JSa •£!«« tb* tw^ia« OT bibMN fbt »fe«
****S^f i^?n22liiimlSS OMOW «ow0ri^ «id. loltowf^l ttp •
wlritw O0*iip»”w® J®®"* fot «xpomtl^n»
tM-mi{i« iii *be fi«gleot of tbo gtrotreri
Oa^otWiwU^ 'Th.BhfubiiWt *<» awt
to tmpirow tbt ooltlt^n oi JM w pi»B^
iSitjJSl ’wiiititro* tti* iWppoa from tWt port daring iho loil
nrodnolton infioioiit lor tho wnnli of
4u^fei!ffniLkrt ^tlikSSofM^^ Pnn-yan«» Fob-
thtlOMjlJ^"**^ neot to Fooobow.tbe quantity of to*
nngn, «idring*nH0» baa Oeen tteadlly
broogbi *0 ®V*^****‘?1.*^ i5j* SJSLgtwi at niioMt douWo what it was
iBOroartog ond m*f MW bo Ya“;iS.oad&^ o'
about too, iDcroasato any mar kod oatent.
yatJiji' ^bo P'^oo * . . ' Lj-rtngbt to market oonld bo largely#
iS tto^iWrtth»d«iii«na. Of l»t» yewt
.IBorti^fto ^ ^ i*t«inBd la Fooobow lu »ny 1«JK»
ao toai ^ ih* Loudon market and ike competition
3SS“iSC5X'!!r»Mtiii^i““‘ ““
er^ =5 K!;»::Mr C!
"®®®“ i?* .^«SK the’hSm* WdBwlth flB«.ilrOBg, and i.8ll-pt»p»«d
IliiM p«t» wpp'y “® “J® MiidilT nlMble; they ete »e mooh
KM, Whlolt •” i?„f”H wfar^Bify ^elBlBg eo froBi a hold in the
‘‘'^^'’t^.STlhBl tha SlSe ?«Bt forward hoar Foochow la
difiodH to realise. __
COFFEE.
LIBERIAN COFFEE.
S WOB nwttbWttgUMatoeoiaBMW.thlirobiilt growing epecle. hM
t .^.i2l .««rto.lollBUt..k hate, Atfirattbar. wera do foot,
t eraaledagoodoaaioiiowio . h««.rer. the flret
rCt^M^to JetaguB to beer fruit, aod Ite me,*., or demerit.
»». --
dwerfergrowiboftbe ArabJ«
Ae'^wlemge It fiimlsbes ie not Inferior to that of the oommou
^5* * n\\hm oroduotieenese of the plant seems to be a large one, the
yonng twos na g , looked for in the strnctore of
ImporteBt ^***'*"” me^rpluio of the berry of Ooflea Lihetioe ie
fruit. The Jj, berry of the oommeo coffee plant
«dmtore d.!lerwblehd.eid««tbe metier. To oompreh.Bd tl.1. it
!!fJta«M.ldetedthetlhetediou.aBd touble««oe preparailoo of the
market floaelete Moluilfely io the remorel oftheoorer
®h£h”.BClom.tb.be.B. The lollowing flgure.. whloh I ohteloed by
^fol weighlBg, mey riiow the gre a t diflereoee _
Weight of pericarpium w^bht of ndospear (or
aud endoearpmm (or ^ bean.)
shell)*
l^nf. InrMiwr than ibe %^ir ^ ahiimii
^ been done* tkaf tb* plan* Ibl;
moment bolh plant! may bo gki 4 ^|o bq, |^)Aiqgh , It, f '
paPiatirsb but nothing ^ ^ ^
for Itti ; I am one of those, that tblpb n
baa much to do with the mngia pi
always observed the disease tp appear abo^tlyirftof tbpb^tbg
naety outtiag wind from a potot».flofcnaoaiat W
and wblltfc It laata thediseaae appear to aptoad.. Tke^ wrlbd i
aflsotamaa and baiast alike, going' ikrougb one,, lo
aure ae Ublowa, the dlaeaae appeart j yet It dOto not. a«toj
<it an estate (the poorer potttm aniler tm. and tooat)} totoe
which to thirday are free of disease j ortmra aiitognlw
This, I aeconut for from the fact of the estate lying in a gnUy, to flg»«
and left of whicn are smaller gnlUea at eariona angles, aothats^e
n*tot*lly escape the wM, and I have Inrthef noticed a oontlmtoiis
lay of land onoe attacked, (Vec disease invariably goea through lit aoto**
timea atoppiug at the ridges, t am glad to say we have Itii of this
plague tbie year, A neighhouriug i\|iato waa attiekod nioa^ acrmfo*/
two years before the disease found Ite Into this vaUey. In whloh it
first, and for two years, confined Itself to iiMeoffeo plants in the forest,
before coming out into the open oloarin^a'' ; , ,
Mr, He R. Dawaou of Madiaa reporla;—**Ia Augmtifi??, I raoslved
from the aardtna three planta of Liberian ooitee. Tiwy were about
from 6 to b inchea In height, and apparently in perleot btalth. X
kept them in the pota In which X received them until November oi tb«
samo year, when ItrauspianUd them into the largest Bleed,poti ordU
t,*.ily n.«l lu iwieo. iu Medres. They bud ibeo Inbde abeat two
uaiti, of new le»,ee eeoh. Ou the 28th of M«ob 1 left lledreefot
KoglBBtl, BBd Bt the earns tiuie left my plUBie 1» very geed beed.
(Ueiot 0. 0. Bargeuuat, who leated my houm.) At tbkt lime two
of the nlanU bad thrown ont primaries. In July, while at borne, 1
reoetvod a letter from Mejot.S.tgeeuBt, in which ha meottoaeil that
the I.lbetl»» eoBee plaats bed eoBsted very maeb from the bet
weather, aad reooaiiBeedotl their removal to my ooffee eatate. 1 re-
turaed to tledra. early Id Kovembat last. 1 foead that two pf the plaais
bud roado greet growth, but were iooltiB||! aaylhiog but health,. The
wood wee berk boead, aad the fpliag#, iaatead o, baiag a dark gioes,
Ereao wee a pale yellow. The third pleat had been ‘ ekumped.’ and
n»hllyeo a. It wee dylug dowawerde ; Itbadlbrewa ep anew ehoot,
but 1 do BOl think that W will ever roooier. The few learn oa it ate
„llow eud nertlelly withered. Of the two olh« pleau, oae fi in a pot
»„■ niBiiiod oat la tho ehetio i the former hae TteooMred lieeH
.eadortuliy derlog the pelt two moaiba. U ba. ala. pair, of
^rUfctias. ^and la faiviJ h^'a'thy in appearanos, thar Is, it la uow green
pri tiama *«« is 3 bsrk hsaliby (which It li
iheddlnR a^ eood'feature) wd no sign Of biossomlug. wbioh X also take
\ ^ IrtS'-iffn The plant, which ie planted out, is pot so vigorous ae
sa * good sign, i ne p iiu^^^ primaries, bus aomowhat
lit as regartfs foliage, but what I cowslder a bml sign
»T*ims blosJled tre^^^ oonsUiiring It. •««. Four btoasoms
**' t 1 nw the 26ih .l 4 nuory and si* on the 6th iuetant. They appeared
lieiiltby,ihc moB swelling, and may with care aud atienllou
*but 1 douDt It. It is uor, natural for the plant to bear ho early*
?h?nleaU. .nbrdl».»d.or the .oil, wbl.b I. a etifl t^
Ihe plane i® ® ««,iaag of siioh preooolousneM. I will watch it aud
bereal'cr.” H may b« mtorestlug to add that Dr. Coroleh
»t«^acMaedad iu growing two healthy looking Llbetun plawto to a
has sucoeeue a , ,»k,Arm ihAv f/Ht mash cool shade, and that
OeffeaLibenea
Arabisa
4*40 grammes
1‘85 »>
1*20 grammes.
I .as»K.«ffkr ilast shell to the bean is neatly aa 4 to 1
wUhC^ UbTrirwh^o llr^ao. I «» «■>«« A"'’’**'
large Kale.— A. tMu, «l» J* Jiuuin, fh^rvary 1879.
■** E. JOHN PATNE, writee ae follow, to Ibe Agrl-HonHwUaral
M Str.« Iheriaaevdl, DWtlet .-.About a mortb al^er
1 wrote mylatier of the Mth Novembor.l we. «try
I two * Liberian’ plants alluded to, wat attacked by leaf
SlaoSito not a coBe. tre. wi.bla taUe. of «>.
“ TH-i to hat. •iartarf from below, th* upper ponim tvftli Jroa, 1
Jl W >9 P**®** ‘•amlag ekktooeJ
Xtoto*^^»«tohis^ardelJ. whe shade, and that
the plants have recently b lossomed.
OOPFEB PRODUOTIONe*
M n TYTLBB points out how that Slave labor being foroOd le fatal
^ to itsnoaseasora. In Brsall, it la elave labour | to d^av* toroed
labour rbe'greet dtawlmok. Mihe trely pointa ou^ 1. that wUk eUob
oounttie. « Breeil, tbeocatotatalotolaingleboiiroutof crop ttemmak^
It loo ooeUyi-wboreae jre la Oeylou ohtalu oar lahour vttoa w« req^ It
aad eao pay oft coil’le. aot waated after the crop ie la,eadwto aw ml, tm
aled to return to their oountryoloee at bend, torerWt their fvwhd, "llh
fhtb l^S.. well fined with rape... “Wb^ t?*
sreat toloe “ do oondllioa, of leboer, eiiob ae Uteev, nUuMeier wffea
eamr.tloe. e«.tl Aud a labohlt ,o •..Itabl. md ee aaeuw f It. egltt
them and It eult. ae. 8» loag Ihethfore a, the Ooiarwnenti at ladla
«.d OevloB do aot iuterfere injoHdialy (for lotaiteteMe ntoal be
^fettoaol with tha laftas akd efflu* of thl, tueem of irolantafy bftottiw
^heaefWal P*»“**'' " «dvantage«u.. to Oe -hnwhl^ ptotH
v’tia.-^o JoanM<rae ourteney l.aflorded lottonatandAdiuetiMatoif
1 ,k. .ai^l* aaTdtmeild. Wbb It, aWn pietoreaBe^ »«lt»,-i4g,h<top<#to
to ^hw. Of •» diaplf^"* »* I*"***' »«»
' , _ . . I
I wi::. .Wdoitom sad S?wsti olOjto IPwdueHon to ^ fWto
€63^' i i
I I Ml
or OtbW
. iSfff ,'^pi^ri ijftffe' ikmm m ' mM ««*>** oo otMr
lot oor |h»oii»lor >»«N.
Moo pimitori hwioir io’ tlio firit dtrira o®
thtt,»l»»e labour of tfaf ^to^rib, or* »o*^ *» <>*»•
vbijo fbvfoo oleariy obonib Wbot^W^ivIpoiiott oonboilotJ to
do iorthttO., l^» tjrtitor i»o»er betlo*®^ ^*,**’*«^ il*v;tUboiw'i ootf ho tow
fiidiO«iHti»j,ot tbot in hlsotrlf o*v*rt®h«« Ot ooffso ploalclogia tboWtst
Ifi^At; It Uovldenif•-•-»*« propTfotor* tboir
Aoir' ^HVtQttttorin lefiiofi io tbo BmoHUo orpHrI, ilittooltbir do they
belfBfOtti tli» f be oatbor ot ihb Huto Wrk deolai^ emptiEttooUy Ibet
ibOf O^^fOoM itpoo tUo'itriifQd oCh^ ••Noihlog in the eud oaa
etfi tbeko* Sodlft* loteoroe of virgin torett for exteuilon by inrptni
elnve tibonront of crop tUM rcuniHed In boondlese oxpinie of pionCed
Inndt tor thb^gotberiiig ot tbo eropi of whioh tbore 1» not auffioient
leboar, nor cbn it be fonud* Borrowed eepitol, got on n loptrflotal
glotfed eurfeoe of apparent, and for the time ardent pToiperil;y, epun
ontii lyitem of reft ways, and afforded the Braaiiian the means of
getting to tbe Baroaderebis produce, to exhibit a momeatarily manifest
prosperity ; bat it was all on borrowed capital wbioli bad a basis of very
Questionable Moarity, namely, tlaveryi and the issue of slave labour.
]>peur ooUapsing, wb^t comes of the aecurity upon railway debentures ?
Wbat lor that of the borrowed capital t What ot all securltiee eonneoted
with the enterprise ot Xkeain XiSt those oonoeru^d consider these
(|uestloiul, aod|. if possible, provide for them. I am merely oonsideriug
bonr they affect (be question of the supply of coffee to the market of the
world, and next bpw this touches (he value of estates in Ceylon.*'
It is well for Ceylon that our planters have seen and acted upon the
wisdom of a thoughtful and paternal oare for the oomCort and well*
being of their coolies. Kone were so euiefui ot* this pt^lut as the
proprietor of Pallikellai, whose labourers were belter boused and better
disciplined, than the majority Of those who came to the Oeyloo
ooffee estates. The best proof of this is to be found in Ibe fact, thatin
the times of the greatest Ubour.scaroity, Mr. Ty tier never wanted for
bunds to cultivate his estates.
THE COFFEE INDUfcSTUY OP THE WORLD.
fpO enable us to form anyUilng approaching a correct estimation ot
X labour supply as likely to affect the future produotiou of ouffae,
we should not confine onr observations to the new countries and those
likely to^eome Into the field as coffee producers : the whole, or if that
be not possible owing to the absence of data, the larger exhtiag oouu*
tries in the field should be taken iuto account, and th«ir prospects as (o
labor supply exainluod with a view to future prospects, lu attempting
' to take but a glaooe at the various eouutries engaged in ooifee pro.
duction, It will he instructive if we first give the names ot suoU colonies
aud oouutries whiob supplied Great Britain with coffee half a century
ago, say in the year 1^U&, with the quantities taken from each ot them,
These are as follow i—
In 1823.
Jamaica
... cwts.
169,720
pemerara
... ... .p
64,147
St. Domingo ...
... ... ft
44,422
Bast lodif^ Java, &o.
>*■ *•* ,1
36,7«r>
Cuba ... •*.
,1
24.057
Derbice ... ...
• • 11
18,558
Dominica...
... ■ • II
17,137
Braxiia .
•• .► 1?
12 467
St, Thomas
• . . t»
7,250
PertEieo... ...
...
4,620
Caraceaa...
..I tf
3,602
ShLuoiaT-
... „
3,363
KiAmerloa
.
1,686
St, Lucia
... * „
1.400
Trinidad .
... ... IP
1,964
Guadalonpe .*#
...
1,200
Eermnda
• *. *»• ,1
792
Batbadoee .**
...
236
t^senada .
r.. ... p,
3C8
Bb ^Inoeot
I.. 4 1. PI
64
bas been ipck^ of bjf a ccateipppipl^ a* thcogb it ware a Miw pco^vfi^i
ahereas half a cendiry ago >l w^f exported to Ksgiand in largol
quantities than eof^ee from Brasiti,
Xu the tlstoileoMnirieipriodi^oing tho ooffe* of fbo preaafit daj^ ^
shall find tbit a great revointSoa^has oomo over tho ooffea lodagtry' of
the world, eom« of the old prodocartt hMStig alfogethw dlmippiarfd Irom
the list. The foilowing atitement gifts a tolorabljr acoarate idea of Ikd
coffee imported into Great Britain forty years
later ttm
the Jdrffier
period •
Oeylou M. ... ...
... owtA 7fiTJ^$
' Madras •*.
*■* e
mm
Braeili ... ...
... p,
Central America ...
... HI
British Weft India Islands ... ...
' ii
40,912 .
New Granada
*•* •»
26,698
Hay ti and Bb Domidgo
f tf
1$,849
United States
... ,,
B,m .
British India, Bombay, &o ...
„
8.880 ,
Ports on the Pacific..
... ti
7868
Bingapore and Bastern Btails settlements
... f,
8,670
PblUppine Island ... ...
... ,1
6,600
PortBioo
... ,,
4,878
British poss. in South Africa
. . 1, •
8,886
Egypt
... ,1
8.849
Other Ports
■«. 1,
8,069
Portugal ... ... .»
... 1,
1,916
West Africa ... ...
... „
1,665
British Honduras ...
... „
1,487
France ...
... ,.
1.268
Hamburg
... IP
912
Holland ... ... •••
... p.
627
Cuba
... ,p
279
Bengal aqd I'egu ...
■ »»
61
Boath Atlantic Porte
tt
SO
Whatever figures may be put forward as representlog tbo ooniump*
iion of tbe world against the production, this
moob wo
know, that
allowing for the fluctuations inoidental to soaions of abundant oropa and
times of depression in general trade, such as that we are now paisfng
through, the stooks of coffee tbrooglumt Burope have not aeriouaty
augmented, notwithstanding extensive plantings in Oeyion, Braalt,
India, Java, and Bemersra t on the contrary, present stocks are about
on the average of the last five years. Bellable laformatlon from
various countries shews (hat there iset the present moment a lull in the
extension of (he coffee industry of the world. XVhilst this fa ihe cage,
we must not forget that the populations who oonsnme oer produce are
streadily ou (he increase, and that each year finds eo many more ihou*
sands born iuto the world (o become in due course, ouetomers to tite
producers of coffee,
fn Ceylon, tbe exhaustion of onr forest land, io Brasil the labour
difficulty, and in many countries coffee pests and other fmpedimeoti
stand like lions in the path ot progress, It is worthy of note tbaft
whilst we in Oeyion have been iunodated with labonrere
of all desonptions, many wotihlere, it is true, by the recent famine
in South India, the terrible year of drought and etarvation In tbe
Koitbern provinoes of Brasil does not appear to have added a liiigle,
labourer to the cofleo plantations ot the Boutb, a sure evidence that they
have nothing to hope for, nothing (o calculate upon io tbe indigenoof
labour of the empire. At tbe very time when teoC of tbousenda of
pounds were being voted by (be Braaillau Legislature lor tbe famfsblng
luliabitauta of tbe North, the planters of the South were discussing ami
lamenting, in full assembly, the starvation of ibeir labour supply end
the gloomy outlook before them in consequence. Nor bas the great
coffee country of the South American Continent escaped the ordinary
triale which beset tbe industry elsewhere. There, too, tbey are suffering
from unfavourable seasons and from a pest which promisee to beom&e
serious In the future, if not so detrimental as leaf dieeeae.
Wbat bas been tbe influence thus far ot railway construction and
higher uoltivation Io that extensive country, may be judged from the
latest etatletios of tbe Brasil coffee trade, which give the following ae
the exports for three years coding Beoember fil, 1878
187 4.
1877.
X876,
Uto tons 16,7240
' 162,105
159,013
Santos „ 64,762
40,795
38,929
Tons 28,202
202,900
197,972
^akatai^ '' ... ... .. 120
Oha^'ot Affiek . *m , ... ... dl
BoenesAyies ... ... „ 61
it is ttulractiva ip ibo/obimged posiHoo of somclf tbe above Cfiffim
ftftb roip epontrms, bave
taken ;tha fV as fornu^ly ranked first
Woht 0b'ftvffsnppiiai»iucditaf^***<9^^,<btl^, pemesara^ Barbicb
fttok ifiki^klilMfk iMd Ifotti colony
Now much land may bave been brought noder oofleecuKIvatioo
during the last few years of high prloss is not known, but it is not
likely that tide #Ui ooiitiane in view of the extreme difficulty of sup*
plying the fleoesshlfy amount of labor for existing cutrivatfon. Wiiatovor
quantity grown,, will,, with the present and other liuci of railway fn
course of cbnitructloh, be bioazht more rapidly to market, but it is
lai^robanta that railways wiB help the labor auppiy^ for the mnlt
diivars and othem no# eegigeil in »be old fashioned mode of transport.
#hvn ihrowfi ont of work by railways, will ^npt tako to labor on
^ eitatoii,
TOi^CGO.,
T o igtf Meim Btgg, SuilierlMd mA Cc(,.,| 06 lf ow jt&«
OliMgiport tobftooo^Mitt wJiicIi 2Mid bUbtrio ndtbttb Wf
igoogitfiltL l^ttddvibeiieAtvi, vtfif fAir«ar«bl« multi lii^i
bun dbitilaid, ind It miy be fiitly bb|Md tbut ilii oultiyiiioa wS)l
wDlljjiiiiio lixipm?! lod titiud. ^be multi would bive beitt UtUl
more nUifiotory, but for the oontinuous ilt-beiUb of tbi
Mr. Some tobtcco lant home for eali Iwt year
rialti^ three timii m much ai any Indian tobacco previously
exported^ An Bugliah firtA of tobacco manuf actmeri have ofiered
to ilKe a lorge supply of tbeleaf animally at rates which will give
a profit. A trained cigar manufacturer ie ebortly to be added
to the aesiitaste on the farm, and it ie hoped that Meesre. Begg,
Sutherlmtd and 0<h will goon be able to enppiy a good brand of
oiger^ An attempt made last year to grow tobacco at Khmirnn did
not^prove veiy eucoeeefalr but another endeatour ie to be made
tbiey^, and it ie hoped the resolie will be moire eatiafactory.
INDIAN TOBACCO.
__ i
B EttlBVlNO you take cooaiderable interest in the cultivation
'of the tobacco crop in India 1 beg to eay I hare been
nearly twenty-five years engaged in growing and mauufaoturiog
tob4^1n South and North America, and during the past three
ysare,^! have taken considerable interest iit the weed grown in
lod(im During the paet month I have been in the ipbaoco*
growing dietriote of Madura, the Pniney Hille, Tricbinopoly, and
along the line of the South Indian railroad. In every place 1
visited I found splendid epecimene of the leaf tobacco, which if
propmly cured would compare moat favourably will) the very best
grown American loaf tobacco, and from which I have no heeitation
in saying joau be prodiioed or daplioated the most celebrated brands
of Apierioen oidm or plug tobacco, ae well as the famous brands of
smoking tobaoco^v^., “The Lone Jack,” the Fr uiU and £*lowere’*of
old Virginia, the **Qolden Sceptre*’ &o., all of which oosi an enormous
pries in Madras. This could be done, if the tobacco was properly
cured, but it is not. How can we have it cured as it should be ?
By teaching tbs cultivators the method used by fUe planters
in Ainerioa, Spain, and Cuba, Yon may ask me, ** How are we
to teacli the proper method of curing tobacco to our planters ?”
I will tell you, Sir, by printing a small book and having it widely
distributed through the Madras Presidency, as I believe Mr. Buck
has done in the North-West Provinces, advocating the best melliod*
of planting and curing tobacco. Mr. Bnck deserves all praline for
Ilia efiorte to improve the cultivation of tobacco, although,he
admits he hss had no practical knowledge, and has ooutpiled his
hook from information given him by others. Another advantage
will arise i^tn the proper cultivation and curing of tobacco. You
can ship tobacco to,England, and suci^i^ssfiilly compete with the
American shippers who rooeive very high piices for their produce.
’JTUree years age I saw 1«. 2d. per lb., paid in the Liverpool
Market for fair **Viiginia*’ enn-oured tobacco, and lam quite
sure you have, or could have, produced in this Presidency quite
as good. Again, you have a great advantage over the Amerioau
planter. He has, in many instances, to cure his tobacco by fire,
which injures and gives the leaf a very bitter taste, whilst your
planters can at all times suo-oure their tobacco. Vour planters
[gmse
, pi^tfsr t]
jr<m tsiil afteh iiid
It does smoke, U m
tike thatofA.#t7
at oreiw oiiitbe.t
(dve you th^ I
lit f6y pmpsHpf'
’ find oolliyaCtiig ai
I' as well as the oar
^ 3rd, ouriog of tha
•hould be handlad
Ac.; and iartl|y,.tl
for cigar makli^*^
should ^ caidadf&d
paoseo.<-aiiny9re voire^iimja
exmnoM*
oiNOHoirA opwpas, .
T^B are glad to eee that Dr. B)4dla haa pubUriiiaAla iho
▼V forgi of a bandy little pamphlet of 24 pagnaAuodeeinto, hU.
intsrestlngasdusofttlleotoreideUveradat the Madias nmaeum on
this subject. The brochure is entitled Oioohoua cultufe in British
India, being a brief eketoh of its origin, with practical hihte
on the chfef points conuected with the industry by <1. Bidie* If.A
Madras, Higgingbotham and Co., 1373.'* Oomiag frpm such a
pen, tha praoUoal hints, which are the valuiMe part cl tha hook,
are tore to be reliable, for besides other meaps of bring wall
iuforfloied on the aubjeot, it is mentioned In tlie pijetaoe ^hit it
was Bf. Bidie's "good fortune, as wril as ^pUasiu^,, tq liiave
visited the government cinchona aud io
have enjoyed special facilitfes for galhlng tnl^nuation durh^i;
those visits.” It will be remembered that Dr. Bldie y^as ^eriec^
to he one of the late Government oommiesion ou Important
questions in oonneotion with tha best manner of utilhstpg the
cinchona bark. Perhaps, the best way of giving our readers
an idea of the nature of ibis very business-like little productioDi
is to present them with a copy of tbe table of contentSi whlri*
runs as follows " IutrodaGtioo--*lntroduotioA of the ripohonas
into India—Government action in oioohoua culture-^Botanlcal
sketch of the oinebonae^-Bemarks on the habitats of ^the ,rio«
ohouss—Ohemistry of cinchona barks—BtscbVery of quinine*^
Medical value of the several alkaloids—Local maitufaotuiq .of a
(dieap cinchona febrifuge—Proportion of alkaloids on the aeyersl
barks—/fed Bark—Crown Bark-^Yeltow Bark—Other ipoefes—
Hybrids—Changes in cinchona bark according to the age of the
tree—Culture of ciucliona—Manuring cinchouas^fHarveating tha
bark—dfoselnp, coppicing, uprootinp—Comparative yield of bark
by the several eystems of barvestiug—Drying the bark—Beasoils
of the year at which tbe barks are richest iti alkaloidt—^tn^bonk
culture likely to continue reinunerutive ? ” There are two platea
and two diagrams iii the pamphlet, tbe price of whtoh is^figfd at
one rupee.
SERICULTURE.
SEItlOULTOBE IN INDIA.
do not know it perhaps, but Hiey can raise and cure two crops
yearly in this prasldan'^v- I saig the experiment sucoaesfuliy tried
in tbe Coimbatore distri ct last yqar. On tbe whole, X believe,
tbe tobacco grown Jn India is beUor than that of America, for
you can make cigars from nearly all grown here, whilst in* America
but one or two eorts are capable of produoing tobaooo fit for
cigar-fiHere, and the wrapper must be imported fr6m Spain or Cuba.
Coimeoticut, Massaohusetts and Delaware produce a email quantity
of cigar^tobaoco yearly; Maryland, Virgiuta and tiorUi OrioHua
are jOstly celebrated, and manufactuie nearly all the fine brands
of Plug abd smoking tobacco exported. The tobacco grown in
tha 'Waatem Statss of Tennessee, Ohio, Kentucky, and Missouri
is vary Coarsa and strong, and can only he used fi)r Navy ,^ug.
Tour pUiitffrs cafi^do all thal those States 1
can do. IM wfiii^xii. your advantagsSf you will find as
good a oigar hsri at yoa eso purchase i|i rithst
I N reteranoe to our looldeatal remark a forinigbt ago pa sij^suUafa
la Dfaarwar, as it used to be carried on a few years agO| a
dent sends os the following
** Tbe great edvautagesol Dbarwar, over other places tp,
aceim an admirable medlam eUmate ell '&e year a
medium raio fall—so that tbe atmeapbeve is never too dagip ^ .
Srd, ladlbsrry ihrabigrow idmifibly irid never fail | aii4 ri>^yM l(Sf» I ,'
tbe myothlj sUk-worm which thrirec well, throws dfi ccqe^dlll^ Of,
nine wontbs la the yeiWt steady work to the peo^ .riligod;; ^
6tb. the rilk l^s^ woend ofisad riwu ibri’fihrepi^^
band, i^o4«ols,j#;bea«tifjl dresses’ as yon '
advlotaiessiw jpritfilrieat, X do njMkcowwhmniiM^B^^
; tho'nt fg tg tlmahb^pdlntsl'nW
any othar;imV'bA«oo^f IhkiariscrlmtaatdrioiMMj^sddl^ :
fiaqthrib
■fA 'sah
’ttl;
to m' ■
' Th»
f-Wta'ttfMMMi#;'
•''W^CljWMsAinpftMi^- ..... ....
.^ .^wAltw wf
_abid A* 4»T»l'oM*»i»t'SlV'WdW* Jtldnntw*
to mronntoiaa
«/i*w tiiifif ^kjn «a prospact
til® proo®gji wet® ia UiiJf r Ta^t U»*t ijf
i>|e^, pikn oen4itt®«l* fl®Ha®o^ witli tlifl
^ irofBi i® Ut wild or Co ft sUt® eeuia be
if tb® eilk ooold bo eetlefectoifily j?oelo4 find dy®d,-**«fo*
been onoonotivod i& eoattOolSon wUb both
trad® from Itidiii; to Korop®, either ia the
sb«pt®| 4 w»MMti orMI«ftW iilk^ #oatd eprlnw up ; fbt it 1601110 ® -eerUiii that
KoroltW' iK)ft«ti{lMitui^a ' wonid Uke the raw prodi^oe if laid flown at
roiiopftble prCoo®.
' % b® taken, bownflp, wne to proenro further tnrorma-
tion* Xt wasobvtontly premature to take any ineoenree having in view the
creation of a regulitr iudnatry without flrirt obtaining defintte iiiformatioii
on important pointe on which information wac wauling etthev wholtj^ or
tnpait. Such point* were i the eiect coat at which the raw material could
be colleeit'd or pioduced in commercial qUAUtiUea, both ni the wild end
aemi-dodieaticated ataie ; the coat of reeling the ailk } the weight of atlk
in proportion to oocoon ; the degree in which the filamenta would i>ear
crknur* 1 and the ochaequent ultimate value of the ailk in Che market.
Af a drat atep towiirda the obfcainment of anoh dat i, the Oiivemtnent of
Bombay and tiie Chief Commhnionet of the Oeutrai Pcoiincea were
reqeeatvd to ooUeot a quantity of ooecona in order that careful eaperitnente
might be qiade with them in thie country, ae a)*o under the directum of
her SflaJeatjita Secretary of State in aorae of the leading ii>atarea in l^rajice
aud Italy. Tlliia waa done, and the reaultM of ,the experiments nudertaken
by Mr. Wardl® under the direction of ibo Secretary of ''tate with the
cocooni thus aupplied are now before the GDcernment of India and are
etated in his reports attached to this lUnolution* No experiments were
mode in ibis country, the gentlemen to whom cocoons wore sopplie l for the
purpoee having pronounoed them to be old and unfit for reeling, ospooially
in this country, where the special machinery and appliances reqnired for
this purpose are Pot available. This is of lictle oonse'iueuoc, however,
considering the success of iho experiaienU m Europe, and having; regard
to the.fact that m aU probability filatures iti India for taaar silk will not be
tequired’, and that only a trade in cocoons will prove remnuorati vo-
. _ IbbblisilINI «
...
{' tnstead of % tb fl, J»® |hd | wjarefl th«m' InHopr® tm .
gathered food, apd tptth pf iO
[4 to 5il, as I had noted bnfoif®^ ^ ®l(ii|®«ht of th^ae otfeonnt |hi flT .
to 8fi d<ya, and their nggn proved; pfchlne&og calefpittaw which /
grew M fnst and a® largA as the first, trh® only diKsrei^. tiiat I obserfad
Wiis th«t the < chmenV of ih® Ooecioirs of th« Ikter ero^ waa lets iiaif®ictaly
white; this may have been doe to the ehftt^ge® In tht vmathe® ®r tb® quiditp
of the leaf, some ehfub® having been «it®h bft three aafl four tiinw thU
monsoon, ' . ' .
The lagmkr<»mii» both proved an excellent ffOefl t it fimhefl a®
quickly that n plant 9 feSt high, after being fed Off quit® bar®, out haale '
and re-potted, was egain in thick leaf in a fortnight, and i>b« tame hatflh
of worms stripped it again. In changing the plants, and in daily euiAiiiiag
the oages, a few aooidenta occurred t but 100 worms yielded 71 eoeoona
'*fl« 1 enclosed an old CortMa carandns, which had neither been pruned
nor manured. wiUi bamboo screens, and liberated 60 worms there. In th®
course of a moittb I gathered fll cocoons, a little larger than those of the
Mctgmiremht hni much harder end yellower. Th® caterpillars aesmed *
to tbiire a little bettor on this bosh, and completely stripped k, hnt lb®
tree did not recover quickly, and did not yield snotber supply of Ibod the
wholo monsoon.
** 7. 1 pul SIX worms on to a young jujuba treo in my gacdeni
but neither enolosed it, pruned it. nor uumnred it. It had a great deal of
leaf and flower on it, and the worms ate both. They giew very large imd
healthy, b< iug ig| evei y Btage of iheir ekistenoe a liUle aheoil of som® of th®
eanio batch toeding on Lagerttlrtmitt, Five cocoons were spun hdr®, huge®
than any that 1 had gathered from off the other trees.
** 8* I let the wajority of the moths fly away, for os soon as the lasl®
has left her, the female la quite ready to go and look for Suitable trees to
di^pofiit her eggs on. 1 had not enough food for more than IQO worms St
Hlitue in my own compound, and almost eVary att««mpt which I made
ot bringing theta up elsewhere, nnslieltercd by th® screens, fmled*
Crows, squiri els, and oLhei enemies carried them off, and 1 liardly got a
single cocoon ; hut in my own compound X continued to rear a lew at a
time, chan.,iug them from one tree to another as I found it eipedient
The result of the experiments which I made showed me plainly that plants
in the ground, with or wuhout scroeiis over them, gave the most suitalda
food j that it mattered not wheLher the young shoots were eaten flown by
Ibo caterpilhirs or cut off by the pruning shears. The ha&ertircemia. never
spiouted again, and it was only the very limitod supply of food which X bad
that ptevouled me rearing many mora worms.
3. At the same time that thele cocoons were CDlleciad in Llie Ceutral
Provinces, the uibot local Qovernmculs and Adminislratioua wore
invited ip make proposals and suggostioua m the m^ittor.
4. The teshlt of the enquiries and experiuients mad^ in India has not,
on Ibwjwkole, advanced mutters very far. lu the Bombay Prceideiicy the
experiments undertaken by Major Oousemaker for the aemUfloiuestioatioa
of the worm were interrupted by the ilroaght atid famtne. X'hcy ha 'C siuce
been renewed but as yet with inconcJtisive results. Tbcffc arc stated in a
latier from Major Coussmakcr, from which the following paragraphs arc
extracted
A * * K in A Sf.
i. My former axperimsuts, as well as those conducted by Mr. Woodrow,
had peeved that it was a mistake to attempt to rear these worms on twigs
cither those out from road*side frees, or from those which bad reoeivud some
care and attuntiuu in a garden, and that the plan most litioly to succeed
was to feed them on shrubs in iooalittes where they could he piotcclod iroiti
their onemles, and, if peed be, fiom nufavourablc weather. With this
view, I began to oolieoi young plants.
^*3. thad ttotioed in 187(1 that the taiar worm throve well on Latjir-
tndton, au ornamental ahrub,fairly abundant in the cautonmeut of
X^QOna i this is a plant which throws up a good many suckers dii-iug the
monsoqat and leoon gut ft few plants together, l took a house which was
well supplied with shade and water, and my gardsuei managed to colic t,
t7f plants netwectt December and July, many of them only a few inches
high, but some were large enough to boot use. Tnete were also in liu
grouad six huibosi^ and my first care, when I came m from the distnols, was
to eat l^em ail baok to the hard wood, and apply to their roots a t&ir
, amount of tnaumo. The consequence was that as soon its the ram
oomnieneed the plants shot most freely into leaf.
‘*4,^,Mf*^WeodfOif l»d,not been aWe to save any seed ooooims.
but X hb4' Iffbnd three ^ female cocoons lu the distHew* and the
Marathi tyjotaan,' Who hod been my chief assistant in leaking after
these IffbmM before, hod ooilsctcd tv^Lve. 1 soon had several moths
from ehjsii leued.,'on' I noticed before, that t^ere whs
on abandaafc auppty fertiio Hardly any
wasted 4 'it was enly necessary to out over-tughi, on
akybai6i{^j^n4%diks stfiaoitkieertainty i® fiad th^ .paired at dayUrcHk,
' ‘ I tMil Ilia®nbtieoewiry to tefcho^ them* they -inqved from
^ % W,Wbiolt’t,fii«ed^hwe, Ah fa»b|#fMie young "
. . . . . .. - leaves of the,
^ fhe^wi^thee^is,
>«L,
> 1 .
9. From the single expetitneiit I have meutloued, ihrism does Hot seem
to recover quickly. Zinyphas seems to grow Very fast, principally at^the
oxtremilios of its long stmggiing branches ; but os X only had one tree ia
my ootnpauud, I could not be sure about ii» u«iuai habit of growth.
** I baled some of the cococ ns gathered from each of Uiss® three
trees And sent them homo to lUr. Wardle, asking him to give m® av opinion
on the qualities of the respect!vo fibres. 1 hod oil the burst end inj red
coooous cloauod, And sent them, together witii those which Mr. Woodrow
hud on h<ii*d, to the Alliance Mills in Bombay to be canverted into yarn
I have kept some fifiy seed oococids for next year's experiments.
'*11, I lisvo got togoiher a good many plants for next season's
experiment*—35.? Lufftvsirmiia ithiictt, JO Jja>gerstrogmi>% parri^om* IS
C'(>»^oc/|fpttx UHjoUit ; plants And cuttings all I'Ooted and in leal t also ISA
CariaMCtitaniJx%s^lZ^ ZnuphMit yu/uba, 105 Pentfvpttra {(.m^ntosa, ssedUngs*
Tboro are beiudes 8 Zmjphis bushes in the oompound, and if my gardener
Will but taka care of ibese during my eight montha* absence from Poona
I hupe tu resnme my experiments under better auspioeia
**12. '1 be past season has been very favourable for tssar wornii. Mr.
Dylci who was cultivating thorn to a small extent at Dapuri in 18731, tella
nto that some of the men who were under him thou came to hiki lately and
asked him whether he wanted nny more cocoons as they had seen several,
lie happened to bo on the spot and sent a man to see how many he could
collect withiu throe hours. He cam® hack with 800, and aaid that he bad
heard that some peoplo had been taking them into Popnafor sale, presimi*
ably to the Oative ph<sioiai>s. 1 myself hove already found many more
casually this year in the distriets than I usually do.*’
A A « * tt A «
5. In Madras, in the Noith^Westem Provinces sndOudh, in Burma, eyd
in the Il^detubad Assigued Distnots, as also in Mysoie, there would
seem at present to be no prospect of establishing any troCDc in the cocoons
or raw *iik of the uo«omi>stieaied werin.
e. The late Chief Com missiooer of Assam thought that any attempt to
foster the trade in Bylhet would prove uosucoseetali and refrained from
-offering any suggestions beyond drawing atienUon to the exiitiog and blfl-
e,tabUshed silk mdustriesof Assam, which in his opinion might faav® opensd
up a wide field for piivate entcrpriio were >t npt for the extraordinary
^lays that exist m comutunieociotia between the .province xndUte rest of
fod.u tiovtdkmenk have under oonsiderafcidn the qusitton of improving
the fiwiLUica for cowmanicatidg with Upper Ashftui. It is hoped tliot when
the contemplated bupfoVement is effeotod, Colonel Keatmge's expeotsUous
will to some extent beX9®M I for there leak least as great a demand in
MtoKaropean marhsts ibf theeoeoep ®f ih® eiia and moonge wormtis that®
itleitlHiteftliefiHMfi
GtAg 0 iii« «ll9i^4]!i4 M ii| ii <pfr. ‘'^
wftw 0* doftUt, Ifefl ntm
^r«M*»>gM ^lka|it>«$pl>«ftrto VArj^Wlt|itl»iM*% i% ii .i
Tttt|»rl^o|jb«tKWii»,U U lUligia, tiMUTM f :<»m ifc*.« to Hi. ^
(1 10 *4 SO oneooni MOh, {^ 4 * 1|7# oooomw) i|i i»^t4 to
iU OM klimii wAkit in Boneoofiit two poifi of dUotooo, lo SoOt^ IS
eliifetsoki of tiiK nwS »o tSi SonWna Forgwnuho from li to I «Mrt^ TbOfO
itnd Otbormoro dotiHod portlculitrBkforaiibod b? Uio Gomamont of Bengal
tbongii flStoiMi; inoomploto and atwatheoiioatod in fK^me roipoota^ aro
ttiefnlff Altai liber gO> and the Oovornment of l«4ia wdl be glad to U
informed of themeamfoe whiob are beiof iaked to gather farther partioulare.
ae wpU at of thebr reantti. ^be Lientenant-Govemor'A opiofon on the
ptopoMil made by llr* 4 . Hvr&th, to the eifect tliat the Stat«i ehould uader 4 >
taho Urn riariiig of taepr coeoQoa in the jangle inaJuiItt of Ohota tlagpore lor
tale to reelen epd oapoHete ie alao aealted*
S» IVom the Panjebi aome samples of iasarailky reeled from eoaoens
{MOdhOsdinthe Hoshiarpor distriot by the Deputy Commissioner, Tvore
rsftorted on by the anthoritiea whom the OovernmeatoflntUa oonsoliod
as f^ly snooessfhb Borne tpeoitneus of cloth, which were also reoeired
U 0 m Hoshierpnr, were found to have been very crediUbiy manutaoCared*
9 « The Secretary of State, to acknowledgiog in his despatch No. 25,
dated tiie 93nd March 1677| the receipt of the cocoons gathered in the
Ceatrel Prcetnees, has forwarded areperl by Mr. T. WardJe, frtna which it
appears that althon' h the ctiboons, when made over to the lil^rei in France
and Itilyi ^wuro^fonnil to be very old and imperfect, the reelars spoke most
hopefahy ef the resnits that might be attained with fresher oocoons properly
go/thered and prepared. Mr. Waidle. too, said that be was prepared to dye
tSsaraUk at reeled in Eotope by his improved prooessos in almgst any
eolenr, even to very pale sbadee.
ID. The first part of a fnxthor report from Mr, Wardte has meanwhile
been received nader cover of the Secretary of Statens dodpatch No. DI,
dated the fi 9 th Augnst 187 d ; oe aho fiomo samples of tasar silk displayed
at (he Paris Bxbibitisii, as prepared nnd »r Mr. Wardls’s instructions.
Thsse specimens, which can be seen «t the ofiloe of this noparciueut by
persons inteiested 111 the matter, are far superior to anything evi^r yol eet^u
of the same kind, the organa me espooally being remarkable (or its
esoeltettce. The gUge js softer, cleaner, and altogeUier better than the
best raw taser silk as yet reeled. It U clear frona these samples thit suoh
diMcnlties as eaisled in the reeling of Uits silk have been completely over,
come. Mr, Watdle's proce<is produces silk so fi le as to Capahla of
adapUtion to any purpose lor which mclherry silk is used. Exoellunt
results have also been obtained in thn spiuuiiig of tusar thread and ihe
weaving of fabrics from spun silk. Mr. Wardlo's erpetiinents with t'le
dyeing of ihe silk have also been quite ■uncesstiil Oi the whole Jt it
certain now that there iBxiomhereut 6 b 8 tacVoWthra<ut)lisHtiou ofthls eilk
for manufacturing purposes,
tl. The main question now to be answered is that of cost. Whether f
eilk of this kind wilt be extoosively consumed, depends upon the priug at, {
whi^ it ean be plitoed in the morkel. Mr. Ward !0 stales that the cost of ’
making ofganzioe and tram from the cocoons Is *2(J franos the kilogrsmtoo, ,
vis., 10 francs for reeling mid to fiauus for th 10 wing, Thu^ m d mblo the
price at which ordinary tasars aro now eold, and it m not easy osay
whether pntchesers wiU he found for the unproved pco luri greatly superior
aa it is, though it seems that the price is susceptiblf of reduotiou. As jet
the only indicaUon of the piiocs likely to be given ior tas.w mlk is «u olfer
made by M* David, a silk manufacturer of 8 t. Klienuo, who expresses
his readiness to lake one or two thousand kilogromuies of eoouoas delivered
at MarsMUes at the price of one franc the kilogramme. Thi^ priee, .t is
cleat, &| much loo low, for, according to the intormation before the U iverii ■ [
ment, cocoons could not probably be laid down in Europe at less than three j
or four imws the sum mentioued. This, however, i^ a matter which sDuits
of local vett 5 cuUon, and it should form the subject of enquiry.
its <#• ro>*U» ,iiw fti^ w i i'W i S 'tow ii s is
j... > 1 .' ( <.'
■ a'nto vMiN.',W wm S4'
acooupt^' / ‘ ‘ ' J
Hpintc ^
ri) th. utura of tti* tiMSOMt «|«t bMB lMtitFWlto.i(t()ta tit*
cocoon i
<3) whether the natives ean reel Ik coeooainimrDGMm II yeal^^i
t 8 ) the length of time elapsing from the n^jnatng cl thi ^
Uieemergence of the mpth { ^
(i) whether the dark and light coloured oocoons which ore IhiMid.
in the hales sent from India arc of diifeieiit varieties, wad
whether they*are found in the same loealiUeS ; <<
( 0 ) also, whether it would be possible to obtain bales coly
light colonred cocoons. '
H. Some iafurmation hut of a vague and general kind, evistc on a 'good
many the points enameraied by M. fiendot, ondt^e GoveriicMr.Oeneral ,
in Conncil desires that an effort may be made to eauae Snob specific
information as Is obtainable, with speoial reference to the ,quantity
obtainable, and the prices on ihe spot, to be famished with as little delay
as possible, lb is also much to be desired that pattioulafi of maaufaoture
should he obtained as far as poeeiblo,
Theparticttiiirsoftbe outturu of the filatures in Bengal ore unknown}
for, though the' quantities esported and their values are ofcertamabie,
Government is unable to Say how much of theouttuhi of the filatures <there
u«e a great many native filatures) is kept iu the country, or what it t«
w ith, CJf the small local native reeling (smatl separately, bub Idrge in the
aggiegoto), no more is known than of iho haudl'o tm village weaving of
cotton. ' In Assam and Burma, silk reeling aud weaving are a domestio
' ;<'upation of the women of the house ; iu other provinces it is a trade, In
Bombay, t’lero ure two mills worked by steam in which silk Is woven, hut
the cxteUMif their operations ts unknown, lit short, no precise staUs'ioal
account of the silk mJaslry la lud la is extent, though there is a good deal
oi juforui tuon of A mure or Ichs vague and general ohuriotor. As regard ei
flilk production, Mr. Geoghegau's account of silk In Zudia coutaios praeUovdly
nil the information that Ooverauieut pojse^ses, although for gr>me years
past much aitontion has been paid to the pioductioa of tas^ir silk. The
same is to be said of Che other kinds of wild silk. These are all separately
disUnguishoil aud shown in Mr. Geogiieg(iu*s book, in the section given to
the wild silk prodnoois, ns well as in the appendix by Caotolu Hatton,
lutorosUug inforniation, though lu most oasoi of » general character,' has
been furnished by tbe loo.U Goveruiueuts and Administratlouv, but mori
precise itiformalion is now desiiabto, and the Government ofludiu vrlU ho
/lad if the Government of Bengal And (lie Chief Oomuiissieners oftfa <3
Centrw; D.^irv*w and A ■•atm will take measures to collect ir, sad furuisU
u I sport giving u categorical reply to the enquiiiss of bjtU M. Haudot aci
M, David*
I?-A.lsrjj3EGIUJNGIE
FIKE BRICiS AND DRAINAGE PIPES.
Apply to
BURN A 00.,
OALOUnA
r>s
12 Tbe results oblamed liy Mr. Wardlc, as well aa by others workm,r j
indeiendently.are so impciUnt and sn full of promise as regard* the j
munufactute of this silkandtheotiUsationofthemanufactare for apparel |
and other putposes, that it is eminently desirable to thoroughly luvsstigate
the question of production. Information 00 this sabieci, has been sought
from Winus quertem, but mfonnation in the poss^siiou of Gov,»rn.iient
Is not surticienfc to ensWe it to furnish precise answers, yet it is no essary,
if the wjtontion bf capitsainti is to be attracted to the ilevelopmont of this ^
industry, that full tofofwsti- 1 sfeuUd hotonheoFmag. M, Natiiw Ztondot,
A delegate from tbe Chembei of Oinmweroe of hj*m to the Paris Exhibition,
and President of too Jury in the Silk Section, has'writtou to the Govoru-
mvnt of India, asking for information m the following points, not only as
regaids the tosat worm but also as regards other aadomestionted worm*
(1) an enumeration of the diiferent kinds of wild wprm* ;
(2) the di,tiivts from which each kiud is obtamed, and in v|J^at quan.
titisR;
sPto*to oi from Winch each kind of edk is manufactured;
(4) (2i« ftrONOA which the worms feed \
(h) toelw to the sdk is put by the natives | ^
<D) thf i»»rketo wbtoqUmffnwf to be puyohoeed *,
FIRE BRICKS.
7 I ANEEGUNGB FIUB imiCKS as Buppiiod to Government ami
Jtii iho various Hallways, Iran Works, Goal, Gas aud fiteaw
N.^vigotion Coropaules. Price Ha 0 pur 100,
lUtraot from OlHcial Beportof tests made at H, M. Oalonita by
THRODOhff w. H. HUGHOa, KS(J, IT G. A. R. ». SI., OfflcUtlug
Dop^ r^' SnperlDterideat, Geoglogioal Kurvey, ludlo,
« The jTire lirmh 1^'e£$d hy me were /orais/id dy the Mm 0 /
Jl/eem. Itt/I/JV'Jt Co, ♦ * • The maUiMe from wkUk they
mdde ore very re/raoterjf and edpahle of resxftii^ kiyh tempiifatitre^
wUfumt eimihty fming, * * e toiapareA’^Hh i^eur^
hndge Fire Mrioke ore eometohnt
The specimens were oobiaoi;-*/® h temperatniw of over 3jEK)0
Farh,^ the stuulUnf being 2,736 dega^Karh. T
Applr fof *h«*!»/'.’•“i.f®*' l»w*eg«Bg* 8»lt GImwTS tarnmi*
^ • ftllRNACO., ■
^^■'-■ M'i';>'■ ' , ., ‘■7::7'77'^' "’/.v',,". ^’p'''’.--'• •,, -/?
;r^tfmAL OF mm4^ 'MEiotiLtuRE, ' MiNs^bor, '&rAj^0s,‘
‘ mi, IT#'
CAtOUTTA: MONI)AY. ?Mn ^UKE. 187$.
SIOTjqE.
GOBBimirmos.
^p, ft.
"if
I«mi» A^mmXBV w&l ds to a}! £ip&aoIft ttnd
Mif^nionarm in India at Aaff pritfe*
B. ENIGHT.
,, CalQuUni Ut JB’eh. |$76. -
, a/'i I f ,. ' H i .........
CONTENTS:
. FAO».
C}OKftiE8POtrOlllOld—
Swatttp ColUiration .*« l83
Tlktt Sago Fiilitt •««
Tho Pridtly <>omftey ... IM
Bamboo CnltlTatioii.. 184 <
Cbemiftta* Valuations of
Xanttva ... 188
The #Usgod SxooHiva use ol
Artifioial Uamifes ... 185
KotsgliiU^ Notes .18S
Lnamua AaviOEJcs^
<thi Bteetera Depaitment... 188
Alt and Water as Souroes of
Ftimt^looa ... ••• 187
Bmpirlc Farming ...« •.• 188
tbe Grass tends of the
Nftilghenlea .189
IBMtoaiaxi Notsi .191
ComiVMiGAm ♦ Snuwrnp—
MA Heohi on thiok a&dTbin
Sowing ... ... ... 191
OonMnental AgriouUnra ... i94
Bidn^lrBeinm for Colombo 195
l^heAbsOrptife Power of Boils 195
A Bemi$8iableFeraiite ... 199
TboBleetric tight.198
Indian 3na&t» Adapted for
Comttftfoial mrposee ... 19G
ftloain Japan .883
Fopnlar Brrors Begardmg
< JPapiprut *n ... ... 802
Indian Coolies in Guiana ... 308
CoproliteB ... ... «•« 803
, T^ Bttpijre under oompeteut
Agrionltnnl Bireetion... 203
tChe Bugler lUple .« 894
!Chs ^Trinssiottoni* of the
. Bi^huidBooiety .*898
• Fans*
Tnn Qaiosx-*-
Nota ... ... ... 808
The Victoria Bogia.306
l?raoticat Hints on Flower
Gsrdeningin MAdrae ... 206
Soonomic uses of the Plantain 297
Fonsstst—
Notes
Indian Forestfy
... F >8
... S09
UiRgsAnoor--
GoldinWynaad
The Same ... ».
... 209
.** 210
TBuFiAUTumr Gasjextx^
Tea**-
The Prospects ot Tea
Information Wanted
Tea Culture in Ceylon
M* 211
... 313
... 218
CoFvsa**
Notes ... »«t M.
Goitae Tmndjioa in Mysore
OofCee Leal CiseMe ...
CigoaoHA—
... 813
818
... 814
Chemmal Valoe of Cinobona
Barks «.« ... »•» 815
Wonderfnl U a s n 11 s la
Analyses of Ceylon
Cln^ona... .•• ••• 815
The MelkondSh Cinchona
Plantation .«*
... 216
Value of a Plantation
of
0. Offldaslia
... 216
Tobacco—
Note ..*' «••
... 310
6 XBIOMTUEB—
fiilk Ooltare ... >**
... 817
ToeSer-sUk .
... 217
ApyBBI^SSXXRTS ..«
... 218
NOTICE TO COREESPONOENTS.
,, and CwiWNtori v/iU tgrei^ tAWgtw
OV»9 idBl foto a* *••***'»<*’" <^
n.» ‘in. In^tk w$iflht$ and to ^f>* thw
‘ Ktjj ft di- tffiStmtuit*, Mir <» **» ua/tfin parMthiiu, »r in a
JmHuH. fli* 1^ »» ", ’*“* **
jniM 't*wiiutl, Hkia.itit WWfwsK to givith*
^ « ft. a« M ft, «*»«
.. I. .* . — . . . . ■I J I.W.I^W II I
SWAMP OULTiyATIOH.
fO TBB HDITOB.
fittt,--<^Zwoaderif (he edentlSo tgrhmttgrigfi #lra'1b^i tiA dv*
graded state of agrlciiHikm tn this oottntry anidbpshk ad BoiitiB^ptttb^ilf
of ^ ewamp ouHitatlon” hate eter realfaed m fimt tint dim Hoe
land in Tinneteily (and t dare eay eteaWhbre) prtfdlitOMr if*sw
without fail Sjtdilbti. of clean iie9| andaoton^ jdiotraiio iwMoy
to deteatoraie hut often predueei» efop of |ihlse In idditicin* tyihte
any one to oheok my flguru t wit! glte IhwtMrti# ’M
iOkffttaii (a ionnX measure uoiitilttfng 188 pvelH M an
uUttiual drop for a hdtttd of the best doUblO ofop.limd^ ^ A m$«d ot’ iSiad
ti equhalent to 1B2 aeres i so that an aUire whiil4 HMuhe 8111/1$
kottaii ol paddjf. It tiodnstdered Iteve that 8t tatiintei'df pAddy
will give 9 measures of oleaoed rloe after papUip all odnii^sir «/
eleaninp. At that rate 188 puehOMiAtn of ^uddy would yield <8ti(t4<«) 72
pucka Mere of rUtc or about 148lbs*, thle multiplied by 8411/16 giyee
the number of IbS. per acre ae ehewn abore* Bxpresied In Imperial
busbets (of 60 Ibe.) the yielii would be 61f, and It muet be remembered
that this is praoiioally a nseer/sBiiiy avefi^ and that very often a crop
of pulse is reaped bitwpep.ihe tifp orpps af idee.
1 may add that an ordinary rent per aore for the best land is 13
laffair of paddyi.whieh at present pftiees ii worib^llA 104 to 130* or I
to 6 times the assessment mol ttding a)l ossses,
. dCA^BBA^ABKl.
THE GAGO PAisM*
(!rb the Btfifor tff the Straite Flsmi.**)
S»»«^A great deal of attention bas been drawn to Ibe Silt lAtsly, on
aocountof thehigh price of land inOsylon and Indja. .r^Ghstp. land oan
be got in Barawafc in any quantity^ and land too partlenMy fnitodto
theoultufeof both tea and eofltie, but I wUb 4o psfnt ogt ^to^jfioiir
readers a new oniture wbiob Is doubtless far more proUtablotban oltlisf^
that is sago.
The sagO palmgrewe topSrftoUon inBoroeo. At presesB llte fdootlng
is entirely in the hands ot nstimaiid tbe mmUakm In tho hands
ot Chinese. To glee to your readers aomo Idea of lbs ittint of Ibis
oaltnre in Sarawaki I may mention that owe trads fetmme ior^ last ypar
shew an export of six thousand six boitdred and nittety*Bve ' tons of
mannfaotnred sago, raloe font hundrSd and nineteen tbonsNidt ,|dliO
hundred and flfty<^niQe dollars.
I ehall now give estimates for a plantation on n emnpnta^toly Miaii
scale, and as 1 havegiren the matter careful stndy the figmoi n^ Isets
given may be relied upon.
Mktimte fvt a tape planiaiitm kf SOB oorsv.
To price ot 506 notes of land
Felling and elenrlug ® |4 an acre
Flautlng ® |l per 160
Carriage do ... w*
86,000 pieces of BilUsn feneiog ...
Fatting up do <F 5 oents per fathom
Coolie house, tooie, bo*
Interest on do lb yssrt^io pereen*
Mandofe mm 16 men nt |90 per ...
Interest on do see Oil'
in
«*•
Vb. put ,1* t, too
iff i|»L4
mitm
‘■l! '.1.
bfVirffnWaf^ IMM awl tor Uw iMiintoMtiNiM tulao llWr tot wkiiii
tlm ftb 4 iii^^.ipE Iftiropm miflitti wim Ifat ptofitp mtkH IHI
ildefijblf futtr*^ '
I Ipiif' uf Hnm tAyi ibew RSth • profit tbit ^our roofioM niil my s
'«9 It tiiiili • good tbiogbow la U Biropaioa bare not i«kan it op f * t
iMHf oiljf ooooliida tbit pittlj wont of ktiQiriito of tbe profit#, pdrtfy
tbi loav tbit liott ^ipio boAvi oop fitumt mijr bo expaot^, Midi
partip tbi Inr of dopfadiUona of tbe nitd plga may biTo fietanod
tbam. It willbaitiD iQ tiiy oatlinateff that a BilSan or Inm wood
pafif If iooBtidaiable itam. 1 nabo Ibla a aiaa gua itoa. If tbia
lenoiba iooloaaly and ftroogly niada aa to keep out iba ptga, tbara ia
so laar of tbi aooeeaaottba aobamo aa the palm wilt require tlUla or
so to oklog attar. _,
iiTapia groagiii iba aago traa oom io maturity fa S year#, and aa
iiob pamt ia aorronoded with young onaa which ripen to dna
•geoaaatoai a aago plantatioa osoa nada will oarer be axhAOitad. I may
manlton t^t ^fiillan, wood it Inperrioua to the attack of allber white
aStlOl vgttas^ wl^Uaat fiOOyeari. Is tbiaaultnra there ieno fear of
e^ag kng dtaogblai heavy ralna, or violent etorma damaging jour
ff tn Mid tootfoi. The only drawback la that the beat
iggo butde aga found is low lying awampy ground which makaa work¬
ing tbo plastattom anything but a pleaeant oooupatiott. Boob lande are
In laAt aegioly fit for any other eulturni and we bave no doubt tbe
Gjaiawak OoTemment would gladly make free grant# for aoeb a
purpoaa,
Xba larger tiie plantation the greatafthe proportion of profita.
1 am, tco.,
W. M, OOOOKSB,
JRetident qf Sarmah Prep$r,
THE PRICKLY COMPBEY.
(gb th$ Mitor 9f tha ** Timnof Jndia.'V
Sii,-'&aviog noticed tetieri in your paper regarding the ^ prickly
comfreyi'* I tbonld feel obliged by yoor Inaertlng tble letter alao, which
X trnat in time may be anawered, giving me the iuforniatlon I seek
about the plant aa a forage for bbraee, Tbe oiroumBtanca which baa
prouptad ma to wrlta la aa foUowa
A abort tlma ago, In tbia atatlon, a tonga pony bad baas dally gatilng
a bnidlaot*^ priakly oomfrey,*' and being tbe only animal in the atable
that reliibed it, got tbe whole bundle, which in alee was about aa much
aa one could gtaap in both banda; but it evidently did not agree with
tbe pony, aa It bfooghi on iodigeation, which ended in sleepy atBggar8«
and be died On tbe fourth day after tbe aUggera came on, having baau
in a perfaot state of coma for some tan honra previous to death, The
■ymptoms is the caaa were to very marked that there could be no miitaka
aa to the ailment t and tha treatment waa oaretuUy carried out. 1
abottid mantiou that tbe pony was a Peooanaa, bardy and strong in
oonatitation, and bad dona regular tonga work lor eoma time past. Tha
owner could asorfba no oause for the pony’a lllsais other than tha
prickly oomfray,** and aa 1 bad the ease under treatment, 1 feel aura
that tna oauia aiaignad is the correct one, X am well aware that forage
to which the etomaeh la naacottstomed (allbougn wholesome of its kind)
will prodnee ludlgeatloain tbe bone ; yet 1 cannot think that the bundle
the pony got daily waa too much, if tha plaut is a wbolaaoma forage,
X should very much like to know if tbe **comfrey’* ia considered a
wbolasome forage for bortas,and if to, bow much of it can be safely
glean I Xa it neoasaary to dry the leaves a little In the sun before
giving them to a horse, or to prepare them In any way t And, also, at
what itige of tbe plant's growth should It be out for forage 7
B, a.
HtgS9lM,8UiMgy,l$!'f),
m'^■HWBiiMaanwwmBM
BAMBOC CULTIVATION.
<7h ih 0 JUitor of the •^^Uihmanf)
Sin,—Inferring to Dr, King's latter in yout ]bonlal of ibo gtb
Fabmasy, aa I underatand tbe question at iasuc batwaen hint and myaalf,
itlaailollowa. ‘
In fisbrnary 1876 experimental pluntationa ware ordered to be cmab*
liabed by the Qpvernment of India for the purpose of testing tbe eultiva^
tion topping of bamboo, and in a memorandum " than oaeially
Armdli iba Utpmot^wmX of Pgraati^ bg diigotod
" s«w wtort w. toijwBwi swtoliSiiif
Oj«)N9i4<>pt,W rt fitoto «*•••«*#'•*!* '
semefuggeptlona7 \ ^ ^ ‘
^ By no means :^bnt on the oobtrery hi tfcpfiabd bla dgpdrthAuW Id r"
« om tinglq/inify jyifaai ” which ha tenai
ad^i" nobody can have a poorer opinlou of tbe Worlta of the .
Which was followed in this experlineut (bin X myself bivA? ' / >
To lustlfy bla failure ('which 1 very naturally 1 ibinti otiticAtodl lii \'
now wiahaito**/a'^^" eyatam on me^ and to aubataistiito Ibhi
quotei ingeniouiljft but not iingenuo^9tyi ttom my pamphlet WX aay
ingoHwuilg as although professing to quote textuaUy (from page 7) ais
oooaeoutlve paxugrapha bearing on tbe point, he baa left oat 1| ail4
the most Important one, the beck-bone Indeed of what ha la ptoatod to ^
oaiP'my oyitom” (The Flay of Bamtet In fact, with the ;^rt of
fiemlet left out) viv that followiag la a limiiaa manner osier beds
in Bogland," *' X have mentioned the latter aain order to aMmulatoa
*' rapid, aqueous and sappy growth, aa alao to provide for the dry
aeaiona common to hot oountrtca a system of Irfigation would be
" neoeaiary, anoh a system indeed being at present praetlaad with thsi
•* augarcana in Bgypt, Spain, and elaewhera. '
Long befoto my pamphlet waa pobUihad however in Jannery X876
I addressed Dr, King requesting hla advice and opInloB In bamboo
cultivation, and cropping, giving my views to earfenie, aud ■tatiog that
I considered Irrigation an eaaential, quoting rye graia under irrigation
in this country in illustration, but to this letter 1 received no reply IIU
June. In reply, baviitg tbed learnt that experiments would be indtl*
tutad to iuveatlgato the bamboo industry I proposed, I addreaead
another lengthy letter to Dr. King auggeating that mHom oyoUm of
cultivation and cropping should be tested, sending him an account of
the manner in which the bamboo when oulUvaled for paper was treated
by the Chinese from which I extraot as follows
To causa It (the bamboo) to prodnoe an abundant crop lor many
*' yeara, the ^roists must be cut some distance from tbe ground; If
** they are cut on a level with the earth tha plant would be entirely
** ruined, perhaps because tbe ihooia being entirely atcipped, would no
** longer be preserved from tbe burning rays of the auti, or becattaa the
u branches and tbe leaves which grow in abundance round the foot of
" the plaut cannot receive nourishment any longer from the alr^ and
" hare therefore none to furnish tbe roots."
Dr. King did not aoknowledgo this letter, neither did he favor me
with any further oommunioatioo, but aa he bad ample time to
consider the ittb]eoti before he instituted the experiments ordered
by tiovemmout, which were not commenced before June 1876, it la
very difficult to nnderstand hit tyttm of prooeedure, and itUl more
eo hla reaaone for confining himself to *' the one gyttm** which
he condemned as Utopian," as also why with that eonviotion be
be should not have simultaneously tested at least one, if not more,
of the three alternative or oomperative ayetema recommended by Dr,
Brandis even if he disdained to test the system pursued by the
poor Heathen Ohinee." This however lies with him to explain.
In ipile of the failure of Dr. King's experiment, X must not aay
experiments, ot un^oftmatoly ho only made one, I have no fear of
the future of bamboo, indeed 1 am glad to see from his letter that
oven Dr. King admits-^" that young bamboo shoots may ooo
** day become an article of export ’* but why be should aay U ytoM
** be more profitable to growers to sell their bamboos mature than
**to dtapoie of them in the auooaleat stage” 1 oonfeis 1 do not
nndei stand, this being much on a phr with saying that it would pay
bette*' to sell sqparcana for oho wing than to make sugar from it,
or to grow aapamgus or cabbages for their seed instead of eating
them.
Dr. King recommends *' my directing my inrentlve powara to
utilising matnre bamboo stems.'’ Why aboulfiilfeTdo ao I eapOeially
whan after Iffil investigatiou 1 have found that the young tooots are;
to vastly superior in every raapeot for paper stock, the reason of
which 1 have felly explained la my Pamphlet, aaalao in my lattor
to Dr. King above referred to, stowing that matured bastood ibmto
are wood, end vary hard aUimfied wood toe, baing wood, they must
be treated as wood, but then paper miAera do not want wood, and
if tbey did, oau procure It from Bwedenand Norway nearer home*
and oheaper, thau importiog bamboo wood from India.
I re^et aa Dr« King remarks ** having bad to little oppi^ntiy
••olMtmlDtlai atfMKwtth tb, ptoallw ,n.thMd
Httuvltti*! ImvnVtiwntm m;, «im
9
! ^
ii4btW«MaM
IMt^ Mid Un ttf «MitU I* Itx
iMi Imomi ttjrmtMio%ttui»tMiBib^ ip. Mit
Pm f IMH tlun WIT «»Ioal*(l»<Ui li t« ttit 001 $ Mi<l
AI0)UI^ Al l^elog tl$0 9rmg mm itiitoili IfOf pppn «tdok If
)«d|ol 00 i)|r oopdooM l 0 ptottlo^
if 00 li«oiM''jbmi]itti 0 $ifo fomtor iauglo tlipy wooSd noomofily
u ppppuamp 01 ^ toooiuri ooot of oonioioi m, m
I MffO Dr. Kisg im HMa mSiinf^iiiod m to Uio Oblaoio ompioiw
^IfiJimtoro btttbooi m piptr, oxoept innitbljr loo ootTio pookUit
popor^ tb« tKiftot I fam qwtid iboiti tho plant is eorofnlljr eaUiTa-
Ia4 tor oroppiaf ilia ponng ** fpronts ’’ or “ itioota/* and if Dr.
King h$A loilomd fMf loitaad of ootttni down arorp sten,
iMitb old and f oaagp as well as oTorp twig prodaood« ha wottW not
hafahadtosAfonioiOo/iilafa.
THOS* BOUTLSPaD*
Cliilwtilbf Soadartaad,
ethMirahmo.
i
m
wy Uikt» iMiut ihwUI tw III)* MUBH(dilHrM«0
troa uiy niywMilt maiitMknif 4 tiwiiBiWa |iiM .1 «S vw «o|b*>
TomtUthtally,
Batting all othardiiorspanotoiisidOi aIthott|h it wUI ha ona thsy
are not iaecuulderablOi U was erident from tho oompoaitioi of the
ttinorei as wall as from our own analisis and thOsO of Unwp Moitot
and Tatloeh, that Pr, flsoadam had mado a setlous error In the dolir.
ntnation of emmonia in this aatnple* We therefore wrote to hiai» and
teoeired the following reply ;«•
llthAprlUSTO.
Daix am fat cured With yonri of yesterday, and am petfaetly
certain that tha results of the eaalyais yon refer <o, al detailed in my
report, are correot.<^Tottrs ilnoerely,
SnBTmoB Kdddoilh
The Uwes Obemloil Manure do.
The aboTo is not an atoeptional oaso) as meet maaofaoftireii bad
mpm
OBBUISTS* YALtJATlOMS OF MAMUBB.
(3^ m MUfff iu«mth Bmuh Afffumurutr)
8 uli"*Thit eubjeot has reeantly attraoted so much attention that 1
think the foUowiog faota wilt be read with Interost by all oonoerned,
and maybe eilaly toft to apeak for themselrea. whleh they do far more
eloqueOtty than any amonnt of argument on one nde of the question
or tho other :—
We recently reeeind from one of onr agents a complaint that some
dlwoWed bones #hlob, prior to their leafing onr workii had bren
analysed by oar cbemiit and found to eoutaln—
9041 eoluble phospbetea;
testify, and I trnst that you will do ns tbe fafonr of publiahinl ity id
order that farmers may see and understand the dlttoulty In whleh a
manure manotaotnrer le plaoed when analytloel ehemtstl not oniy
make aerlouf mistakes in ibeir determinations, bnt, to use Mr. Miook^S
own words, * Do that which does not Come within thetr prorinoe
da the value of articles sent to them for analysis*-*! sm. Ice.,
T. BtnOBOUQM,
Manager and Seoretary to
Lawes Ohemtoal Mannre Oo., DtmitedI*
THE ALLEGED EXCESSIVE USE OF ARTIFICIAL
MAEUUEB.
17 08 inaoluble „
9*68 ammonia*"
had been andyEed for the purchaser by Mr. Stevenson Macadam, with
the following result
Soluble ht-phospbate of lime .. IS *66
B(|val to bone phosphate rendered soluble .h ... (31*16)
Insoluble phosphate *..« ..1643
Hydrated sul^te of lime. ... •* 8683
Alkaline salts »•. ••• **» •** 214
BUioa ... ... .. d-SC
*OrgaatomabtoiaaAmoistare M. ... ... ... 14 88
If. . 1 . It. m ••• ••• 11*76
OAmmonia, 1*68
StnyiBRSOK Maoaoau, Fu P.,
Leefnrsr in Obemistrv.
SeoonAoliia dltsolvOd hones and value on amooiation standards—
B 6 *lBs. per ton cash at principal seaports,
Hot bflug satisfied with Pr. Macadam’s aualysla we requested tbe
purcbeser to send a eample to another chemist, and Suggested Mr, B
Carter Mofiat, whose analysis showed It to contain
Bi-pbospbate of Itnio .
Equal to soluble phosphates «.
TnsoUble phosphates ...
Sulphate of hme «• ... ...
ttond *«. iw •••
Alkaltoe salts ... .
Orgaaie matter, water, and ammonia
100 00
Amtaohla n« .»» •*» *t, *M . 3 70
Equal to sulphate ammonia . 1 * . 1 * ... .. 1061
llietarbi."wtbis Is an exoellent mannre. It is in fine condition, and
mmtains a sitisiaotory proportion of phosphates (soluble and iusolublo)
nod ammootov It will jfvim a good and permauenl fertillaer. Calcu¬
lated valae to tbe farmer per too. eneluaife of bags —£8 lOs.
B. Oanvaa MoPFAr. Fb. P.,
Analytical and Oousalting Chemist.
Tbe hoyor was natorally kurprlsqd opoo receipt of this analysis to
find two ehemi 6 $a dlfteclng so widely, and <moordlogly determined for
hto owneotbitaotlon, to gend a farther eample to a third ebemist, and he
ioleote^ Mi; B* % Tatloek, where attalysto Shows
fiS-phrephateefUme ... . m. 14*71
Equal to eolablf phosphstse .m .(38*04)
lasdabtoplNeiibreis ««* ... ... ... , 13*06
Ammoola m m .. ... 2 5o
INiaal re iOltPhato of ammoiim *n *1. ... 0 70
• B. % tATtoog. r.B.8.B:., f.as.
9$i)s anaiyeie was aoeorepinred by^ho following Isttor
Btonse fiod onMoied oretlfioala log of dissolved bone*
BMiiiinik I 4 hMii*to«itpriW 4 M^i«toreMl^ gM)rltoatolMnast*e
(7b MiUr tf t%$ ** North Srdlth
SxB,*—Frofessor Walley, of tha Bdlpburgb Veterinary College^
proolalms tbe Ignorance of snob men as Lord Polwartb. and other iro
less dislloguished agrtonUorfsts, who advise innreased prodnoilon as one
mode by which |he depressed state of agrlonltnie may be eased. Cl
uonrse tt is not by etatlng the self-evident ob}eetion» that before yon oan
increase tbe produce of the land yon must lay out money on it; and
where is it to oome from when tenants have nothing on tbe farm to islh
or at their bank aooonnt 7 It is by the oonsoUng remark, that aveil
though the tenants had tho money It is bad policy to increase the
produce of the lend, beOenee arlffielel maonriog and artificial onltlva*
tion prodooee many forms of blood depravations, and deteriorates
animals fed on the oropa so raised, and that aoimals so fed on the pro^^
duoe of many thousand acres of land, highly oultivated, get weakened
iu their tisanes and liable to diaeaee. In case there should bo any
mistake, allow me to quote the following sentence t—• There are many
thuueaud acres of lend wbioU eonid bo made to yield more abundant
oiops, without damage either to the land itself, or to tbe anlseele
deriving support from Its prodnots,' But there are many tboniaodsmore
m which fuioed culture has boen pushed to an absolntely lojurioni
dogiee, not only to the animals, but also to the land.
On no land has forced onUlvatloo been pushed to a higher degree than
in tbe bigh-rentvd laod within three miles of Elioborgh. As Proleieof
Walisy practices in Edinburgh, it is to be supposed this is the land ha
alludes to, Well, tbe produce of no land In gootlaod fetchre higher
prices, and none Is more priced by the buyer, and. I venture to say with
all deference to the learned professor, the land in question produces
crops which, take (hem all in all. are not only in quantity but also
in quality nniurpasied by the prodoosn of the lower-farmed land whfeh
he estimutea so highly. Had the professor alluded to the produce of tha
irrigated meadowe around Edinburgh, where for nigh a hundred years
the older portion has been fed with the rich excreta of the Jnbabliants,
there might have been some grounds for believing that forced slimnla*
tion has been carried too far. He, however, makes no allusion to these
exoeiilvely stimulated fauds, but alludee to oreidosei Of nitrate of soda
to grasB land as being ptoJaefctve of diabetes, To many farmers this
will be news. 1 have of ten s lea at much as 8 ewt. of nitrate of eoda
applied to grass for soiling, of eourie at difievent times, and finer, more
wholesome, or more nntfltloae food eould not be wisbed. If the grass
was cut dry, however lux«k|aaf| the cattle and horses throve on it when
given fa reasonable quantltiee ; however large the erop, no bod effeoie
ever followed, .White I have seen from poorly grown aod badly)got hay,
wboo no nitrate of soda was nsed, frequent eases of horses suffering from
diubelei. Indeed, badly taved and musty bay of all kinds, when given
Jto horses, are foUowad frequently by diabetes,*
1 should )i)Ke to rek Frof. Walley bow it heppeos that heaafffol, long
greaa XtaUiB fye greei bay* which has been raised hy tbe eppUoatloii of
nitrate oTeoda, not only sells for tbe hlghset price in tbe maiket, bat
gimreiit euiretootiiNi re the brees^keeiMir f
Ini* bMtt in *1) not i^pfwbig W know in wbioh
noo lo •etiio l^r fnr p ibon iime. It farj' rnnob rcfBembled n indy
ItolAK Mto n^ripet’i akop ^o.boy » y^rd ol ribboiirnboMniioge* to two
Ibo pteoo npiida down* ond^ w«lka oiu without pmbMiog any thing*
Wbeulbe wind htgau hlowiug tbo woathefwlao would iwopUooy •* Ah !
. tbti ia tbo right aort of hreeio i we ehall bare raiu befoto toitiiiorrow
noroing; " i*ut they were ao^miaoh out m the store-keeper whoegpeeted
lo lee the lody’• €Oi«ke pass across bU oounter, for none oame.
7be themometer <Fbt,) bong in aa opeu verandab. W. aspect, ia
alwat 67^ la the^moruiog, e6<* fa tbc erening} loweit 48^, Uigbeet f2^.
Out In the snu it has reached 133°,
* The catkins of the poplar (sera I ohfUou)i the leaves of the horsCH
ehesUiutCvera* ftaaiirr),aad eiocagcous (vera* giMin)t oaks, cblt, mulberry
Cscro, ehmn)t and a rhns ( vern, UUi) the latter the last tree to come
into leaf-^are now out. The horse-obestnut la uqw bloiaomtng, and in
a week'a time wlH be in fail beauty * the spikes of variegated flowere
presenting a maguiftoeni at^pearanoe ; a tree then rcsotnblea a large
ohandelier with Us long sptkee of flowers tapering- up from amldst-tbe
loilage likeio soaDy wau ligbta The purple coloured berries of the
ibiaeipin ti^Ui*^v6ti»*thi‘kul) erenow ripe, aod the villagecbildreui^are
' liuay eoilectlng them to fwess Into eU for coaklng purposes. The yellow
- flowprsot the btc berry (v«Hi* kamihal^ t the mageuht oars4>f the wild
indi^ <v«». foew). the wkUe oats of the cfowatit^p. the light hrloh^ed
of the wiWlierret(‘wel^o)* ia thioh, at a UtUo distanos* »look8
like a heath 1 the yeliow potefltlUaf the white potentUin; the wild
. eysinga (vern. kandi} with Us delleale white, flowers ; the Eimalayan
. hoosyeuokle (vern. ktiuHti) wjith its email yellow and white ^bloiioin}
. the wild Sira wherry with tte white flowers) wild'gage j wUdthyma, '
, these aud atany other wild flowers too/numerous in ^nwdtloa hsse are
wow making ons flelde and hedges gey with Shelf briUlant colours^ The
Wild foset^white and pluk-»^aro huddiug, and will be,ln eplendid pfofu*
afoaneah month. Bergamot tpslugs up, . ,
Themonaul pheasant now becomes very shy; tbu> argui phsmaut hu
, begimea,pafr « mines are in plenty^moakr^shav# from tbp
lower hills and are miking Irm with iharipening hail«ihl tk»
•iein^keaioUfflomewl them 10 to Ifl Iba, in weighs ’ ihsy^ iaU ak about!
one anaa a poupd* ^ ^
rf tb* OiwmiiiiNfaWi.Itiw
®li;f dgjmii;
CALCUTTA, JUSJS 2, 1879.
THE ETCETERA DEPARTMENT.
N ine separate departments occupy the activity of the Director of
AgrfodUure and Oommercd in ibfl Ncrth>^Westftffl l^foVihoes
and Oudh. He has two bolauioal 'gardens, one etpedttlijital
farm, one sewage farm, one ‘hOrUoultural gkfdeo# Iwo tidibacoo
fartds, one orobard, one stock farm, one silk firm; au<^ all the
estates under the Court of W’ards. The botanioal gardens Are
described as a ** national heirloom,” and it is ochmidersd (by
tiie Director) due to the dignity of the proviooc dhat money
should be granted uagnidgingly to keep them up« Cnfoftunately
these are not days in which money is to be had for 'tlltf asking,
and botanical gardens most take their ohanoe klCng ibith public
works. Mr. Duok, however, khows how to Urork'’theiA' vrithont
absoluto dependence on a penniless Qovernmeat. He has
meuaged to drain the grounds with the sale proceeds of felled
llogber. Economy is also to be oousnlted in the arrangemeut
of the gardens. There Is no publio,** it is |«S^‘t fCmAdsed
aF. in Calcutta or Dondon, for whom tOr make eii^i^isjBsbti”;
ari eapeuditure on meiw . beantificatioii hak^ tbersdord^'^lleen
discontinued. ThC k^rdetti ate bl>»r»erve tlm^purpogb'u>f a
Golieoiion of the producte of NorHiem Im^lia;. fliid ^ildsk'^lliaoh
products of other cliinates as can be socoessfnlly grown kere;
utility, not curiosity, being the guide of ohoietk. 3!heift however
are mostly anticipktibns of tiiC ffliflre.' ^-(^ene
have done Utile good, ^^barsnbofe iemM barb get
not coming up ; Slm'i^s he it’ At iu
A practical gardener It Wahled; l*bA igairdeilA i^jey ^^ciilng
of a superiiiteedeuti ba| It seems that he pracUcal
gatdtner. In «hort« so, far as rlcgardi bcliitiieal'^^ the
m^tn, ihing to be kald fa that little of been
"done. Arbori|alture'WM supposed to H
As wasakfojtliiEi propAgitiojc of fmit brsM Wt a^ kuhls InMm
acAflamIflufla ^Rb the gardsp Ime ^
errmmmiirPomsters bhf
11^
___ _ ^ iii'tjw^,
Hlrnmpli^ .
v 4 iifci?kil?'^i»i»i' ^ ■'
91)!^, mpinnfng to
drWitig pur mlnruy
'IrSSii^ttSwy, yeiw^l'W digJMflfcrflP^ Wwfc*OR« In ^^9 TAiuWl
Would not imi*rp^?rtb6ooipo l6»,,fro«wMi>i it donudution wow
* Itiadlly oomioo^tkdtby now p!l»nfcoti«ii«-
^ IBy^ldiontid^ lliWW^^^^ iW dO^iA cSn^Uuri^ tp cordons
th % f if^wr jiiBftli lor tlie Ipsit yeor *ro 4 }lottfc. «Tfao dioU^ht
dudri^lSi^tfdat ot iaid otporlmonii^*' It appeoni that tlto
gOoioliwy of<^49Uto^ wUon cUUed ott for piuottoar farmers, oont
nuPWM)d<M>w»^ SO* rtd of wHli^ lome dSflEtotilty,
**11io'lolltoii«i Wh0 woo uoelooo oxoopfe lo grow rooeo, reiigneil
uiidoi'^' ftod tlief larui ■ bao ainW been under the
tetUportrfr iuuiniigoittent of an indigorplanter.*’ tf, faowever,
jtnii^ fa^e no expbrinietite ^to recotrdi one oaunot complaSa of
viut-dfoUpigy^n tw manufttOture of ploughed From Amertoa)
frdb »«#liUdt -Bengal and Madras, plougl4o^bav.e been
collected «nd^ oollated, ind two promtsixig ssleotione hare ^oeti
madOi Tbo tefomiaiion of indtan^ plougSiihg ia beset by a
omuber^of difficult which appear Judiorooe, but are really
formidable^ Native cattle are trained to turn round in the
opposite, direotion to thatilqubrod by 4 he Bnglish plough; and
of conrsa tUe ehara of the improved plough must' be made to
suit these. animals’‘ notSona Theu» the ouUieator prefers
cariyiog the*'plough <a-deld on his ahoulderi bo it becomes
necesssfy to keep; down the weight as much as possible* Tiie
custom, Indeedi ia one whtoh obtains also in countrlss much
uetfee homeu It will be remembered that among the evil
omens which met the Knight of La Mancha as he set out on his
last diissttous expedition, one was a oountry*fellow gotug to hie
work wBk his plough on hissboolder. In India, as in old-world
lialft it is a ooxhmon sight to see
FeiBoS vomerem In veraum bores
Oollo trabenteaUngn^o;
but though the buUooka always drag the inverted plough homo
in the evening,, it would offend all rule and custom to make
them drag it out in the moruirig. Again, the plough must be
short,^fo Mtat tho ooltivator may get at the tails of his boasts,
since it ds only by manipulation of this orgau'—wrenching,
pulling, and twiitmg—tint man can overcome the Indian
bullock** tendency to stand still. Finally, it must be cheap,
and adopted to a small and weak breed of cattle. All these
points ^hayo bese more or less provided for, except the great
tail difficulty ; and even thie ia said to have been conquerod by
a certain ** subsoiler,’’ the work of an ingenious Mr. Macrae.
Having got ploughs, the next step is to make the natives use
them. What with Court of Wards eetatee, and intelligent
eemindark, and amateur farming Collectors, a good many
ploughs have been se^ goiiig already. As for what may be
expected, we may quote' the Director’s own words : ** The
queiUon Cof au inqwoved < plough] is of the very highest
imiWItuieiMotliWlHim if it ie true that, a larger amount of
loftd-urepvpaa be raised by its .meaue throughout India; and 1
eaiiAet bikt insist .tihet natives’yerdiot in ^is respect will
bejlbeeurtelk 4 *. It msf safely be promised that they will,
ll^he,||«0(dt}ce^lsyg^^^^ to ^the Juse of any plough wbioli is
adeplM^to ^theirf lebonr, and; mesas/’ After this eorik a little
palsiSi^fib^^ellbi^ us^ tliat< the «net <000^ af the dawopore farm
was ott^r Mt they eat; undav ^report* So much can he
dopafby~c0«^ua.j|ad,.o managei^t./ Not less ndtewortby
In at Aliahabidy whiob pays its
w^, sil!rei^«af^ W bring in.iome Hi. ii^OQO a year
Suck an fixkmi^e cannot fail to be of
valufl^ jli( imimlsipfi ^bi>nfeiW4^^ nan.jba.made selfHiiipportiftg,
a ipoft Ims^ bssis glr^t 'M* Mnnicij^ies, in
tlies 04 ayi|rb«k^f.^^ n( J^telr^hidotneria tlueateited
^ ,i '
W*f,
mm
. WT. 7F-.
ti<* .tjimUt. flAV
ent^^a is
go,04 tbings i?s*a,.%ai4 ^t;ap^,,^o1|»ma0.
Divisor’s practical wisdom thai^/iiie
niagtowcrktheexp0|dmentthropgh "who, wane
they^ have oonueotipM Inihe trade’ lb lli'glattd' ai^d \A 4 nwibSt
haVe not to ask the leave of hajf^a-ddkeii
want a new cuter.’* 1?be rpsufts are still buiSe^rnt''
bopefulnew prevails, ft, la necessary to ^reitoeit^ber iWt" mo**®
thab two years ellapae bhfore ,the crop sown is ready* to do
justieetb Itself in the home market. Fatienoe seems to be the
one thing needful. Already a few samples have fetched iwo-^
thirds the price of A*^^*^******^ tobacco, and three times that of
any Indian tobacco hitherto tried. Au attempt to induce the
troops to use Ghaarpora tobacco was not successful; but
neither were the first efforts to iutroduoe Indian beer, which
now commands so extarisive a market. It is understood that
the new tobaooo does not find encouragement in official quarter
in England. There are other conoeivable reasons for this than
any real inferiority of the furtiole. Moreover, it Seems mdre
than probable that a change iii climatic condlUous will greatly'
increase the chances of success. A new farm has 'beehP etSrt^id*
near the Tirbook frontier, in a Bengal climate, and already '
promises to eclipse the parent farm at (Slhazlpore. HxperitnentS ^
have also been begun in Kamaou. It will go hard if some
striking results are nob Chronicled within the next two or thee#
years. Kiimaon has also been selected for orohard-plinling
a large scale. It was Sir John Btraohey who first called attea*
tiou to this favoured region, while he was Lienbenant-Governot ‘
of the province, lii fact, as all the world knows, tbe AgriouU
tural Department was the work of his hands* The special
connection of Kumson wth this Department consists in the
endless variety of soil and climate piesented by those wid# and
picturesque highlands. Tea has already begun to rank as a
staple; and Sir H. fiamsay ia resolved that fruit-trees shall
follow^ A happy thought coinos from the Pyrenees. OUesbimti ‘
provide the greater part of food there; why should they not be
equally useful in the Himalayas ? Apricots and apples have
proved a decided success, bdt for waut of systematio develop*
ment, we have to pay sixpence a piece for apples in Nynee*Tal,
while Gabul merohauts can sell them in the bass ars below iov
half the price. Native enterprise is Of course quite unequal ^0 a
business of tliis kind, where the extsbenfc demand Is practically
nilj and the returns to capital invested are problemaUoal and
distant. When Goveroment orchards have proved that fraUx*
growing is a paying speculation, we may look to private
enterprise to do the rest, as was the cite with tea enUivation In
the Dhoon. Amidst rumours of bankruptcy and distbsit, ft iV '
immensely refreshing to find all thoso new resources only
waiting to be developed. Far be it from us to hint discourage*
meat. We have faith in Mr. Buck, and believe that ho is doing
good and earning fame.
AIR AND WATER A? SOURCES Of ,PLANT.fOO»*
r pE is no suck thing, in nature, a# abaolntcly pur#
The watery of wells, spri^ngS) tanka, drains, brooks, rlv#rs and
the ocean, ar# charged with # great many diffa;rent kinds of metier
which water takes up and carries with it wherever it Itows.
AVsplutely pure water can be obfcabied only by distillatioa; and
even 4 i#tiUed water, if loft exp98e4 to tbe air, will gMualij have .
fuiog)ed with It many substances borne by the wind and carded ,
Into it by raf^. Ohemlsts have analyse^ all kinds and quoli^e# of,
water, and they find, that putting MidoimpuritieB, abso^telyi^ur^ '
water oan be separated into two and tmly two eubstauees^ w^cb
oapnot, in tke present atete'ol science, be fpribef divided and sre
on that account oaUad'^|s0(0ff^, because,^t^ng else can be
fjhtsluedifom th^m. Tbea^.^etnpnU are by^fOgqp a^ oxygen,both
of tbem gases at ,ihe ordinary’^mperatuv# and pressure ; *94
the,,wor^d, Wbetlmr ,
ani^aV , is ioond by.ebpiuiste to cooeist of
«0«(|U^ W . «9f®
118
qi#{-^w'l-:'':'‘i*-:«
HirWt* ^SWiii i8ir #l8»^ ^
aii«oT«r»
Ilka ij^tar thMgi #hitba«r 4*r
^ompaaed iit aoljr fpw of Uiata alionaiitef a<4, oamoi ■
oiiygl&'iii^ogoiu Thaw Aira lOmMiiQial oaUad Oigaftw'.,
alatiB^^; i^d aometiines organogm- '
lAittoar it haa baan foaod that ak, wtian perfeoHy pura^
otfialata oUafl^ of tbo atoaota oxygen and Ditrogan in tl^
jnnp^oik Of about one to four by balk. T^baae gaaaee are not in
any way oombinad, they are aimply miogted^ogeUier muoh in tita
aama way aif milk and water may be mixed meobanteally togeUnw,
the water baving no effect on the milk except to dilnte it*
Kitrogen aeta tbe part of water to tlte oxygen of the idr, dilutee it,
roba it o£ more than half ite atrength. Wera our atmoepbero
compoied entirely of oxygon, the whole world and tbe belnge
tbatinbabit it. would present a totally different appearance to
*.^wbat they do at present. The circulation of anlmele would be
diablpd or trebled* muscolar action and thought would be much
moreenbrgetio and rapid; and life probably worn out in a much
ehorler time, tbe vital forces would be used up by excess of
oxygen* ® bellows on n low fire is well
known* A smart ounent of air is forced among tbe embers; and
in tbii way a much larger quantity of oxygon than usual is
bwmgbl in contact with tbe fire. Tbe oxygen enters into union
with tbe carbon, of which all fuel is largely composed, and the
caber constituents, forming new coropoundeand evolving light and
beat, Like bxygeu and hydrogen, nitrogen is a gas without
colour, taste or smell, ell are soluble in water.
Tbe atmosphere, like water is never absolutely pure. In
addition to oxygen and nitrogen there are always other substances
present in larger or smaller quantities. The most important of
these is carboolo acid, Sometimes called carbonic anhydride and
carbonic dioxide, CO 2 . also a gas without colour, taste or smell,
but veiy heavy, so heavy, tiiat it may be poured irom one vessel
into another as easily os water is poured. Carbon dioxide Is
being given off continuaUy from the lungs of all animals; and
wherever there is flame, it is also given off as a produce of |
combustion. Tbe proportion of this gas present in tbe air is
about four volumes in 10,000, This amount, however, is not always
constant. It increases during the night; and it is greater during
dry winds and fogs, os high a quantity as eight or nine volumes
In 10,000 have frequently been noticed on foggy days. Country
air contains less than town air; and sea air less than that over
land. O 02 , carbonic dioxide is being constantly sent into the
air by tbe combustion of organio matter, and the oxidation of the
waste tissues of animals. Unless then, some other influence were
at work, the oxygen of the air would gradually dimluisU and tho
carbonic dioxide increase, ^his influence exists in the power
possessed by plants to decompose C 02 , carbonic dioxide, retaining
the carbon, and setting free the oxygen. The oxygen serves as a
carris^r of one of the waste prodUots of the tissues of animals
(oarbon) to plants, which again retura it (the oxygen), to the air
and assimilates tho carbon to form fresh food for animals. A
square metre of leaf surface will decompose in sun-light more
than a litre of oarbonio dioxide in an hour. There are other
Bouroes of this gas besides those already mentioned. Carbon
dioxide finds its way into the air from subterranean sources, from
▼oloanoes, and from caves and chinks iu the earth’s surface. It is
one of the invariable products of the decompoaiiiou of organio
substanoes. Besides oarbonio dioxide, nitric acid or some lower
oxides of nitrogen we frequently perhaps invariably present in the
air. The formativa of niti^o oxides is mainly due to eleotrio
discharges during tb inder storms. In tropical climates, these are
very frequent; and very probably muoh of the nitric acid found
in these regions in the form of potassium and spdium nitrates
has its origin in a oombinaticn of the nitrogen and oxygen of
tho almosphece by means of slootrioity. One miUion parts of rain
watsr are said to ooutain *0507 parts of nitnc acid. Iq Olasgow
an average number of determinatiou gave 2*436 in one iniiiion.
Ammonia HsN is also present in. the air. A piece of olay
healed to rednese and exposed to the ait for a few daye,yi«i*hia
Mreeptibb amount of ammonia when reheated. Ammonium
sulphate la in like manner converted into ammofdq.^qlam by,
prolwgad ax^KWttto to 'i-'be amount of
M-'’ <.
:
_ _ , ^ __ , ... ... , #‘''hp*4',
ti»i tir I»i4. a*
inpwttiit fMd nutHUL. ;ai*ir
. 4 ■ ,
vj/
impeatant __
gmouht is found, b^og
propc^ton of ammmiU in tilii l«4w Iha^ .tf0htalii^>>ln
air. T^ quantity is greatesfe Id rain,
' Bain water of Idverpod eoktalna paft»i
„ „ „ Ismdim 4^46 „
„ „ . „ UsnOhSiter „ o lT
M It aisigow H II .
„ „ I, Paris ' 0 8*4d^ » t. '
It is contained in the water of dews andfos^lninikbh laif^
quantities than in rain water. *
These amounts of ammonia and nitric acid may appear
small, but they are large enough to play a moat important part in
vegetation. They are tbe chief aouroe whence plants obtitin ths
nitrogen necessary for tlie formation of their seeds and Other
parts of their atruotures into which nitrogen enters as a necessary,
constituent. Hants do not appear to posscsa the power
of directly assimilating the free nitrogen of the air. I^eed^
if placed in an atmosphere and a soil free from, ammonia end
nitric acid, dad from substances Uiat produce these^ plants will
die. Schonbein was, we believe, the first to observe that
ammonium nitrate is produced by t he Evaporation of pure water
iu air. Water is constantly evaporated from plants audfroiu
the soil and it la highly probable that in this way plants may
obtain and prepare for themselves a por#oa of their nitrogenpua
food. Bo far as at present kuowo, tbe only necessary and
essential constituents of the atmosphere, are oxygen, nitrogen,
oarbon-dioxide, aqueous vapour, ozone, ammonia and nitric or
nitrious acids. The chief funotion of ozone, (which indeed is
but nascent oxygon, oxygen newly liberated from eome of its
compounds and on tliat account capable of effecting new
combinations with greater energy aud activity) is to oxidize
and render innocuous the potrifyiug organio matter which is being
constantly sent out into the air from numerous sourcte. Ko
ozone cau bo detected in large cities, nor iu tbe air of dwelling
houses. It is not found in air over marshes or in places infected
by malarU, and malarious fevers are no doubt due to the fact
that the air is entirely destitute of ozone and is charged with
carbon dioxide, watery vapour, ammonia, aud the other products
of organio decay; and is thus quite unable to carry off from
the body the effete matters oast off in the pro oess of circulation and
tho action of ibe sweat aud otlmr glands. The waste tissue
remains iu tho system aud produces disease. The depressing
effect of the air of cities and large towns is very closely related
to the presence or absence of ozone and its action on organio
matter.
An analysis of 10,000 volumes of pure air would give the
following results
Oxygen equal to
Nitrogen
Oarbon dioxide
Ozone
Aqueous vapour
Ammonia
Nitrio aoid
20,65-94 '
77,90-60
3 36
•016
ilo-
-09
*006
In 10,000 parts.
The atmosphere is indeed the common sewer of the world
;t has poured into it night and day innumerable gaseous and
volatile impuiities, organio and inorganio, which the forces of
Nature imd the ingenuity andjflUh of man and modern civilise*
tioTi have given rise to. The examinat^ of rain Water afforde
the beet text we at present have, for '%terinloleg^ti)« amdnat
of impurities in tbe air. Bain falli^ through air ever the Sea
contains, chiefly common salt and eulphates. The eulphslee
inoreaee inland, and are undoubtedly the produole oli^U»eompoi1-
tbn, the shlphurated hydrogen evolved in tbe putrefaotidn
of organic oompounda h^ng oaddM in the atmosphere. When
rain contains more tbaq forty per cent, of free addSi the Vegetation,
of the district It ra^dly effected. Ammonhml salts Rereads In
the neighbourhood of towpa, they are derived partly from the
coal need as fuel, and partljr from the decompoaitiok uf hlhdmWsold
iubstanois* It should however be borne in ddud t^liuiklest
faelmd 1ft pom jdtr and pnre water are
iMRIOtJtOTPPr,
^,imA 'i;iib«t|K>|i^^'H#4ip»,
fl«UJJ,|B«M<p.>l^i|^'^^l^ i»«ww,
4i»tin«a w*Nr, *n the
t jlfei^^\T;tM^« *w*» ooe«iw, ««te^ Uk^je epudeaeed
, ky.ii^ egvi^e&teef elr, mouatAli^mgeei ,«a4 IkMe* B^a
ia^^.t^Aiiiage tbioagl) the «ijr <md iWcloa^fi «f Begt ia Ih^ hfguer
n(r!i^ of the etfflwij^We, eweep tie whole hfr-ooeaii, Jiko a
..-4«e net luad ^fo^o egrih oompomid end impurity lk>1ttble
lo, water. t)A eeekiog Ito level water dow aot oaly agt meohaaicelly
oa the ropleii over which it pafMiee *, it it perhape the laoet
» Italyfl^l Wwt in^Hatnre aud charges itself with whatever
' eabstaiioM It cornea in oenUct which may be aolohle in water.
O^ha ioltthlHty ! ot gaeee in matter ie a wejil^hoown fast and it
, playa a most imporiant part ia the economy of plants and animals
which inhabit water. Sea-waier contains as much as from 2»000
to grains of ^lobles In a gallon. ?he Bed Sea contains
from 11,000, to f1,000 grains of solubU matter to a gaUoo, The
following aic the chief tnoryanic matters found in natural waters.
ldm«, maguesia common salt, snlphateSi sUioa, iron, iodine,
fiUrateSf.snlphurous hydrogen and oarbon dioxide. Lime exists in
* water chiefly in form of sulphate or carbonate. •
OoMPABA'nvB fuaiCT or hatural watbbs
m
The Clyde
„ Thames
„ Dee (Aberdeen^ „ 4 i,
„ Seine (Paris) BOtotO ,,
„ Old (Sty Weill (Glisgow) 30 to 100 „
„ Iioeh Katrine k ^ t*
„ Lake Loka (Norway) ... | ,,
„ Bdinborgh ... 7 to H
„ Surrey (through greecsand) 3 „
„ Durham 1^1 »
» Jordan 73 „
contains 8 grains of solid matter per gallon,
I. 20 „ (, .1
EMPIEIO FARMING.
L iebig, in Ma “Letters on Agriculture” has said, that the
empirio farmer is a “ mere trader In meat and corn.” The
word empirib, like many another in the EngUaU language has
fallen from its first high estate. Its early meaning was an
experimentalist, a searcher after facts in nature. Gradoally it
fell away from this meaning, and now-a-days an empiric is one
who has given up all theoretic etudy of a subject, and guides
himself by tradition and his own experience. In medicine, an
empirio, is a person, who for want of theoretic Icnowledge preaoribes
remedies by guess, without eonoerning himself about the symptoms
of the disease, the oonsUtution of the patient, or any other of
the thousand and one modifying oircumstanoes afleotiog the
esse. An empiric farmer then, is a man whoso agricultural
operations are guided eolsly by rule of thumb. He does, as his
" ^ther did before him, as his neighbours have done around him,
for no other reason, than Just that they have done so and been
content with (heir results. He does not keep himself abreast of
the age; and only adopts improvements, after every one else
has tested end long enjoyed their benefits. He does not trouble
himself shout colftteral matters, he aeeke simply to get from
his soil the largest possible crops ; and he belieree that eystera
the best which will give the rlohest harvest, at the least expense,
; aitd Id the shortest time. His fathom hever troubled themselves
about what wgpld become of the soil, nor what effeot their
system of cylHvatioiL might have in bringing about the failure
imd foin of special crops, why should heoonoern himself about
mettsrs such .AS these 1 If he can succeed in making a oom-
'fOr^lVBrlDK ^ ^**^*^»
capital, and a percentage for his own .labour and risk of capital;
; ; ,th«n in these results he has a proof, conoluriTe enough to him
' s*>i^, of^owisdmhaodiwundttem Q system. When he
^ fiU^ « faUing. in any of his crops, he tries whetherg;iowiug
twriM >iB not answer better, ai^ gives sU sorta pf
lie soft has, diminiiied in fertility. Its
hsa been dkt or the rrilway (narrow
gphgo} hli Iphsied »fpw histand*4i# ittie growth of the neigUbour**
" **ab ,woi iiiJtSs tjbahiwp otorms, of last year, Its
If inaeots itta<^ ij Wi^lfesteo Itsieirtjfoo^pn, ,w
briioTO Akeiyt|kto|( ahft ; but It re<|Qir«p little i^orf Of a
snrgicsi opOfratiori to ge| tht his head, that ithf his
^wn ignorant was^ul psre^^ous trestmept of the soft that
is at the otnse of ihgnj'of h|s Ills* He never st^lbutSs
this falliog off to his . methm of culture* In fact the
ides that he himself may b6\^n |sutt never oooumto him*
He is, SB Liebig calls him, a trader, merely^ ho knpwa Indigo,
tobacco or tea when he sees It: but hS has so hold wbat*
ever on the prinSiples underiying the growth, nutrillop and
economic production of the Very commodities he trades In, Is
not. even grateful to the chemist or soientiflo msh whppute fmb his
bands a mineral or a bone soluble phosphate, who fumtehee him
wlthtbe principle (hat enables bitd to prodooe orOps upder conditions
that will not*, violate and defy the very laws of their produotion.
It may be, he tosses his phosphates on the soil without knowing
inoro of their composition and effects than bis own coolies or
cow-boys; and thinks what a clever fellow he Is when he applies
nitrates, and uses appliances and methods which tfassclentifio
man whom ha sneers at, has put into his hands and taugfht him
boW to use.
He is no agriculturist, but a mere f umbler and a stlrer of tho
soil, if be has never enquired whether the system he follows is In
aooordanoe w Uh well established truths aud naturit laws, or is in
any way opposed to them. Tho rational agrienUnrist should never
lose sight of the fact that his efforts should be directed not
to the present production of the largest crops, but to an
indefinate recurrence of suoh crops, as long as the soil and the
crops receive rational treatment The laud of central (^rmany,
the grass lands of Cheshire, and the soil of southern Amerios,
were all of them treated In such a way by their ignorant and
rapacious owners, that every available pariiole of plant food was
drained out of them, and the crop would aoaroeiy grow seed
enough for next year's sowing, much less pay for the labonr of
working it Tons weight of mineral matter cannot year by year
be removed from land in crops, without diminishing and at last
exhausting the active, soluble substauoes, without which no
paying crop con ever be grown. If immense quantities of plant
food are removed from the land hy successive harvests without
any attempt to repUce the loss by the natural means of fallow¬
ing and thus allowing time for the various agenoies of ftisintegra*
tion, decay and the action of the various forces which render
the dormant substanoes of the soil aotive, that is change the
insolnble into the soluble, or hy the substitution of a crop which
requires mineral matter of a different kind to that of the preced¬
ing crop, if there be neither fallowing, rotation, nor manuring,
then there is nothing for it but a speedy looking for of failure
and disaster, os the worm turns oii the foot that ornshes
it, BO certain plants for a'time will bear the most farutalty
gnorant treatment, expending their whole vitality in reproducing
their kind, in seed bearing, till at last Nature revolts and turns
on her destroyer, the crops frils and the tormentor hi punishad.
These are elementary troths but they lie at the root, of most
failures of crops and blights and insect pests and othM Ills that
vegetable life is heir to, and need to be reiterated and repeated
like the commonplacss of morality aud honest dealing*
THH GRABS LANDS OF THE) NBILGHEBRIES.
T HH future of the NeilgUsrries, espeoially the grass lands,
depend on the intslligenoe and pains with whioh all the
details of cultivation arc carried out. The climate is .excellent,
and tea and cinchona promise good results, If the proper means
sre observed. Much of the grass land, on the plateauit oontains
plauitfoodi for many years without manuring, if lime is
fudicioualy applied* Eioh forest landa may in some measure
defy the efforts of the planter to produce fmlare, but if he opSns
up the grass jands in question in a slovenly nnsdentiflo manner,
the proprietor’s patience will he taxed as he waits year after year
for his overdue produce. Let any man of ordinary Intolligenoa
run through the several tea aud dnohona gardens on tho
Ksilgh^ieiiib and he cannot fail to gather in what I mean. In wall-
seHrt^e^ parts he will find eighteen to thirty inches of vegetable
monlft on the sntl^; evidenUjieths decay of vegetation for ages.
hkMhs ttuftke that generalfy found In sholas and forests
Itns hy hsposure to alternate tains and suoshtoe. beaten
e',
^ ,
panfl^l^ m «i ^ ?«on li 1^ o> i%
iPttbftl^|;of hU teV
htM by i]b« antniiiit bu^oing of kbg lii{H|;of)|6^
grii|»» t!mo !taamomcfi^ftti ao «m to loaoit it
boooMiiva of iehder abo6Ca lor Ibefr boftaW* tt^o
vogoUib^ biouH ifl friable and free from olayf bat yet ao'oomifaot
. aodlwmsclicgoctier by myriads Of iaterlaoing grave roots that ao
tea yUat bai a ghost of a chance aatit the soil hfte been ihotobghly
brobeb' tip and oaposed to tlio weather, f know one or two
plalirikiioaswhjDie the planter seems to hato called tipon Mature
to do almost ererythtog. The tesnlt Is stunted growth with
ovilf fnnmneraUe, whitdt ho after effort can ocunierbaance. Some
jDStfteii are prosperous enough, bnt others are mOouments of shame
to th^ wl^ had the opening and management of them. 1
remei^her the same toit rtf tiling in Oeylon, so far back ss 1848,
wh<me eon and olimate were hopoTessIy beaten by^eareless and
alOinStily'odIHration. The grass lands of the Keflgherrles, fl
properly treated, ate richer In pknttfood than one-half tlm forest
lands of Oeylbn* In a block of 1,000 acres as in Oeylon, there
may be 25 per cent, that no judicious planter would cuUirate
with tea or cinchona. Ho would iill in such portion with some
of ^e Australian gndno, aocaciaB,or wattles, not the silver, but
the golden or Black, the bark of which hare a commeroial value.
The'tnrah trlto selects bad land because it is cheap, or for any other
reason, hiss in the face of difficulties, but the man who refuses
to btiy 1,0(^ acres because only 750 are worth planting is not
necessarily judicious. A golden rule is to skip all patches of
land, that, at a glance, are not worth a generous oOtlay. Neror
run the risk of taxing a good acre of tea with the up-keep of a
bad one. This is a rock ou which many a planter has wrecked
himself. The buyer of grass land has one advantage over the
buyer of forest* Observation, during a week iu the windy season,
will reveal whether the wind oats the estate, sod whore. No
amount of observation will reveal this coiTeciIy on forest land
until the timber is felled. If grass land is fouud to be raked by
eddiea and blasta of wind from all quarters, the would-be
purchaser will be wise if he leaves it alone, but after forest
is bought and dpened it is not so easy to do this. I prefer
land, over whidi the wind sweeps in one direction, ftidges may
be planted out wUH gums, and form effective break winds for
the whole estate, warming the atmosphere and fostering vege¬
tation.
years of observation oonvince me that planters, as a rule, have
been making a grand mistake in iieating rain as an enemy," i
instead of **a generous friend,” to be got rid of at any price
and iu the most expeditious way. Weedy estates, weeded by
the mamoiie was one cause which forced this upon planters. As '
soon as the monsoon rams set in, they saw the loosened surface
soil carried away by the rainfall into the gu Hies, and away to
the low country, exposing ttm roots of the coifee or tea trees.
Then < sme the remedy, drains And cross drains at various dis¬
tances, and at various gradieuta If the gradient was steep the
, reapti^y ^ had as the disease,' and if the gi'adient was slight
the drains choked. On the grass lands of the Neilgherries, I
look upon the retention of the rainfall as a cheap and valuable
fertUlier. To cinchona it is silvc^r, to tea it is gold.
What does, the raiofalf do ? I answer, only a inimmum of
good if tlie planter runs it off bis land as soon as it falls. Luckily
for himself 2m cannot prevent the plant from taking in some of
its benefits as it nioistenf« the foliage and the surface roots. 1
have seen the moneo0iiTai??s fail on estat««r the surface of which
were as hard as a pie erstt, nud as i^in from a duck’s back so did
tbe water rush e£E the slopes and hiJla On the ^ther hand 1
have seen aucU CMOS e«rry etS the loosened soil In tons, taking
the eaetest ohannels, and leaving little or no benefit to tho estate.
My anxiety is to induce the soil to letain every dtop of t^le
rainfaU. I slmU not succeed, but I intend to do all I <ah towards
that end. The sub-soil, insures permeation^ and I look for most
favonrahle results.
iTirs%. ^e rein will carry with it, not only to the surface
rootii' but to the roots below, even to aud beyond the exfmtue
end of the, tap^rdms^ .the feriUklug substances m«t wiife&d
brought down Jftih' ft itm the, tdr, such as kmmonia, muic i^d
and saUtts msHdrA
'^to'abeorbit' ' ' ,,
U wfil» sspeokitiy wlm'.e^isfttiii^
warm the under soil, i^nsti^eta
yemu to OQUie keep up a aapiwoiioii
T^e oun^i power cannot tho ^
surface, hut, with the soil judhdonslr tho
^ rain, dvery ehower w4U carry down %iUt if, *o| lOhw
plants, the warmth from the swrfaoonndl sooqualfBi tlje l•|Bpel!|^
tore. *
^ fourthly. In cases wherd the subsoil holds an Sbi^d^oo qf
iron or other boxions matter, the rainfall will servh carry
these further down and out of the reach of the plants.
We may now consider how the rainfall can be kept oh
ground and be induced to enter the tieit. In doing so, we mM
not lose sight of the msximiim of benefit at the miulmuifi tft cost
Three method’s present themselveit to me.
Fintly, Supposing the width of the rows to he 4 feet apart,
run koil terraces 4 feet wide round the hilts and slopes, and insist
on their being level. Then trench 18 inches by 12 down the
middle of each‘'terrace, such terraces having a gentle slope
towards the centre. The cost may be lessened by ' holing
instead of trenching if the tea is planted three feet apart or
upwards. Terracing, on avefage slopes, would cost about Bs» 35
per acre, and the trenching iu the terraces another Be. 50, giving
3,Ci'iQ lineal yards to the acre. Holing 18 inoh square pits would
cost Bs. 13^ per 1,000. But let no one act upon tlm idea that
the tea plants may be dibbled in. The soil in the Nellgherries will
resent any such ofi-liand treatment.
5'econd/y.->*Abstain from terraoiog aud open up level trenches as
above directed filliug in only to the level of the lower side, which
should he 18 inches deep, and the result will be a trench l8 inches
deep, with a terrace 12 inches wide,'every 3 feet. This should
not cost more than Bs. 60 per aore..
T/itrd/y.—Hole on the level as in trenching, not np and down
the hill as is usual, say 18 inches square holes at any distanoe
required, say every 3 feet, then from hole to hole out an 18 inches
terrace sloping it in towards the face of the hill.^ Tho holing
would cost as above stated and such terracing 12 annas per 100
yards, that is, if 4 feet rows be observed, 3,630 yards per aore,
less one half already cut by holing 18 inches out of every 3 feet,
any 1,815 yards at a cost of Bs. 13-9-9.
The first method is the most thorough, and Uie question turns
upon tho expense. The second method is efficient, and when tea
plants are planted 2 foot apart, requiring 6,446 holes per , acre,
it is a cheaper than the third method. But when distances are
increased to 4 by 3 and upwards, then the third method rapidly, gains
advantage, in the matter of cost. I should plant oinohona,
the condeminio, 5 by 4 on tbe third method, say 2,178 holes at
Bs, 13^ per 1,000 equal to Bs. 28-12-6 plus the terrsfiisgbatWM
Bs. 13-9-9 total Bs. 42*6-3 per acre.
Whichever method is ohosoo, tho work should be done im*
mediaily after tbe S.-W. monsoon, so that tbe soil may , imtMdti
exposed until May, when the filling in must be done'lor Avne
pldiitii/g. ■
Many a planter will be horrified at not having legular linee of,
trees so as to faniUtate weeding ooutracls, as terraolngon a ^bl
round hills sdl slopes must necessitate short lives. But lOi 1
advocate emoboua belts all over a tea estate, Mting it ;up;luto
10,15 or 20 acre plots, the weeding may be contracted for the
plot. Tbe atmosphere in a tea estate should be kept warm. imd
forcing, Ond 1 think close helU of clucbonae would offieot
the middle of such , plots I woifid teeoinmend ilmtfiO te 49'i4^/
square patches should be l^t for heaping tlm gmss mots led <
weeds on with a sprinkling of lioieer^ber
Feat is v^ generally ionM ikll oyer the, Hefigbhrirt^
oatt load of ftfrtn^ard tpafiUTe; if sfi, there is ah
supplr<i*lo^ ^oingifiilittteuthjab^^^^ ^ I V
In o<m(dtko%:let no plater, we^ ^mself to a^ji^or|wo
scbeu;es,^^^^ylkryalha^^A^ ^ tp qrder'W
inteifigeniM awlecoiil«nr«, On |lie m
j(iw/^aV in
op' iiiti,
,w«*
wj-W*®® '•*^******^^’
diiita W *««#» to*«i»tt#d *lth “sd iwmel^i •* *k»t
•M^tonWny *« iroAtogth* |[#«»0''»*to yrtpMe
%<w tM idaittt 4 u iiwan u
ISMiORUt UOTES.
VflltfiltKUu OovwmiMnt two jreofi *gO o#E»red 8,000 lire for
■*•' in »■ On i»«« gonae CUnuk" but the prodnoHoae lent in
bald by » opoolol oommiiiioii to be uadeeerTing of theprtie,
tb»t the reeaeoe otill exiet for which, U woe thooght
retybeii^el to encoatege • oomplete etudy of the pl^eloal
Sktiixe *od Wolflgy of the Hoeyerid*^ end for which the
MmpeUUott wee inetUoted, e Boyel deoi«e‘b«» been loeued
ofCering e reward of 8,000 lire to the aothor of the moet
ooiuplete and beet monograpUio oeaay on the atructore, the
rilal funoHone, and the dleeaaee of the aeld fruits, or epecleo
ahd rariotieB of the genua CSfru* and kindred genera, prorided
that the aald work, by a aoIBcM colieotion of original ubaerva-
tione and ekperlinenta, ahould euooeed in furnislung an important
addition to the piesent knowledge oonceruing auoh aubjecta, and
thereby auppiy a sotonlifiO driterion for the improremeiit of the
ouiavation of theaa aoidfruite and for the cure of their dieeaeea.
The date for sending in tbe works competing for the said pnao is
fixed for tho end of May 1881. Easaye by Italian^ or by foreigners
written in Italian, are admiasablo to the oompelilion, but if
written in another language they muet he aooompanlod by eu
Italian tranalatione
The figurea for planU^lon ooffea to tho V9th are 674,000 cwta*
but naare is eo low as 30,000. The total exceeds 600^
owta. so that wa suppose a total for the season ending 30th
Seotamber of 800,000 owtainay be reokoosd on. Ihoro are large
flgurea for baled oiunamou, 696,0001be. but there is a great falling
^ In ohipa. Ooooanut oil is very oonsidersbly above the OTorago,
the exDort being 111,679 owts.; ebony ie up to nearlyfi 1,000 tone ;
and oinohona bark now counts 101,1691ba Ihe railway
6tb April dwwa 46,742 tons of ooftM against only M,006 in
corresponding patiod of 1878 ; but there is a falling ofE in boUi
Tioeand mmntoa-It is not to bo conoeolod that the general
In deylon is one of depreesion and anxiety. But there ate
many alementa of hopefulness In our position, and a real
with ndlway extenaion would oontribnte much to tho
^ratlra of oheortulnosa and activity .-Osyloa Obmver.
. .-'th* JdltM la'
f te Ei» safety of many towns and villages, tho raising of
monntaloa to oonnteraet torrents has beoomo a necessity in
oerUin parto of franee. The idea appears to be exploded ftat
thh tdUtnx of forotts kas no taflneftoe on inundatloua. FlMiting,
ao^K *<> climate and alUtode. and inducing gtaaa to
-to* are tho mowntea adopted by tho French Qovemment. Tbe
^ k to antio^to the promotion of destrootive torrents by
the soil, and knpprosslog the etfbotsof torrents by
KrS op. iTls not intandsd to mitnally abolish the
tSteirt but to oanie It to psss into the volume of a stream to
masaBlita carrying down asxtby mattera, and producing andden
Cda. By pwtootiiig the aeil agaioatthe meoUanical effete of
..A. b, i^ifrieingtho earienta, by dividing them, muudaiious
M^^aveiiM-' ferthatampatrtcisoMa of mountains, iTy trees
trC«dMUdean afiord no diifienity, but for Alpine regions only
'■aHMW lawdi* wi fiir can ba Ohwisn—ai^ lawli above aalt
lofaances, »® •“PPort
Ju-t. imsif tcaaj^ ■dd.'haa ttia faoidliyc* throwing out new
bta^<t««> biiisA**- ^ «*»»**?* “**«“*•
i , ^ ' '■ , '' ' ■
piofwwd.
oatmotbetodiyeiibl,' ’I
the trade eatried by BlwSas iwd»siii(ltoia between
Fltil in enattty kmongitthtimpor^ ate India opw gold, dwtt fnm
ih. minei of fhifttik and elsewbara:to Tibet t ,,I«t ftto
almeat tel isMe, tor mw* of ttb Hgj- gW to ya. apd
finds It* way reolhwMdi evar the ,«l«*liip»A The ®‘
■hawlwool, ptttiiit Is daeltolBfi ; ^e demand'it I>sih|
being sow maob lesethes in lormee di»i. lAlg* gMhty he^evi
t4kM ^ Aikirtt«fcr»sl4idhU*% Wd UTarptif* IJht BJwwm
, tut it tUl 0011:14 oaly flma MflStoUot laW to* ia tw Forth*
WiBrt Prortaoii, thojr wooWl omo tow »Uot 4o«iuot^too«e
trodo, lode«4 wooU gWo wp cowylug boro* olfcogftbor* TU flow
TibotaopoMwUi grown io lU atlgbboorliood of I^oU Eguotwor,
Auit tbe bulk of U la tekeo to Oartok, whore Ooabmww moreUi^i ftom
Ladftkb bay It op for tbo OoabmoTO monufootorleas X*rgO
of fee from Laairt ate taken to the Oenteal Allan marketi, ii«4akh| afld
Caahmere, but ♦ory lUite ia brouight to India, Some comw *f
ao4 ie oooaamed by tbo OMbwereek Uf lag there; <ome U bobg^t by the
Ehotiaa who ptfofer It to the Indian t artel lets Pea fa Pibet ie a
aorernmeat monopoly. Sight kindt are aoUi in Oartoofc, alt ooihiag
originally from a place oallod DarcUaado In Obioa, The price rangee
from Ho. 1 to a». 8 a poaud. There are etrlot rnlee agafort tU import
and aalo of Indfan tea ; alUt, howerer, tho Bbollaa; ciaty imaU
<)aaotUi6a which tUay manage to sell to the pooret claw of nomM«*
BoBiaoHlm piohihitiott. the ptejttdlcea of the people are agalait the
oonaamptionof Indian teaa ; all AaUtloa, and a good many Karopeane,
much peiferrlng the China toai, Horeea are broeght* hf the Bhbtlae
and Baebabrii, from Tibet to tbo Indian hill etatlooa i thow from
OUumartl being the flnetfc. Of ahawl^wool goati, eomethree Or foar
tUoaeaud yearly are brought from Tibet, and moitly lold to Hiadea
for aaoriaoe, fcloblng a rupee or two eaob« Tbe ^oaniltf of' cheep
brought would bo greatly dimlniahed were there a larger demand for
wool In tbo ForthnWeat Provlnoet. Halt and borai lau fuad
ftbuodaoHy in the neighbourhood of the Thok Jalung gold i|«h^ Thpee
artiolei are taken IntoHundea and thence eold or bartered for praltt by
the Bhotiaa. Of importe from India into Ilundee and othef pa*i*
the Tibet, there are food-gralna. ohleflly Whodt, barley, and rloe j raw
ittgar and epioea ; broadolotbi. cotton goods, indigo abd preWotti ktouee.
Broadcloth, worth ia the Delhi market Rb. 1*4 to Re. 4.8, meets with
a toady sale at Isassa, ae alw ail hinds of cotton goods, the
OQarBOBt kind ia used for making flags, whloh are set up over tpmU,
monasteries and bill-tops, to scare away ghosts and demons. For
indigo there la a lively demaud In tbo marfcots of Shigalae and Lasse*
Precious stones, auoh as furquoises, a fow rubles, ani lometimos
emeraldi, with oorala and pearls are oarrled into Tibet ; corals and
pearls being especially aflecled by Tibetan woman. Tbo silver
ooinago of British India is much used too for pnrpoBos of ornament j
but the supply is not equal to tho demand, the Bhotiaa fladlng it pay
b^ter to give grain ia exobauge Cor fcheit Tibetiao ptwohasaa,’—
Himalaya ChroaioU,
G. P. B." writes to tho Fall MaU Oauile lo tUeao days
of trado dopreaslon and high cost of proyisiowi, of all binds
I wish that the attention of tho poorer olassaa could b<
directed to the eligibility of dates as an article of food at o»o<
cheap and nutritions. Dates aro exteuMVely oousomed by iU'
lower orders in Egypt, as also by the Arabs iu the Persian Qul
and on the SUattu-V Arab beyond al-BoSraU, with whom date
and broad form their principal diet, Those iu better oircumstawa
cook them in different ways, such as frying them with a littl
ghee, or made into au omelette with eggs ; and I can myself vouc
for the savouriness of such dishes. Formerly, the only dat*
imported into tho London market were those from Egypt* oalie
Talilat, which were and aro still sold by grocers at StL to iBd
per pound. But tho Tafllat, albeit a large and floe-Iooking fraii
have a tough ekin, and are far less eaccuUnt and uutritious tha
those now brought from ahBasfahftud the Pemiaa Gulf, thei
latter aro disposed of wholesale in Uxm Or straw saeks, «t froi
10 a. to 14a. per owt, and hawked about tho Itrbet foy froi
2 d. to id. per pound, A more general demand for tho fruit wonl
probably lower the retail price, and it would be a great boon
tha poorer oUtsga* if they could be convinoed that one pound c
dalttif costing aboht three halfpence, contains as much nutrimei
as lialf fl.BiotlUd pf meat, and lanoh more than the same wefgl
of ittm itrtUlse o£ food for which they pay six or ten timi
tho^riiA.'
•mB
ot IliB owmon owl ,Ǥ,4 d^Btrctyif 0f
is fUTitOiljE Ji]M|]P ,^b6 Ilk %ii»uihti St Bits i^sl&i
A rs()Aiur^H9l4tfai«o« is psifit Is wcotdbJ ''Mm
ills Jcmwt si tlio Hsikoifsr AgHoSltuml Smjfjstf,. Iak^
tills gintlsMS disooTsrsd hi his ^trdea su ot?ri nasi btult
!S S' hollow tvse, Wbsti first obsetvsd it contaSoed Isqr
ofigi iho bodisi of leysa fisld mies. Qo ibs foltowisg da^r
lia oi tbs nios bad bssn dstootsd and sight Irssl^ onos Intisdaosd
In HhtAi plaos. On Uia third day she mors mlcswsis added to tbs
stoeby Slid tbs oanmass ot ssYsn saors wars foupd fn a oonilgnOsi
hollow tr«s* Bay after day tbs same thing was obserssdi a fresh
supply of mlos being oosStantly introduced. From olroumetaoces
wblob m hot SpeciflosUy msnUoasdt Herr Grots was only able to
€ontb{itts bin. lor a period of fourteen days, but within
this ^ms tbs ammhs^ of miss found in and aronud the nest woe
asoertabnod to be more than two hundred, and in addition to these
the Wing^oaees of a large number of dung beetles (Searah»u$
were found in the same place. In order to avoid any
sonros of possible error in his computation, ilie observer took the
preoanUon of marking eaoh day's supply of mios when first
noticed, so as to make quite sure that none of the bodies should be
counted twiceA'^jFarsier.
Ah IntereiluDg series of experimeuts were entered upon last
season by the Supeiintendent of Ootton KxporlmentB, in Sclnde.
These extaided over cotton, bajri, sorghum saooharatura, jowri,
lttoemegraiS,jute, rhea, prickly oomfrey, ground nut and sundry
other articles, but we are sorry to state tbat we can make almost
no use of tbs report, kindly sent us by the obliging Assistant
fieoretary to tbs Government of India, Department of Revenue,
AgHcuIture and Commerce, (Statistical Branob), on account of want
of uniformity in the mode of conducting them, for instance, after
an exhaustive report, explaining why the contiguous plots gave
such diverse results, from the same class of treatment, we find
he following explanatory note. 1 do not think that from this
** one experiment it would be safe to conclude tliat the liiue was
** decidedly injurious to the crop, a good portion of the difierence—
** nearly 28 per cent, at least—may safely he attributed to the
** natural differenoe in the fertility of the plots."
This system of experimentiug is fatal to that auMioritative
couolusion which should bo doducible from atiy well coiiduofed
experiment Oonditions at starting should he precisely similar,
else the conclusions oanuot be comparable. The Superiu-
tendent promises to oontinoe them ihis year under a better
system.
BBFBBBlHa to Jersey cattle the Journal of AgrlcuUuret
(American), says that their milk produces from 21 per cenMo
86 per cent, by weight of butter. In this countiy wo think wo
do well if wot get one obittack per eeer, which is 6| per cent. Of
course wd know that the grasses of India may not be so nutritions
as tbose of some of the virgin States of America, but still wo think
that judiciouB feeding might do much to improve our supply of
butter. In Calcutta alone there is a Urge demand for it, and
it is on article that people would not grudge t& give s good
price for, provided they got it good, we have ourselves made
3 ^ chittacks of good butter from each seer of milk, this equals
20 per cent. 'We adopted the home plan of collecting cream,
and making the baiter dally from this cream, the native habit
of churning the fresh milkdops not produce nearly so much butter,
nor is the quality so f;;ood. There is a good opening, we
consider for a dairy farm i * oi|e of the suburbs of Calcutta where
a good snppfy of water a^ilabU.
TSB Gazette of India oontaias a Report on the Adminia^
tration ot the Departmeut of Agriculture and Coinmei^os>
H*'W. P. and Oudh for 1877-8 and an exceedingly intereitlng
dooumenilt is.
Ur. Buck having been asked by Government whether the
expenditure of the Saharunporo experimental gardens could ndt
be oat down, objeoied to such a saving being efieotod at the
expense d the ttsefulnesa of, the gardens and the Lledte|aait-
Governor n^eld the plei» we think is a step U the 4ight
direction. There ere some pobUo works which pay their w»y,
V /
Xbif ii';'tiUr
expense^' ^
The rsport is '^iaten*ing be IwUed'lS '
which Mr. Book bKs to do^ but It is tin^ tikib ibis^ R Ut
the, end thoroughly praotiosK
weendorse very bekrtily, an4 that U ;
lishing a farm somewiMwefor the exfn^
grain for seed purposee An^y mie who b«s%av^^
length and breadth of the land must have swn iSc«o^^lw
evidenoe that poor soil and want of proper onluvat^Gi^itNie
not the only causes of the paucity of w^ops. There avA Tettet ^
others, and among them bad seed. At bmne a.fiwimw does net
use seed grown on his own land, he prefers to purobass Iroul
a neighbouring country it msy be, at least be likes s obaAge.
Here the Same seed is used year after year and centtUT
oenturyontbe same field most probably, add this coupled wRb
the other drawback, to sucoesstul ooUivatlou so much in tingw
here, lead to what we see going on around us, a steady but iinre
decay in the quantity and quality of agrioultural produce. Tho
same remarks apply to cattle breeding, wbiob eabjed is also
touched on in the* rsport under notice.
We are sorry that the Government of Madras hss not seen
fit to agree^ to Mr. Robertson's proposal of a setiss of small
prises, for welbmanaged farms. We do ndt refer especially to
what he speaks of as the Irish system, but of any system suited
to India* Wo think a few small local exhibitions, where such
prises were given would have more* effect with the ryot than
half a hundred circulars from the collector aaMi. A couple ot
years ago there was an exhibition in Rajeote, Kiatty war, which
wo^olieve was a great suooesa, and who can gainsay the good
that is likely to result from the meeting at Bongad, also in
Katty war, under the auspices of Major Hutt or of the Bulsndshahr
agricultural show and horse fair.
These are the class of meetings that al-e wanted, not grand
exhibitions, at which the humble ryot is afraid to appear, but
Rmaller meetinga where ho will meet generally his own class,
and where ho will see for himself what others are doing. These
meetings supplemented by a few small money prises are ©ah
oulated to spur the cultivators to greater exertiona
Faou a perusal of the report on wheat cultivation in the
Punjab lor 1876-7, which has just reached us through the courtesy
of the Secretary to the Finauoial Oommissiouer, Punjab, we find
that looking at the subject from an "average'* point, the
Punjab is not so far behind other countries. True she is a long
way behind Great Britain in the matter of yield, but Great Britain
expends a deal on high cultivation, which the people of India
could not afiord to do, but when we compare the outturn per
aore with that of America with its comparatively virgin soil, wo
see how the case stands.
The average production in the Punjab per imperial aore was
806 lhs>, und we find that while in America^ some States produce
40 bushels^ the average is not over 15 bushels of 60 lbs. equal to
OOOlbs. From the statistiool table in the report we find the outtubi
per aor^^ running from 3'86 maunds in Sirsa to 16‘33 at Jullundhur,
^Vom /ullundhur we pote that it costs Bs. 1-2-0 to convey this
wheat to the nearest seaboard, Calcutta or Kurraohee. This
charge is equal toRs. 31-8 per too or Rs. fi-lShper quarter, am}'
is a very high charge for transit, although it most be bcrae in
mind that the distanoe It has to be carried is not less then 1 |163*
miles. ,, K.
This leads to the question ap to whether it wo^d not H ,
advisable to the Railway Companies luoning heav/go^ traiin '
at very cheap rates, and without any particular regard lOf . ^
speed. We suppose a speed of ten miles an hour would suffioe for
such a trafido. The oonsumption of ooala wOnId be Ughh an4;4he ^.
gOnsrat expenses trifling. Now that the Indus Vriley a# .
Kofrachoe Witt W the palm for tlwgridntla^^lke ^ >
Pttojdb^ it k^ovee the RaOt Indian '
ImtR ils^ the Bsih»^a
I
m
' V'■)" V ''■' "'
viSH Ii«v 6 ifeitodMb«»in
mIM jbt«» tefinia of Q<^pciidm# IM
Jlowaf il^Nti»didroc)itp Divioionaad the Cflbiof Oomnilff^^
thplollQiifpgiitlipdottrmii^ mth^tt l»y<;lieGoTmii9iit
bof^o HiA Bxpei^eaUl f«m bndp oin bo
adtobli^fbcmiri^dlfp^ of fate or loaio>Hte nooOBiry
to fOlbte onOo itidfof ill Ibo t^ooitloti of the proper kodl level of
Ibo Swiikal ti&k; at profont Ibat level la ao blgb that mttdh of
the tein^tehd la anbjeoled to inondation* The Ohief Gommufioner
dealrealherefoitthM the OfSoteting Oonunteiioaer wiil at onoe
plaoe hteaielf in oonmiiuiloaffon with the Ohief Bogiiieeri and that
theae oAteena viait the apot in oompanp with the Deput^r Oommia-
aionerof the BaegaldrelMatiiOt and determine xwhether the waete
weir level hi the Son^od tank oatmot be lowered, anffidentiy
to obviate flooding the land of the Farm above it, jrlthout de¬
triment to the boltivatioh carried on below, or If one or other mtut
anJEerf whether it wonld not be better to lower the level, and
oompeueatetheoQoiipanteof the irrigated land below for their
deoreaaed water aupplj. Aa aoon aa adeolalon la arrived at, upon
thia matter, the Farm should be advertized for aale en 5ioc, the
date being fixed on the earliest dap praotioable with regard to
giving due notloe of and publicity to the intention to sell. In any
oaee the date of sale oannot be later Uian the end of Hay, and if the
Farm oannot be diapoeod of by sale by that date, the Ohief Oom-
miaaioner will be willing to lease It. The Farm and the boildinga on
the Farm wilt be put up in one lo^ the implements will be sold
separately, and an upset price representing the full yalue of the
land shonld be plaoed upon the Farm, aa the reserved price, under
which it will not be sold. The tend Imth in quality and eltoation
la no doubt of value and will incroaae in value, and it should not
therefore be aaorifioed. In the event of the< Farm being sold, the
diapoaal of the house now ooonpied by the Saperintendent will
be next oonaidered. !Ihe Ohief Oommissioner oannot accede to the
ofter made by the Boman Oatholio Mission which the OIB-
dating Comniisaion er fcrwards In the above letter.—
” . ‘ . ^—... ,1 II
i Govmimwtiuw
I" tfEwiM fnu I^ibA
Mb, BOBMaow, H, B« A» d»i flupsfti4fadiut of dtoverAnoui Famu,
recently submitted lor the Intennai^^olihit. Ooveoilmt tiim
pnipItMf HMlnd Mm AsfMwr B^iriB,..Gw hyM of Os
tiw Bmr4 Muiifiiiii iiy lintnci,
nbjwt nt tnpnnfai, Uw .itiMltml piB^ .lotU 'tennif* fa
tetaod. lb. S(diMamMdH^aHatlis.priM«iil.«.ta
Sul SpHMW, |C,0, MMft* to InralMai toU, WMWMtal, m« .Oiirti wr
na«MD«auMl.towi(Midlt*apttMtouloM.«h.t* ot IrytMOI. *'la
many respeote the ocndlUoa of agetottUo«« MMiaUlia \yk^
oonditfon of agriculture in this eoontry, Chough of oouvie tU airteaUnire
of Ireland is gteatly sopariory I paeaess a constdembte penooH
ezptrienceof the oiroumsteoces under whlohagrlottltiiri iipmctlasd In
Ireland, and have acted aa judge of farms in cooneotioit with the
North-Bast dsiootetloa of AgriouUurs la that ocuutry, which bsian
some time ago Co ofCer priasi for wdl«maoaged ter^ though Its
operations did uol extend to luoh imall hfAdlogs as does Bari Spsnoerte
Sjstem. And I am of tbeoplalon that we might la this country with
advantage adopt a prtee syiteoi In endeavouring to promote good farm¬
ing in this countty. Of oouree the Irish srstem would not be
in Us preseut form for the requirements of agrionUursla this Wutry i
boireveT, the needful modiftoatloos can readily be made. It itfll
aSord me pleaantc to sttbaaiit deftulte propoasts, say fOr one Oolleetcrale
only at ptaseot/' The Board of Bsvanus observe that the prise system
In Ireland waa worked in oonueotiou with a ready-formed maoHuery,
namely, agrloultural sohoola and aohooi-tanns suOh as were ptopoisd in
the Board's Proosedings of lUtbDaosmher 1877. The Gcvemmoat have
as yet passed no orders on tboas Proosadfags, owing apparently tp
doubts BB to funda hut the Buperlntsadsot's latter and soolosnies will
now be BUbmlttod to them, with the remark that trial of the prise
sobemo most await the introduction of school farma Mr, Bobcrteon's
proposal seems a praotlosl one, and likely to lead to good roialU^ but
the Government oonilder it ** premature.'^
Wa underataud that the Scotch Oompnny who purchased Measrs.
Niool and Oo.te concessions in the Wynaad, have engaged tho
services of an experienced mining engineer, who is shortly expected
to carry out the prospecUons, and to arrange for commencing
operations on a large scale.
Spectator^
ExPSBXMBKTS are being carried out at Boorkee with the view of
toating formulm at preaent in use, and Investigating the laws of
the motion of water; a correct knowledge of these tews Is essential
to hydrahUo engineering, and eepeoially In tlie branch of that
science relating to irrigation works, for on thia depends the
oorreotness or otherwiso of the engineer's calculations, whether as
to capscliy .fQr his channels and masonry works, or os to
the amoiint of revenuo to be dorived from the use of the
water.
The fbrmutes at preeent in use are based upon experiments with
emalt volumes of water, and, though correct ao far as they go, it
has long been reeognteod that they are more or less untmstworthy
when applied to the motion of li^go volnmes of water, such as
have fpequently ‘ to be dealt with in praotioe, and that they do not
fully meet toe varied ofreumetanoes of elope and nature of beds of
ohannete niei iVith in works of this class.
Tke Ooyerument of J1111I& possesi^ in the Ganges canal and its
worlte, mom espeotelly in the Botenl aqueduct at Boorkee,
oppo^anHteeof oariyingoim experiaients of tote nature each as
ho Other Gevofnment emi command, and the resulte of these expsri-
menta itiU he eflke Oecff ol to tote country and to the reet of the
dtvfliiteif Vbrld. The oonduCt of the experiments has been entrusted
to. Oiq^n A^ SX Onnninghaiai, B» E., an olBoer of high
seieQtiite atta l 0 in eat ea.H|s Inyeiticptilon and reports on the subject
have sitesidy atofacted tevoutuhte notice in Burapsaneoientlflo
oltcdei. '
The fipteidlal ormiaiteiMttt tonotibned to meet the ooet of these
hydimtiioext^lh^jto^ the Secretary of
State wbo^ m refty^ ^ss wi^it^i 1 <«4%e prblteHonai and
*»to India li dwell ^n towsrM
NoTWltHSTAHOtKa tho fall in the price of food grain In our
market, as well aa in the Mofussii, tho Oritish India Company's
coasting Bteamers arc steadily working in tho grain traffic, every
steamer from the nortli Uringa in a fair quantity of giuin, and for
the past month about 17,000 bags of grain, have been landed,
consigned solely to native meroUauts in Madras. From the
mofussii there is grain daily being imported, and our market just
now is very fairly BtockeJ. iiocal quotations on Friday for first
sort country rice is 7i uieasores per rupee, and ordinary rice $ to
8 | measures per rupee; paddy, ragi, oholum and cumboo are sold
at 15 to 16 measures per rupee.—J/odrns Tims.
Tub intimation Mr. A. Oooper Abbs, Attorney of the Madras
High Court, and Advocate in the Mysore and OoCrg Oourts, gave
some days ago in the i/odma Hail that he will be under tho
necessity of bringing a otvil action against tlie Ooorg Oovernnient,
is soon to be realised, for we leant from Madras that this
gentleman aud Mr/ Grant, planter, NoiJgherrios, have jointly
issued a legal notice to the Saperintendent of Ooorg, that within
two months from the period an aotlon will bo institoted before a
competent OtvilTribunal for tho recovery of Ba 3,000 odd.' The
facte oouneoted with the afiair appear to have been aa fcUoWe
Mr. Abbs, after seeing an offici il notice in the Mysore Gacelte to
the efileot that certain tends were to be put Up for publio auoUmi,
in due course bid for the same, and bought them up. He also
purchased another piece subsequently, but on a survey taking
|lace, it was found that Fieoe No. I was iucluded in Fiece No.
II, 00 ittet, acoordtng to Hr. Abbs, he has paid twice over for
the same toiog. Ufi kte applying to theSopecintendent fur the
return of the immey cy^aid^ it was refused, and hence the
prtpo^ Whiit arc the grounds on wUoh Guyerameuc
rctoSto, of (usiutm^ jtoS Mt 'known at present, but the Bsvenue
autketitiei Auto ithtk tiiey are about.
. . ;l .> 'i ...>^— i : .n ;,,■■ *. ..^ ■■ ; ■,. ■■ ■ ' ....,.I!
H«; JtabttJ 0» THICK A»0 THp BOftS(k.
IjjifBOlt UHi VetM»i> owitti" of HpljfW H»ll we Ajwe^
J? fttimired wHMU« folWlog , r , ”
i ivf^ ^twiisrt ffAht tHt tftlid ip |L ^tiPPtjio^ ae|»0iidta| on «dl
dkaitl^ luad tibat «ao|i pUsmlcI, by coin|>ar*tive ax^^rimoatPi
arnifOAittie laostnaUifiwl^^ry €«f»«laslou» ^h«i» Jl fMiOtpd
bew, ioiiw 35 yoam «$a, 1 tii«41 UaM of j^ impeiiitl
ill* bt»ftU%t4i tiauaUy aowii Woobontv and louiid
^ai tbe 1 btmlifil gaVa ina an advantage <d€ 30»i |)«r aer«; so I
lUbv V» Mqripk in m-. .
«WB •fiptiUbtphi'ftr' pwekum '*k^ M ■
(mM aalwtalieto
MKttOMo ' f ,■< t' ? V I f j H i .i'’?,
AliaUatt
.ilMdiag ^dpSHda aa la tbp^iidbii^.tpiaM
wdr'i^Cbiir|iami>
mltii; dafly; tbal j«W»4 to itolta Pdi|®l
tlii’ataeic datlug tbe M Mf
laidffielMidr fped tbaiarfpr il lr Mm
gmirlbtllial a peand df
fauae ef ealaiMieii, bp ftadi W bketdpayi MiiAMy
tbaa Dfvltatiii, aadibayooii»aai0|rcn*alUllbaeale«plb laaP^Pft^
b4o^ite4 itC I dbi not find tnnoh diiFerenee beiwOen 4 and 5 i^ks,
Z bavagrodri^ jttftt as much from 2 yccba, and even from I peclT
ppr hniairia! acre; hut to make f'ure, X driU a buehet at nine incha^
frm 10 ^ to rowp hrcAiiee I oiii enabled to horee-hoe oh the 9 inch
afMoea ? and a man and pait of lioraee can do 12 acrea per day.
Whore 1 do not hortie4ioe, 1 sow the enmo quantity of seed vitli
Batch or Baias e<Hfa.
Leihig w«a the firrt to taiee hie voice agidital tha ekhawt^ of the acU
ceuMd hy the calUvation Of boat £or Mgar. lEa 'rilioirpd thil alKthe
alhPiie* cootaiuad iu the recta vrei^ caaccutaidted in
the ^*^faggQo,* or eihaaatloa of the ■oil wtUdit a Pherif' ‘Htaeh it
abaolataiy neoeaiutfy In the fnncBoaa Of "thaptantto'litodiiaeitiiaa, and
evttu rvliau returaed directly to Uie coU, H fidlafa leiloiatt^ lalkiii^e vitallly
6 limb lutarvals. My usual drilling of barley is at 6 inebes from
roar lo rotr, and 6 pooka per imperial acre. I have grown jual aa |
luueb from 1 bushoU Of oata (Tartarian), I drill 8 pecka per
bttperial acre, ot 6 inch intervala ; and have frequontly grown 88
Inialials per imperial acre—iu one instance 104 .buahela* In fact,^
I ba^s fCuiid even 2 bnalieta to be too thick, and have suffered*
^injury by premature laying iu a summer slorm. I attach much
importance to a ataiidiug crop, which only gets bent or partially
laid when ripe, lliiokly sown crops, on welhfarmed land and
idtable olimate, get prematurely laid, and in consequence get
biforlor as griudiog barley, and thin oata, and emaibheaded wheat.
In 1868 (a fine aeaaon), my wheat crop averaged 66 bualiels per
imperial acre—one field yielding 64 hiishels. Of barley (after
wheat), I frequently got 7 qii ariers, of malting quality.
Qarly laid crops abut in tho damp from tbe carUi, and thus
encourage the under-growths of clover or weeds. In a fine
upstanding corn crop oir circulates freely, green vegetation is
checked, aud we get large ears andkeniets, and stiff, gloBsy straw.
The only excuse for thick sowing is a late district, lio doubt
thick sowing hastens (he harvest, because piematuriiy is earlier
than maturity* Wheat, oats and barley altould give a return of
40 for 1. The pet sou who sows 12 busbelH of enta ^ter Bootch acre
should theref 01 e get 480 bushels per Scotch acre. Does he do
this ? Jf so, 1 should be very much astoniehed. I could hardly
believe that any fanner tvasteif so tntich money in seed ; but 1 am
bound to believe what I read in llie JVortA BriHBh AgricultmiBU
In our southern climate X know that very thick sowiug robs
many a farmer. J» J« Mgoui.
Tiptree Hall, Apiil 14,1879.
JP. lu our county we use the drill for sowing ; very little
broadcasting is done.
J* J» M.
B. AfjHwHMritL
CONTINENTAL AGRICULTUaB.
I N the new law iu ooureo of being voted oa popular edueution, tbe^
i(‘acliiug of agricuUuro in Uio rural national sehoolS Will be obli|[ti}iy,
and will ot once toko effect. Hits ia gelug a little too rapidly j tuoel^
et tbe count) y eckooUinaateTS are not prepared tu !|mpart tbe dcehfd ior
stniction ; all tliat onn W rcasouably expected iroin them if. tbot they
prepare Uicmeelvoe, as t^ell as their pupile, hy means of judioioualy selseled
Ifeotises on rand economy, tmier when the Normal Sehools eVe inaugura¬
ted, snd moeters duly iraiued* Rreater rctuUs can he demmided. Baoh
do|»artittent ia to have itf ’Kormal Sehool. to winch auagricultuial pr.)feafcor
will be attached; fifty profee^ce are re()utr6d. nnd eht, yenre are allowed
t6 exMute the prog^^^unue. ’ ^he supply of satist>le eandidates for these
rhttire of 'tgrkoUu.i' is at preatht very Jnniird t iu time, the soperios agroue-
mleal colleges will meet the deaiHud. I’he u«w professors wdl be required
ioholdeoafereneoefor thabemfit Of ilte ffurrouadiog farmere* as preU ia
to impart tnstnietion in the Kcnaal Bcbools, henoa a epecial tact ia
iieceiwaTy for iittracting adult attratlon. la the agrlealioral seboot of
ISciilly, uesr hyons, ndvautatte is takou of the UUono to teapb ilidr aaltuva.
Many farmiUg aocietiea give prlaos to tbe proprietors 4)f oyster bids sad
Hell ponds.
h b no eecret thet good horses are not on the increase in I'nmoe ; many
departmeuta, fatiiout for their piodactiou of Uorees, have Mby no repa-
wrtiou* TheattillBryhoiaeb tbe type doatted: la general the horaee are
top light, too flue^ and hence tbe leautug towards ibe. jspdbus korss as
the i4M4;wM45aieSdararioe, is large, draws well. lIBeijiiiS
(w4i^*i«o t^ial dsphts of stalUotHi iu the cot\hti> m
SuthebiiSed ^<Ws not pro dust the sapeeted i«iuiw» ifolNi|| If
trtw iatowlwswo OwiiMm a i !||y| i| | i i |ly
lor beet culUvatiou. This appareut euomsly is doe to4hefset|hetthe
orgauie matters of the surf see soil rapidly letse and rets|a, the stil^ while
beet, being'a tap rooted lilaDt:, draws ita food iRmm ths depths of the soil
whore the enstenanco is limited; and so heoontsa Inioifieieal after a
few eropi of tieet* This ia the explanation of many, why' the soil of
Baxony and of other regloui now fairs to prodnee sagur beeh Boils repel
the plant, whiiffi about July commceoes to fade, eiukS' into deeropitodoi and
xote-^e leaves last If a veriioal aeotion oftbe root be now made, the
tlssno will be found covered with red nnget the first iadieatloo oS deeom.
position. These roots yield little sugar, had the pulp will not piaOerve
fo trenches j even when eoand, ihe slek toots coaunnntcafte conta^ou to a
whole pit. The soil oceasionatly displays signs of wearlhess one Season,
rceovere another, but relapsea Into more intenae fatigue afterwards. In
addition to the explanation of OihaasUon, Ifeesvs* Liibioher and Mavkef of
Bailey have disoovSred the preeauee of a parasite called nsmalods^ whieh
is as nninarotts, and, propagatee sa rapidly, as (ihe phylloxera itself j they
are to be eueounterod on the rootlets to the form of white speokt^ rarely
on a diseased plant, for having destroyed the latter’s feedere, they derainp. *
These baeots are never found in largo nambors where the beet thrives
well; they are more frequent in a edil where the beet is raised for seed ;
aud it is esseutisl never to employ the washings and root-trimminge of tbe
sugar factory, it tlxo boat delivered appear! to be uffeeted. It ic not MOar
if the presence of tbe ttemofods be ttie oaaae or tbe oonaeqneooe of th«
disease} it is a diagnosis of the malady, and may resemble the aounal
economy, where parasites prey on bodies insnflioieiitly noarishe^-
Tbe relative value of beet pulp is important, The snger or Juiee is
extracted in two waya ; by rasping ihe root aud preaiing the snip, or by
cutting tbe root in thin eliees, and eteaping them in warm water* The
first plan breaks up (he cell, and pteseure mechaoMly forces out the
contentej the elioiug keeps Ihe cells more or lessbtaeti and Ihe warm
water exhausts their contents by tbe law of difussiast* The second method
it common in Germany and AustrU, and ie apieediqg |o EpUimd and
Belgium I but farmars dislike tbe pnlp, ae it contains M pet cent, of water $
tiis inoonvenientfor carriage and objectionable for fiedtng pnrpoaea ae
too aqueous a dietary noeessit ataa a usMeas txpenditttii of animal heat to
raise ihe water to the temperature of tbe economy; farther, too Mluted
food engmeots the deeompoaiiion of tbe albnmen in eiieiUatioo*' However,
by employing the Klnieman press the pereentageiff w^diseinbelef|DsIy
reduced, with not e greater lose than 8 per cent, of dry me^r t in tbia
^ndition it wUi conserve well in pits, and retain its snperiori^ of yishtiess
in albnminouB sabsUmees. TTnpressed, eooording to Br* J^etermOim of
B^glftUt Blioes ate oommereially enly haUthe veke ofth# Mspldpalp;
le^oed to a like degree of humidity, the alieed it ifoher llisfi the^ gtsAed
piitp for feeding pnrposea. M. Barvat has analysed ftfoie HhgM .hiet
roots, the Mammoth variety, weighing fiUlbs. a root; he lapM; theim to be
BO riob in nitrate os to be positively dangeraua foralimeidpsy,,a» thfj m
totally unfit for eugair pnrposea Hoiaases eon tain • portl^ of puggr, to
se^/ariM which many processes have been i^ed, bsd aU of wh^ while
iiherating end seeunng (be five or six per cm of pare ypefa^' ^dii||foyid
from 10 to 12 per oent,of potash ealts, end two pOg oe^ of vi|ti4|toa In
theemmoniaeal and organie form# daring , By (in disg^miies
of Messrs. Bebsibits and Bqyfarth* tks oombiimd potasl( kttfi aga
henceforth be utUieed. Bngar befog eonpOSed .fold
hydrogen, sefonoa and meehaaks ought'to tk >bhi in kefoSp ^ ‘fBtf'bth^
oompUmentaxy dwtfoisorihe biHttb tbo eoll^ elthiv fh pfolpi,' iMh oc
washings. TimlMfllhamHe^filklfomaifofoirfiag lltieM^^
themanafaetntef f a«^e^pev«|foMivi going on thfo.ieeasn^m'eirup*
wltiOh wmifoeexyemtaiudveiasdesweriheeaienfler a MmMak.
sucheetbahittutexpirad. H the Burmer employs tlmMedg^bim^
|nefee«y,jdmbaeiwa|beti^f»on(fom»tfr,i7^ie^ tmb
.kedcwltyof IbejaifUfoinirk «*8* Tipaeh yet
^«hfole,f«alfok %find ifi of sa«^« as if
' Mfitwk itniiefo' who pnfohun Umlbi
lein niwuitfttnliipeieinkeiaigttyiihiillMiii^
; ^-i^Urtr INf 4tflcim<|^|ii |flittl|Mi^ iihiilUMim
|0 ft trough ^ m mifikA ^
ta 4tfibk««frA«bi
«t IM 4l|«r »Itw <hij!i,^iteiiilfc;'^ « fioM^'ii «f lUftlt
' dM adll >1
^idi<^||fl<|iiHd(i% #a4 irhefl tbt gout a^fitiirvifi tilt iM^, givt. tbi««s«i on
ggdii^ dMor olMwiif boot, |H0in|gt» poUilbff ft tiftdb gl tb*
i4biMidMr iilti litdM^^MK ov iprU^^ ftbft««o4 ^tek
:!«^lbttliU«ftitift0ftl4eftr|io^ «ftgft tbeowa la lii mot M; la tbftt
. .tiFfftliif on* ftfMribo* *)» t3hi1ftai* ft
^ MAMWAXih BfiT0RN FOU OOLOMBO.
I*S!|
^ 9 ? 0
g o & ^
IlSi
a s ?s
fc g •
iMli!
i[ism
S ? s ?
Sill
^ 9 8 ^
8 “ " °
n 9 % s
m la w to
;; 4 ^ ^ 9 r ^ ^
^ ^ 9 as
6 ^ t* <o
S 5 £ §
ISIS
8 s a a
* * ■* *
llll
3 IM
Sts*
a a a 5
IS S Ql ^
^ S SS 8
<«i ^ f-i V
8 8 9
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8 8 a
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g ? 3 8 ?r 8 S
M «0 Ct IH Vi** p«
g|s
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5 9?
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"s a s
o « g
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a a a a
s « ?
« « 12
^ W Ml
ifltt absorptive power op soils.
D B AITKSN'S fOTooUi Uwtairo oa Iba OHemUtrjr of AgrioaUaxa
4*Kfa**l in tba Hlgbloita nod Agriaaltnrftl Saoiety*fi Hftll, wu on
«fa* AbwrpHv* iPow*t ot SoUt,"
Pr«AllbtlLd«Mi»tffttad tba fiat tb*t ofdla»ry dry eortb bn* tba
poMfif of ftbaofbiiii tnftuy hinds ol oolonthig mfttfear from aolotioot
*0iilidttSngtbaw.s*d12wt^UfltN aoUa bftd rary varioaa
SiSorpdfo ipo#br. fbl* irsa abSwit to tw not aaaraly * maebftoioal
0l|fl|l!^^« '^{ III moat iDiiiaea rathar doe to dbamtaai ftottdo* Tbs
^ ilig taaiurer tfttdi ftddad nraah to
*V^ inis^yi*^ W tbftt Mtjaot. Ra fooad thbt orban idlotitnu of
' tbll aofttaluad in a yot, the wfttnr irblob
oompOflilSn—tba baia of the aalt
bir.^ioIji^iildagobiDgadfdir nyroj^tronatSamonotof
Iv t/UfW* Pfbao ft^ wa?^ aointloa ot soiybftift of aiomaiilft or intiyliata of
. yoiWb if^iyo^Ob tb* SoUnOift i«ftl« AloH yasiml Ibrwfb oontslned
is^ylNfdMl ^awftt* M of graftt
. faiyoRniiSftdV'Sif^l^ i Ibrasparimant* abowad tbyt tbs bsMt moat ^
f»«^;« 0 MftdbrMa^r 0 ||jr^ tboaow^ yionU r«quira«l moat
ibt tbstr nmlgbritigiist «blab *ba«cbad sbato bsat smi* found
lo lA tbdlift wMoblmd ^bsab Adaf oa*i|lala|y arastbiaadv: fbsabaorptloii
^ tnOasHgOtid by Voalokar.
Bb''fe**b1b*ttt’dtfM*»il^^ all
; '* 14 ' fat, AboataMarohie
wblsb fftronraA Its ftbiot|4ita< ik^only to
mHofttat of aintSlOa *4 b^d; 4fltbti4 bniaa» w«r«
tbnactit by .iotno to im ft^i^asl^l^Ortoialo mat^, ftiio,
««a known to bnva a groM povmr ^ .ft4tfb**iiiitobiA \ Mi owing to ibo
mtoaaaing eomyiaitty ed aeilajaird :f9< tgwftt vnrfsiy ol ohsmlAftl
Mbioatloaa and dwmmpoaitioii* o«pftW49^«Mlolbaav E«aa
Impomibi* for obuniata to dp hmS*^ tb*n tpm at to itoRv*
Importnuoa of tho vartona oonStbanOto of ioltfv M nmitlM tbal*
ftbaorptivo powar. Tbo aoWaat aoilon of lb*ro*tft4 nlSntomltllittoar
oompiioptad tba (pn^lry* Tito atata of aoinblnfttbift In irnlob nUmt
food oniaiad to iba aoK nft«ot Uw atmoit importonoa toJtolbrtnd^
Liabig ndrftnoad tba tboory ikat it wot only mob food no wnt In
ybyalanl oombinotioo tbftt,iivniiOil for tba nouriabmantot ptnnta i but
jimHi 0 bypQtitaala woa tmaaoaaswry. Bubatitiiooa i n bigbly oontpiOiCf but
nraak ohomiant oombination in^ theaoili waralatboboilootitdlittontiir
bolng daoompoaed md ahsorbeil by tba aolrant powor of tbo
What tba a^vaot powar of tba root ia we do not koow^and ho|o triad
In vain to imftota it. War* wa sbla to iinitata tba aoheiit aotlob of tbp
root, weooQld than datormlua lu the taiiomtory (ha praoito montnro of
fartillty of varloni aoila. But an far from baing abla to do tbKto
obamiat ia loareely ab)(^ from hia analyata of a aoil, to any wbator it
(a fariilo at alU Boila known to i>a barraii are lomatitneafound to
eoDiainaii tboaiomaniiofnlttutfoodin grantor abundiao* than a^li
that prodnoa larga eropa The mat bod of annlyata employed by obSi*^
la auacoaiiive trantmeat with weak mid B^rong aolranta, na water mtil
bydroeblorio nolil; bat tbeae boar little or no reBambinitaa to tba aatto*
of the rooti Boila treated witb atrong aotd tond atUi to yield
noariabfuout to piauta. H. Von Llablg tried weak aoe^a amd i
Qtaadeain reootaiaeudr dilute ammonia : otHera aarbonie add ' Pm
water ; bat all thaae wore merely ampirioat ettorta to gala aomo kind
of lodtoaiioaof farttiUy, whoea auooaaa or oUiorwIaa dopeuded on to
oaoidautal obataotar of the aoiU Kaop had mad^ * fftloabla raaaarob
with the view of diaoovering a tnanauFa of fortuity (n aotta, aod waa Of
opfaiontbat tbeaittoataaof the eeaqaiouide formed a gooil erltorloii,
no aoil, be foaud being fertile which oonialQeiX leaa than 3 par eagliOl
ihear*
There was om dtreotion lii whioli the chemiat waa able to give
valuable ioformotlou. fie ooufd toll the oauae of barnmneaa when that
waa due to tba want of iome important etemaut ol plant food. Ko loU
wag fertile wbtab bad not tba olamanta of plaat food d but It 4gbt
have tho elomaut* of plant food and yet be barren, or nearly an.
The lecturer then proceeded to demribe the varloua epadUtoui of to
soil most fovourable to weath«rifig-<-tIie «*ffaet of Warmth, niol«itir*«
aad organio matter. The dark coioar of a aoU favoured fta abaorpRob
of beat ; the lighter the colour the more heat was regaotwi and to waa
absorbed. Dark Roila, theretore. weathered quicker, and uauaed toSrwp*
to gertamato and ripen more rapidly tban lighUcolourad toUa ; and Bila
waa a matter wbieb the fariuer had to itome eitout wUblu kla .cfwii
cOutrol ; lor the application of w^ot on the cue baud, 0( ^icareaol ibsila
oa the other, tendM to darken or ligUieu the ooioae of to sotl, and ao
to hasten or retard the rluealng ot the orop.’^!ft4e ebaW^y f7«A(itfaiait'f
atagazine,
A REMARKABLE PAUASXm
f pHlil life, history, and the agamic muftiplfoatioo of the *|dlididm hare
X always ezoited the Interest of eiitomoIagUta, *ad kave sytb
attracted the attention of some ot the moat emtuoot of ouf baturallitfi
To every amateur gardoDer-«-nay, to every grower of a gaistilutia o| *
roBo bush, these destructive peats are known ; the now noxious gnilMh
vine phylloxera belongs to the family. WUh all their vgit numto*
aod their univeraaUty, their life history has bafdeil the tktjf *1 manif
an obaerver, and this has been eapeoially the case In the ga^if^ak i*g
forms which ao diadgure our ticea Rfsearobea carried on to
life of the phylloxera have, however, somewhat Cleared to W*y, fthd
Dr. Biley begins Vol. S, for 1879 of the " Bulletin of tire Bnlto toto
Geological Survey" with some biological notes, iu which be 'ftogfttii
to following moat remarkable history :^ft will be remember
deetruQtivo ae tbeea inseota are, they are moat fragUCi and Xto^Rk
in coudoement, eo to trace nut all their dally biaUiry ^ *
-Space of ever ten mouths was a labour requiring dtllgenoft ftgil
perseveranoe«^ne that probably would not bate been aueuei^t
bad not Dr. BUey bean helped by an enthuaiastic lady friend. Tbf *4
species itudied ia known as iSehUetuum AmaHcpnaM Itln^spito
leaves of the Amerioa eim, sometimes la each niimbers as to eauie *i|
the leaves to fall. « during the winter ihe eracka la Che bark ef ^m»;
Amarloaa elm that was badly Infeatid with this leaT-Mfling fpmrlesthtt
previous stMomts be eutamload there will pretty ,s>ireiy he found here
and there a small dull ytUow-coloared egg about Sutm, lung, prob^ly
suit oovered with the remaiua of to female’s body <l«l«e dried np. Oat
from tbia egg will in tba early sprtog bs bathed the lUMe craWUng
oreature wbito conatltnlai toAfUt gdnetotton Id a very t emarknbje eerto
aetUing upon the lender opento laavto* ^bU ** stemmotbeir tato
toleBd,oai»iag toleal tofwall be and puckiir until it ^ laat berieovto
the tiny form. After tbyaa^f^”^ '*** temperaiure beidg warm, It
commesesa to papple tha^lM^ with youM, at the rate of about one every
six or seven WW' tfe wonJI keowraitot theogb they never grow to
be at kllse large as Ri##towmton to like her to'many reapeoto.
Th*yimomtototototowtobei«.toineorwkicb,*eto**"*»?^5*
' 4''|r
kMtinrtwt HMi-.
iliilMfA liiUttirtloo It Jiff tttoUtt (t^ H #»tll
0Smmt$ Hit# m iwi 3^ f{|toi 0^ te
tlMitl|^g«fi#Mtt^^ AHof tbittiMQalMWiit. T|iatt«koiittdTii tbt
Mw f «4 ot •na «i^ fMTt o|/ii^» iMiw ^
ia wliltk t^r IMt
fmt$. tbi atftatH gtiiwMtba, toa m tibgpiiii ^hlit
MliroltiitlMffkt^e ftaii^ H IttHt Itifvr tlisii tlw fbtf
tlM to IftertMt In •!« by Itio onteivtMit A tom tloglt tgg.^^
•MtMOMiiINMtlMVto ottoiif Ibtir fbrNolltd bodltt Ibe Aloto*
tottalibt arloitr oMi «Ub ttbiob m tiotitd} fo« ato t kiog airlot of
vegttMl90fittoaoHofli» at latttba tliiia tomat to« ttit irtbtarlitg of ilio
rati Hr tbl« argoi|»ofo*Ukt body, totty io tiila Hit a bitit to oar yjaot
growm It iioaid bt tatlai to deittoy a ttbgla agg than atop a afriam
otj^^o^prodaoed lorma attandiog to tla gintvailoai.'«"&too«o
TAB BiBOTBIO LIOHT.
BXPBBtMIHTS AT TAB OsWSltCi WORKS*
S OBB laiertsttog axparlmentt with tht elaotrio light watt niadt
at Ibt Orwell Workt. The eaeoett aohitvtd by Uettre*
Sima, aad Beadi with their paleot gotemor lor teeor-
fog itgalarliy tu the rnaning of engtnea lor gaoavatiog elootrloity
to gaioetl tham a wlda reputatloo. and they art Jaat now axeeatlog
00 order for four oaglR#* maohioaa combload for (be lodiao Bleo-
tight Company for naa in India. For etaotHo lighting one of the
gfeateat dlfflonliiea to eontend againet waa tha oeaeaaity for regularity
liiipiid,aQd to toare Ihia Meaara. Aanaoinei adapted their patent
otttomatlo gorernor etpanalon geari whieb ragnlatea the moeemant of
tha engtne to aneh a nioety that the revolntiona remain wUbont any
Btreeptlhle flaetaatlon. In all the eaperlinenta which hare been
made It wai loasii better to employ aeparete Iteam engloea, than to nee
any engine whieh might be at work In the factory or place requiring
to bei lighted, and thia to indooed the Meaerav Banaomei to turn their
nttentimi to the adaptation of their porUbla engine! for eleetrio pur-
Boeai. They hamiaet with eucocae in the undertaking, aad^bave adapted
&ar g«lKMna power engfnei for the Indian Gompeoy. The electric
appaialoa ia carried on a platform eitending beyond the amoke-bon of
Iba enBlne. ao that the whole of the machinery, motlre power, and
eleetrio marating and dlitributiog, la self-coDtaloed, and the eoginea
being poiUble, they are readily tranaported from place to place. The
Ofamniettaofaiaea are employed, and aa there are two to drire—one
exciter and one dirlder end alternetor—the eugioe la fitted with two
large fiy*wbeele« one for each machine. The dabloekofi oandlee, which
ere need with tha Gramme maoninee, conelat of two potnta of carbon
nlaoed io a parellel poeltion. with a thlokncM cf non^oondnotlng
material between. As the poeltlve point alwaya boriw more rapMiy
than the atoHre. the altematiog machine waa Introduced, com to
Ihionr the oorrent backwarde and forwmda from point to point eerelal
tboamod timet per minute, and in tbla manner keep the oarboua per¬
fectly level. Bach candle ia eqoal to about 600 eperm oandlea, and
alx ilffhta oan be kept burning by one engine. To produce the light, the
exoltm maobloea makee 1,200 revolotiona per iRl°ute, and the divider
l.lOO. The*arrangement for carrying the electric maohinea waa deafgned
by Mbiara Banaomeat and the plan adopted is aimple and effectual. The
platform leila upon an arch o< iron, firmly fined to the engine; and to
aeoare peafeet tension of the driving strap, the maohinea are plaoed
upon a alidlog table, worked by meant of a aorew, which enahtea tha
man in obarge to regulate ibem to the moat enact nicety. This aparatna
If Qonattuofed from the deaigna of H. Bolfus, engineer to the Indian
Bleolvie Light Company, who peraonally conducted the eyperimenta.
M the trial ih# painting chop at (he Orwell Worka waa light
htw U the Jablookofi oandlee, and was never lighter during the
brlnhto^ ^* 7 - ^ke building it IdOft. long by gift, wide,
and lattllmkrUy lighted by IS gae jete from the roof, whieh it ia need-
leaa <a aay were quite eoliptM by the brtUiantnnd ateady light pro-
dnoa^y the engine. Tboagn aln eandtoa were need three would be
imply aatftelaDt for lighting each a apace. We should add that the
englnee In qaeetlou have ton oonetreoted with fire boxee of extra
large dimennon so ae to burn every description of wood and the ioferior
fUfl nommonly found in the east, Tnia marks a further stride
toward the development of the eleetrio light, and we heartily
congratulate the Ileaera Banaoipes on being tie meana of afiording eu
additional proof of ita ntUBy for Ulamlnatlng pnrpoaea.
IBDUBf VhMSim mAmm for OaMMBECIAL
PWKPOMB.
Sf tour U* A. L. B,
(Rtai Utm ike toMV f>S Arts, Rfarch 7 J
fpiffiBremtadaptalltnlnthia emtoy ol many prodito and^semedlaa
Xtofitod by IsAto plants to dlrmtedftoattontotodnrBaatern
peammlonatasasoatofrom wheto we may, lu tinic^ expaat to raoeiva
^mani now and fatuatile commodes, Gousidmuig tha vait axtsut of
eouutm^; and the vadeiles of dlmate that prevail ever the gtolLtdtao
CiitoSbt belonging to tha BAfish Ccown, it is, peibsps, M a iUtlo
Mufgtgiag (to mole to net iditoy been done to develop ft
^ efto too be^ made to Mpinfi
fMgd rihto df eonunctcra
eatandlnk' A toto<ai
ibeseefltotohMMW
go Ao ',ifia|t' toHdy
.. .
end tha athbogiay to* a'
aueeeaifateultolndntoettogrtoptotoaeto'i^^ •
wfalAi,
cdbtoetotatotolront IMriimtotoMiiNaid^
geogrtodeal laagi of' anltum-woto 'Add fajtototo' to il i lt ii 'dmk ^
pfiodaea M fabii
couauawr t and beiddoithis'iro ^^fffi ^ ^ «iaaiugin^''aik '
largar tha acaa of land pub nato profitabthtoBt^
to eountry aenoitaedf not oaly on to aeocaei kuMMto ktoivim
what la of cgual imfortimea»toamplogaiaatof totohk^ '
aoU, or in to vaiioua arts a n d pan uf se t ufes which paoaaid toa n totot
of high eulBvalloo, and, aaarasidtcfaltttoitctoaiMaaidfto^^
people. BwmnQtbedaaiedtottheMainpoto to bi toad gtin to
formation of any new oountry, and, though moia aanuotbeiiidtahea new
country, either hletotioally or in ite relation to Baptoi wOr unfortunaMiy
are not in a position at to pmseat lime Io ei^ tot lhal psaao gUd
rmaperity, sodeeired by us aU| relgoa over to axfant of. our Beato
Bmpire. On to other hand, India stfil regniieimeoh oamhil eoiietdiaa fl on»
not only fiom to diplomatist and the ndUtaiy tadfolaa, but to Irein thoae
skilled in to ato maanfactnras, and oommame, on whole indlvSdaai or
united axortioBs much of ita futara prSipadty depeUdi.
Itianottotojnblectoftlia introdnotlon or aeoUmalisatlon of locaign
plants in Into, of which 1 have ineldsntaUy ftpokani tot 1 wish to draw
parttenlar attention. Thare ia ple&ty of room in to eonntiy lor thla Uad
of work to go on, and there ara plenty of plaata auttahle lor inch
introduoUen ( but H must not be forgotten tot India It epeoialljr rich in
plants , of acknowledged eeonomio valae» whotbar toy ba lagaidad aa
fnmiaiuog food, medicine^ or clothing materials; bub Otar and above this*
it pQisesses nnmhidess plants, to valae of whioh i« not known ont Of tito
own country, or if known ia not yot sppreeiated and tose oonOequwitly
await fart her development of their usee. Then egatU, going etUl fusUiei^
wa may my, jwe shall be disappointed, 11 absolutely new properfies are pel
diieovered in many plants as they beoeme more known, and by thoiv mere
extended appUoatlon to money value of to vegetable pi^ucU of India will
go on inereasittg. Of to extent end variety of these produota at present
known a good idea may, of coarse, be had from to floe ooUeolloa in to
India Miisenm at South Eeniington, or from a glaaoe at the exteniive series
bronght together at to Paris Exhibition last year. This most valuable
colleotlona whioh included woods, Abrei, gums, reeto drugi, do., was got
together bv to officers of to Foreet Pepartment nndef Ih, BraadUt mid
though to colleoti on exhibited at Puiebss found a resting place io the
Forest School at Nancy, I am snre you will be glad to hear tot a duplicate
set has been sent to this country, and is now deposited in to museum at
Kew. This coUection is one eiaentially of forest prodoce, and, aa such,
exhibits to gieat importance of to Forest Department at it is managed
id India ; for besides to preservation and extension of valuebte timber
trees, whiiffi may be oonsideted to fegfiimato wOrk of Aprest oonservanoy,
the prodnetion ef gums, resins, and not a few druge is neoeisaiUy aasooiatod
with tom. Were to work of the conservancy department eoUfiaed to to
preservation of trees for to sake of their timber alone, this would, indeed,
be a good work, for we must not forget how rich India la in woods, valuable
both for structntal and cabinet purposed. Thus, for initanoe, next to onr
own European timber, oak. teak takes foremost rank, and is very widely
known and used. 1 The preservation, therefore, of to teak forwts, of the
sfil, sandal, and other similar wooda is a matter of vital importanoe to to
country, and It is satisfactory to know that this braaob of Btdlha produce
is now plaoed on such a sound and practioal baaia s aod tough there map
be diiEereiioei of opinion as to to means we have in Eogland, or rather
to leek of means, for to training of foresb officers for India, we can but
feel to necessity <d a slmilaT forest depertmeut in many otkor parts ed to
world. Included amongst forest produce, to bamboos hold a pfominent
placai whethei we conaidcr to endless nses to which toy art pgt fia, Xn^
or toir more extendbd ap^icatioa to whi^ ee much attentoi tme etoatly
been dtawo, namely, tot for paper making. Xt would ooenpy far toe mwh
time, besides going over ground that has been traveisad befiire, U give ton
the heads of to etatemeoto put forward in favour of to bamboo, ev el tboee
advanced ag*»R*k1Wpraotioal and Fofitable ntUiaetioa. The opialoiMi ot
Mr. Thom^a Bontledge on to one bend, and pi J>i!, King, taperfatendiiit'
of toe fiotsoic-gardene, Celeutta, on toetbil; will ibdonU beftohig
tomimofyof rneny members of to Bocieiy of Arts, havfav toentlp
appeared in your own /owniai Thope intdriibidiB|^ia1i[^tm^
advlie, toohtiun alitUe pampblotreeentlyIsiited Mr. Bpn(to|ekSimi|ef
the title of » Bamboo end Be !toetasent,'*.m
punpUet, publstod in lUd by B. and F. gpon/idftod ^
uonsideied aaaFapcgAnlOdhglXat^^ Whstor toteto^lMi^ .
a papeiwmaksag uatexhawitt m dei^dp ito dn, aekspwlsdghd wC
eommeto tosins to be tprovedt to e^ to least, it viesw M ddiAl ^
ifuprOlmbleiindieMsieaentoiubledtieMr, BeaUhdgtk wkm sjpiKto
mmt be taken as haying beme weigH <« aodtot of hlsgtefikiji^
esperltoibtothiimfd in to ptetoe to his most leecgt pamiAM^W
to leJlyventilate to question guosndly of ,
pap«r-g»kittg pwws, I
toi impBtot which.aiimdt:feBeoi^^
fcln lo notiee imjrthl^, liw^'
itli*,,W*i4 ,$IP npUbJy ItoJcbtttgK WjiilfiflJii* Wigbfc,
iwi|l itbMiifOBi wd imongil tbow wboltive tijp tttdlwi botoay
•Mpiallr frptt ,«^nMaiaoi4 or soouomio poi»fe ol tU# taa^' bP fliwtioiiBd Eoyl«i
oikiti.lMi^Uiiido^drm*!), Biidvood, M, 0, Cbpko, mi • b^t <>f otbota. Tbo
^lb9tiMo«,.pf boPa^ia ipird^p, mi tho WV (batliMb^ darriM oalti
' 80 g^«r wUh ibe jEoribatioa o* ttgriottUdfa! abd fcorWooItdral fOeletiai
PMtp pi Indibi ,b$T 0 all bad tbetr idflaenM I6r good, by
JWf method* O* oultlyatlon, by ottering pr a«8 for
edf^rt m> tbd onltiretion of dome woll-ksorfb eoPoomio pUntf* or tot
lb»' liBfiforewedl by oaUiraHon of indigonoo* fmlto and otbor prpdac e. It
eattnoblM that tba oxietMco of tbeae aooletlof nob only ba* gim
and #tiE gi««* ta 'mfotm to oultivatioo.bab iprondiaknowladge of tUo
niofl of planta among their mem here, and an interest to farther and develop
tboea aie«t or to dnd new appUoationa. Eegarding the introdaeUon into,
aad'tbedletiribntioa froiui India of new plant* and aeade^ which » ton
oertein extent carried on by the eoeietiea referred tOi mncU of ooune i*
done by tlm Oovorument gardens at Caloutta, daharunpore, Madras,
Ootaoaoittndii and Bimgalore. All these gardens are centres of botanical
knowledge^ and are lapeiintended by well-known and competent botan ists.
Thee the luee of hotamc gardens are thoronghly understood and appreciated
in India would seem to be proved from the fact, ns we learn d'rom a recent
number of ffotnre of its having been proposed to ostahllsh IVesidenoy
Botenic-gardens, and a oommvttee chosen for oonsidering whether Poona
or Bombay should be selected as the place for the principal gardon of that
Presidency, the decision being m favour of Oanesh Ehind, ** They
reoommend, however,*’ continues the paragraph above referred to.that a
email branch garden, eonsistiog of four or five acres, be established in
Bombay.” ” The Qovemment,” we are further told, ’’highly approved
of all the recommendations, which will be carried out whenever finauoial
means may permit.” Xhe mam scientific garden, which will embrace
about forty acres, i« to be laid out in the irregular pioturssque style, with
ipeoial reference to landscape efiect, and the planting of the ground will be
done gteduslly and without any undue haste.” The chief resources of the
garden, it seems, are to be devoted to the bringing together of the
ind^enous plants of Western India, and, until this is satisfactorily
aooompished, no pains will be tsken, except in speoial oases, to in^oduco
foreign planto. A herbarium, botanical library, and class rooms, furnished
with disgtams, are to bo aitadhed to this gardon. Having asid so much
about the valne of botanical gardens, and agricultural and horticultural
sooletles. in dittnsing an interest in plants and their consequent atilisation,
I wUl next briefly allude to what has been done in f arthcranoe of the same
object by the aid of books. Many gentlemen here present know as well or
better than I do of tho extent and value of this class of literature, and 1
need only mention the titles of a few, such as Boyle's “ Productive
Besourees of India/* ” Fibrous Plants of India,” Drury's’’Usoful Plants of
India," Blrdwood's ** Bombay Products,” Balfour’s ** Timber Trees of
India,'* and last though not least, Biandis’s '* Forest Flora/’ to show that
Indian piodnets have received from time to timo a great deal of careful
attention; and, even down to our own day, I might further mention the
labours of Dr. Cooke on the gums, resins, oleo resins, and oils, and thCge
of Dr, Dymock on Indian drugs, which have been appearing periodically
for the last two years or more in the Phamacev/.ioal /oumal, to say nothing
of the numerous papers to be found in the Jbnrnaf of this Hccielj. In
view of all the iliustrious names 1 have mentioned, besides many others
that will ooeur to you who have quietly, perhaps for tho most part with
ihelf pen imd vdtliout any pomp of State, helped to make India what we
see her at the present day—'iu view, 1 say, of all this, it does seem pro.
aumptttous on my part to come before yon to ventilate the subjAct that wonid
liate been mnoh better Introduced by many gentlemen m this room, who
have spent a portion of iheir lives in India, or, who have made India's pro-
^uets t^repeeial study. Of the Indian plants that appear from deseriptions
oftheU uieaalteady given, or from the nses to which thoy are known to
be pnt kt their native oonntry, I can only enumerate a comparatively
lew, anfiloieatq however, tor the purpose of illnstrating that the tesourees
of l^dis, let alpne those of the world at large, are far from being
esjtanetedit B«w predud^ in the vegetable kingdom undoubtedly there are
W be discovered; indeed, scarcely a /ear passes but' souie novelty
it bfbegbh tp the knowledge of tho authorities at SeW, as the director's
eepo^ show, dpea^g gensfally. a very great deal more, might
b» dope tNnifl done to bring new products into use, or to develop the
gpptioeUosie of .ethers of which we at present know but Utile. Hitherto
te hat, tutfbrtniiatelyf been the fashion to eoudema without a lengthened
iiacbfair.eibi^ any new product that may have come into the market,
iialoo* H besii pijorninedtly on the face of it an Indication of commerci^
wueesis, HiternUft qnestioa i« will it payf and if at the firSc
onset frem^ydclotw causes it oppears as if it will not pay, it is cost on
one mdei perhapil to crop up agam at some future time more or less
yemete^ KoWoss may Its written and descriptions given in the vsirioue
apumill ef our day» but nnljsss Jjim pew prod:aet has at first some very
itibng ora^ oua^sttiat' iud mmrgetio cbemptOQ ocmes forward
Ip ktand hy H more fregeienBy shibi kite ohliriom Ko surer or better
Wft| to prevent thiSi indlio maM .^ jmsonteea soy country d
is to bring tbemett«y'kpre«f4hfb ,br)diBiiy ^ leeteal meetings eliilfl
Soeietvi where It jem be firdety Mb in its eeientific and cw
mercial beatings; and Itt* with 1 wish to peiat ent seme
oeotiomio prddums of ludbm Ijkit imvS fsernlly been introdumd ,
into this cooatry, ink haye hew- ef Wudi, k
the hope that my simple sUtemM lUom, wih UCt as anipoenBveto
further research into the prepertiee ^!liidi|m.iplunti^ knbwn to be used
by the natives whether for food, mediifiim^m rmumfimthre. M this peiut
I cannot bnfe refer to whet his been VeesttHy done' by Mr. Thomai
Christy in bringing bommerelal pWts to Hfe light of day« ftnoi, by n
thorottgh investigation of ill products, wh2<di appMir to be teftljly tttthil,
and iatrodneiug them td tho eommereial World, seveitl hive beecmd
acknowledged ir^olee of trade between TndU and ibis cenntry* 1 w|U noW
direct your attention to ,a few of these oommeieial plauti fmm HthMif the
most important of which is undoubtedly the Cfyncoardh ed^mfe, et
ehaulmugta tree, lb belooge to ttie nitoral order Bixicem* and is a
large tree, aetite of Pegu, Tcnasierim, and other parts of the Msisian
peniusnia, extending into Aesam, Khasla, and Sikkim* It does not*
howevor, roach the central or western parts. The fruit is round* some¬
what like a largo orange, containing nnmeroos irregulwiy nwid seeds,
end it is from these seeds that the oil is expressed: it hss a faiUt
unpleasant taste and smell, and, as found la the Indian baesars, is ueuatly
very impuro. Mr. Christy says, in a pamphlet recently iasued by him
that, ** the pure oil in India is expensive, and therefore offers a great
inducement to the natives to adulterate it; indeed, adutteration is
carried on to such an extent, and is so difficult to detect, that it has occa¬
sionally caused medical men in ludta to diseontioue its use. In the
Hauritiue it is said that so high a value is put upon its purity that the
coeds are imported, from India for the purpose of obtaining the oil free
from adulteration. Though this oil has bean long nsod in India and
China sb a remedy for akin diseases, aud other oomplainti arltiig from
impnrlty Of the blood, it has only quite recently become used in this country»
and now it la greatly in request for consamption, zbeumatism, leprosy,
and such lake diieases, being given both iuterually aud externally. It is
being used in seveial of the London and Parisian hospitals, as well ns
by some of the leading members of the medieal profoseion. Here, then,
is an instance of a new (Rommercisl product from India, and One that
promises to become an iuiportnnt medicine.
Another plant, which is official tn the Indian PhaSmacopcoUr and which
has risen to some importanoo, is the Oamm q;otoan, ores it is perhaps
more generally known asihe t'tyohotk q/moan. an umbellii'erous planb the
fruits of which are used tu India as a carminative, Those little fruits
somewhat resemble in appearance those of‘the eraaway, to which they*
are botanically allied. The flavour is, however, quite different, that
of the plant mnder oo&Bidetftiien having a thyme^llke taste and smell.
The commercial importance of these Duits as a loutee of thymol, a
valuable antiseplio, is referred to in the PhonacsuUoatJoumal for the
S2nd of February, were we are told that Messra Melaoer and> Otto, of
Leipxig, alone sent out, during tho months of September aodOotohor,
more than a ton of this subslanoe* 'J'he works of this find, it it farther
stated, are occupied day and night in its preparation, and the demaud
for thymol and thymol wadding is greater than ever. This film appears
to use the fruits of Carura ojowan as the source of thymol, but they stats
that thoy have advices that not only has the price of the fruits edvaocod
through a bad harvest, but also through tho increased oousumptioo ct
them m India by the natives during tho very sickly season of last year*
The Carvm ajowan is an annual barbaceous plant* and, besides ooourriog
wild in many parts of Indio, Affghauisfcan, Persia, Bgypt,tiid adjacent
countries, is also ooltivoted iu the same distiiots for the sake of the freite
which ore used in the countries just mentioned on aocotmt of their
carminative and stimulant properties. Still another now drug-new, that
is, to this country, but long known iu India—is tho rusot (BerSefvs orlitam)
an extract of the bark of wbioh is now being tried in this country, having
been used in India in ophthabnio cases and as a febnfago from a very
early period. The official preparation is tho watery eatraot prepared fic^i
the root betk. As the artiele is quite a new one, as far as Boghsh practice
IS concerned, I am unable to give you any medical opinion as to ita
therapeutic value, /Ser&aris lycium aud ficthns aswfica both yield a
similar product. Turning from dregs, our mind is diceoted toe peculiar
product, which a casual observer would, perhaps, take ffir deteriorated,
sultana raisins. Upon closet examination, however, theee prove to bi the
flowers of the mahwa tree (Bossia iati/oUa). This tree grows to 40 ot flO ft,
high, with a trunk d to 7 ft, in girth, and is abundant m all parts of Oentml
Judin, from Qumtat to Bohar. Tho tree is propagated by self-eowu seod-
Itnxs. Tho following notes on this tree were read before the Liutieau
Society last year by Mr, la'ckwood, who spent eome time in an official
capacity in Moughyr, He says
’’Any one. staoding on the dry metamorphio Karapoor hills in the
district of Monghyr, 2fl0 mllee nmtk-weat of Caloiltta, and looMag into
the phuns below, may sea a himdr^ tUouiaad mahwa trees, which, if
f^sh from CaLcntti^ be vriU probably mistake for mango trees. But,
unlike that of mango trees, wbioh are uocettaiu k their yield, the mahwa
crop never faUs^; for the pari eaten is the aucautent ebroUa, which falls iu
great profueioa from ihetreoe in March and April. This season is a great
feaftibg time for tim humbler members of elation. Birds, squirfelsi and
ttWb-IhreWi feast«mapg the branohes by day, wUilab ihu pwr villagsre
collect the corotla* which fall on the gfowtd on all oideo. wot doe*««
ll4«anM«4ililb«litw^
ndiii *b«iil«oft trt«*
iKiilt m.NitiA Mliftz treib «v <)»r ptongfa} HkO*
fiMilt ptofiitiii, Um iMtivp |iro(«el ])4[ii{iig
WU«(I X paMftd ia Um^ft M t ^Uil#d
VPrt ttig 4»400 ufldvr my duvi^« iaUie cold «M«oit| pAying
«4tMttoa t« tlM’ttiitiiMlhiitoiytpiittoalMly Ici tli« UolMiy <»ftlift
tk# imaiiNrR tr««, whlol^ X li*4 Pot ioon ptovSooBly tn Ziover
Xtoagoli pttMotod my wpoobt attentioa f ood)^ ofttottUtod thotihero Moit
b«4]iPtlM^»ttott€ifiakiaioiiirM«iB MooghjrAlono, ISaobtroo yioMf two
Of thm^oadfed WOigUt of ^nIIm ; to that th« total yleltl of maUwa
flowtfi oMBuot iMi faf shoit of a hoadred iboaUMid tooo k Moagliyt aloue.
f)l tkio amoiiiit 4 foot qdimUty goo* to food ^ho fomt bird* aod boost* ;'
bat^'of t^ot portfoa Whieli ii ooUeetod by tho oottvo* by far ibo greoUr
pflMrt If ootea, aiol^ouppUe* nooinidiing food to tbo pcxKrer oliuiM*, Tbo
tettMli, wbo ttflo Hlorf^yt oro » plowp and bnppy mte, tbe only people
I bavf fvfv iooit to India who onjoy a bearty latigb^ and tbi* I atfcribate
< iMutly to tbe nomriebliig <)«AUIie9 ol the tuabwa, gnppleueated with venifon
and othor wboloeoiiio gaaio which tbe woods snp^dy.
^'Zkorlag the foaeon of scaroity irfaiob pratrailad at Debar daring 1878-74
tba ntabwa eiop^ Wbteb waa nnnsaally abundant, kept ihoneanda of poor
peo|da from itarobig, and all famine officers will recall it* peculiar odour ai
they pasiad Ibcoagb tba rUlagea where it had bean ooUeoted. Tbe residue
df tbbtnabwa wbiob ia not eaten ic taken to the dietiUeiy, and there,
With tba*eid )0< rude pot-stiUi, ia eoav'arked into a airoDg-smelling
eerily wbieh bears a atrong rasamblanoa to wbliky. Tbe Ooveromeat
bedda b monopoly of epirit xnanufaoturef and when 1 first went to
JUmigbyr, in 1878, the ouatom was to obarge a duty of eight
idfillinga for every owt« of tbe row material a* it atitered tbe distillery, on th o
auppOfition that so mucb mabwa would nuly yield three gallooi of proof
spirit, Dubseaueady, in oonseqnenca of experiments made by the officers
wider me, tbki duty was somewhat nussd ; but iu Sogloud I And that over
six gsDons of proof spirit oan be produced from a bnndred weight of tnahwn,
Tbit Oovemment of India sbonld be made aware'of this fact, and it wonld
probably bo advantageous to iutroduoe a patent still in the place of the
riido maobines now in use. The amount of mahwa which ooiniually paid
Ootem&mnt duty yearly in Moughyr was l,7&d tons t hut with patent
stUls under (dovemaent control, the mahwa would probably yield a much
larger revenue to the State, An lialian genUeman, Xfhj was living at
UoDghyr, when 1 was there, took out a patent for rotnoving by a very
■impla process the essential oil, or whatever it is, which gives the mtihwa
spirit Its peculiar smell ; and for some lime 1 thought he would make a
rapid foctutie s orders poured iu on him fiom Oalontta, and the deunaud
promised lo be immense. Bat just as thelavooioc hsu taken up a whole
iidoof the (fovernmeot distillery, aud got aU his preparations oompleta,
tho rum distillera in Calcutta, petitioned the Board of Revenue, and n
prohibitive duty was imposed, which completely put an end to the
manufSotureef scentless mahwa spirit. A sample was sent to the chemicui
examiner aiOaleutta, end he repotted that the spirit was oute and whole¬
some, and came very neai good foreign spirit."
Deskes the uses here referred to, mahwa fiowers are stated to be etiil
more useful for feedmg cattle. Pigs have been fed upon them in this
oonntTy, and the fiosh pronounced exoelloat. One graat point in connection
With tl^se fiowers, as a commercial article, la that tho orops are never
known to fad. Air. Lockwood further says that the oldest inhabitant iu
Mottghyt haduover heard of a eeason when tbe mahwa crop was not
i^haudaut, lor the fiowers are always ptviinoed m great quantity, whether
the fruits afterwards ripen Sr not. The extiaordmary keeping quality of
tha mtUiwa is also another recommendation to Us iulrodaotiou into England,
before leaving India, Air. Lockwood had a ton of these flowers shovelled
into sacks end put on board a vessel at Culoutta* They were gathered io
Aprili 1878, and after being kvpt for nearly two yeara were as good as
when first dried. Mr. Lockwood thinks India would benefit greatly if
mahwa fiowera met with a demand in England. The vast forests oi mahwa
trees, whtoh now yield little profit, to their owueiu, would soou become a
source of wealth, aud the colleotion of the eorollas would give work to
thcnsoitdaclpoor people who a^ present inhabit tho rooky country whei-e
the mahwa grows. The merits fA tbese flowers for distiUmg purposes aud
for feeding cattle seem w be*-l, ebuatpoess j 3, unlimited supply ; 8^ certaiu
yield *, 4, nourishing qi liiUes | and Q, good keeping quslities. Besides
these usee to ‘irhieh tiie flowers of Hannh have been suggested for
adoption in this country, the oil obtained from the seeds has also received
acme attention. It is used to adulterate ghee, or clarified baiter, and Dr,
Cooke, in hia report on oil seeds and ode in the I ndia Museam," says the
oil was long since snbmitted to Brice's Batent Caudle Compiuiy, and its
npplmabUity tor caudle insnutsctare asoeeialMod. Tlie report states that it is
woith in this OQUutiy, for theinauutaotaie oi oandiei, Xi per tou less thau
S^rgsburg tallow. A great many experiment hud been tried with it, and it
waa foami to be of the some value a* ooeoanut oil, as its being harder
compasaated for tbe colour belug iuforior. Large quautuios, it waa stud,
ncftld bs need m this country at about Jfidb per ten. ThiA.j|i^emeEd
WAS made t|ife)^su^o,aud^he Value of the od may hv^<«
then,. That Ihfli* is,sJttfe*«*iy >mh hi oil seeds, arli»«vo thiough 1^,
CMfcfi'fiCipditMMkdW. ikid hdiffi ^
and a hen JiOSlhifisaterUftgwipifir^kskad^e^^^
using thersiwsfor manureai^ ds%f»o4> ndtSiiug
_ mi of fretebfci 3pwc vsgeto^e iwe ^Jddufas
such, for instaece, as castef oil frbm^ oUlibth '
But European capitalists am waat<4 to pstombm c1| M*
give their Bwns* as a weyrant l^r stafi]^^
might hops to m$ke oil one of a|fcb^«i'^c]r ,e*^rjt, ^cirsr
enterprise would soon be amply repaid. fDws are coarse me Ml mtUe
in tlie country, but very U'lff and id these the oil is by pq Mekn^ to
cheaply as to leave no room tor competitiou. The Sm ihstetood^
country from the exportation of the seed* themseivei is s^^ly ettoimods*
Iu one year four million cwti. of material for oUko^e' is sent oPUTii
while the cattle are dying of hUDger. I give you this for oouijMiiii^Cp »
in the hope that, if the facts are not t6 be ooatrovertedi shmc stejM to
remedy suoh a loss to ludia may be takeu, ^
It is extremely dlffioult to particularise any planie apteeially snitod for
investigation, as likely to prove eommeroially valuable ( the diffimilty is
not to find them, where there are so mauy to aeleot from, but to know iraiOh
to take first. One man, however, might be specially interested in iTood
products, another in drugs, another in timber, and so on. To the first I
would say,—Are there no Indian fruila that we know little or nothibg of at
present in this country, that could be sent here, if not in their fresh ikle,
preserved if syrup, or candied with Sngar P I may mitance, perhaps, a few*
Tbe guava, for example, is not so welt known with us as I think it might be.
Ouava jelly and prosorved guavas we do oocasionally see, hut they surely
might he brought in larger quantities, and sold at « prioe to bring Uiein
into ipoto general use. Then again the rose apple (Euyesps/amAos^, and
the fruits of Eugenia maZ»ccsn»s, are quite worth oonsideratioa, I have
quite recently had an opportunity of tasting candied rose apples from
Jamaica, the tree having been inuodneed into tbe West ludian Islands,
aud 1 can speak highly of their quality, Uie rose flavour being preserved
BuffioiCiitly to give them a grateful Uste. 1 am informed by Mr. Eobert
Thomson, aomstime superinteudent of the Dotaaio-gardeos,yamaioa, that
those fruits are produced in very great abundance, and oould be eent into
tins country in any quantity ; steps indeed are being taken to introduce
them to oommeroo. Of course theie is the difference of distance between
this country and the Wfst aud East Indies, and the oonaequent greater
length of time oocnpiod in transit, and increased expenses of oariisge , but
ii other products can be bi ought from the East into this conntry, and sold
at a low rate, aud yet prove remunerative *I do not doubt that ‘'these fruits
might also become articles of trado. Tho loqnat' or, as it is sometimes
called, the Japanese medlar fErkhotrya Japoniea)^ though a native of
China and Japan, is largely cultivated in many parts of India. Thefroits,
which are oval, about the 8»o of a plum or small apple, have a sharp,
and sab*acid flavour, and are used ns a table fruit ns well as for preserving ;
this fiutt might perhaps be found worth introducing preserved either ia
sugar orsj’rup. 1 will only just refer to the names of the blimbing
(Aven'hm bilmlij and the catambola {AvertkQa cwwmMa), fruits well
known in India by cultivation, and valued for their acid flavour, to show
that amongst fruits alone thoro is a wide field for experiment \ and, as a
further illnstraiion of bow unlikely things are utilised, I may mention that
iu the Java oollectiCn of the Paris Exhibition last year, acme pcettUar
looking fruits attracted my attention, Which, upon closer examinstion* I
found to* be those of the nutmrg, the fleshy pericarp of wMoh had been
scolloped or omamontally cut and rolled back, the whole being preserved
iu syrup, aud fonntng a very agreeable.looking eweetmcatk Another
Apparonily nnlikely ffuit io bo of any servioe out of India, wberc) in
Cusltmere, wo know it is used, isihesmgharanut(?V«pa At^qitiMSs) the
fruit ot an aqnatio plant closely allied to the water ohostaut of tlia Ereuoh
(Yropu nalonn). The extended ooUivation, however, of this plant fiao
recently been pioposed in India, aud it is even been suggfstod that the
fruits might be sent to this co nntry. I need not dwell on this point, Mooe it
'uis boon fully desonbed at pages 174 and 175 of the Jourmliif tolk Soelety
4 or Jaouaty 81st last, In the matter of drugs, the mediemal plants of India
i .re so nmIbitndioouB that it is ntterly impossible to poiut out xnom than t^o
or three \>yvng of example. Pcotossor Bentley aud Dr 4 .Trlasny wpvkon
Aledianal Plants," hua, no donbt, been the mmnt of drawing attend to
ms., plants which, though official in the Phar'fiiaoepmia ofJnffiAatoatiU
unknown so far as mcdicsl praotioe is coucemed. Thua# a oomnion
leguminous tree, known as Bsma/roodosa, yields a resin known oa Baton Ur
Bengal kino, which exudes from the intuks of the Weea either tpoftteaanpely
or by incisions; this kino is an offioial remedy m India, ^
the eame wav ap the ordinary kiho of oommerOe,' Other
help to furnish this^tiuo, which is not altogether unknown in
beings occasionally used ns a tanning and dyeing agent the eeede of the
Batoa frondoia have a omtoiderable reputation In Xfldia atoongit, the
Alahommedsu doctors as a febrifuge; their nse, however^ te said’to he
sometimt's attended With ill effects, hence furt^r observations on,0ielr
actioh is desirable. The oil obtained from the seeds in hsedki os an
authehutotiu^ 3ome fuxther researches lu England on the prodiicta of this
tree migh^ toad to advantageous resultt. Another ieiqtofMtot,
plant ia the Indian hut not in the British '4l^e
: tarMuotui, a huge tree found to the Itoosts hC fddto
[ MtoPtghtofltopp^^
®“’**‘*'' **'*'“^d j“^*?^^
'biiM*. ItJ. aottaM****#**-*'^^
*^'*‘*'^ tfffni ft^*^ ’«»o** itt oilf ItwiiiltoMi • , , .
M^lM l«(l.t«t)M <oiMt oonunrtotl. B«fflo» it
«t toaim thBton for oomminW p«P»*m
'Ufiwofttoiottoit^olboxwood from ^ Oauoiiiif, tb« pbWwmy
yaakoomtegi<^th#»Mttei»«<Mfcfeo^tlitojrtttlfoj. ad
mm mm Iw iw«8^«®»«»i ^ ,1^?^
I vlU dnkw my wtoxTh® to a cloaa, ^9^ mmJLui
SSTte d^iftr to ludiw p^^ati adapted for
iSwSTfcw. b-. -.fofomliOir. •»«. »‘0“»^'- »’y “
tttm Uitm^t doT^opm^nt of IiidiVo Msoarooa.
Discussion. 1
Christy thought the Society t^as much iodobted to Mr, *
, !iImLi7 Ha meutioued the ohalmugm seed as haviug becu t
?' fL many years s andlrom infoanaUon he had Teceivad, aadpopets t
known (b ,? /. *. w- Dantel Haubniy, had pobllshed, it appeared c
S«*" ChinM.‘llm«t L»j» udaltMofod |
tTr S .«« oooa U for on.
i . rtr.L«iOM. nod boKuad Ibom to uM it. Tboy lhou«bt tbeomell
wUniintiabta rtaying waited a mouth, and nothing being done,
I i the MurceonS andstojdby them when they weio seeing tUeu*
“‘rtfitfo KnowS«""‘i«to.r! bo .»«o.ied-I. nol tbU u oo.o
„ut-p.tteu^ Knomng^. loo ^o* .niuuto. wiothor cm, oomo
.ndUowiggMtodltoUould bo ttiod io Uni *lao, »od o» tlio mm
«MA.d “com. 4«« b.. woot bo lookcMo to bo pmocnt. Tb*
«>• Tory much ourpriMd by the roauU, .nd In tlio socond wMk too mnn
«• imAt »o 1L Tho mcgoon told, •• Bo »ure yon coino nert wook, nod
rnto^nert occMion b. .o.m«d quit. .nr.d. There
diiMB. ood rypbil... end tr«r« morttrjioK. Iho oiirgoon to«n «aid toer
w.|to*Uy.biBrtbmgintolaoU, mid he took it into rognlornoo, «nd toe
met »ti.fMto.y, nniho hopod towo wonid won bo . report npon
!t L bod otao MOt it to Mr. Treveo, »t Motgoto, nrbo bod n gr^ mony
lofeUto^rbod bo bod nloo tried it m.to mnrked .ucoo... Ue moroiy
“ !f*L tui.tooonarmtoo romork of Mr. Jockoon. .Uowin* too dilBcnlly
™ to a rtU" g onythin* new tried. A gentlo non in n Uorernmont
offli»,knowtoR bo WM working at theie now tbingr, nokod bun IE he MuU
tall him of onything which would ooro hi» biotbar, who WM onfformg Item
k ..itm and wa» nlmoot otlfl with It, end who bod beni getting
ibeumo^ g„t bsiag from oblorol.
SrtoW him becotod not Uko *n, rMponoiblUty, hot .f lie Ukwl to try
1. If to^ tol be would give biin «oiiiO. Tho brotUot took Hvo oopsnlM
rb .»tomtoriive dto^ oHb.gyn oil. end on too .into doy bo
droaMd !■ »"■«» »ud went ont, nnd be hod boon well ever omco. lie now
carried about a bottle of the oil with him. That showed what nu^ht be
dona if people Would only work with those things. The Chinese had been
working^with this oil for 600 years. The week before last, he was m Ians,
I2l[ i;SS«W t.m..t.o«. of to. .argmm. therm Tb.y «.d it wo. o
very sioehlar Oil, and that it sometimes produced Indigestion. He said he
ta7irrS4.bntaw«qnit.«h,a. for .. h. knew, if tok.o on . fol I
■Sm..h. H.WMiat^iftUl.wo.work«dot in out hoopiUl., there wenld
.nyrmoa. denumd for toi. oil. ^ymol wmi nloo o ^y y.to.bfo
Ath» Tumarlik uaUi. again, wore entirely unknown in Ifiiiglnnd. It was
kn^n.ilaOe Bamspookec dlicovored an apparatus for testing tho exact
t4l»o of tanning matotutls, that galls only assisted tho tanner by
t;ha porw of the skin, to aUow tanulug subetances to enter; but it was
SrJrty MiWrttontft. griU toenmelTe. nmirted “>« bi»mni! opototiom
Hnwg tliesatamaritk galU hod been brought oyer many fames, but J
tannsrs kMW attything about It | It collected in the dojjks, and was sold at
w* y ^-Z L. wnoTmw growing to Indin, h.h»d lent .om. .eed to India
md JMiebSn. imdttwo»to*rloUe.t tanningMbiumeein to.
, ,.f of m... tonnlii. H.Mto .bowed n
fhtk'wi.bStottMdby.om.of ourooulitoi) it bed bwn no.d for n I g
ri^KtoP<«tbrtbetoU.nml ixponit. Tbemtotoi h. b^
*^'».K.d nt H. hod hod «om» ®* tto fruit to a .nekiino. 18(6, »nd
-o-'-g . to it Hbatevor. The aetoy eotroUn i^tt from to. troo.
. flfoa* t« to. Z»i*gitol
wMbnriUynbbtomol* btad Bar. but nt. It twidily. M« »ent .onto to
SJIu Ato Sub to* 'to totoj profotoem lbot they w»fe ol#»y» omton*
.pint, toidtb^ riTto't.i
amtodned ft* Vwy hS^MKltolrt wltltitoj bndbrf wtomiWrf
^ TWdod * l*>r«r Btotonttoft: tota’ ftnlt Wtbtoto
. : totoririjattow Jadtontto.* M-» *»*
It bid bton ,
gto. g8to«l*.tw.'««rMk
thWgb tlmr* tow* djflWdtW ««»*«»
be sent over. > ' - 71
Mr. lU. uM U« b.dlto.d.UtotlWgMif*^ *«“
be todepmi4.ntef ril the woridi »ttd to ttltogW
b. into, to tb. Indinit Onwrnmtot »W ttoto Ptodm*..jto *^4.
larger auanhUes, so that the rssoufoes oo^trr wjght> dos^ yd.
Mr, Holmes agretd that It would bo wise SI 4iliapMtt^«»
emmiaed to(«*lBitotooftob«n*,tod *m*» ■*«*«* * y*.',*? *f "*
eommeniol pmpowm On. rtotoo why prtonrt. «»«•
monyofttutbingntonl «*E.r WM» to wy HtU. mdto I to ototo
wim toot U»y *.» not .»nt owr in toSm^. . “ STTSto
were to .end otet wm* of the ptodtoM »bioh wet. (towtojmd tooM
Tolnoblebyth.ton, and pnl tornir Into tto bind, e l tbn toni^
basinufs* many of them would speedtly be intreioeedri A* jpuneimt
th^y simply dgared in mnseumSt and there wwe an oppo rtn^^ Im
commercial men to test them. Me waa eipasia«ar
drncm and on them Mr. Jackson’s semavks wwe
Indian aconite, especially the Nepanlr when it oonld ha ^
eagerly bought up for the maDufaefcaro of the alkaloid* beosuar tta
I tire m Indian aconite was more powsrfnl than the Oomao; M
sent ores at a paying prioe. it would be sold in ^**^**J^^^
cnium used in this country did not come feem India, and it wa*
I aaspeoimouinthiamarkot. It all came from flinywa* Pwiia, and
rypt. Now India was a great opinin*|n»ducirtg oounfay, a^^be ^
wm why, it prepared of good quality, it should not ha laig^p it
,ly required more oate in the preparation. Thymol was anoftmf k^ci
wUftt might be done by a little businesa energy. It was « p^^nl
.tiseptio,anddorivedlts name from oocurslng in tto
was now coming largely into use, being safer and leas irritaltaf >
irbolioacid. With regard to nisBot, os a rule the eatswt ww lathw
npure, end appeared to be used from the earliMt tlmos* in India, as an
pplioolfon to liifl«n.d .JM. It prolmbly ow.4 it. goto *»
!Lwmo,wbiob«to .1.0 found in ludto. Dr. Dynmok bnd intolr »to
imoveroom. mnngo.to«i fmil, unrip., pretowto in .yrnp i tto ^ttnr
10) Tory ploMont, wd It «toirr.d to him ttmt if it
rouldbamucb ingnired for. Mr Jtokwn olao nllndto to to. |i«g*ily
,ol.om.wUi«bbtob«n brought into notio. M » “ifj*-
n leprosy it certainly did not aos*vec as well as ohalmttgrn oil, bat, ItIfM
rery cheap, and it would no doubt ftod attmeroai applioafciena In Wm ai^
f not lu medicine. Me could quite confirm what Mr. Jackson badi laid
ibouttheoUalmugraoil. He had lately read a letter frem a ohe^ in
;ho Mauritius, who said it was impoieible to obtain pure od f*om
India, and that he always sent fo? the seeds. He found the oil obtained by
boiling the soeda was stronger fcnari that obtained by cold eapiteisloa*
Mr. Bontlcdgoaaidhe, unfortunately, had no eamples of bamboo with
him, or he should have hesn pleased to show them. The subjt^ m of
immense importance to paper makers, who at present were alfu^ enfatfwy
dependent on foreign counties for their main raw i>w*r
atiLs He was sorry to say that this material was bmog more, Jfaphlly
Lhausfced tUriuho had deemed possible ; only a few days ago he had sam.
pies of Spanish grass aabmitted to liim, some of which was not moce than
4 in long. The faob Was, it was ovcrpnlled, the roote were laid batOir and
tuoU.torr»iu.wn.hoanw»ytoo.o.l. witotto. root .tool. lto>*iB»
poTorUbto.iindin m»ny dUtrict. to. plnut lind .Imoirt vwwto^ fhto*
hniia.od.*ndtooti«,na,ottoo.grow formoriy. TU. l»,M( now
cum. from Aftio. and Algorln, «nd toet. It wn. going torongb to. Wto,
nrooa.. of oxton.tion ftom memo onniM. It wn. ttortoot. Stootoon*
ittoemaniif«otntooE piper wore to oontinu., Itot **“
•bonld bo diMOTOwl: for mnkar. wore now radnoto to ntlng toigg. ,««u »*
ground wood pulp, obiun el»y, nnd oltor mittot. whiob new pngtit to to
SutlnWp»por. Some of the ohonp piper, almtot foil to proto, to jont
togat.. For .omeUin.pMth. bad boon tatning hi. ntttolion »» bmtoop.
beBerine, from inT..agtoion, tbit it would prov. to, b»t and, «>>«>«*
matorinl which could bo u.(ril. nnd pMtoMing nlio too otoitoow
of boin* prodnood in aUmltoMo qninUtio. in Udin.
bear him ont that totto-fonrib. of to. country ptodnoed ™ ’
It grow altotot anywh.r. whet, ttote wn. moirtnw. tb«. bton n
theBotaBitolgarduuntCalontUi. n» to tto oalUMtioh of thi. pha* In
lndl 4 tho Inttor mrintiinin* toll it oonld not bo grown or !
; 1 ^iVoo^d nnd bo Itod pftwod that it would rt.ke moft wcoBto*
OMOF Tbo PMipUlot Mr. J»ok»on rofortwl to wn. prinfod m ii.pariU.too
Lmbo/uud better paper he did not want to see. Or. Whitbrop, the
Commissioner of Fomste lu Burmah, was colleoting bamboos fhr blm, and
LZtotr»tlto.y..uldb.Uudto to Enugoou Md Utotod dbwu to
Atof of its 16 per 1,000, weighing from six to eight poundsi. Whnu
drUdtU.ylo.t *bou«6eto70 (Kif ..to. of m(toitttr.| »
. to oldry«twflbt**OttWl.o.t8to, Ibnl Would *
ftftr. Th. btonboo'gldf* Ito Ptototo yWd dl
to ro^uoiutto witoFtotop* itoh*p. 'oo., to. ^ “iSTttorto.fn
it hate to be snbmitted W a boHlog process, daring wirfeh they lost »
^ ^tVly to Mtetotir. Utottor, T«yi«'fr™ « «P to 6» per .»fc ^
; w«igUttoto.i«w»fc lit* b^bo. only lott 46 P« •“b.
ill wU MppUtto tolpi. *•» bat’in ^ intoUpof ft** it
ta wtoMfortbitol IWft- wWt a inmB .to* to »«>«6to tu. p^. *«
w«a for tbo ox
p«t mt, AIK ft t<»* Tho bftii(iNi<^ 1b«'
«Q|I vi t(», 15 (300,^ for 2 tm of 4ry iiiIMftl. *ShA
«»C0iM0tr,t^tolib«'^^ In^ WM lueb ft ionjl
trift^lI|jttimA bulky* It aIoo flonteifted ft Un^ iimdiMty .
of tttolfttitr% fo Ibftii it omBhftd, it bftd « ttudoftoy to iMmeaf 004 xot.'
Vo(tboMfx#ftf0k)ib«be1UT«dtUat,to ttftbo H pay oommoxoiftlly, it mnA
U trofttedotttibo opotfftftd ooototexia tbo oOftdlUoti of wbnt iraa oiUlod
•tool^, !Z 1 i 9 point ftt iaiuo wM wbethor it ooald be gxown ftod oroppel
By tbe tftifciAftil from Domeraxalis reoeited two tettem^ one etatiotf that fox'
thii« yeiuro Ibe writer bad out dowa wbde bemboof) and be did not ««e
ftny depxeoUttoa io tbe aoeoeeding growth. In the other letter the writer
•Aid ha bed Mbn batnbooi dowexiog on hie estete. end they remained
bialQiy ftfterwfttdi. The theory In Indift wae, that when n bamboo
ftoweredi It died. There were very many varietiee of tbe piaat—probably
ftbptti l20«Hmd the meicfrity were Aitppoeed to attain matarity In abont 40
or 50 yeate, when they towered and died \ but in tbe Weet Indiea that did
aot Beam te be the ease* Thie geaUeman said ho had them oot down
and bttrned, andf in a few moathfi they were bb flonrUhins as ever. He
had eevexiai other lettere to tho eame effect. The one tfain^f the bamboo
ioemed to want wee a 4amp« motet cUmato; it was uaeleeB to attempt ite
(findUffttion where tbeee conditlooB were wantingt bat in Burmah, where tbe
ralnfftU ranged from 120 in, to 100 in. all up the west eoaBt» it flonriahed in
great abondaoce. He had letters from the ABaietant-Oonaervator of Forests
theic^ who had traTellcd over ther whole country, right up beyond Fogo,
and he said that the nativee cut it about anyhow they liked, and the more
they out it the better it seemed to grow* He beliersd the aafeafe plan wo aid
betocnt a^rtain portion of each clump every year-^lhe young shoots ;
but if a plantation were made, as was done with sugar, rioe, jute, and
Other things, it wonld mmimisetbecostof oollecUon andoarriage, and it
could then be irrigated if necessary. t£ go grown, he believed you oould
get enoiM(b bamboo for 20 tons of paper per acre. We should then bo
independent of France, Spain, and Africa a»id ho feared tbe French * Govern*
ment might before long, impose a duty upon esparco, seeing it was an artiole
of sueh prime neoeasity. It was an absolute necessity in these dsys that we
•houtd have paper, and he wondered that this question hod been allowed to
leg io mqoh. For his part, howeverj he did oot intend to relax his eaertiona
until be had brought them to a snooessfal issue.
6lr Joseph Fayrer said Hr, King was a most eminent praoticel botanist and
if he said the bamboo would not grew in Southern India, it wan didloaU to
quegtien but be oertaioly aooopted tho gtatemout with the greatest
diffidence, He believed if the bamboo would grow anywhere, it would grow
in Bengal, and in Bnrmah. He could not eonoelve how any one who had
lived and travelled in India as he had done, and seen the magnifioent
olcmpg of bamboo, even in and about Calcutta itsolf, could maintaiu that
it would not grow* By jndioious cultivation, he had no d'^ubt it could bo
cropped regnlarly. He had no idea that it had such a greet oommeroial
Value, and It seemed to him a thousand pities that it should be neglocted ;
and be hoped what Mr. Jiuutledgo bad said wonld be acted upon. He might
also allude to the kindred subject of arboriculture. The mabogauy tree.
Although an exotic, grew freely in India, and some splendid tree*«
which were blown in the Oalcutta-gardons by tbe last cyoloue, were
sold for cabinet making, at prices equal to that of the best dmber
from Honduras, He bad often wondered why the roads in Bengal should
notbelioed with it; it formed a magnificent shade, and the wood was very
valuable. Dr, King was a moat oxoolleut and energetic euro tor, and ho
felt great difficulty in auggosting anything which might appear many way
to controvert the opinion he had given, hut he could not help tliicking
there mbst be some mistake about it He regretted the paper was not
loi){,'tir, but it was quite sufficient to indicate the direction in which senroh
was to be desired. It was very desirable, however, that many of these
things should be more used in India ilsolf. India was indebted to England
for many products whioh she could produce os well herself. The impetus ^
had already been given, and many ihiugs were now sent over here which
a ihort Bme ago were quite unknown. The ohalmngra oU was welUkuowu
to mm, and it was a most valuable medicine.
Mr, Francis Oobbsaid that many present probably were not aware of the
obligations they were under to Mr. Boutledge lor hts experiments, and
the perseverance with which he had followed up the question of bamboo
for pftper«inakiog* His idea was to bring the bamboo toft eerain stage
in India as shown by a uiasU speciinea whioh ho would band to the Choir,
hum. This was not the .irstKmeMr. fContledge had told them about the
bamboo, and he was surpris«'d that it had not been taken up to a larger
•xfwit. Bamboos were oonstanUy brought here in tbe shape of dunnage, ,
bat they arrived in suoh a condition ns net to bo so fit for the purpose of '
paper.making ae it it could be brought lu the condition he had shown.
Tbe outside was hard, flinty, and unmanageable. But it was evidently
artoneoas to suppoao that the bamboo could not be utilised and beoome a
valuable export from India, ae was ihowa by the practice of the Chinese.
They cutoff the young shoots snd ate them, and split np the young bamboos
and made use of them in all sorts of ways. Ou the other hand they let
gome grow so large that they made buckets of them. If the Chinese could
treat them in this way and still have a constant supply, he could .not see
why It ihOttld not be done in India, especially if they were grewh '% fdantn*
Hons. Jgokie^ Jtegretted that ffil seeds were Ihitead of
expieSiliMf the oU in Indlii, but it appeared to him that the oil conid be
mffpl i htttt in gmflMd^ and the profit arising flioeei
Wm ' B» aMbtol If u f»wil to Ilfo
Iheir dia sol totiui boBooUl to ! ^
aboui A2 a ton, and he did not Ihlhlr B)re thst c^d be chtslAed'
|n India. The bamboo, however Opened d^roipeet^wbij^t^
seeing the end of.«^ The greater the quah^ sppplled, the greater wonld be
tbe consumption, especially of esparto wsS laiBng, «nd in a few yeati would
be at such a value that it wonld be no lePi^ gvaitftbte lor paperimalringk
If there was a country in the worid where opium was raised, it was Isdtei
and probably Mr. HolmCi wss refecring to tepdaUnte f but he believed
that where Turkey opium eonld not be obtained, the Indian had
been used for making the tincture So long aa the meffical man '
knew what he bad, the Indian was as good as ^thf Turkish, and it
wss merely a question of the rules of the British Pbacmeoopmla a«
to what should be oallod laudanum. Ko mention bad been made of rhea
grass, which, if cultivated in India, Would form a very valuable export.
It was known here chiefly as China gross, but it might be culrira^ largelv
in Indio. Thsro were also wha t was colled vegetable, silk or wild alike
which were worthy of more attention.
Mr. Boutledge said the first experiment he mode with bamhoo.aame ffivo
or six years ago, on the ripe, matured plant, but it did not ouSwer well. The
young bamboo sprang from the seed of tbe old plant, and it teok about
15 years before it became silieions. Ho matter what species it mii^t .be,
it went on matnving for a scries of years, and being an entOgenous plant, it
grew until the inside got filled up and it could grow no longer. It could
then no longer transmit the sap, its pores, or vessels, became ossified, like
the veins of an old man, and it died, having first seeded. The bamboos
whioh came here as dunnage were out indiscriminately from the clumps,
irrespective of ago, aad in the older ones the oxtorlox portions had got so
indurated with silicia, that it took an euormous quantity of oauslio soda
and bigif pressure boiliug io make it inanagoable. It was theq. no longer
% fibre, bub a pulp, which was difficult to dry, and would only produce
inl'erior pepor. If they wanted to make paper from wood they need not
fetoh humhoo from India, beoanse they oouId get it much cheaper nearer
home. After making Uieae experimente on tlie old matured wood, and
finding the difficulties he bad to Gonbend with, he wss induced to try vbat
ho could do with tbe young plant, and he found, much to his gratifioaliou,
that very much like esparto grass when tbe plant was cub with the sap
ascending, tho young shoots, which i au np 50 or CO feet high, it could be
reduced by geuUe boiliug iuto the oonsisteuey of cbeeae, and miutht be
treated with the eame felicity as esparto; in fact, it woe just like cooking a
ripe cabbage, or asparagus, lu fact. In tbe Malucoas, and Moluccas, the
young shoots of soiiio species were used for food, and were frequently put
lu pickles and chutuees.
Mr, Bowden said ho should be happy to place five acres of ground, in
the Goduvery district, nnder irrigatiun, at the dieposal of any oue who
would like to experiment ou bamboo cultivation free of rent. There were
cheap means of trausit from there to the port of Coconoda.
Mr Geo. Hogarth asked if rhea, one of the most beautiful fibres, was
produced in Jndia, He was sorry to say that it was losing ground, tho
entire respousibihty of which lay with those who produced it aud prepared
it for the maiket. It was so carelessly put together, that tho great bulk
of it was uBcloss for anything but paper*making, simply because it was all
twisted and guacled, and there was no possibitity of getting it straight*
When properly garuereil, there was nothing to equal it except silk, and it
was being manufactured into everything a lady could adorn herself with,
but, os be had said, it was losing ground from the bod state in which it
came over. Tbe price ranged from £5 to £ 80a ton, which showed what
a margin there was to pay for careful preparation. He nnderstood that
hitherto it hod been retted entirety by hand, which was very expensive,
though labour was cheap. The Indian Government had offered prises for
machinery to do it, but hitherto nothing satisfactory had been devised.
The Chairman said the rhea whioh came from India was often badly
prepared, bat the China grass was beautifully prepaied, and could be
obtained in any quantity.
Mr. Hogarth said all he had seen was tho common China grass. He
nnierstood that a great deal of tho difficulty lay in tbe gathering; if it
wa 4 not ripened sufficiently in the sun after, cutting, there was u deal of
acid left ill it, which made it snarl in the process of mauuteeiwre, and
pro\eine 4 it taking the dye,
Surgeon^Generol Balfour thought a good deal might he made of the
VkrionB products of India. Bamboos were grown in enormous quantity ou
tbe west coast, they were never shipped, on ucoount of their great bulk,
but were made op in rafts and laihea to the sides of the boosting vessels,
Tiie great question with all ludiau products was--*woald they pay I and he
believed that most of those which would do so were already bfooght to
Enrope. The natives wUre well alive to their own iutereste, sad me not
much disposed to Wke experiments utlAesstliey oould see* their way to a
profit. He doubted if it vfduld he possible te obtain a large quantity o;f
chftlmugrft oil, but there was no doubt of its value. He believed it was
the oil which the late Dr. Bhau Dsjee used in ibe cure of lejfireiyi but both
he and his brother kept it a secret. There was a great dlffioftlty in |eUti»g
it pure* Heorlyallthe eminent medical men who had written % Xndlf
and ite had drawn attention te the various compterrial j^uets,
but it aid nteessm te produce mnoh effcot. There wfti , 51 ftam
in Didia, and he did not know why it d^ imt eooe te hfit he
be^ftd (Aititttd ot ih« astlve propefOss wete teoyq ttbpAffitel M
'ip&iAN AokctfiSiksir.
:i'#
10^ ia awi ol BdtifM* . tk» jiiriat4i01«iiat3r with mansr
1rti» liWA btttkt WTf*|h#l0» fbwijtKtt#, itriintiti«<>f jate wero
'wifW bn^ qoitd iii4)ia4»^ hid^Wfi ijp in 0^nd«e Aud
ht|4!fbim;iilitinubiifoctaTO^ pna iu
the bartelfl to put it id. At dm tia« * oottndAtAble ttAde wna
4d0bln^dii^iii£routoroiUby AproodflBiov^teA by Mr* Lottwr* ao that
it <^ld b« iMit botta tn Mooki. That laafcad <o» ft few yewa, but it did not
iMitt'tft have beau oontlaaedf
Mr. Cbriety wlahed to utter ft word o£ watbIbic to ladbiu exporters. Ho*
bftd learned that week that it was with (he greatest difflotdty that manu-
faeturere could now use Indian ahellao, owing to (he <Jaaatity of reaia aod
other adttlteratioua which were mixed with it. The people of India bad
heett down dn the English manufactorere lor oharglng their cotton cloths,
btttwftdonld certainly letaliata on them for chargtng theii abeUac with
rehidt 'With regard to thw oxprenioa of oil and the nso of theoake, he
njglit mention that the Oblneae found it pay very well io use the cako, direob
on the land for manure.
Mr. Cobb suggested that this was not oil cake but pea cako.
Mr. Christy said that was so. Mr. Boutledge’a views about cropping the
bamboo were quite correct. In China they kept regular plaotations which
were constantly cropped, and deeceuded from father to son ; a certain
quantity was out out of each clamp every year.
Mr« Holmes added, with regard to opium, that the best anihoriiios on
the subject said that the better qualities were not prepared msafllciant
quantity to export to England. It was the Patna opium which was chiefly
used in the hoepitals. Borne said it contained more narcotise and leas
morphia than that from Asia Minor. The fact of Us not appearing in the
Pharmacopoeia would not eland in its way if it were equally valuabln
beoausethe Persian opium, which was not named either, was largely used
by the makers of morphia when Bmyrna opium was diar. The Indian
opium, he belioved, was prepared in a different way, being brought homo
and stirred ub P*^Bte, whereas the Smyrna was made directly from tho
capsules ; and probably this affected tlm quality.
Mr. Cobb thought the true reason why lodtan opium was not need was.
that the percentage of morphine in it was uncertain; so that, when you
gave a patiout 80 drops of laudanum, yon might really be giving him the
equivalent of 46. Hitherto, also, the Turkish opium had been landed m
England rather cheaper than the Indian.
The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Jackson. All tho
products he had mentioned had a future, and probably a considerable
future, before them ; but he would call attention to another product
which had not been mentioned, for which wo paid on an average upwards
of 80 millions Bterliug per anuunt, ouS,, wheat. He had placed on the table
a number of samples of Indian wheat, which represented 1,100 or 1,200
specimens sent from all parts ol India. The samples came from some 60
districts, end they were equal, and even superior, to the finest wheats which
came into the English market. The average price of English wheat at the
present time was about 33s, a quarter, but that of the samples roferred to
went as hiBhaa 47s., and some of them weighed 6|}IU!i. to tho bushel. It
might not be known to all, but India was, next to the United States, tho
largest wheat-producing country in the world, the annual crop being about
80 million quarters, 10 to 11 millions in tho Pnnjaab—about as much as
the whole prodnctlon of EnBlond—10 millions more in the Noitli-Wosb
Provinces and Oudo. and the remainder in other districts. The average
production in America was about 38 to 40 million quarto rs. There had
boen a remarkably good crop lost year, and this together with the universal
commercial depreesion and want of confidenoo, which pievented importers
holding large stocks, was one cause of prices being so low, lower ho belioved
tlian they had been during the present century. He belioved there was a
great future lor the Indian wheat trade. Tho year before last we imported
upwards of a million qnarters; this year the supply had fallen off on
account of the demand in India itself, but by the opening of the Boindo
Bailway he thought they might look to the day when the Punjaab alone
would be able to send us a very considerable quantity, for it produced more
wheat per bead of population than any other part of India. When tho
Indni Valley Kailway was opened, espooially when the bridge over the
Indus wai completed, the rednotion in the cost of carriage, as compared
with going to Calcutta, would be equal to about 8s, a quarter, enough to
make all the diflerenoe between a paying and a uou-paylng trade. Prices at
* present were exceptionally low, but were not likely to remain so, and with
a elight rise he thought there would be every possibility of obUming large
cupbliee from India at a profit, Thie was a matter of extreme importance
boto to England and India, and might have an important wifiuence on the
silver difiloulty with which we have to contend at the present time. The
finest wheats at the Paris ExhibiUon were not superior to some of these
{cGm India.
The resolntiou hftving been passed^ Mr. Jackson, in aoknowledmg
the compliment, said Mr. Christy had fully borne out what ho said
ae te (he prejndice againat new produota. Wito regard to’^^Imiian
oplntoi (h* part of it was sent to China, where it was illegal
to prodftcp itt,but qtill ft good deal was made, and he believed iho
Chinese Qovemmttt w(>e contemplating allowing it. Ho must apolo¬
gise to,Mr* Mouttoige for net having asked him to, bring some specimeus of
^ bafltooo,1mtthe Wtiiely sUpped hil memory, Uo hod ro*
lettidAothft whtoh was l remarkably good
matetiali auA wli weU Mtowft iuJftpan. Ihsie were two species
tomwlii4hthty»adft'h*ft# Ey treating it with cU, they
^hnnsparent, audft|id gtotot and, by pnt^; Ikyers
together, (hey formed * ma^ai similar to leather,, vShtcb ^Itey ntod tot
book-bindlog andothet 'pnrpe^a tho utilisation of ^li«a; fibre in this
eoufttry wee another iHnStratdoii 4d hqw dilfihult t( lihM to intr^uOft new
substancee. About 38 or 30 years ago, IhU fibre was breught ptondnobtiy
under notiee by the late Bir 'William Hooker, and it was sent to
several British colonics, but nothing more Was heard of it uniU
10 or 16 years ago, when it cropped up again in a most remark*
able way. The Atnerican Coninl at Bradford had sent a report to
his Government* drawing attention to tlito^ fibre, and pointing out'that it
might he intvod&ced into some parts of the^afces. Thie report f«U into
the hands of ilio BntisU Goveimmcnt and was sent to Mew, With a request
that the plant should be inkroduoed there, nud asking Whether it was
suitable for luirodnction Into any of the British colonies, egaotly what hud
been done long hefoio. It was then again introduoed tuio (Uo West Indies
and other colonics j but it again died out. The Indian Oovormnenb had
offered a large premium for a machine fbc clearing ibis fibre In India*
because as he understood tlio great dtfiioqlty in tho maniifactore was the
large quantity of gum contain^ in tho bark* which rendered jiti nccfasaty
that it should be cleaned and prepared iu the green state. For this purpose
ploQts were grown m the Boutli of Frauoo, so that, they might be experi¬
mented upon. It was a hardy plant, and grow very well there. Borne of
the spooimeus in the Kew Museum were extremely fine, and he saw uo
reason why it should not be largely grown. Why U Was npt brought info
moro use was oue of the mysteries winch seemed inexplicable.
In coDiioution with the above tho following eorreotiouB which
have Bubsequenlly appeared, deservo the attention of the reader.
In tho discussion which took place after Mr. Jackson's interesting paper
on the abovf) subject on Friday, March 7tlj, some slight inaocnracies
occur in tho report of my remarks, which I beg space to correct.
The Conservator (not Gommissionor) of Forests iu British Burma, who is
kiudiy ooUeotmg young bamboo stems for me. aod fioating them down
to Baogoon for crushing, to come to our works here for extonded experi.
meuts. IS Dr. Korthold Bihbonthrop, and to this gentleman X am indebted
for much very valuable information as to the habit, cropping, and cnltiva-
tion of bamboo under irrigation.
One thousand young seasons shoots will weigh from six to eight ton
(not pouuds), which, losing from 60 to 70 per cent, in drying, and allow¬
ing amply for wotlo, will yield, when conveited into atoelr, suffloieut
to mako oue ton paper. These young stems will cost about Hs. 16,
say SOs. per 1 >000 delivered by rafts at Kangoon.
My two iniormnuts from Demerura tell me they have out down euthe
clumps of bamboo dunng sucoessive seasons without apparently dotefu
oriating the gtowtb, audone states that even burning the clumps down to
tho ground has not prevented successive growth, adding ^at he hud
seen bamboos seeding on hie cslate and rcinaming lu health/ growth aftoi*
wards, hut then it must be noted Deinorara is a moist olhoftto and soils
suited to tho habit of growth of tho bamboo.
In a few succeeding remarks, I intended to show that io treatiog tho old
aud matured bamboo stems I had not suoceaded well, inasmueh os they
had become wood, ami very hard siliceous, or silioified wood, too—and
that similarly toother woods they cuuJd only^be reduced into a pulp by
boiling under high pressure with very costly doses ol caustic aoda—but
that when subsequently expenmenliug oii the young shoots m the vegetable
or growing stage, with I he sufi frtoly circulating, and before silicate
and other compounds had become deposited and indurated, ] iouud that
with tho gentler boiling and reduced cheinionls, I could treat the stents
as readily uu esparto grass, indeed, just like cooking a npo oabbugo or
nspatagus in its succulent stage, reducing them into long and strong
fibre.
Tbo question, in fact, of making paper—and good paper, too—from
bamboo, is settled. The other question to be determined (by tho botanists)
romatus, tix., whether tho bamboo cau be couilnuously oroppud every
aeasou to allow the young shoots to bo utiUsed; and, apeakiug for myself,
1 have not a vestige of a doubt tbut, if this operation is judiciously
conducted, success will result and thus a valudble commeroial piouuct be
adaed to the exports of ludm. while assisting our English paper trade,
which sadly needs an extended supply ol suitable raw material.
; THOd, XtOOTLEDSH
i Claxbcugh, I7Ui March, 1873.
Xu the oourse of the discussion following tho paper on “ Indian Plan(,
Adapted for Commercial Purposes,’* by Mr. J. H. JaoLsm, Mr. X. Christy
is reported to have sa, I that he fouud great dlfliculty in inducing medical
meu at a corUlu hospital to try chalmoogra oil. Tins is su very different
from our own expenence, that we tniuk the members of the Booiety of
Arte will be suMoieaiiy iniorested la it to warrant us in begging that
you will kindly insert thu letter m next issue. In the coarse of a
vuiy general intooductlou of ehalmoogra oil, iu which we have irifcoie^ted
Qursoives DOW tor more than a year, the difficulty spoken of has never
been experianaed by us. We have placed the oil m, perhaps, every largo
ho»pitol jUk liondon aud iu Some of these it is now being regularly usod t wo
have nsofivefi orders fot it from venous parts of Bvoilaud and Xroiaud*
end icon IPOOfto of medicai men and ohomists iu England, who no# regard
it#B pari pi (ha ordinary Mnrsria Afsdicu* VV'ohave also sent the oil to
Garnmy, Franco, Noith Amciw*** toe I^ape, aud AHSttolia
'j, X* j.. ij.i
«nAaUo^1ili«v hftTa d!lfcii^ai«4 Wnie f^nt l»t*olf«4 pottndij, i iijjA,.
qaftuiity to tlia if it be tbefc fcU* a<>»» to ^
niott oi tUft to #bt«b ^ ii tM«4 m <4>r6iito« mi ihuii; qo «yitot»Atte
yepori oa ibe eM«t treikte^ bee ftp|)eat64* We pltMed Wm .
the eeo^iaetidbtieii ef ebatmootcre ^«eb br Sir Joatpli Sbite**,
and Sittge<to«li4^jet Balfatiir. Wa bold namardtia tottora from pbjfatolaiti
and patienU recount to < the eatotaiy eflbct of tbooilybut bare preferred
to die tboiie* pending tbe more formal and anbliottoed reports. Oit
eaporieoee will nbow yon and otbore intereated to tba dkoneeion aboSe
referred to» that meiioal ineti are not atefse to the nee^ol new remedies
wbicU come ireti teoommended, and irbioh are toongUt properly balofe
them. Wito regard to the supply of lb. our sources are so abundant that
we da not share &e doubt eapreisod by Burgeon-Mf^or H^tlfoor as to the
possiblHtjr of obtoitting a large quantity of ohalmoogra oil« We bold
a good etoeh of Ibe pure oil at the present time, and it is'not liliely that
oar arragements will he at all ahramed* hulees a irory much larger demand
our expenence leads us to anticipate ebouid euddeuly arise. In
i»<watoai on wo would refer you to a proUminafy paper on the chemistry of
c‘hat)iNi?ogS '[Siituwr, Mr/"John MoS8« which appeared to the
and IhugffUit Z>ecerobcr, 1878, and to a parnphtet by Mr. II. 0,
Lepage, lato of Calontto, iu which you will find all LUat has hitherto
nplJSared on ehalmOogra oil carefully compiled. Wo may B.iy that iUo
appearance of this pamphlet was the first Importaut ett^p iu our systematic
introduction of the oil to medical piaotice outside of Ilittdosfcan.
800| High Holborm X^ondon, COUBYNj STACY, AND 00.
18th March isfo.
mOE IN JAPAN,
T HB Japanese, writes Mr. Mounsey, in a report to tbo Foreign Office,
accord a high antiquity to tUo origin of the rice plant in their
country, their legends stating that it sprang Irons the body of the
danghterol the Qod of Olay and the ^Goddess of Fresh Water, They
alsoaltriottie to this plant the |>re.smiMeat virtue of keeping away evil
spirits, and xoadei'8 of their lore will well remember the first instance
of a manifestatioa of their belief in this virtue. Xb occurred when the
Bun Goddess was induced to leave her dark cave by a variety (d cun*
Ding devioea, but more especially by the ciiriosriy and jealousy oaoitsd
in her breast by the reflection ot her uuconsoioos cliarma in the fatal
mirror {lor, being foribwitU carried oCC to a new palace, her abode was
at once and huncetocth proteoled by euoiroling ropes of rtce^braw.
The wide diftaslcn of the popular faith in thia virtue is evident toom
the fads that ropes ot the same material are to this day s^retol.td across
tbe portals fl ar. Shinto shrines as a protection against evil spirits, and
Ibat they are prominently used, with the same intent, iu ail New Yoor'v
Day decorations. Until lately the measure of a man's wealth and
iiioome was oalouiated in rice, nud ic was almost uuLversatly used as
the uiedium for the pajjriuent of salanev, wages, cud taxes—as the
standard of value, iusiiort, iu most of the daily trausacbiona of life.
ISveu now tba principal item of national reveuus, the land-tax, is paid
to a oonslderable extent Iti rice, one year's cxpuriciiee of the law
enforcing money payments having sufficed to show that their continued
exaction would be unjust to the farmer. Finally, of all the proiuots
of the fleltl, rice is held m the highest honour, and there arc, no doubt
still many Japanese who are at a loss to imagmo how life oan be
sustaiuod, or the ooncerus Of a nation oairicd on^ without it, Ills
evident, therefore, that from very remote times rice has been one of the
great aiaplea of ugrlcuUurai produce in Japan. The rice produce of
Japan Is about double what it was two and a half oentarief« ago. About
atenthof the entire area of the,country is under cultivation, and of
this a tenth are rice-lands, a years crop being estimated at nearly
136,000,000 bushels. Itioe, however, is not the staple fou I ot the whole
people i Urge numbera of the lower classes living upou cheaper grains,
such as millet, buckwheat, beans, &o,, and only indulging iu rice from
time to time, and iu small proportions. The oultivatlon of rice to more
profitably exported to Kurop , but it requites a great deal of extra care
in storage and ventilation. The Japanese Governineut hag, Mr.
Hounsfy underilands, juitorderi^d a supply of Java seed, arid experL
menlsareto be made with H this year. Their alleged reason for this
measare is, that Java rice commands the highest price in Borope. They
may also hope to ohtaia a grain which can be shipprd oq long voyages
more easily and surely than the native article. The superiority of
Japanese rice in nutrUive power to due to the fact that it contains a
far larger proportion of faity matter than any other noe.
Various sorts of spirit and liqueur are also distilled from rice. Mf.
Mounsey says There are liaiddtinkm iu Japan, us lu moat other
coaotrlM, an.^, like moat Asiatics, the Japanese seem to place less valUb
Oh the flavour ot their liquor than on its iuloxicaiing power. Thsy^re
certainly fond of oarousiug, and oflen given to exoesalvs iliinl^iMit
fesilvals and on holidays, This to more especially the oas^ in Imb
towniandtothocapitat where the results of a laxity of military Afe*
olpllne as regards the sobriety of the soldiers, is too often dipmeP^^'
^ He't^al'Beyo^h ootmtoles, findtfebv'At'il# Jej^
/laipielW'eoito^nefieei, SaU pyppfel&tqti'#
taifsl oii derafigsmsato of the
. to^iftotloo^ whiob|inothe>,o9uotoioSi,ah4 imnlll tia
AeiirUm tfavm0t and this disease to aald ^ be. sdsftOiA
Japan. On the other hand, some Bubpsan lasd^f »e9| ,]ha!se^ 4^*
bated the prevslenos of paralysis «ii4 boiffiate Ip opttafn
provipees to the efitocts ot lakd. thongh theto dpinton . ts itofc pt
the whole medical profession.'*
The Japanese Government silU receive ootmtoerable 4
rlee in payment of taxes, aud they gte to the habj.! of pnt«hesi4f
with tbeif reserve fund for exj^ort to; Burope^ so as, to avoid >M
necessity of remittiug corn or bullion in liquidation of the toheiest Ofl
their foreign debt, and for the paymafit of orders for men^of>war, arnfei^
&o. They are thus almost the only real rice merohaats; fof feWii if any
individual Japanese possees sufficient capital at present to enter Into
large hoslness transaottons, and the spirit of fusoctotkoii nseessnry to
the formation of companies is still feehto, and has oot yet made ItssXI
felt m the rlee trade. Mr. Mounety is told, todMd, by Baiopeen
merohaats, that U is Imposmble to obtaio a fuU cargo 6f rice withont
applying to the Government. For thfe reason, and also from
uncertainty as toibe cominnatloa of the permission to export the grain
in question, Bnropeah mercantile boases oannot embark targely to a
trade which must virtually remain a monopoly until the iStoveriiment
ceases to speculate in it, and until it sells its ride at pnbUe esiotieo,
instead of, as at present, favouring one or two firma with Us onstom.
Hice can, without donbt, be bouKbt in small qaantUies frpm native
dealers, and It is thus bought by Chinese merohautt, bat the bulk ot (he
exportable grain belcugs to the Government, Mr. Mounsey adds
*' Attii political economists and experience oondemn, t believe, the
practice cf Govemmeiits becoming traders. In defence of Ibo
Jopuuees Governiueat it may perhaps be argued that a great deal of
their rice comes to them iu the shape of taxes, and that they are,
therefore, justified iu making the most of it. But as long as they
ooutlnue this praolloe, and can arbitrarily stop the exportation of ripe
by any but tbemselves, it is evident that there oati be tlitle Inducement
for the farmer to inorease bis produce of this grain by euoiosing waste
lands, and that the rice trade with foreign oonutriss, which mvght
possibly baoonie a source of eousidecatde wealth (0 the oouotry, cannot
be developed to any great extent."—
POPULAIt EBROaS REdAUDINd PAPrsUS.
i K Adams’ " Roman Antiquities" the Egyptian papyrus plant is
described us about ten cubits liigh, aud as having several
coats, or skins, one above another like an onion, which coats weye
peeled off wiili a pin, m the process of paper luskiug. Ja Smith’s
" Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,” it is said that tlte
papyrus tree grows in swamps to the height of tea ^feet or more,
ami paper was prepared from the thin coals qv^ pellicles which '
surround the plant. Liddell & Scott’s Greek Lexicon says Utat
paper was made of the inner bark of the papyrus.” And similarly
other works of high character, encyclopmdiaa and the likcp. giva
a false account of this interesting plant.
Calling attention to these misstatemeiita, in the Lifewfy Joimnal
Air, Bara Abbott, of Harvard University, says: <*The papyrus
plaut iCyperua Popyrm of Liiinmus, or Papyrus antigMomn^
. Willd.) belongs to the family of Upperoesm, or Sedges ; it is an
endogenous plant, wilii a triangular stem ; aud to talk about ita
’ inner bark/ and * layers ’ like the ooats of an onion, is a simpto
absurdhy. One might as well speak of ^ the inner bark* of a
stalk oi Indian com ur of a buiruah. The error has originated
from ignorance, or forgetfulness of the elements of botany, and
the consi^quent mUinterpretatiou of the passage in Pliny (Hist.
Nat, xii'. 11-lS, al. 21-27), which is our chlefi sfivirca bf
iuformatio about the ancient manufacture of paper from this
plant. One of the words which Pliny uses to desudbe the very
tUiu strips into which the oellular substance of the stffiSl Wit
slioed in making the paper is phUymj which strictly denptsa Ihe
inner bark of the linden tree, also employed as a writln’g matertod.
Hence the papyrus has been conceived o| as an exogenous pXafiL
with yts outer aud inner bark, and has actualty beeu Salied
* tree.’ The botanists ot course hhve ndt made suoh a mtotake.'*
Mr. Abbott poinfs out A itiU more absurd mistake lu tke
English Uafistatiou of Guhl A Bouar’s ^ Life of fhe Greeks and
Romans,” which siys : •* The stalk • • • was out iongitudtoilty.
after whioh the outer , hark was first taken oB; the reutatoing toyws
of bark, abbut twenty in number (pfU^ra) wtore carefuily imveW,
with a pin *' aft^wsrd, the stogie strips plated erds»w|iej
by means «wd the whole, with dime watuv
the oonaistency pf the material, wm obtotoM?’
n lo tlM m«aiad|^i«k»W« it t^tmi «{the
p ’ll!! irrlii tQ BilM Oailn* OerogetowD,
> A ol the giiue ^ torwirded to the
^ ot Imntgtiiiti It Oiibjittift, ta the leitere
^j^MoilpAitieitheuemoi^^ oopjr ot wbioh
Ini hem mat to uf, the wrttere etf We hive bo one to proteet m
In ihie eolmy, The ImmlgmUon Aumt^Generil ought to protoot ue.
Ineteid of hie doing eoi hop the Xminlgritton Agent>Oetierfti, ie
ittdeevonrfng to do ne more hinia then good. ISe ie not onr protector,
hatow opP)^|or« We therefore ibHoit your loilftaaoe In the metier,
•od Ilk foi to do «U in your power to eee redteei given ne, by yonr
etthmitttng mr memoriel to the aotemment ot Indie,**
^0 Bii iSeoetieney Oonvitiui.H. KoiTSKIRt, Ban., C,M,a., Governor
and Oommander*tn«0htef in and oter the Oolony of BrUish Guiana,
Vlee*Adailral and Ordinary ot the eame, Ao.p Ao.p leo,
The memorial of the nndervfgaed
Indian Immigrants intro^inoed
from India to the Oolony of
British Guiansp and who are
residiag in the laid Colony.
MOW BmPsoTwianiE Sanwim«
1, That your ihemorlaUBti were eogeged in Indie to ootue to this
oniony and work as agriouUnral lahoarere, BOOiee of them for a period
ot gve years, and others more recently for a longer-term of servioe ot
ten year Bp and were informed that at the expiration of these terms, your
memorlaltets and your meinoriaUet*e olitldren, whether from India or
born in this colony ehontd be provided at the expense of this oolony
with a free return passage to the port from which they embarked.
2, Borne of your memorialistB oountrjmon have been provided,
aooording to their agreements, with snoh paseage to ludta wiih their
children, whether bom in India, or born In the oolony.
3, Tour memorialistB, since 187G. have been deprived of their rights
to free remrn passage, pursuant to the agreemeats made With them in
India, and are oompetled by the Immigration Ageot-Gauerat to remain
in this oolony, or pay the pasisge-moosy of each children born in the
colony and infants iutroducod from India, who were not under indenture
on arrival.
d, Yonr memorialists pray that yonr ExosUenoy will osuie an
investigation to be made Into this matter and aeoertain how and why,
and by what authority, our agraemeota made in India, are set aside
and Ignored and made valueless in this colony. Your memorialists beg
leave to quote in support of the facts stated in this memorial, the case
of a Madras imm%rsnt, Pyneatindy, Eo. 200, ex Martin JAither
l$iG, who applied for a passage back to ludta for himself and four
ohlldron In 1877, and was not allowed a free back passage, but was
refused It, except be first paid the passage^money of hii children born
lotheeoUmy. Similar oases have been refused from time to time by
the Immigration Agent*Qeneial, ou account of the luahiljty of the
parents to pay the passage-money ot their ohJldreu boru in the colony
and children boru in India, who ware hot uuder indenture ou their
arrival in this country. The dot hi og money which return immigrants
are required to pay is a very large item to a poor and large family, and
when in addition to the cost ot olothiog the passago-money of each
member of the family, alleged to be nut entitled to free back passage,
is required, the parents frequently find it impossiblo to meet the dsiuaud
for so ihuon money.
0. YoUr memoriaUste think the Government of this colony is bound
to keep faith with the Immtgrauts from India, and to piovide all the
Indian immigrants, desirous of returning to their native land, with a
free baok paisago lor themselves and their cbildrou, according to the
agreements entered into by the agent of this colony and your
memorialists In India,
g. Your momorialisls feel assured that they have only to bring (besa
foots to the notice of your Excellenoy and the fnllest investigation and
inquiry will be made into the nature of their oomplaiuls ; and juslioo
dottOlh the matter j for which your memorialists will ever pray.
(Here follow 86 namea]
OOFBOLITES.
A BUFBGtK ooghl4ry olorgymsn, (the late Rev. J. B. Henslow,
deeply hnfaned tvtth a love for natural history studies,
while taking a seaside holiday with bis family at Felixstow , had
his attfaUnn arrested by certain dark*ooloared stones which were
pteatifnl to the ollBi el that part of the SeEolk coast, and under a
tMiief On^noed by his geological knowledge) that these stones snight
ketha petrified digested food of pre^idsmite sharks and ssa liziards
ke sent, gpeolmens to Iiondon tor chemical examinatloa. The result
was to^mahle. to his theory. Analysis brooght out the important
faet ^at these black pebbles, hitherto looked upon as worth no more
than ordinary road gravel or beach shingis^ were largely composed
lhat ihi^dieat go prised .by agrlouUurlsie, phosphate of lime. The
weat alsj^^ to t^a hUtory of this dWcovery aud itg applioation, were
•Xq ool[lldet etOMS to large j^oswtitles, reduce theni to
. .powddr to |fmm''eii)«tottg and theMiaperiment with them as
A itolbiMtotosueoega; ^ #h««e experiments was
tiohi^tai aad^ lfiiir that too
Ito^ltdri thgg*Ai<#iitMJro^ naiUf.
ramhie hue la^^iho Atohdattoii of oqe of the most Imyo^tont appli-
estioah of phyAoartolfthdit to rebitlou to hationat wealth tost the
osntaryims wftheMl, .AlmAj this dlseovary hah opshed Out
new ehauoeii lor ibe .omptoymept of human todbatry aod labour.
Thousands of the working toe oounties of Bufitolh* Herts,
and Osmbridge are eamtog riuo4 and purmaUent wages by digging
(or pbosphatio sftones, khdwh agrtoalturally as ** CaproUte.*' Thanks
to tmturai history, soienoe and Its bapiiy application in the bauds ot
a Suffolk olergymsq, ,the landed proprietors to that part of the
country now know that these long ji^leoted pebbles may beeXohanged
for gold. They can hardly have reoslvedhpto ihie time less than
one mUliou pounds sterling as rent or royalty for coprollts digging, And
this exchange gf stovies for gold on the one hand, and on the other the
conversion of these etouee into bread, way be earried hereafter to an
extent which no one can foresee, and roach an importanoS wbieb, as
the population of the world augments, We can hardly to this day
appreciate.
How, oontribbiloDs ot tmportanos to gsograph&cal sclenos can rarely
be made except under conditions which involve lavge pocuuiavy outlay
and great personal risk, la astronomy, original observations require
costly tostroments, and days and nights of ooutinnoui and laborious
watehing. Even in chemistry, little oan be done as respects orignkl
researob, whithout a laboratory furnished with appliancts of a more
or less costly nature. But there are no suoh diffiouRies in the path of
the naturalist, la whatever part of the world be may be located, and
whatever may be his profession or call lug, if he have but some know.-
ledge of the rocks, mioerats, and fosstls Which mskO up the crust of
the earth, and of the forms of life which dwell upon the surface ol that
crust, he can hardly fail to turn that knowledge to some way to gcsoBintf
aud while be indulges his own inteltectttal teste, oootrlbuto at the
same time to build up the great storehouse ol human knowledge. And
on this ground, I conceive natural history may very jusHy rest as one
among many reasons that favour its being taught in schools, and so
far as first prinuiples arc ooucerued, taking ita place with geography
and astronomy to that carrleulum of study which we all expect oor
Well educated youth of both sexes to pass through, CharUf*
mrtJif an Natural Biatorj/ ai an Blamnit in Sohool TsucAtoy.
THE EMPIRE UNDER COMPETENT AORICUL-
TURAI# DIRECTION,
‘^OW that the Supreme Govemmeut have seen fit to put a ffsntev
amount of respoosihitity ou the local Government, and
deoentralisation is recognised as advisable, wo hope that tonovatioo s
which before were impossible, may, at last, stand some chance of
saoceis. It is beoomiug more and more evideub every day that
iirigatioo, as ths only panacea ^to keep up the fartUity ol toe soU, Is
declining in favour iu the minds of those who have the welfare of the
Gouutry at heart, Aud white U is probable that the works of the Forest
Departmeut will assume dtinsnstous that until recently wStq uevev
dieaiUed of, wo think their energies should be largely oot|i|rolled by the
agricultural demands of the country, and for this purpeure trained
agriculturists must nutte their oouusels with those ol the irrigation and
forest departmenis. Large irrigation works have hitherto been
oonstruoted solely for their probable value In an engineering point of
view, and have rosnUed in many cases in lamentable failure, beosose
the agricultural side ot the question has received no consiil^eratioo.
The ryot has been taken as a unit unworthy of oalOulatioo, and bis
probable wants rather than his actual requirements have buen wildly
guessed at, and the works underiaken on erroneous assumptions. Hur
have the peculiarities of the land rooeived that attentiou they should.
Thousands of acres have been rendered permanently unfertlio by our
too oouipleie irrigation works when a lew rupees torwarded to an
analysing chemist would have furnished the Qovkfnment with facts
that would have saved lakhs of rupees. And further, the brains both
ot the chemist and the agriculturist have been Ignored lot a rule-ot*
thumb that nowhere but to ludia would pass nimoUoed. Thb etiginser
has rendered square miles ol country capable of irrigaUoo, batnopuios
have been taken to make an analysis ot tbs wator, so tost We might
know its manurlal properties and estimate its value is plant food.
Water whether It be rich or poor in quality Is only wat^r in the eyes
of the engineer. Again, it has beau pre-suppoaed that the enormoua
amount of this fiuid the ryot coosames is essential to all growth of the
rioe-plant, aud because it has been the business of no department to
prove the contrery we have coastruotod irrigation works many times as
expensive as aeo<>SBary. To go a stop further, we have even adopted
the native idea that paddy-ouUlvaticn U the psitootlon of tanking, and
every drop of water that can be collected In a reservoir lor the
purpose of Irrtoetton Is being put to its best use.
It is only quite recently a few voicoi have been raised in mild protest
against these Ideas, but we are glad to toy, small as they have been, and
few in number, they are now xeoognlssd as more than the absurd
utteranceii ot tdealiSis. We would eyen go so far as to say that a engges*
lion we are about to place before our readers will be read with interest.
It has been ihe custom, as we have already notioed, to look at
Irrlgktlou o»ly from an englneerfog iwint of view, and now there
4s a UtomAe of, this ossslng, and forset conservimey asBimtog
lurii dUflieiiitefiA Xu ouv' optotoo, both thtss depurtmtuts ehotild
Work « la^# ttotnlwr of tk^rfpfii^atforaaieHdrkllttir frl^
of tka aodoirf mj 0 Uii)|r> iHtk 4 |iit depwioiaftt-^wa do oOf
m«an thaEer«ftiia,C<aiiiiaitfa« Agriooltaral wo WOi
tmt one 60in|>oi«d of aunt if ho wiljy do know aom^thing ol the «ah{ 0 O^.
We^onld Ilka ha aka if, for foaUiaeo, It ba detarmioed to a
eolladtorata, on agrtonUarat aorvaf, and report lahmittad fn tlm drat
ijBttaitea, axhaoitira in ita aatore, and oontaialng aaggaablooi how a
gitau eum allotted for agrlonUnrallttprofattianta eonld baheitdUtriboi*
ed. The prohabiUtlee ol Inoteaeifig the gow of eprioge trae^ptantiog
ehonld t)f dealt wit|hi and atao the reqairantanta of tha cognti^ tor clond*
detaining topee, and lor treaa lor a snpply ol manttre and fuel, The
forest oflLoerhaTtogtbaaa broad idea to work on, would, in hie tarn,
trarerie the eonatty, aacertain the moat suitable trees (or oettain ioita,
and for iooal raqulremeuta t or, in tho areui ol large areas for reierred
traeta, ^e aelaetipu oHlmie vatiatlea wbioli would, in oourie of yeira,
become of the greatest value to Oorarnmaot. The agiioalturist having
mapped' the .country with a view to amelioration by tree<planting,
preaervatlon ol oartaio lands for paaturee. and the prodaoUon on the
spot ol a enpply oi organio manure for future generations of crops, and
the forest officer having bis work aet out, the engineer might than be in
a position to plan and carry out the works of his craft suitably to the
condition under which the country might reasonably be assumed to
acquire trea.p 1 antiag by retaining the moisture in the land and
enabling the ryot in lime to devote his eattie-dung to Its legitiraato
object, manuring A^lda, would render tiie enormous works to
resist drought and famine la many cases superQuoas, and over largo
areas instead of the shallow evaporating basins we call, by coarte^.
tanks, a curtailed water*Bnpply In the form ol small deep tanks and wells
might he sufflelent.
It ie true paddy^oultlvation would be oartalled, but which Is better—
to increase the sanitary condition ol the country by the abolition
ol this, and also enhatioa the yield oud the oerta'mty of crop over the
vest area of land devoted to dry cultivation by securing, with the aid of
manure, an amount ol water In the soil they would tide over ony ordinary
dry period; or go on as we are doing now, spending enormous sums in
rarely remunerative works which are liable, after a time, to become
useless by the aoonmalatlon ol their own silt ? Unless the agriculturist
is the motive power In a scheme of this sort, we fear the forest officer
will forget the agticulturel demands ol his attention, and devote too
much time and money in perfecting forests where they grow best. His
work, tike the engineer's, is apt to run in a groove, but with agricultural
requirements held steadily in view, both can atd in the grand woik ol
ameliorating the condition of the country by cordial co-operation, and
oohieve Tosutts by united action thqt^wouldi otherwise bo imposaiblo.
We do not wish to absorb the wholo time ol an engineer in agrionitural
works ; roads must, be sttended to, and buildings constructed ; neither
would we wish a forest department wholly to ignore the neoassity for
dirootly remuneratiTC forest conservancy. Still, we believe, offi^rs ol
both departmuts would do far more general good to the country if they
worked in tmwn and were associated intimately with that at present
almost specimen individual—the Indian agricultural officer.—
i'fwtfs.
TUE! SUGAH MAPLE.
[% Mr, Q, ifttw, puhlUhed in the ** OardenerH"
j OER ectccharinum is a uiuoh larger tree than the red maplo
and is at once distingnishablo from it by tho roundnees of
the notch between the lobes of the leaves. It is one of the largest
trees of tho genus, often attaining a diameter of from three to four
feet, and out-topping the other deoidaous trees, eometimes reach¬
ing a height of over 100 feet. For fuel and charcoal its wood is
espeelalty valuable; it also produoes tUs well-known bird's eye
maplq wood used in cabinet work, supposed by Emerson to be a
distinct variety of sugar*^map1o, but from information given mo
in Upper Canada, it seems probablo that it is only of mere casual
ocourrenco in individual tiees. This species is pro-eraiueutly the
source of maple sugar, and was known to the Indians boloro the
settlement of the country by Europeans.
I bad the advantage of inspecting on the farm of a DaUh
gentleman, near Eaysvillu, a section of the forest in which tho
maples are tapped, and tbs ca.looted sap boiled down for sugar,
the partioulara ol which 1 record.
A very Interesting phyaiologioal point, connocted with the
production ol maple sugar, is the variability of the flow of
the sap dependent on diurnal chaxigos of weather, tbs whole life-
force of the big old tiees being apparently ruled by trifling changes
of temperature and alternations of heat and frost. Ohanges of
life-action occur wUicu are unappreciablo to tho oyo in the doily
developmoxit of the spring growth, but which the flow of sap
records with precision.
Tho rising of the sweet sap commences immediately aftetT-jl^o
first break-ap of tht> long froet the midd’o Lo ^ntfof
Eebrnary, conUmiing through Match and into the early nays of
April, bat T»iylBg In dilI«*ntio«*IiMii «nd ntAMbrtnt
^tion, lend# to iucito tb^floWi in tSVdny
ttton' Mie Xt is, howerer,
dtoWS, and Irow a flow of three g dgy ^
may almost cease in a Uyr flours/ and iflefl fty'ixafly todbitok
itself. From this it, will be seen t^t tflo from
day is uncertaiDK and that reliable stdtiatlcs Of m di&nH
to reooedi A oontinuens course of fa^oufaflie weatflnr tends to . ^
the largest production, a rising and faHtog supply rsdnoicig, the
total produce of the season. , ^
The time at whioli tfle flow (Kmimeuoes varies iiot, only.vi^||i
the season, but with the exposure and elevation of tlie grw|f „
being earliest In warm and loweitoations. A thawing mgflt Ik
said to promote its flow, and it ceases daring a sooifl wmd and nt
the approach of a storm, and so sensitive arc the trees to aspc^
and cUmatal variations, that the flow of sap on the sonlli and eeei
sides has been noticed to be earlier than on the north and west
■ides of the same tim ^
There are generally from ten to fifteen good “ sap^-days" In the
sap 'Season, which continues on and oil for about six Weeks, after
which, as the foliage develops, the sscoharlne maitoy Is reduced,
and the sap is said to be sour.’’ though a restricted flow stfll
continues. Emerson, in hts work on the ** Trees of Maisaohusssts,’*
referring to Michaux^s observations, considers that the product
of sugar depends also on the character of the previous summer,
and that a season of plentiful rain and snnahioe prepares Hie
tree for an abundant jiarvest of sugar in the succeeding spring.
Open winters are thought to cause the sap to be sweetest, and
much freezing and thawing to make it most abundant and of the
best miality. The sap of isolated trees is richer in sugar than
that OI those which are massed together in the forest.
In the maple bush at Haysville the produce of sugar was at
the rate of 1 Ib. to each 6 gallons of sap, and the average may be
1 lb. to 41 or 5 gallons, but Emerson records inatanoes Jn which
1 lb, of sugar has been produced from 3 gallons of sap. Willi
reference to tlio produce of individual trees in a good sap season,
an average free will run as much as 3 gallons of sap in a day,
occasionally more, and produce about 4 lbs. of sugar in the season,
but Emerson records instanoes of the production of 10, 20, 33, and
43 lbs. of sugar from single trees. Such weights are, however,
altogether exceptional. Tho highest weight was produced from
a draught of 175 gallons of sap from a single tree. The average
quantity per tree would l>e from 12 to 24 gallons in a season.
Young trees under 25 years old ars seldom tapped, the smaller
trees scarcely paying for the trouble, apart ffom the debility it
produces ia the young growing tree. Hepeatod tapping of the
matured trees produces no apparent injury or efEect on their
vigour. Emerson records instanoes of trees that have been tapped
40 consecutive years without injury, and it is said that both the
quality and quantity of the sap are visibly improved after the
first tapping.
The trees are usoally tapped at the height of 3 ft. or 4 ft. from the
ground, with a j-inoh auger, to the depth of from 2 inches to 6 in-
into which a perforated plug is driven to lead the sap into the
collecting vessels, or a simple notch, inches deep, is cut with the
axe. Fmm one to three taps are inserted in each tree, and those
have to be renewed in succeeding years in fresh places, generally
alternated on opposite sides of the tree. Tne sap is evaporated
either iu iron chaldrons or in shallow boilers, 6 feet long, 2^ feet
wide, and about SJneUes deep, Those of copper are prsfei'red to
iron, as they are said to yiold a whiter sugar.
Care is taken to keep the boilers filled up with fresh additions
of sap during evaporation till the synip attains a sufficient
consistency, which ia ascertained by its breaking ** or orystollixiog
when dropped into cold water* The syrup is strained during
evaporation, a small quantity of lime or soda added to neutralise
any free acids that may be present, and a little white of egg or
milk to f,tear it. After straining and skimming, the syrup is poured
into pans or moulds to crystallize, and it may be further clarified
by gently boiling in tapering cans with a tap at the bottom, towards
which tie molasses gravitates, and is drawn off as tho crystallized
sugar se s.
A considerable proportion of the maple sap produot is also
preserved as syrup without crystallization, and in this state it Is
used asswf^^i^ sauce and lor various culinary purposes.
Maple sugar is made not so much as an article of commeret as
for the homo use of the producers, and the mat bulk being
consumed where it is made, it is difficult to arrive at anytoing
like an accurate esdmate of the total production. Emerson states
that in Massachuasets alone between 500.000 and 000,000. fti.,
weight of sugar are aunualiy produoed from the and Jit.,.
values it at 3 cents, a lb. In 1874 toe price rose to Imm lu. to
cents, a lb, lu Canada at tfle bagitiniflg at April lest, new maple"
sugar Was selling at fi*om 10 to XI cents, a fl>., about the ^ioe of
the best cane sugar.
The maple sugar production Is said to be a growing industry
and if the preparation could be centred in well-ordered factonsl •
on the plan of the oUeeso and butter footones, there is little ddhht
that earefufly^prepared maple sugar would closely eptopeW lA
price with nano augar. As it is, with the simple and Almost rtM^
applianoea tor preparation, there is little to choose
purchase of cans sugar and the cost of produciitg tXie lobal
made sugar from the sap of the maple. * '
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ru.d « SUM. MM*^J^kT^tatototodillg mp «•
wfcW, in fiivoor «t Itotiog duBg«Po«d-
CtoTwniP c»p ttoji mn naroento of tt» •y«to« «* »••»-
'^Ptottom ^InntlMiKrtoliVMiotp in »• tood-produo-
Kingdom. H. Jlto Altomlobi., D««ow». «e*‘«i
^ MitoM tood. v t. flWit. «r.^ ty
art *ortto»*». .**'/„"^V^to Und . < 0 * y«» •«»• '''>•
rt,W, be rtw ton >««’• "“*• * *‘I
„4tai«»4 gwnnd to W „4 woe n
P«^ rtd me , ehv enb-Mil. It wee dnt d...»d
mrttnrt of eley nad gmnito. »»“ • ' perimpsrfrf »o» The
t »to»dtoP»» r“4* •'J^’ " of SetoT inolS. "* ‘'"**
fcoMOA •«** t> tomriodet in the foUnwing tetoou i
tihe cnrbMO o^wnt the time the
S:SSh.t»«oP««"Xrt “jlr ^"irrpe, .toeofPnro^inn
Mtft itVt* W*'* •iwftnn * bette# on Uwl two noMJ fl^t
^niM »W«*d. ^ 0^ STwey. 8 bnehele ot wed -ere eU^ »«
-4“ to. tommd. to«to IP« b jr'n
" acr.&
“»*“•*' -r > sss: 1 “
e"*W-
m
i
gS!!!;!^.rwiSS2i <*
ttefcfced
^' ' '' 3. ' , -1 '. ■“ .' ‘i ' ■» I
woott on toe nodtoe 'Mr‘«e4
torudhiroe. Oi.««toUto 0,„„#m,
umleng ^ »po*» *« the ^
the ioeemd toetJoto. * toMto** ■ ,«ttMiild. Tbto* **p«>" '
Brtt eeeewfe. topeiim Wte tto W** -nejirf detoonlnilMt «h» ''
uroto bet* bton nndoitaken lee «»• imtototol tomtotee.
„,,j.p,o4a*w wJe* *t ^ ^^j^STmmtoltoMdt dto«d*4;l*to dO ibito- .•
At .Mb etMto* tboto *{f » »»»M "*!r-?r ^-S!7 iollM. phtoporte mUi
ofon* toed etch. ^•im“to^“ l[t„hi8betv<toe4 dieto>e*4']dM*^IIM*
gOtb*.pdtoto. end i 01 lM.«ntro*ro Tb tftto^ eeto Owte ltom»dl*to>
be,.* been tooted in togetd ee toto »«oto^ ^ *lV»rt* n**"
eotlro. The diaen^fa* P"*^ beeeibewtoken toWteSd
tbe lepert W ***‘*“^!^J*rt,W .r tito eipeii»e»to. SpeeWng to
beety eendneione nte ■'"‘**^.'^*4 ■,, oSeM>rode>d topettairotoi
thie^eromwbet P*?'*^*
Dt. Altkro eeyiir** It trte d bed» wtoedt^_ tieiiwto»»i»4 »« »> '.
lanwitoiy «nj»»w *|’* Xtouptsy. liw*y-
loeiety’e eiettoim, « »towem i« toww ^ ^
time rod epUtoto ^ deetolbed tatoe eotonWWylW.
lSl“l Wii ^ to dnro W -4
Xto'wo etatiOM eerottd tot toe
teiy diHitrot in oheteotto end o^®, Irtblent.'* On Hetolme .
tetife of n hi»«« wnhU 1 lliittaliMie, iitwted ow ^
(Umrddd,,) to. eoru e *!r2t^^g-. i
toe Me, enpeeed o«J|W J 41 rt,ioi in Soottand. The Pnm.
end U. -r '* totmebon. i. .thin btodto,
phertton ■UUen ovefUci th« ^ ^ ^ iBaoOhtet,
Olay, iltnot^ *ActiM onto® hoUef that th® ptot* ^lOuld be
damparp and later diainct, ehoeen hw h«m *
oe large to POtoPtlo ^ rtJot ^ toet tong, with e bmedth
quarter of an aore. All tbe oooeoded to the report) af« lo
of f8| feet, hod <®e Jf WO feet. a«p®sleoet
rr;:t‘n:srf„^:4^iirx.
■srci nr. 12: i?v»- ss. zisfA
nwoleir roneed ea totorroptlro to rt »!ini»..
‘LTdialrM^ to th* MW W
r r.r^r^ nrn-sxrsr'Srs
~'^^rss2rwrs-r.=-:r'“ “
tbe oropa which were manui^ , ^ (Foetertou byWd) j end th®
At been duly'aualjaed and earefuny applt«dg were
mauuiw', which h^ ^ laothod, by the wo of hwj;®
protected ogwnrt wuio though by thii maMMilhe
rrmerii.“^ w^wtto CcTJ^T^-S
Jlpetintentotoe bnefly rom^»^^toU«_.^ ^ ^
* Pkoipimu “ t *£ nboepbeto crohOning torty pennde el
Plou "T'^.'^Pl^rtd nnntoer. remnvnl naditooltto pheepimto. i|M,
phoiphorio aoW. , ohoaphate. It wan noticed that th® pUa ,
the.ereu nninbet . d^J0 4j» ^ mart of to. othem. Mid tooif «(»
nndec due W P P um dtoereneea between the odd 'end
arm met m to. -H-"'- ft" wuro to. Itob. WM* feromdtoertmn i
•yen ploU beeemeleiierod leto. ^ m,*Mroed M Mto
4,a.tei»e wee eppemt tn nnpWBWMe el.tti* jW. **.
nenld hero hero led ttoteeledtaton «IM«H hpptotj
OMOlew, eee^ I “y JL,. yu* it, Vowrfrer^ trUiidt, Woeifto
Mice of th® bulbe of Pint is. which rooolrod boihMhti
tto phosphatea, *®®^p iiwl Plot « (hoh®*ditttdli«d^
iro ro^. w ^ s*””***"
tooto '^Mton4ld*^i^ iMerwio. wee nettoeeWe betwero Wet, W
• drdnw'MTO Xb. Ihoddy m l«)««
(nitraM el rtde) ei^ * t ^ iinprovo inetnttoe endefthertrootl.
SCI.'-"™ »1X
‘' ' r-' H':4' f^I'li’.'’;
y*^ wr
Wl^bll^Nt«^ 4 |a« 4 «tfMl»f»f 0 iirQ^ IWiA ^fs^laifia
.QimHHtt <$i«iAK-*tPb*v9‘ifMiio a«iifffcp<>M{ia»t«i^K««^
liiMiMAirf^itiQQritttit.tb^pto^ TlM»gnQ^tiil 4 uaoiti^of mmam
fb# h^me «MiMa IImi Pt(»fe Ml )iowe«»r« Wfi ait«yM|M^foii oalioth
*Jll9»«<ll<ll»•ik(^€tolbm (bi^ ptot itltSi Tftp9 g^ wm
4«Gidb^ UtUr ihGn tha vUimr idfcli ooH^a gIiUg.
^Ai^ttaMf fOodglGlGliyiatiMiiiiM ttmoiwt of |»boti^Iiocio ‘poUthi
•od aiiirogm 'i»p^pUGd to PtotoU aad I2r U ood ta> ftL «od 13,
vbbdi vfGGjifoa « gonUI iMo«^ iOd Pti»t 97» wUioli rftouuiMil namAiiaMd,
f Pkth (8e)^-«U|»oli ^ wbolt, fl»«ie t>lotf agrMd vary OMrly*
9 f|k| tbo ItkfgftOiiM, «f«lii«h tbey wan dopUiMitM. tli(«« kovavof. oppUas
only 4o (b« UgMav fkitkHi. tin paaipkiiitoa Mriet, o« More teiMiM,
litftMtRN^ Qoaopoimt of tlnloeqiMiitiai of tko «oU,
Bifkro o^ttdiDgbia Viiy inttreitlng report* Dr, Altken ia i4 pohia to
point oot tint, •■ oppoarnoooo nre ofton dooepUre. too mooli rUimioo ougkit
llotto^pUMlOdoaoomp«fli(nMbotwooll thomlott* plota, aa tliat wblck
lua tko boat ioif nag not produoe the beat bolbe, and the large bulba nay
not in tho tod uroigfa ont ao well oa otkara. It la nlao noted that at HareUw
MVornl mibkO o^rtnante took pUoa, In one of tlmae wo aro told that :—
*4 inenUty of aeed wna divided into three portiona, aoeOrdiog to tbeic*
■peoiflo gmvUf* For thla parpoae thoaeod waa put into a glnaa ojUndar,
wataf ponrad upon it. About n fourth roae to the torfoOe* after being
well ngltntfd to rid them of air bubbles ; thia wiatakaa an light seed.
Salt water woe then added, iUl the half of tha rentainlog aeed roae to the
gniiaae | thU was taken ofl na nadinm aeed, and th^ portion at the bottom
onoatitntad the heavy aeed. Tlie two latter porti^s were washed to rid
than of bHoo, nod nil were spread on oloib ovoMiight to d«y. Nant
nondag they wera aown. Tbe heavy aeod sent bp a braird of great'
titrangkU nod gnonUty* tbe light aeed gave a poof aporae braird, and the
nadimoiiadwai Intarmediata. Thay were all thmued at the aoma tine,
the light i^a aeateely requiting any thinning. I'o my great jiirptiae,
on inapeottag theao n fortnight later, the light aeed drilla were the beet,
the heavy enea tbe worat, and the others internedieie* and thM position
was naintaiaed daring all tUe growing eaoaon, Tbe lOASoa of’tbiawaa
aobdiffieolttodiid. Of the heavy seed nearly every teed grow, and of
oonlii a great •troggle took pjaoe for Uie food oOBtained in the soil, and
they were not able to moke anoh good root aa the few living seadt among the
light poriion, and what roota they did make were nneh diaiarbed in ibinoing
out ttmir idoaely^pooked neighboora, Thla experiment shows tbe evil of tbiok
aowiag. It it to be noted, b owover, that there was no appraranee of tomip
Bf, l£ad that pest appeared, there would probably have been no at op at
aH from the light aeed.
* Samples of 40 earofuHy asleoted tnrnips wore taken from each of the
ptota at Fnmpkeraton before the frost set iii-*-thBt is to say, ahont four
ff*iwi*ha ago<**aad a large proportion of thete have been analyaed. and aFord'
raaidda wUtoh will be interesUng and instruetive when taken lu oonneotion
with the loll report of the cropping at both stationa •, bat to make any
oboervations on them in their preaaat state would be premature, md might
even bemikleediiig,^M h. <ryr<ewhurMf.
THE GARDEN.
E VkSttY reaideot in Iho country, with an eye for plante,
lauei be fomtiiar with .the elrouliur black epote on leaven of
the eycainore and maple. Aocordiug to M. Max Guruu, ae q^uoted
In the last number of (7reviffea, these epotn are the work of a
ygyaiitio fuiigua Bomeiimee oaUed Xjfhma ac^rimm, This Xyloua
is, however, only a traaeiiory form of the fungne, for when (he
leaves fall to the ground in the autumn a new growth nppeare in
these spots^ilie plant produces nsci, and becomes lih^tima m$ri»
num. The p^aaite is annual,fn its dnralbion, and is allogelliar
oonfinad to the .dee»du<>^ta folilpeoua organs; it is onljf fully
developed on the organ wh^nthi^awln AjresngstaW In order
to destroy the fuiigus it Is e/mt«gh to wnaove All the spotted ieavoa
which fall in autumn.—(?ar<f6»cr*f Gftronibfb.
j'l ML.Limnmo fm , ^
THIS vioTowA BsmJk* . .
A ^OST Interealing experUnsut m aaollsKOlliSttpn lMto lately
J(^JX soeseaafoliy carried out by Mr, Buwafby, SsarskAry tn .the
'Beyal Betauie Society, who cooeelfcd the tosn el tiupuplanliwi 10
•^•MkKMil^AIrlea enamel the inoat tenntknhle epcelibeai of the flota pf
theliawiean eenllm «ie„4hci.ilg«itie watot uiy, tha largesk and
,tlm'eahlgoiF^«l .-v^veltorV .weedsrs.t*/d#* ■
eaergeUo t^erev^ been loftpiiito
mHliasairtleDii gplaiidldidantoltofehcbncmp^
fl^l' Sotnate Clafdsns at Kswt lu^ Uh«iehat%4fi^
e^aillog ttielliy In its tmMve'WiU^
eever an enonminiarea^ ttovlog Imsn rbfweduM^^^^
In wattti wnier^^d ones even 4n the o^u nir^ie thA ^
dower has treTetted to Oentfid Afilha. ‘ fl^s'|#hwu
ant «mt to Bsnaibar, where ttisy prodoeed p^nif wh^
the gardens of Bey^ld ind mo^ lltel^
earrlad to taka Hyatiaa, wli^ It is ooaddeOtfy nnt|^_ . ^ ,
wfllAnda^eongantaf hone. Though ^llas IioiU 'tV'
Afuaeon, (hia i| In (he san^ liUtudf^ end
lakes and rtpere in Oentfel AfrJee nay eventndly Aqd >Orns^|[tt
in n water plant psenhar to tiie STew World, havtug |Lmt oh hs
mlgfodon, sotofpsak^lu Xiondeu. Bnne aaeda have oiso been taken
out to Ohlaa by the lat# Ohinese An^*nssedor*un4 «s Mri,Bswejrby*e
esperimenta have proved the beat way of tronaporting the samft, Ibis
plant will no do\|bt, aa be aaya soon be ** natucalM In therenellst
oornertof the stohe.'* Tbe aeeda reaembled In ebope end Mae bhmk
pigeon peat, awl if kept in water in (be light they wtH remnin aitlve a
year or more without Sprootlng. It pfaeSd. however, In dhiktieaa and
at a moderate tempsraiure they begin (o grow, ao that the tosh of safkiy
carrying then throughout a long and tedlooi Journey Hke that to
China or Lake f^yensa la one requiring no alight atleniloo.<*-6^foliv.
.iU i '/ > '
FBiOTIOAL HINTS ON FLOWER GARDENIKQ
IN Madras.
A OAUDB!f te be a plsosnre ahon'd he olwaya peat and tidy. Nothing
looks more untidy than deoaving leaves and dowers, and* as a natter
of facf« nothing tends to keep planta tonger in dowerj, than picking off kll
old dowers and not allowing plauta to hear seed. It any aaeds are wanted
they should bo grown on one or two plants, lelecteJ and plsntsd out of
tbe way aomewbete. It is teod*hearing which wears ,ent plants and mokea
than look dried up and nnsightly. Hut j^ides thb a ,ggeat thing in a
garden is to have a constant aueoession of nawariug plants. If a plant gala
witheved and paat its work ( or if tbe season for ooa deaoriptioii ^ dower,
log plant la over, a great mstter is to have another kind ready to put in its
plasm One of the great hcantisa of a good ISugiiah gaiden is i(»e oenataut
auccessiou of flowers. Firsts to the epring^ bnlbeus flowerSiVeciui, tulip*
hyaoinUi and tbe like. On come .wem morning in May tbe garden appears
transformed. The balbe are nil gone and the beds, na if by mngie, to a night
are ftiled with flowering goranhitas, foliage plants and wldaummar flowers.
Again, laiar iu August, tbe same tranaformation takes plaee* apd MUaa,
chryapnthaimms and the ** last rose of auwawr" suddenly bloom to the
parterre, Thia change is managed by having the plante ready to pets. A
great deal oau be done iu India in the same way. if net by completely
changiug tha bed* yet at all evenia to freshening up and renewing plants*
where t^y have-died or beoome old and withered. Very Hriv flower pots
are made at Madias, but they are not so good as iheie in aoma partool the
HofuatU, One reason floWar pots often tail iu Mudraa is, gft rdtn
owners buy (hem to tha wet season, and even ordar them at tbst^od*
Tbeooiu^ueiiceistheyare harnt without being thoroughly dry* aud sMl
easily made rotten by constant watartog. A well-burnt pot wUlImt* long
timi*. Whiuaver and whantfar tfaay «•« obtained, care should ba
not to bi;^ poti with too amaU a oifqamfareiioe at the bottom. Boms flower
pots IU Madias have been lately made which ere as large end round beltor
aa above. This ia wasteful of soil and waitotol of
The surface footo of plants want more room than Bmaa l^ow.
Besides, if this pton wne adopted for smell pots, them, wenid he
a .diiflrulty to gtottog the pleuta out with the ^rfli eturAed to
them whan otovis^ them. It to,of oernrae, impoitibto,toany ertmtidaifer*
pots a patW4 may require for his gurdeib but for the pnfp lae of kne^ug m
storit of flowering phuiti ready ti All ep vaoenciOi, the beat aisa sr^ pots
about six toohea in dlaniater at the top or mpntli. Xiaiafla dmiu hol|l ava
better than holes at tim bottoih. Whan flower pete dndn tothfrieittv
meUmd the rooto of Ml aorta of tdimtaflud th^ Stay iktoaiA awA^i^ late
thSroniid uatiac the pot. It Is weih bMam petttog ehmmentos^toltofd
tore heap* al hceken bris^ er titep ceady* <>nd MapeSn|atoliipieeii
aA(wti«tofieM«iiMU ttms»^Mtoiiit&sresk»l^ idiaNsr nyes plokt"
the alne ef fllbeHs* Bamboo stovtsmm havtode by spy toatrmaiMmtorflbent
twnavAaeeaeh wl^ ttmshss oC any elsq tonrisd. Aftto toe wt
tUss^ermhatetofdS «Sfdtotdmlua«i«*ia« btoked two tepi of n^ttoitn
smqd Ionise #n>a emily *nljlaUtod by liittog toe br^ eW flito tlitoimli
Ih# liiegh toe« toicngh toesmsitor enA BanpcSIog toSnfheSM
tobefsedyflflAtodtoflIimt F^toss tilutoiumril
If-StWM'^ iMP
»''jM-tei4;6i
! Ii4fii,".'<l«w'"
.a®s?t^w:5s=SteSi;'
2S!t^SX«Si*r5. •£•'iliS A“J:
SE“SS».w-s-«*5^^^
Ss^tTK “KS - -HSr«
Sir ssr
Th«^
i r^wTtr^t brt ’•"^ **“ ‘*T*ta ‘ki
16 ft Ufgft «6».*w * T!l»tlrf« ftftrdenem m»f be tougW
aotM H»Wirtng 4 Upl«U to ok _« SJl ^ ^
loUoftopot, omH" W”^*”*** ^ *1^'^
^ «“ ^ the tall of ewBx ttat tai*om« o»t of tho
*T.’ XflSSSs «Tc;o ,».4 «. tta top »itb tta briok
**^1 ... . J„t iMtanoo into tta «o«m pot, todinm
St Tll^ i:im« fiornetimee Urgft ebriibe In pots are m well If net
*S2r^n»l« taw got Ihtongli tta bottomn of thi^lnlo^
A 1 th wauia ihtow t he m beck ifer# omeh te mote ihem* Ihey
Sir^bft* «woh beneflttea, if #11 tbe eoil ro0Bd,the edtje of tholimt they are
Swk 0* taot^gottantrowol. Ai*iul.,ttao«l aittapottrUlta
!.M.ffiM^X*»t««wowiUtan.dUBeiilty to ontUng u ww »
--TL ^11. thiow wtoynll two eutli ttat you tato d»g oilt. It witt
ta ^^SwrtTtatatatrt ot .a nutritioM qnriitto. tor to. pwto wdto
dL^^tWtloftitti^tuMo^kbebertafcolfyou outt afford, bo^ duat, il
or altm oompoet aioim or oooa wwmou
^*Sd AajthfoTto givo the roots ft obftoge of food that thoy may
^^NP to tji bmotoo. «ia tAOoo- taw «o^ Bid tornta
yly tow twlta 0 yw »U» mdliw^tfonWfc-ifo*.. tvm.
1 fbi| iwrowBF siwpw^^
pNlMlIlt WdoWt^.lUlt^' j,-
Ja tUd «li!Wim ,diiMMt
piiMritlag' ita
dMitIwIta )M
••IWo fdtaUto qM
.mianf.^-, u«« i i »iMto t« < «w
mktoftMMit; mm.
Warm roglooe
MCanca
At the Hagne
EOOMOMIO USES OP THE PLASTAIN.
A t n mtattog of tta Porto Aoodoiny of 8 m«mm, “
fttMitfe. V ItfarO f ^ ^ ftod A, Mxmta briefly drew attw^tioii fo the
tam’Jto of to* Plwitato Old oomi Biportownl. no to tta miUMtoa
STSto toto J^conrtdonta tta otandBio. oad obBvnooo of
-,—■ j..>. h««i ittflo tap boon 00 yot dono oonwordolljr trith it.
*»•» •ttonltai to Iir wrtoBO po^ o«<^
Jr. to uT^JSrin "Tta ConMnorotal PAdtato of too
tctnadOiB."' to dlBotoot oolnnioo ot Sta Jbcbnohyitti • to mto tot*®*
' ‘ •* Itorfooi Agrtonltota" It moy, tawotot. ho wtU to bi^
' of iboto pnbliobod doUulo, to ordot to ompUfy too
" wS^bW wW ot Eotito. JdotooM ond Hodto, wbtoh ****-5!*'
' «2tai«ltotooa^««to» ot tta plotoOM, or btaoao.i*ow
■ '2S fiSfcilSnto onootwidolydiotrtbntodto oqnotoriol ottiiwo, Boo*.
Sr.."£SlLtan,." ttat too ptaittto tortta^
, -Stp&ta>^;«tton»»o»t.» to*tomwg>0tai_
■,M><gto,#>;,to!|llfto«^.to;.i!ta» oftta ootorto tad to^ tota
* 1 ’i-dtotab .to OMOod
* ?T7!!LXtSzrziizriita« ««• onii
assssarsrs-^
••IMportirfttttit Mtaiot Of 4« Tl'?ff^irtllfMlllM %i tot
tot. oontotoo UT P««nt. ^ WwdK
UO portt ot too potp eontato 7**8 pi wo^^ taoldta
«•« ot totottmtod dbgi*. ond too Wtortndof ^ 0* to
ot ..g« to totaWwM^ to
Ita ^ ^ oonnta ta Ptototoy ft “ “
BiUbt bo nUltad for too predtalton'ot opii«. ,.....,^ ^ v-»
^t to. ttaio of Bonortdgotofii Itorrt’fcJta prita *» S
0 ftoao to. 1«0 KlogrBntooo, oad thto
ot Moobtaoto. Tbocoitinmtoyloototlltoto W* tolwy BbWta"
tail^irZoo plootofa opfttt »•» totaiwy ta-prt* wltoftatiaM.
bom too rofnooo of too ongoo «»;*.“ •tanotottraua
fiamboldt oolortotod toot tbooon. tatotrf
Kltotoo ptaoiotn, *m oopport n for giootonmn^oi poWo^™
plMtodwilb ohoot. Tho yidd hoo.boitoyor, bow baud »d»
Sm moB. tompoita... of to. ^
a too piodooo por imporiol oe« of too »w «<ut to t^O f to** •
Ptodooo , .
Tomp. P#^.
•:; *7lt' :. S :::
7Ue S5 op. W
uw uni^uo ..« «»a ”• I L # J
Profflisor Jobneton U the ftfttborifcy tw the left c^o^. w
food iTmta. M ta hta, bom bio rnmlyri.. oMoterti »7 p«i OBit. pf
awtrttlve matter from the bananft. - a* » •« . _ toUAmA
The etttaofdiimry aoooutite which haye from ^to
wit a plaoteto walk wge ti^ught toyWajhafet^
to otiroflt eopltal to tWi taonch of ogrtonltoim ^
not rtwoyo witforngmit, wmo taw boon “jjj, ^
otaood eonrtdomblorrtnra..
Midn-taKtono offlbm.oon l>o obtained pw oofo, ond tta ootlo* too WWgo
**’ita^tontota**irgotoOTod ot toroodiffoitnt rtogta At *
ito motorityitio totoor milky ond contoino noeh o^b. ft ft it tpo^
to mhoo 0 . hoitodtownUt it loriM . oory tanri^mg y. ^igito ^
taiag ontatllotod for brood. Wh«i cntottoroo-f ^ rt ta to
]e»e noeiiehieg# but oontaine more eugar; ih tb»*
ir.r.pBuiUtt.mtat. taotfy .bta to. f^ to
ototeb io ohongad into gnm or oota'I •» tbon dwojw « omd PJOWJ^
Jf^irJLn Oitoorroworintoo form of fattom. Tbo toaow, l^o otoot
IbloTrLm 1. only «taa wbm. pmtortly Hpo. to -ttta a
ftuU^ton. » nntiitlwfood ; U to«»ft.tojl« Sto^ClhWrtlo'totataS
to tmwarfiil oerfame, and fonna a punctyftl Afob for oefein w wpwfti
legione. In thoee countiiee they out them while eUll gltM^ ^ bang
the bandbee in their howee to ripen.
Totaoton tooi. ripwag to Cbin. thoy
«!Ui Itaio. Tta Cbiiitoo obw oot too doaoto «< to piitajrt^ta »
vinognr. The plontoln, wtan plnckod ripo,koopi tarti taroboata.t^t
irttaond ofltattim. Htaooi...y.«owW»taam«,Oog.Wj^w^
otfUUea doyO tt begin, to dmiompoBi ond Itemtat In ^ ^
ciXl Amwica thow am two motoodo of pieimwtog to ptol^ to
4nrA , the first nsed when the fruit U greent priauees plants
tl^ Abet, whei Iho fruit is completely ripe. ^
Mr. W. W. ** !rj\ ^ « This is weU known
in 1867 , thus spoke of the fton* ot piftnuun* *TLta«»t«ttotr* and
inamny potto ofto Woot Indio, nntai to awa^ !S
to taSy*^ wteomrd oad oaUnrtroly uood m n tod
toibtota It to dortdodly Biptoto to tow SL-TiT^
to conooqnenoo of ito aouttohiog tad rtnmgtbo^ qatatita t W
5 «,TXrtl toot itl. onmUw of dtotthm. ond
;ta.^a3a^«.w.r totoo^wtoto
to £«op..wb..., howowr. to. brtiow to^o"^ iSrtX*
would eaimifeie «ie pefonk groats, patent peftit hwiJ wa
nreoaiaUfUtfa The plfthtaio for flour must he ««*» wot-ouly before fr
sTtTSrtaf^^tototattotaiiod'w
MwetMit to-whtob It tetotaoabio.1. oomo la ooatota wrthtarn ofilooh
wbirti tootoarty taportotoitoaftaybtodk tatoar*
“It mart tailtood withniokol atrttootptate,of ownboBOtah^w^
Wwo. wAdbiM. TbathlaoltotodtaiWbO botad to oaovta to
dtartta to Ota to., taopto ««.taj».»»^Ptota^
owitaaaoltt^tatortu oad oootad ia artaaod or
to a DtoWtataft Wawo ftft*
taaik'taMi-k^lkitnf* ttaMtato rt. w
MtadiMtonMdoMMtbaktogU moaotiMi ta»
-- ta ttoiiiatwt lim uStotaf pto“ •" “* ■"
: AteofcMiprmqff^
tdiiiiito l«tlfc;f|»'^l^i^ /| w6A
f^Ok m Wf4^' tiur. MMte Utili^ 1^%'^
MNMM^ ' H^}'>^
l«i»i04''ii:»^k^««(^M^ eMfv M'
oooM' l«ltirii^''«v«M ^ 'NW ‘’^1’ lliAMB''>ir$tli M
,mmi ikm tooa.
^ 'u' detiM M lUtdaf^ < 9ii1^^ MdHpi M^r if irM
itkMtMftgrM^ir ^ iuid>«rdM «f
lil^taiiif MMi «f d^tfUioD, II iTimld; X Miik^ U « ibtMoliil
fM f<k kboMri, etj^idlf lltt^«amu
»Plii^^ Ma ym fko A^vki i^«ir6 i^Kttt id fMgo
cddoirltiwMIU nntriloM f^imtiii, S per oeni* qX aitro^ieiioiii miller*
bapoai# ttom giDetinp knoem* Tbp best irip of proearing the farltm
tiM wtM lute tapotl Into Borope the dried ilioes ind grind Ubem.”
^1 it ft speoplfttieii iriM eonid not fill to be eitooeesfol ia tin potooSes
f^pgtbftU banebolplePtftbs* stripped of tin skios, give •! the leeit
da pec eent p^|nl£> $ end % Mb pidp fomisbeB 4D per oeal. of dry fariai.
Ihe yield is ftsatlJy about Slbs* pet bmteh of « mein weight of 251bs. An
aoreef phMttaiBS would give on the avenge 4ftQ baaobei« yielding l,95o lbs.
of meal* Slheise U another meihod employed in SouUi Animiea, but His
d e^yeigftgteftt aiaay pointe «• oompared wit h the driirf-sfftias? They""
*gtltoSemoieture out in i press
and bake tbemi like minioe, in on o?eii, and by this means obtain a ooirss
kind of flour. Bflt the nntrilioe property of this is inferior to tint prepared
from the dried elieeii fbr no doubt the pressare whioli eutreete the moislnre,
espela alee tin aolaUe albumen and other nutritious (lanlilien.
The beet method of proseMng tin binini very dosely resembles that
eomtaonly tiled in tin preparation of dried fruits, soeh as flgs, prunes and
raisins, lln time ebeeeo is when the fruit is quite ripe and its skin has
beeome of n ytilow eoloar, shaded with hlaok. In the hot regions of
XfeKleo tin bananh are dried simply by enposnie to the atmosphere. They
are bud in the snn in bundled and when they begin to wrinkle they are
peeked, tbulkia if left on dansiog • disagreeable flavour. They are kept
fhr^ iohHitthie« uhtU an efBoresosaoe of sugar appears on their surlkoe, as on
Jkifc«rP| |ibip^u'iievi^/P^
tile lorotis, Ho okpreMUB bii
OlnteqMoei wliiu)i; iiJwdg^ loUowr .tbndehttiiot^
Odnslrtty witf oomO il^ tbo
ia ft oompfttftUt^ftlloii time, on Ihooo^ tif l4to: UWfe
wbteli the Mm gfoorfh of the cotifl^
ntilftBS legieffttieointo nrmt thii inmeMiitM
He BtronglyrMwi hie feoomMndfttitniW^ tile {Mh^
ftlfendy iutrodnoed in Gougreae at hie anggefttiiin^ whfeh mxoetft
thftt ftt) timber lande, which. aiw ohieflf vidn»blo M thh
upon them, ihall be withdrawn from eale at ahf other utieoftCli^^
under existing laws, and ehaH oontlniie to be Md
the Oovernment with a view to prevent titf iofodleloiif jdea^
traction of the tfinber, and to protect the gyowth of yonhg
treee.
* PM ■. .-I,,,^ ' ' Ir
Wft learn frooi*a recent foreat Hepeyt that the maple le ftainin-
ing a very itoportant place in the fortete near Daijeehog, yielding
ee it does a very fitir firewood, and being raised with the least
amount of trouble. It will form in future the main atatid-by in
reproductive* maaeurea, the more valuable trees*^ing planted
here and there aidoiiff tiie maple woods. There are now
live aerae uuder Spauieu cheatnut, but the jreeulte are not
satiefactory, and It b not intended to seud more seed of tiiie kind
to Bengal.
SoMft inieresting statietioa relating to the area of forest laud In
dried flgt and praoea They are then pressed into masses of about 25 lbs.
each and wrapped with leaves of the plant. There' are three dtsUnet ways
in whli^ the ripa baaaua may be dried
Viiirilyetpoflngthefralttoan atmosbpSre of salphuric acid got berore
the derieeatioa is begun. Secondly, boiling rapidly very «pe fruit in water
which eontalne enipbate of lime. Thirdly, by boiling H in eytup. By
either of theae the albomea and casein ol the fruit coagulates and the
tendaney of the banana te decay and ferment is stopped at a pacied favour*
able for dealcoation. Kzperienee sbowa that the seoopd metiuKi in the best
to employ I iu moist dimakes, without this precaution, the froit instead of
diyil^ beeonuf damp* To expose the froit to the sun’s rays after boiling.
irSys of baadiod^ oa in Meadoo, or of anything which permits the free sottoa
of the olr and light oil the fruits, may be used. Xf rain falls thf^v are dried
in'a fumooe, wUoh moet be left open, otherwise the bananae bske instead
of drying. The tmot alia mast be moderate.
X^iMbty AXdeu'a Imlb^ryers, a system adopted in the United Btates,
France have been published iu oomiection with the Agricul-
cnltural Budget of that country, recently under discuesioii in the
Chambeta From these it appeara tiiat at the present time France
posaefiees 9,186,310 hectares of forest, representing a sixth part of
the whole extent of territory. Of these 967,120 hectares belong to
the Bute, 2,068,729 hectares to communes sud departments, and
32,069 to public bodies or establishmeiita. Tn former times tho
State owned a for larger extent of forest, which underwent a
constant diminution between 1791 and 1872. ' From 1814 to 1830,
uuder the liestoration, 168,823 hectares were alienated ; from 1830
to 1848 the Monarchy of July got rid of a further 118,166 hec¬
tares ; and finally, under the Second Kmpire, 71,930 hectares were
lost Utween 1852 and 1870. The iraneferenoe 6f Alsace and
Lorraine to German hands brought with it a iiitthei* diminution to
might be fbaud usefol. Bauimas, when pressed end picked in boxes, wi.l
keep perfectly good for any number of veare. The froit thus prepared is a
very gepd arttele of food, toeembliog iQgs or dates, and Us abundiuee and
easy preparation would render it I cheap ona Many spiiiinoue drmks. as
wtil M ^egat. ore made from the bouano. Benina wine is obtained in
OsyeriiS by preedug the fruit through a iiove and then inikirrg ii iuto small
eikei. which are dried iu the eun or on hot finders. When wantwl for use
they are dlistived in water. Another way is to boil the fruit, end poising
‘ them tbmugh a eieve to aspirate the ikin t they ore melted end bruised in
the caara water. From banauai eoiked in brandy i liqueur it prepered
whSeb preserves the taste bt the trulb \ other liqueure ere also obtslued by
a pfoeees of ftomeutatlon.
the extant of 97,026 hectares, and tho restitution of the property
of the Orleaua family involved a lost surrender of 480,614
hectares more. Under tho terms of the law passed in 1874, tiiefitaie
has bought since that date 10,000 hectares of inoutitilitk forest
lauds, but tlie produce of tiiese and former posseseionsetiH retained
i« altogether insufllcienk to supply the demands of the homo
eoneuinplioui. Of the 967,120 hectares now belonging to the State
130,929 gre returned as absolutely uiiproduotive. The remainder
yield ail annual income of 3,678,000 frauo8.^Chmrfry Geatieman'S
M,agftsinA
FORESTRY.
T he BuUdtr ataiea tb%i M, LeetoJ, a French railway con¬
tractor, recommeuds quicklime as a preservative for timber.
He puts the sleepers lulu pits, apd covers them with
qnioklime which ia slowly slaked with water. Timber fcr
tnfues must be left for eight days before it is coinpleM^
impregnated. It becomes extremely bard and tough, and ii said
never to tot. Beech wood prepared in the same moRuer has bean
need In several ironworks for hammers and other tools, and Is
tapttted to be as hard as iron, without Icsing the elasticity
peoitliar to it. According to the irttrse BertcAls, lime slaked In
amdtttiiwdfiditllwMcbf catMnnlisusedatStrasbmg^^ IImpOI
Dud cMOkji tu Mh
Ukvtt of our readers are familiar with the large cabbage-like
leaves of tlie^ robust C* tuectruhra» The ooolf’es use them os
substitut*^ . for plates. We have seen a good many big sac«iM6ra
leaves, but we tMtik the specimen which reached us by
post from Mr. Bhlwsrd Thwakee of H^dcgala Oordens is the
largest yet. To ths eye it looks al most round, and when megiaved
it gave 16 inches from junction with jGnn ^0 ^oint and tg|
inobes across the middle,for br^dth. i^ tbdbrMtbdimliiligHie
but slightly towards the poiufi ^ ^ave bero a suporlMsi
of UMTl; aW i«K>h«r W o»wf 1 *>«•» ftw»t I Itt iMWth, ti«iw.W,
tb* flirt ImI »t «ilbm iMit to u b/ Mr. CinrtM
SttMboOf o{ Jfwm. Oimgri Sbeartmi & Co., loft thio Mi, leirf br
iMbiwIr-t'** UMOuroiBb'btlttr l«ug(b bdag SI' tneboii, oir ^1^
8 iDrtwo 9 .iMt i»Mr. VhwoitN' iell* m Sm' hbit
'*t atwwiMMii aow <erwa«^brkte wntabonlhml^o
‘'oi *,«Mi ^ '
, 'viiw ^tttilMi iitteifi'
tt i^i rii^ illWli it inltirti t^l ’ oottti&tiBg
iof 'd()^! #ifcfa t letf tttrft^ i^ta^l 'lipi titAi^jif tlietim
iiitpt»<Md;^^ll^ to tU atmwtioio BM (oat of ma^B
, vapooi^lt#^ 'hours. ';
^^t9llU4tlr'i^Oittsitt UorOo >9,0ti6,l40 fa^vti of Ibrti^ oom*
i^iM^j|irii)tt3r-^gUt etui ot Uiio ^iiOlo ttrrltorltl trot
4»lthohbf4uflSv ’^xuoi<t |}|«^Ai«iiiti 4^tciei of iho forest irott
are tb4 jibft booobf iht 'yohoH»Iio,; tUO l^roh free, the
elnti ,thorl<H»gfMrtd the plot, the fir tree, aud Uie
laroh^^oMlttr ij^eoietljtiiiigtheuioit ahaodtut amoug the oouiotl
treet. ; oaie ^ rtaobes a remarkkbfe height in oertalu
distrtotsi tha bteoh tbriees host ia the mouutainous regions,
wliere it is found in great abundsnoe. The greater piortion
of .the HuugariBii forests are the property of the Crown,
the revenuee derived Jirom the oooaeional sale of large tracts
being very eoitiiderable. The activity of the commerce in wood
in Hungary bas neoessitated the multiplication of the meani of
transport, the oonetruotlou of additional roads, canals, and even
railway tracks, in order to facilitate the remoyal of UmbSr, both
for building and doUieeiio purpoaoe. During the period of the
last four yeors the Hungaiiau foreste have produced 1,751,680
cubic metres of timber; of this amount the oalc alone ooutributed
116,200 cubto metres, the remainder of 1,635,380 cubic metres
being furnished by the other species mentioned above. The
sum derived from the sale of this timber, and the wood used as
fuel, amounts to 6,388,977 fiorins, the net produce, upon deduotlog
from this amount three millions of florins for expenses and
maintenance, being 3,388,977 florioa—^JOand and Water,
INDIAN FORESTRY,
TO TBv xniToa.
6 i]i,-*A great deal has been written and said lately regardjlng the
management of our Indian forests.
X oan only express a knowledge ot forests in the N.-W. T. and tha
plaioa ot the Puniab, The latter are pure and simple plantations and
M snoh maj be dismissed at once as they are quite peooltar to the Punjab.
Let ns take the N.»W. P* forests in detail and see what is to be
said about thorn.
For the Bills we bays deodar and ohir {eedna deodorua and pinua
lenfiifelia) as the ptinoipal woods of a market value ; ohil ^inua
eaaealaier) Is found in some plaoes but costs as much to export ae
deodar. Deodar is exported for railway sleepers, the small quantity
sawn up for any other market hardly requires any notice, as the
railways oau use all our spare wood.
How what are a forest oifioers duties in deodar forests? I should say
to keep out fires, to seleef trees for felling and to proteot as much as
possibie seedlings and etandiog trees from damage in rolling, Jco. It
fires are kept out, the foreet will roptodooe itself, provided all
grasingii preyenied.
For yintd hmyi/bfia and yians emkior forests the same rule applies.
For eal forests ealo. ahUham fua (thorea robutia tormenteM)^ the same
rules apply, keep out ftref aud grasing, and your young itufl oomes up,
What more do you want or rather what more can you get ?
At our preaent atate ot exUtenoe planting, lowing, preserving, and
imoh like eannot pay. If fires are kept out as well as grazing, the forest
oi^r< is a good one. If not ho is bad. Indian forestry of our time
naolyos Itlelf Ifilo ihU, of oburse, the forest ofitcer has other duties
s«<di as findfng the best matket for hie timber and minor produce.
ooHoptlokhtsiraaitng duel firlofly and preveutlngeteal log, but this Is
all tho«rork#to«day« For poste^ty our forests are kept up and should
be flumaged In lueh a wayal to eahore no reduction In value of th»
property and an iiwmiseifi value where possible. The man who makes
twoblodei of giaie gsoir where one grow [fotmerely, is a benefactor.
It the foreat; o»oir keepa out firea ao^ graatag he will have twenty trees
wbemhpfoiWoidffintt* tbtaiathoartol; foieetj for thisfeneratioii.
«AatOthh,artbehif>aght la France, gootlpnd, Boglaad or eiiewhere,
lahouldiaytt iidU bo taugiil better by setting the men to work as ^
yonngateii ift Hie jafe^ol Jndla*
Of ooufiie hui lih plantations and imported
grounds
Of.thoitolor bl^M: fiw* Wooii l^uoed ia India aio quite good
^«noOgh fo^ att ^ ^ wHways, aa.,
' ^lo'mlat^ eliaiNii' m for tLe^'
A toreii oificsr hheuld eatar yoaig^ bowl a good ahwad ^
^hh a reasonah^aoM^; of jshalyi^AM insttilieth Ifi hhki lefl^e/ hfii
ai much of a'geuMki^n'fis ^ Nvfcairwt th«' Mney.' flhi Wibai
taste for boteuf Uud natural hlftO^ f^btfigtSat iuduce^euitohif <
goiDg more into nook# and 'hdmsia m aaa^reafon a liking lor
sport Is a good , thing, an It takes hliqi oU* :i^ ;all hours, oqinhtaiog
business and pleasure, helping him to ohMk jrrhgularitlea >a4, making
bis solitary life onJoyaMo. 1 know that mhdy place# and maiqiyoQleem
have luooeeded Itt growing plantations, I hate ii||yialf, there is
so muoh forest to be protected, that they count a# next ib fibthing,
except ae expeftments, aud t can Say lor ueavly osrtblfi tM them
expsrlmcats woutd have suboeededaa well, If souto of om Beparimbat
had not been trained on the Ooutinent. Ae to finding the best mai^et
lor produea that the ttalnsd men had to learn out here aa to prqtcbttng
from flra and graxing, that Is only to be done by pheer hard work and
r^ulres no training better than is got by finding out for yoomelt on
the fire lines what a difficult task It is,
PBOHZHa KKIFIA
MINERALOGY.
GOLD IN WYNAAD.
¥ E are informed by a mining engineer, whose experiepoe in
Wynand has extended over a lengthened residence there,
and whose previous experience in the Australiau gold fields entitle■
Ids report to respect, that the reefs iu Wynaad are almost all
auriferous; they ruu generally from north to south, dipping to¬
ward# tho west at angle# of from 40^ to 45^. Some may technically
be desoribed as block reefs, many of them are oontinuou#, and
may be traced eupeifloiaUy for miles, and one in partioular h known
to maintain it# auriferous ebaraotor for ten mile# on the earth*#
surface.
It is impossible to arrive at an accurate eatimato of the yield
obtainable from the quartz with the oiudo toaohinery available^
It is, however, our informant statos, certain that there is hardly a
quartz reef in Wynaad which, from the presence of metalB or mi¬
nerals such aa manganese, copper and iron pyrites, Ac., usually
co-ewstent with gold, does not suggest its co-existence. In India,
gold mining, in common with many other enterprizea, languishes
for want of commercial enterprise preventing a free investment of
capital, without which the most hopeful schemes may bo paralysed.
Beefs have been known elsewhere that at the surface diu not
yield the least trace of geld, a shaft has been sunk, say, 100 feet,
a orosa-out worked and stone obtained, with no better result; the
shaft has been further sunk 200feet, making a total depth of 300
feet, another oross-out started and stone obtained which has yielded
2 oz. of gold per ton. Our informant calculates tliat if any of the
prospeoling concerns in Wynaad had sunk shafts to a depth of 200
feet, the results would have realised their most sanguine expeota-
tions. As it is, they luve coufiued their operations to mere
Burtaoe prospecting, shewing iu the result that to do so ia a more
waste of capital and labour, as might have been anticipated by
any man of scientifio attainments, or experience, whereas a system
of thorough exploitation by moans of deep and continuous shaft¬
ing on scientifio principles would have probably led to opposite
results. ,
Our informant, who has worked several concerns m iWynaad,
crushed about 40 tons of quartz on one ocoaeion frqin the Alpha
claim, at a point known ae Wright’s reef, which yielded 5 dwt. of
gold per ton. In oonueotion with the same company, he oonduotod
crushing operations daring a month from a large quantity , of
eurfaoO' quarto, obiaiufng 3 dwt. per ton. Even at tho lattw
yield he avers that the operalions, under dieoreat direction, would
show* a large margin for a dividend. But ilw ** Alpha ** oenoetu
bad too little capital in the first instance for their undertaking;
and excluded, perhaps," enterprising capitalists,^ whose mean#
were required for eztex^tng operations, as the original capital had
been almost spent in kurfaoe prospecting, and might be con-
iidered as aMntelylostisK POt backed by new accessions.
ThegoWfoon^iu'Wyimadia so fii^e that special machinery
must be iinproviseav Seteral trial erfishings were made from
ouartz taken from thnieefs oa^(he Alpha pnd other oraims. This
«u doM fc, hiffld, Mid in «M>1 qttwKtiw. tli.
done by the flirafitbwsf the mining daas of Wynwd, with results
U *ti«w'fflrtM^'. Hfny
ftfittldb AUxUli^mf
mm mu ^
g«ol(%tttt; in 0o«^r^«iii Utltiii ^
oln»hlfl|tt \>y li«<i4» wa* dtlipoirfo4^1fit4ir tw
iHtrodttcHdn d maol»inerj^ by tb« Aljpba couoerni Mtif tltrttad
odi uMUj^t tboogb ba was Jbitified in bil «slimAla af i^^bdiibt,
i«.i 10 d%t paf m, 10 tUt ltw«i«?i4eittil»amftabliiar^r^
lippartaot iii4 tb» goH U idaolpuliiiiioS^ Tb9 mi^vmui , ol
m Ali^btt OjKHpiudjr** i»pftr»t|oiM than f«ll idto m bu^t et our*
i&foKiftftlaiti m%o Qonid uu\f Ipir«)dtt0fi 5 dwt par ton o! ^qttta
draidiad* Ea t^viiad tb« ikoppage o£ all epera^oqf» w tba
OoBipiqiy'a capital bad btati bipanded, and that tlm capital tbonld
be Inorenaad to ibn ettenfe of ancthar labb of rnpaaa, so as to
^en op the mineif as should havo boon done at the bntsat, by
aiobing a tbaft aud a da«p loval tODQSb and laying doirn a
tramirayi the anlstlng maoblnaty to ba supplamaiktad and
improved, end to save the cost of steam driven by a tarbioe water
wheel.
lit. Brough Smyth states that tho result of his prospecting In
Wynaad is so favourable as to justify the ezpeotaiiou that the
averaga yield pec ton will amount to onneos. Without professing
to be an infallible aotbority, our informant asserts that no reef in
that district will give more than dwts. Picked stone may yield by
ounoes I he has himself obtained from pldiced stone on the Messrs.
Minchin's estate as much as SO ounoea pei^ ton, but on an average
the reef from which it was taken would hot yield 10 dwi. per ten
throughout. Such an Eldorado as Mr. Smyth suggests, is, however,
not necessary to make mining operations remunerutire. With
snflSoient capital, skill and economy, a yield of 3 dwt. would, we
believe, show,a large net prodt. Mining, like other labonr, is
cheap in India, and this Is a poouliar advantage we have over
other goldfields, such aa those of Anstralia or Mexico. Two good
native miners, properly trained, could mine a ton of quartz daily
at a wage of Bs. 200 per annum each, which would be the highest
coat for the work of indigenous artisans. Moreover, Uie Caramboe$
of Wynaad are the class of miners who have worked (he gold fields
from tbna immemorial, the trade or pursnit being kamditary.
their trials have proved most snocossCnl. owing to their skilled
manipulation, whereas operations conducted by Europenn minors
and machinery have been a complete failure, and will pirobably
continue to be so, until the machinery used is adapted to the fine
nature of the auriforone prodnek, dud designed to wprk in unison
with tUenalive manipulators,—-fe'ni^lisftiwaw.
GOLD IN WYNAAD.
^ONOUBRENT with the questions as to the melals most
^ suitable for a standard of the currency of the Empiio is that
of the prevalence of gold itself in different parts of India. A
correspondent of professional esfperlenoe in Wynaad writes aneut
the impetus which has lately been given to prospecting there
As gold and gold mining have become subjects of particular
attej^iou, perhaps you may find some notes on the question from
one who has professional experienoo both here sod in the
Australian gold fields, useful. I have prospected Wynaad
throughont, first in connection with Messrs. J. W. Hinoliin and Go.,
and as managing engineer of the Alpha Gold Mining Company.
I find that the reefa in Wynaad are all auriferous or nearly so ;
they run, as a rule, north and south, dipping towards the west,
making an angle of 40^ to they may be described as block
reefs, teohnioally, but are more familiarly known in Cornwall as
** taking horse.’* Many of the reefs are oontinuons and may be
traced lor miles. One in particular, whose auriferous properties
may be distinguished for ton inilsH. Gold mining may be now
carried on with/itnpi ived scientific applianoos, bCt unfortunately
such are not at hand in Wynsjul, so that with the crude machinery
now iu use there, it is impossible to arrive at mi accurate estimate
of the yield the quarts may give.
^ Mr. Brough Smyth from Anatvalia, supposed to be an authority
on gold mining, has pnblished for the informal ton Government,
several papers as to the quantities of gold c^ftnm reefs In Wynaad
will yield. 1 have carefully perused Mr. Smyth's reports as
published up, to the present, and regret lo say that my personal
eg^jriqticu leads me to differ considerably from bim, both on the
grounds of hill ihettrUtf and as to the estimates thetu«#yyflt The
former beli^ loacourato^aiid not based on pei«nf»i ew^yeWuged
chservkiioir^ r^ers letter wholly uarehahhs
Thm is hWly ft quaria reef in Wynaad sMch^drom the
.prdi^tedt a
a illmited oiipettiihliiy,el ,1"
httu bseh ueRlecH'
Australia mining ^rprlae has been quafki
tup^amd to be auriferous l»vt been pt^^
egpenio'With mom of^deitA Udei fc h^ ^
■bgle one In WyuMd emuld heee^lMie!t |i^^
expense ef Al|000 In pftkq^ebilti|^^had
field of enterpiiuo, { amf mersAver,sikgiByo«rt«hl
would fiave been fairly lemimevaGye aliomtuiilEMlImeildtitltf to
India, however; gold mining or any other ehterprMe lliiill^iebi^
the want of eommerciat aoumeo,' and |hou|(h tbe 'i^^
solenlifle pmm are abuodkntly pi^ved to he i^eeesilM M^whees^
heiOthereaeematobeadtarth ef adveottiT^ whk^ ,pretente the
free id vestment of oapikdl without whioh the ‘laM tm^ful
iohemes may be pamdyued^
I haVe known reefs that at the anrfaee Would ndl field the Iklat
trace of gold, when a shaft baa been sunk; )iay, lOd d arosUoat
woirke<i\, ao9i stone Obtained, the result has Ud been bettsv; Ihe
shaft has been farther sunk 200 feet, maklfig a total depth of 300
feet, another cross cut started, and stone obtained whlbh hoe
yielded 2 ounces gf gold per toll. It is my humble opinion
that 'hod any of the prospecting obnosms in ttTynaed
, sunk shafts to a depth of, say, 200 feet, the resnU would
have been most gratifying and have realised the most
ddngnine ezpeotatious. As U is they have Oonfined themselves
memly to surface prospecting with results she wing that it Is mere
loss of labour and capital, which could have been anticipated by
any man of soientifio attainments and experience^ as well as
myself, whereas a system of thorough exploitation by deep and
eontinnous shaftiag on soientifio prinoiples would have un*
doubtedly led to opposite results.
I have orushed about 40 tons ol quarts frosa the Alpha eklm
at a particular paj:UkaoWu''as Wright’s reef, which yielded 5 dwt.
of gold per ton. In connection with the earns Gompany, I oondnoted
ornshing operations for a month from a large quantity of surface
quarts, obtaining 3 dwt. per ton, even at the latter yield thO
operations, if uuder discreet and good managament''w6nid shew a
margin of 25 per oont. for dividend, But the Alpha Oompany had
in the first instance too small a capital for tWe undertaking,
the projectors and original shareholders acted os a body of more
oo«operative miners, being so tenacious and conservative as to
refnse to dispose of their shares on the ordinary temptations of
the Stock Exchange or the Share Markets of the Fresidenpy
towns. Had their means been adequate, this endeavour to
keep out strangers from the oonoern might have been
attended wiili oousiderable suooess ; as it was they excluded per*
haps capital and enterprise, which are of vital impertanod wlieh
extended and expensive operations are found to bo esential^il
the capital already sunk in surface prospedtiog WAiw not to be
absolutely lost."
There exist shaftings in Wynaad, saoh as thosd at iihe Sktdl roef
the Btrathearnreef and others which prove that tbbsevegtoni were
worked in past agea These, however, may be Olass^ as surfi^ aer¬
ations, being sunk to a depth of little more thaq ^ feet injio the
ipurs of the reefs. On One estate three of those s%fUnge have
been otMiQected by tannele which ie quite an noii^nai oliroam^
sii^nee iu modern operations ; it it. n matter oi epeo^laMon
whethet^ suoii a prooess was reQiimer «^4 ^ H^Hory
the propeeitioQ, and what wov^ know o|-.the aotuml weaHH of
Mysore and the sdjaoent territory psawee the fVWMth .wf ilbadia^
was not quite a fable, hut .who oaw^doukt tfhentfhililiibw
available^ and. modem maohliiety the Mtadsede* At ^Miit agss
may not be renopeued with benj&ftt to liho ootintiy^'* worn
need of snoh a mediami tttiire no psHiaps than ahj^ bthsr ondkttr
of the world. ' ^ ^
Our informant conoiudes thus
»As stated before, the maoUtnefy oOnndOh^' wiitr ihe
Atp^e was of the most crude kind,^ anil, tq41d \
anefrer'.for any cciBiiary reef in AM^M
, certeinlV' /i*dapted to the.'>^%imad
1 ti w£i«b u to nm tkti
te^r^'v
i Imm
id t*rt origte«l gdW.w^e <p« - Vyw^,
«nd ol Bt^ g|ir#g9# <»£ H>jf itm
10 intjCp lmv« be«ii o))tiiitie<l, Hairy/Ji^Qli «^bgii
iiBTe li^‘ ^roiu SIcaii re«f, U.^ Mphxit iund »U or ttmlf
More the pmmfd MpiUk 'miO^^liieiry ereeled
]A*^e44Milie^rMw y^^ eboet 10 dirt pw ten; but Biter
thidrft Bi^iiiQf d the Alj^he Oompeoy by an engineer by
libe i|aQ^ ^£ Binneyi dirt per ton oould . not be^ obtained,
Ornehi^^^e m by Mr, King, tbeQeyemueiit Qeologlati irbo
v(M the Al^ba etarted their maoMntry, that ibo
^iiiitil:finmib# tKjndl t<b M ^Wtter, than hie own ; but nnioriu-
tiately it rratjitieiien), ^ aeiar as I oan remember, not eyen
i dwt^ 0 er ^n eould be obtained, aUboagb;there ie not the eligliteet
doubt,tbeV:^ne iB the guautity of gold, the reef wbloh Mr, King
oeUmated though it ialoet in manipulation, Mr. Biuney came
over from Auetralia with the machinery, and no doubt wae a good
or £a\r tne(;)ianioal engineer, but he certainly knew nothing
i^bout th^ manipulation of gold. 1 wae then asked to take
oha^o,jbC tlie dompatiy ae manager and engineer.*! did all
1 could ior the Company but £ must say that Ihit wae
not much,' the Company waa at the end ot ita reaouroea
when ! took ovei^ oUarge, aud were oouipelled to borrow,
From the drat I pointed out ,to the Direotora that the proper
etepe to be token after my drat oruahing, e»t, 5 dwts. was to stop
all further ppemtiona, appeal to the ahareholdere and public,
inoreiuie their capital to another lakh, and open up their mines
which should liaye been done in the first place but has not been
eyeti to this time.
Th«ee,dwts, of Wynaad gold at the present rate of exchange
would be worth about Ba, d; this ^ould repreaent ,Bs. G per ton of
qtieria. Kow^eay, a Company etarted witha capital of ^ lfi 0 , 000 .
Machinery costinR eay 7d>t)00, opening up of mines,
plant, tools, dec., another 75,(^0, making a total of Be, 150,QQO ;
this tnachiuery would crush 100 tons per day, value of which
would be Be. 600, or per annum Bs. 189,800. The working
expenses of such a Company would bs as follows ;r-Maiiager, say
Bs. 1,000 per month, six miners at Bs. 200 each, Be. 1,200 ; mining
31,300 tens of quartz at Be. 1 per ton, Bs. 31,300; eugioeem, say one,
Be. 300; maohine^meo, say 3, at 200 each, makinga total of Be. GOO;
9 Btamp«men at Be. 10, Bs,90; cleanitkgrup-meu 24, at Bs. 6 , Bs. 192;
wear and tear dbo., Ba. 17,000 ; after deducting such working
expenses the result would according to my estimate give a profit of
75 per cent, per aunum. Of course the mine and maohinery muet
be worked. Un soieutifio principles, the great edyantage gold
mining or any other such enterprise in India is that labour
is cheap. Before a piece of machinery came on the ground 1
suggest that a shaft, should be sunk, deep level tunnels started
•and trams laid down.; the toaoUinery at present in use with
iinprovemeiits and driven by a turbine water wheel, as steam
is expen 4 ^b would be suitable,
Mr. BreugU Smyih mentions that the results of bis pros-
peeltlng in Wyntad have been so successful, that the average
qtiaptity lojl gold per ton will ounce. Now I am
net^ mifph of . an authority perhaps upon those matters, but
n^riutpin that po reef in Wyoaad will yield au ounce per ton
thkt{|^^opt;; a. dwt. perhaps, would be more likely ; as a matter of
eou|^ ebsue will do so, X have obtained from picked stone
noip eopm it Min6hln> reef as much as 60 oz. per top, although
the ,sapie feef. would not yield on avsragelO dwt. per ton,
M wm^leyge quenritias of g<dd. wanted to pay in Wynaad.
With mMutriu that S*dwh per ton would yield 75
p|)p ipr ,pore tpn ;eta»italaxpeudad> ,Two gqod native miners
of quartz per day aqd more
t^iiPrnyW»4ti||ahJ(iuu^ You will observe
. ^undries .M, which X tbiak wcmld
W (mlloient for etaUiagi ^l^bert^ atultiug will not
oosbmu^,^,pi.,t|i«mara so many ady«nt«|<M in thie particular
dieiaSefc. , 0 ^ one of the hills
; niu tM l!>e wquirSd to be etulled;
' ilsmt. wp"^^ii^lhlng,,la ^ipicdng. point
would
f iimiiJia! H^nmmuTxJSir^..
f#
TBa.
THB.PBOSPEOIS OF VIA*
A OAB3&FCI, examinalion of the share Ust-^ dooupMint by the
way not tp be depended npon muoh-.*wm convince any
one thkt (tea is ,at tide moment sufEeriug apperejutl^ from .One of
those periodical depreseious that cloud lie geneirally,, ^onward
movement* Why should these ecares come ut all, and II tea it
a good aud.a safe speculation why do these unfortunate .oheoks
come to interfere with the general progress of the enterprise ?
The same is asked every day about the financing of the Indian
Government, and the same answer would sufiice both cases
uiv., had management aomowbere. We do not mean to inBituiate
that estates are now systematically managed in a faulty manner,
far from it, we fancy had management is now.the exception, but
a very large number of estates are Buffering, and will opuUnue to
Bufier from the results of the bad manafpoR of formef owners,
possibly drst directors or promoters.
In 18G7 and 1868, a commission went to the North Bastern tea
districts to enquire into the whole subject, their main object
clearly being a oarelul enquiry into the working of the KuilgralioA
Aot, then existing, but the members of the oommlesion ooUeoted a
mass nf information on the tea indnstry generally, which Is
very interesting. With this experience of the subaequoiit eleven
years that have elapsed since that time, a slight medifioatiou of
the views thus entertained might bo made; but on going carefully
over the report we are astonished at the soundness of the views
then held by the various planters who gave evidence before the
commission, and the correctness of the Vaiieinations then made of
the probable future of the industry. Tliey also gave in many
instauces statistical information which on carefully going over
we find to be very valuable. For instance, planters were asked
this question.
**What a new garden ought to cost by the time It came
into such a condition, as to cover the working expenses of the
season ? ’* Aud many of ihetn answered this question, one trade
the cost Hs. 470, and we specially quote his amount as he gives
closely detailed estimates to show how he arrived at that amount.
Some were as low as Bs. 230, and others as high as Bs. 800. The
general average being about Bs. 450.
Now this evidence, coupled with our experience in tea on th#
garden and in the counting house, leads us to lay down tbs
following fundamental principles or rather axioma
1. —That an acre of tee should, as a general rule, ooit.not more
than Be. 500.
2 . -—That an aero of tea should, with average high cultivatioa
ptoduco, one year with another, not less than 400 lbs. of tea.
3. —*That including the ooet of this average high cultivation,
this tea should cost laid down in, Oalcatta inolading aU charges
not more that eight annas per ib.
4. —That this tea ahould realize not less than twelve annas
per lb. nett in Oalcatta.
In certain districts these axioms might be eubjeoted to 0 ligiit-*<
very elight-^modification, but as , a general rule, we believe, they
are correct.
The ooncliieions to be drawn from them then are these
,l.<^That the capital cf a Company should as a rule not exeesd
‘Ba 500 for every acre under tea. *
2 .—That when this tea com os into full bearing, say on .and, after
its fifth year, the profits of each acre of tea, ebould hp one
hjindred rupees, and
8 .- 7 *That therefore tb 4 annual dividjsnd thonld be at the rate of
t>veiity par capt. ^
Here j»a oasetApoipli TheBehra Boon tea Oow had a very
suDCSsef ui sespon IM ^oar^ Here are their figures ,w
iToiat hearing at#'. m acres.
FrodoOS ... ... 8*O6|027 Its.
pm.mkP ... 46i
iteMkt .ii .«• 6*048 as. peiib.
L ^...i-. L£. .. ^. ... ^,:n!... ..Ii^f|^rt^#ii(fiii|y^iji(i‘jii|illly
itt rocml ^
B|i*lOl-a|?jafej|^; /" ■; , ' ‘.vr/', V; ,
Hqiv’ 4{Hiidi)4 f Xt vtiottld bate of
SO pwt l^oi* bot U w«i 011 I 7 5 per oeiit:^ tbe $rM if/klm Mig
that tbe odgioti cost of tUe jf^roptrfcy ie o\tt of all {^roportfoa to
il« true value, with a fall bearing area of (>57 acres, and a obpital
of Bs. 8,78,000 each acre bas to provide a dividend upon Bs. 1^888
instead of as about Bs. 50O> Tliis ekplaias the apparent mvttei 7 ,
For the sake of eomparisoa let us tdice another Qompauj, bat
one having a small bi^ilal relatirelv to acreage, liet us take
what is oousldered one of the most sucoeasful gardeua iti India,
I'he Kottat Oo^i whose ehares of Be. 5,00a each are now eelUng at
Be* 1<8/)00t and whose diTidends for the last three seasons hare
averaged 25^ per cent., the Bgures being 38^, 15, and 23 per cents.
, We hare before us the report of 1877, and take the following
pWtioulars from ft.
Under tea in full bearing 887 acree, Toung tea 137 acres.
Now if we^^tmate this young tea as o£^ different ages, and all as
half bearing we arrive at a full bearing area of 465 acrea Tlie tea
made was only I}02|846 Iba representing only 220 lbs. per acre. It
cost 10‘928 annas per lb*, to make and realined 13*257 annas per lb.,
Ihuashewing a profit of only 2*334 annas per lb., or Be. 32-1 per
acre, Ifet look at vhe dividends. The real secret being that with
a fall bearing area of 465 acres and a capital of one lakb only, each
acre has only to provide a dividend upon Bs. 215. We wonder
when shareholders generally will take a more intelligent interest in
their own afEaira Xl they would turn their attention to these details,
the direetors would be compelled to do the eame, and nothing
will so sorely pat the tea indnetry in a good way, than a speedy
reduction of the relatively large capitals that are simply throttling
the indastry iu too many instances-^we shall return to this
iubjeob
** WxTHilt the last few *weekB none of the Java cultures
bas been so much discussed iu the newspapere m that of tea,
au artiolp that, excepting with those directly concerned who
worked on in silence and steadily sent larger quautities to market,
had hitherto scarcely attvacted the attention of any one. At Java
agricultural congresses, no disouseions ever took place on this
culture, because none of those present understood anything about
it. At only one of these congresses had a single tea planter shewn
himself. Three onuses have worked together of late to place the
tea culture in the foreground ; first of all, luacli of the ^vasto land
recently granted on lease is eituabed higher than the zone most
suitable for ooffee, and is hence more adapted to the cuBiration of
the tea shrub ; secondly the latest intelligence from Europe shews
that London is a more profitable market for the tea planter than
Amsterdam ; and, thirdly Java teas have been more inquired for
during the last few years, in consequence of the marked falling ofC
of the tea culture in Ohina, espoialiy in quality. Ou the strength
of all this it Is not improbable that tea proiluctiou in Java may
increase to the eame extent os io nritiaU India.**—-Sfrulfs Times,
In the Indian Tea Gasette for April, appears an article asking
why it is that tea—and iu fact other Companies— do not as a
rule pay when they are formed into Limited Companies ? The
question has been answered in Subsequent issues, as an instance
of the truth of the assertion that these Oompauies are not so
well CDuduoied as private oonoerns. Wo extract the following
from the Agrieutiaral Oneette of India Vol. II. page 164.
^ The Adulpore estkte is the property of three partners, a lady,
** and two men of this neighbourhood. Though only 1^ year
" old, it has prod iced nearly a maond of tea per acre already,
** without the sllghlesl distress to, or injury of, the plants; and^
this tea has fetched In Calooita at publio sale 13 annas per lb*,
*' and has thereby paid 16 per cent., ou the capital invested.
*' This undeveloped little garden has been growing while folks
“ have been sleeping, and bids fair to do as well, or better than
similar euterpnzes in its neighbourhood Of older standing.
Tea in the Terai ef Darjeeling can be cultivated at a cost o£
Bs* 300 per acre for a 2^ year old garden, and will then pay
« <0 to 60 per cent., as the outlay. With great oare and economy
** it can be done for less, say Bs. 200 per acre., Can anything
better be desired by ordinary mortals 7 **
What was the fipshot of this we shall see. lu fulhvsi of time we ^
find. The AdUlpMg Tsfdl Ten Company Limitsd.** att4 on iockh^
i wii ^ 'I
.iti tiiti.tiM*’:
jpwtwiKt. Mflfiwitiwflyj i(W '''■
.
■On tirnnky •«.
for kMy plulog otiir
will, wo tri^ intWHit ryarf <rf «w riirfi^ ,
7..
V-
f, *pi|je|nl^gl , I
Toars.
N<^0(aer4siiA
1868
...
' •*,
’ l.k
w -
1879
...
...
(*•
65 «
1871
...
...
**«
82
1872
M*
...
78
1878
...
...
*■*
87
1874
...
178
1878
hi*
...
*1.
121
187U
M.
...
. 114
1877
.**
...
...
148
X878
••*
...
**f
114
^Daf^eeling News.
:
5;79O^f0
tMOil
Vausous opinions have, from time to time, been expressed
regarding the unremunerative oharapter of invMtments In tea, and
recently a gentleman was examined by the Famine Cpffimjiseion,
when at Ootaoamundt and deposed to the foot that ooflee and
cinchona would pay, but tea would not pay on theee Hills. We
thought at the time, the osser^on was an haeardous one, but
en^Luiry has lead ue to believe that the same opinion is entertained
by many planters. A gentleman, however, gives the assertion a
positive denial, and as we think his opinion of snfficient weight,
and ae we have his permission for making it public, we give our
planting readers the benefit of the same.
He tells us that the following are results obtained by him from
his property of about fifty acres In extent, of which a half or
twenty-five acres only are plucked* The return of first-class made
tea from let May last up to date has been 860 pounds per acre.
High cultivation is adopted. The soil is not exoeptional.-«FotW4
qf India OUemr,
Tub HuuIos of Tsaparang, in Tibet, are very fond of
tea, of which they drink in considerable quantities ; they first
make a very strong infusion ; a cupful of this ie put into a pot or
boiling water, a lump of butter added, and it is then poured into
a kind of oUurn which thoroughly incorporates that butter and the
liquid, and gives the mixture a peculiar eoft taste. A little soda
is generally used in making the first infusion. Brick tea is In
general use throughout Tibet, though good leaf tea may sometimes
be procured at dartok at about Bi. 2 per Ib. A brick of tea
weighs about 8 ibs. and is sold for about Be. 1 per Ih., a sum
considerably above its intriosio value. The sale of tea is a
dovernment monopoly, and is forced in a peoutiar miuner. The
Lhsssan doverument issues a certain quantity of tea to the
dovernor of each province, for which he has to oredlt thkm with *
a fixed sum. He serves this tea out to the people of h£i district
In quantiiiea according to the wealth and standing Of thd fiamSlyf
whether they want it or not, and fixes the price hlmseH, of course
taking good care to leave a large margin for personil profit over
ai^ above the amount he bas io credit Lhaesa with. Almost every
family is,obliged to take some tea, only the very poojreM from
whom payment cannot be squeezed being passed by. The profit
made from this monopoly is of course a cogent reasofi for the
prejudice against the iatroduotloa of Indtan teiw,'et)td eqitslly
arcruhts for the fines levied on any traders found try&jh ^
them in/*—'Fionser* j .
Now and for the past couple of years tea hie heed IMfiifig in
London at prices which have paid neithef pbntem nor
impoiters. But increased demand vtUt, by and bye, light this
state ot things, especially in twgard to Indian tie. Akeedyone^
fourth of the tea ooneumed ^ Britain is of tndtan orlg^ To
show how teplddy the nee ot tea Is spreading in Britahl^ite'l^ied,
merely contrast ^efridowingfigures:— , (;
1807,hemeieeassvpfioa ..J Itl,09^8^lbs*.
1878, M * ** .t. igrMiKf®
XhofealsiilXfiyeiun
The koraine per annum has ^not beep m»o3i^ tunbe' 4 milUetHS
ellbAi vliIBi it f878tlml]ieee|ji«f|m^l^ tarn*
,„, J[fii^'40j:
... ,.^j''«M4ioiw-''<i>i*‘'i^ -
, . j ^t«ni«! ipflpMIW'; ^ a*u»*f««
jifihifl&mtk ,: In iiMH^ ^ t««
OMHMnBni .<n. <^t.*io .irUl d»iil(tl«iit MM*4 8Qd, ilii)Uoit*i ^
: 4 ^i-|ilf, jfiir b» ptodaev tt 0^l<«.-*0^>to»
iQjhjMiHBJft .
' ,„,. vIHFOBMAWON WAKllU.
To TttB Bsimil.
fitl^Wi)! »»y ono be ®eeA eaoagh to enlighten me on tbii imall
yrt*»b^l«port«twl4Mt,*i», “0«Meot^ plwiU bring
Ae^ei eomy tuagmenteanfieeme, I wonM not aHarlbnte the
ctM to went of no«rIekment| to the mere foot of having observed
mim pleats only 2 yearn old, and in the moat healthy part of my
eatate eifEeoted in tbia manner.
Any information on the above aubjeot will greatly oblige.
A PLANTER.
whleh iKf^ ^ ?-
they have •' airljr#.;#^etr l^ot Wl toe^epmanS ihey m ■
mti*twfef*aiidih|wttai^,to^ ontarafda ^ht^h m
hthb, leavingUieveot to 4««e vmy apbed^.
' ^ ^ ^ '/'■/ ^
AooQBDtnd to ja oorteepondW^V,^* toWtnpofaiyi’;
Liberian ooto haa not provodanoh a awjoeaa on the Shevatoya as
waa anticipated. The growth of *e pUnt la any thing but rapid,
while it ie moat anaoeptible to diaeiuii, to which ft fa^ ,« e^y
victim. The low*lying tracts of land twmd the foot of the HiUa
are more adopted to the cultivation of tWi ooffee than the Killa
tbemeelvoa, and auoosasful etperiment near the foot of the Ahtoor
ghaut gtvea good gvoond for expecting that Liberian ooSee in
theae parta wonld anawer as a speoulation.
TEA OCLTtJRB IN CEYLON.
(ZV thfl iMitw a/rAc « Cflylwi TfwaO
DsAE Bib,—I n conoeollon with the stateoieoti in a leading article
in yonr Issue otthe Btb instaot, it mey perhaps Interest you and your
rei^a to laarn that we hare obtained off a small acreage in our Tea
Batate in the Rambodda Pass, as much leat as suOlced in being manutao-
turedtoyieldan outaurn o( tea equal to 600 )ha, per acre. I reature
totov that it will take any estate at Avlsawella a long time to beet
that, though I ahonld be delighted to hear that others had met with
evcB greater soooass than ouraelrea.
It la icatoely ueoeasary to remind yon that with onr taoilltlea ol
tranaport aa oowpared with Awam, a much aualler yield per acre heie,
•heuld anffica to oninre a profit in Ceylon.
* Tonrs faithfully,
a W. aORBEALL,
aanagar.
COFFEE.
Btates that M. Jobert, who is engaged in Braail in
^ certain soientifio researohea on behalf of the Emperor of that
country,'has just forwarded to the Academy of ScienooB come parti-
culara relative to a disease of the ooto tree, which ia now
devastating some of the fiueat plantations in the Empire. The
most VigoiouS trees, those of from seven to ten years old, are
geuorally ftrat attacked, and the disease makes its appearance
principally on the banks of watercourses or in humid valleys, A
tree which, to all outward seeming, is hardy and strong, will wiihm
twenty-'tour hours, begin to droop, the leaves bum pale, theu fail
off, those at the top first. In a week, aud often less, the plant is
gnd the extremity of its branches already dried up; it is
irrevocably lost. On digging it up, all the rootlets have disappeared,
gndtbetoota,of the thickness of a quill, look as if they had
been gnawed. The bark on the trunk presenta no abnormal
appeiNFiincef but, on removing It, the young wood is seen to be
ftttaoked. On a closer examination, the yoots are found to bo
covered with nodosities, or small lumps, the largest of which do
*'**“'» general
espeot Is that of the root of the vine when attacked 6y the
^l^oxere. in meking incisions on the iwelliaga above mentioned
^they are found to present kysts, or small hollows, which have
nom^tely doitroind thetotureoftheroot. Xu those chambers
are found mulUtodes of minute* wdtmi, whioh, when they first
the ogg which produoee them dre little more than a
quarter of a mMmetr* in length. They belong to a speoiel of
minute paranRes oalted angnillalm, and forty to fifty eggs are
fouhjd to ea^ hyst. ll.;Johirt batohlates toto a itogle tree may
o<mtatoiiM^than thiHy lidlUons of those 4e«toucliimUt^^
Xhs Mercara correspondent of the JUadfs* Standard says t-Ib may
perhaps not be generally known to your readers, that there are and
have been for over a year, abore half a hundred of the richest and finest
ooflea estates for salo ,• they belonged to the late Mr. R. fitewart. A few
of ih«n are In North Ooorg, oommodlj' known as the Obftfc estates,
whilst the remainder aud by far the greater number aim lo South Coorg,
or'MUe bamboo,** They hare heea advertised, io some Indian and
Ooylon papers, but to the best of my knowledge no npplloation has been
made for any of them, nor hero any been disposed of to geatleiasm out
of Coorg. How it oomes to pais that such a rare aud splendid
Opportunity for Inreitment pastes nuUeeded I cannot* compreUeud.
There are early oholoe of looaUty, temperature, and altuation;
boogalows and pulp-booses, Ac, oomplele, whilst the majorliy oftho
estates are In young bearing ooffea. The many exaggerated and
frightful aooountt of the ravages of the bores In thU neighbourhood
beve giveu Ooorg a bad name, aud may have deterred purobssers. I
think they have been sadly oventated ; anyhow of late years they have
much decreased.
Cue of the late Mr. Stewart's estates was bought lest April for
£10.000 { It was of 600 aoros, It yielded last year over 60 tons of coffee,
which lu round numbers represent £6,000. As I am assured this estate
will in all probability produce for the coming season over 70 tons or
£7,000, it promises to be a success go its lucky Scotch Investor.
OOFFEB TAXATION IN U790RB.
Tm hi. no, work on tbs « ot . FhaUt in Urn 7ttD|^i «f
A yBore,** Mr. Hobett B. EUici, iu alluding to th« early daya of cottea*
plaotiug in the Pzoviuce, humorously temarhs t—'* Then we had no
gnevaoces in those days ; but this Source of unhsppiness has now been
removed, and is there not the tlauserabad Planters' Assooiation which
veutilates whatever woes can be foundHr. EUicfc obviously means to be
kinder sarkastic’’ in his femarks, as Artemus^Ward would s<iy, but we
ore sore that those of our planting readers who have watched the untiring
efforts of the Mysote Planters* Association on behalf of the liiUe cowmoari
wealth whose cause it espuuios, will agree with us that the ** sarkasm'* is
nnwerited. The Planters* Assoolatbu of Mysore is an iustaaoe Bniish
pluck and perseverance, and its operations have reaulled moat beneficially
for the planters of the province. It was a haid fight ; the memheu of tho
Assoi'iation hod to constraiu the Government to reooguise the plantera*
rights sud to pay heed to their gnevsucss. But, at length, good seems to ‘
be resulting fiom the intero<i«aioas of the Associatiim, and a brighter
day is dawning for the aorely-tried and mueh-badgeisd planters ot
Mysore. The attention of the Mysore Flautefi* AiiociaUon is now being
direoted, we believe, among other lubjecU, to the important one of ooA)e-
tasatioD in Mysore. Some four or five months ago we dwelt, at some
length, on the minute of the Ohief Commissiouev of Mysore, on the tulng
of coffee-lands in Chat province, aud as the agitation on the subject ha>
been revived, it might not be out of place were we to offer «;few further
remaiks upou this question.
The sabject of coffee taxation in Mysore has long been a Sore grievsnos
with the planters |u that province. The h^lut or excise tax hitherto
imposed, as our readers must be aware, atnounts to one rupe$ per cioi«
which would coma to five rupees per iiere, at lowest, whereas
in British torribory the acreage tax is only two rupees per
acre* Bneoessive Chief Commissioners, Importuned by the Planters'
Association, haVe given the subject oousideratlan, but it was
left for Mr. Gordon, the present heed of the administration, to adopt
piaotical uieasures to settle the grievance. As to the form of taxation, the
piauters were divided, some voting for a reduoed AcUst tax and oihecs for
an acreage rate. Mir, Gordon's uunnts has been viewed in difftnnt iigUts
by vaimua pUmtexs. Borne ale contented with Mr. Gordon's concessions,
while othara again oOniider his terms too hard aud.exscting. Since writing-
last on this sulijvo| we have bad oppcstunltieu of testing ^e vsxioai object
11 . UV p t fpiimkA ikwlitot Mr. GoidOn^s minute. While in some poiafii the
idl‘'4Mr»' n^ 'jbi « winttiraifr M ^p4m^
ili Hit *p4 tJ»e/WiY»f«» P«,«»« bo]«ij «id
o«b<ir >«iMl»««.:,ttW W '«W P?'
tk$j ,«t|«lfU| bMwt oono^iiotti if to tho wkitit Uii>i Aii to Hurt
tor its yoon, ^nt wlU not kmo ii&to tIoWo ontit t«ro yoort nftoe ibo intro Jn«^ ‘
tioii oltbo neraogo tuii to nilcfW O#deiiiiiM^tloni'Wiif inndo. MoMtwViiif^
ni a oonijptnitttioa ioc iho lurTtUbip in^olTod in tbo poAtpoaemcot of the
ooaooMion# tb« wbolo am uriU bo'Upiporarlly MMtftcd ut tho rato of, one
fapoaipoiam for tbo two year#.
Kdtr'HI ^1 oeo wbot' are the-objpotioiitwhich liaooheetiiaited to Mr^ <
CM^OhVtornta To the firtt phtooi the aaioeement of its* M pe^ aoraie
Wi^ i t iMiBii III ui a B "W|ir m «>a t » t oiwfa?»o<}ion. In
the adjoining prp»ineo of f'oorg, the rate it Be* 2 per a^re, aud wo think-,
that thomte fixed h,** Mr^Oordoti for Mysore ts. ti^erefore. a liberal one.
M«W»eifiO||fcf-U be adtaooed. with apy show of sound aigomf^iit, that Mysore
is^at a 4isftd*antflge,as comparfd wi^h the coffee distriets in British territory
with respWt.to pcodootirepess of land, faciiltios of labour supply* Ao , Ao
With regard to the aisesstneut of eight aimis per aire on waste blocks,
however, we^ttihs agfoe with the planien ttnb.lho Ooverament are too
aAa&Dg. In Britisli territory no assessment whatever is 1-vied fer font'
ym*» oa Ottitivaled land attached to aoftVe 'estates. 'It is obrionsly an
oppressive ipeastire to toa m«n for land Wbioh is lying waste, and before you
liaVe given him time to bring it under Oultivation. Tlie^ planters oomplain
too, that whereas land onltivated with raggl Is assessed at tbs low tits of
•is anbai peraoret waste bloSks on coffee oatates ate taped two annas
hii^i Again, the plattteri obiect. to the temporary aasessinejit for two
years of one roppe per sore, and oouteu l for the lower rate of eight annas*
We woold' suggest* bowevor, that the <dd estates be assesiied at the rate of
one rupee the iiere,'aDd the new esMs* *t eight, annas. This arrangement*
wo think* should satiefy; the Gpveynmewt as well at,the planters, Those
arp, brieay,^h6 principal poima Itt di<pato between tlw.paptora and the
Government of Mysore, With mpect to the qi^estionof eoff«<> Uri^ion.
The plttDtefehaveonrwanae-t sympathy, but we would ooun.Hi them, in
prefeniog their gnevanoee lo Ooverawteat, not lo be uurea«ona\)la and too
exacting In theii demiW^** Wilt stspdingnp for thahfjffghte sod privilegej,
let them remember that their aovemwen^, grasping thongb it has hitherto
been. i| to h« oonsldeied too, and that it would novwr da while securing
redtt^en of taxes for tbpir plsnte’is. to ignore ihe ngl^t of Urn anUioriUes.
tp detlye a rpMonsblanaottat of revenue from the prpdaotion the estates,
mmMadtaf a'fmsi.
OOFPEfEJ hlS^AW ©IfiBASB.
r E- toUqwiag, paper, by Oiq Bev, B. Alihey, M.A-, FG.S,, wwt
read at a roceuL maeting^qf tba Littnmau Budety
** One of the greatest scourfjiee whfoh the coffee enterprise of
Bodthem India and Ci yloii has had lo contend with, is, without
doubt, BenUlm vasMiW^, or the sO'Oallod cojtee leaf disease.
Appearing fiiat on a new eslate in MadutHiuie, a diairlpt in the
•oaUi^oaetern corner of the mountain aouo of Oeylon^aud bordering
on tbo lrow'Country* it spread with rematkable rapidity over the
TaMons coffee districts, attaching both old and young trevs with
alanostoqnat 'severity. At Brat the ^ disease* was regarded by thobe
belt able to judge as a temporary one, whioh would luu its course
for a yqar or two and then disappear as mysteriously as it came.
This vieWrWaa strengthened by the apparent departure of tlio pest
before the rainy monsoon came on ; but with the reUirn of dry
weaiber it reapp^wred^ The^ot^f the disease preaeiuty became
apparent in a dimmutlon the Iguit which the tree yielded; and
in 1873 the matter waff r>eognfiejd as serloas. Previous to and
including 1871, 'the avera^^^c viold fbr five years ovet the whole^
islaiid hud been 4 5 owt per aare, whilat /or the ff ve sacaeeditig
years the average has ho^n only 2 2 cwt.^ a deorease in the produo*
tioQ of somewiiat mote than one.tlfird. A portion of this decrease
la helioved bo have beou due to oxcepltonahy unlavourahla seasons
foe the blossoming au^i*dnveU>pmeat of bheivtiifc.r
Puling the emlier years of dm ravages of (he peat all’traces Ofifc
diWpipearfed So completely in ciffmout dUtrjcl,8, and the trees, when
relieved, fiom itif,influence, so readily put forth new foliage and,
bore couMflei^Ahle crop^ thi^t hopef weie onteriaiued ihe
th^'imi^imldr^reeff wero;
perfeoMy ripen their fruit Besiiiea th^ « ^igiryfrepoMlI^
Hght coffee, f.i. of deaf begns, waa ^ ^
** Absolntely nofht^ 4ffi bniowif'iff ^iht fOlh
beyond what has been alrei^y ifiated*.^ 14 !s fomud on '
plant except the ooffee tree, nor nqitl imme sixteen fflght|^A
inoothi Ago^ wbsai it appeared^ in SatAeteg^dn any*
except rOeylon and Boaihsm lodia^i ^ I4i ii,fhoife««s^ '
possible that Java can escape the iinportation of it from
but it if perhaps noatternf^oubt. wheithef
olimatsareso layourobleio itSigm^fth spd<4ffeJppH|e|i4
of Ceylon sefi^ ,tp be. If # 00 ^, bfli/, 0
*ooffee in the East, if not also in Bragil, Ap
Restricted, unless, as is pofsiblp, 00^00 mftji^^jliOb^ldj dlsyovil^
of sucoeesfully oonbondiog ^ith the pest, flte vita^ty ,ol'this
spores of the fungus is somewhat remarkable, and appamoMy
places no limit to the distanoe to whi^Ahey may be eonveyedi, or
to the period during Ahich they. wl|lreti^mtkeir power of gertnina-
lion, ^le writer has at the present time spores growing readilyi
which were sent from Sumatra to Ceylon, sixteei^ months ago, and
afterwards transmitted In the middio of winter to England.
*‘Tlie first iadication of the disease is a palish disf^IonTatloh' In
epoH or patches, easily doieuted when the leaf is held np to the
light. These quiokly assume a faint yellow qolour, and, presently,
beooipe^ covered With bright yellow dust, whioli soon turns
to a rioU orange. These are the ripening aporjCS, (^r, rgiher
sporangoa, of the fungus aggregated,in little clusters jnst vijublp
to the unassisted eye. A stiperfioial examination of ihe dlpoapa
spots suggests that tile infection must come fr(^m withQiyt, and not
from the juices within the leaf itself ; for it is improlmble if the,
latter were the case, that the nerves of the leaf could, form barricTA,
beyond which the disease spot could not spread. It seems natural
to suppose that the hypothesis is boruo out by microscopic observa*
(ions, ttiat each disease spot is the result o£ a germinating body,
whiclVhas fixed itsolf at a point whiuh is afterwards the oeutre of
the spot.
more than one district it has bcerf noticed that a strong wind
lias apparently had a groat offoot in ^oarryiiig the disease up or
down a valley, moat probably by spread ing the sporps from some
badly iufooted estate over the comparative healthy ones. If ffoeb ^
is ready tlie cope, the fact points to the conveyance of thh disease
to Ute tree through the stomalesof the I'eaf,^ and net through the' '
roots. • It might be possible under such conditions to modeiAjte
the violence of the pest in some of tiia more isolated districted df
all the proprietors would combine lo gather and bum, ^at ihe *
ooinmenoement of the chief annual attack, all* the diseased leey^ei .
and twigs that are at present allowed to He on the ground beiMiath -
the trees until tliey decay. Sudi a plan woald no dottbt^be
oxpeneivo, but it would oertaiiily destroy a vast number of Spofet^
and might sensibly reduce the violence of Ihb <dieCaiSe^ The^
spnnkirtig quick^Hme on the ground bodsaih iho'trees hae^ln
onadnHtanoeat least proved beneficial;' and As it would no doubt^
destrojy all tbe spores it came in contact With, it is’ not Impro^*
babie t iat the two remedies, If applied stmultaiieously, might |Nt*‘
found in some degree suoosssfaU ^s trees should fflse be wsOhfd'^'
with some sui^blie disioCeotaat, and the vAtering^ u£ Mts gneuuAf
with tlA ^•«me dishifeotatib mighi| possibly prove inoi?C ^St
ficlal than sprltikliiig with limei it wodld be 0 ^ JittW or no^
use for one planter in a dittrloi to attempt these Vcinedled
Olliers did not'^he speres ^produced on a siffgle bluliy^diseaS^ t^!
tree being SO eiiornioitsly. pumeroes, thaA a u!%ie estate of heiil^hy.'' >
plants might easily be infect^ hy 0 W»he|JUky
their neighbonrhood. , , . ' -
** h hat been asSerieAat varllons iinma that haitf^,t. f, ui^brunsil
and unculltVafed coffee, as weil as' pteli ofiho tibWiari ipO’dii;' '
are^fxsmpt from attacks Af the BmiM4t vuikth^g!. This 4a ^
liie floss* The Ier4wsf suttere to very, nearly lbs earnerext^tisA aff^ *
the cultivated tr^,; while* * 0 ( 0 .iatter shauf^ bUat.tt. wea.juimmM.
tibls to *the diesase by‘ being hadly attailhefi witUia few iuonthiV t
ishwdji^ipisMfi^ ' ' ‘ J: '* 'ij: -
; IjauiMfttik 9^s
#i»d ii^.P9^ •! th«
^ IM iWrti ^Wb leiw^wMr*! • (PWifclgrni* * 4lilii9tt^« Iwture
^ 14 rt^t «iM» oC
;"ffii(pli iw^* »ddt0 tha^liUl.^l**«ii!iol,i'^ndiOD*
iaS^#i&tittWl4vk: Xr li 4W tl41tk|flrt ^lilaatarf
wttu to"tiaw
aW tMifll M^ied dm
'^ - jACA»d^^ ffr aiNlijMi n^de bj Bawinl, rook baftejiflldi <ba, lArgwfk
; «lwiiAfc of4|kiteldi;i*Mi»t*^^ 1«»4 and iliat oX the
biAaokai^Jaitfk of follQiiiiif ilgaret, tbe
* ?lot•l^ii«ld to «kwll ttwM, bal Alto Uia.parMiito8« eompoiUlon ot R^liAlotd
«(totottt»<«lt44Molv atottf 4nd root bwk. Tba rmulto wtw .Abt*to«d
' Ifbto X^mUok Mil ONwkf iind. niir ba Mgardad •• (U»«ttotln| the
^ ^tfrtettollii'tlM^OftiiMipMlMi"-
* finkp^ Btott> Boot*
Ibid ilkItoiaiMrtout. ../ S*a s*5 i 7*6
Ootti^Medof
Qaintoa . ^ 38*5 30*2 U*6
' Qohi»iM «. *... *« *8 3’8
CiMbdiiilitie . .^36*8 JS-O l»9
Oidehooiiid .*. ••• 28*1 ' 83*8 47*8
Anovpbov* ... »• *«• 61'3 33*8 > 16*4
It mult 1w borba to mind tbat aUbdngh tha'inadioBl ^partial o(
qolnidina and otoabonidlne differ bat aligbtiy from tboia of qatofoe,
profeestoiial praotitlo&ara to Baropa bare not yet reoognfaed thair valiid
as eatatUaii aod tomoe ell berb leut for aale to tbe markala of ffaropo
are valaad only In ptoportion to Uie quioiaa they oontala, that beiog
the only alkalofd recognited by tbe profeaelou.
Tbit if not the otem in Indie, where the ooratire propertiea of tba
other alkatoida baM tor aoma time engaged fpedal atteotioD. The
importabca of detertninisg tbe medioal ralaaeotthaie'diffeMiii pro*
dneti may be anderatoed from the fact tbat in tow altitndaa, wheia the
yield ot ted bark ia greatoit, the percentage o( qainine is bnt trigtog,
not ebiSoient^ indeed, to render the ooltivation profitable, whilic (hii
variety grown in enoh looallliei are partiaalarly rich in dnehontdine*
Tbii faot baving been rapreaented to the Seoretery 01 State, a Com.
mlavion of Boqniry waa toetitoted with a view to teat the aetnal
Qorailve propartlee ot tbe different alkatoida prepared for the purpose
by Howard, who ptodooed them all to the form ot aulphatea. They
were tried In matorloue dUtriota to India, and tbe total number of
oaeae tried waa 3,472, of wbloh 818 were treated with quinine, 664 with
qntoldine, 569 with oinobonloe end 403 with olnobonidina. Of all
theae patiente, 8,445 were ourad.
Tbe lelellte febrilngai uelue of (he alkeloide m ebownlby theae ex-
pdrimentolme been expremed «e foltewe «—
6
7
10
23
From tblitable it appeari pretty plainly tbat the remedial value of
^uiDliie,q«dtildliie, and oibohonldine to fever neeeedHfera bat ellghtiy.
OlnohoBidioe eaema to be leie effioeoloui tben’ the otbere, and it baa also
, tbed^dmtoge of >etog more liable to oanm natuee, vomiling, and
ythfir 4 iaagr 4 *abla aymptoma. With regaM to tlie reiulti of lliraa
e»perimeata,theClommlaaloa ofajEiae pbierre, with tbe exception
of eiliehooine, they, to a remarkable dei^e ao ojoatly teaemble each
other to Iheeapeutleal aod-phyaiologwal aotioo, at to render diatlnative
deioftpUen of JiWtoorno praotioai valoe, Uofortonately tor oinohona
kmiioto thli kUw bek nok yet beerr |ett«raHy» acc4pto<l ^ ih«
^ktodltol b^earfen to Bdtope,1mttoett ton be m doubt ibeteoouer or
* totev they mart yield to tovtoeibletoete^eudgtoebfflelal weognlUon
kotot^to^litoi uatoaef qutoHtoe^ elndbuoidto#, a«d«oliieUootoe,
c*diaMkM(ptotoai4eto hf ibe^pabUoaktonol toe Btltiib Bbarmht«P«^e
^ to Jtoflaad were vAog p mixtnre uf the
. atodietol iwi m it#Witoept pmleiuaiM to'f it
. ktaiioft
oftoeie
itotowa
Qninidise ratio ot fUlnres per 1.060 eases treated
Qolsioe
ditto
ditto
ditto
Cjinehosidine
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto *
ditto
ditto
(rjatoeytollUfefiX^.
Btpgiaod, Thee wM
per to tolkgbtodi
meana ot ehtap toaimtuetofie. me^^AbUbi toedtorto Snrpbe toafi to
India that tt ti jpMble
imported in tbia wey from Xatoi|tt|!,,fatp' aen to
made by Indian experte. At, ito to6to*W2iWP tototof Ih toion
tbat there era toferior qnetltlee 4 attoloidi
wMob will not tour tbe ooat of abimheffk toffdfbto. '
' The toeulity bf tomraftotove le, towtoev^ of^a^aMl etoenu^ ' ^Wliet to
wanted to to eitabliah tbe feet that barki oodtefbtog Atoor mltokiida
than quiolnm bare a good luattotobto ^lu|, ^ poee toto to aueompltobad
a demand will prtoe aueh Wrto al may to hStdPb ht Jktot aitftodia
than hitherto, aod In thto Wey ttoarea ot:elnetou4 en|M«ai|d0i| will be
mnob exteuded,, end land will at ouoe aaantne a value for Ihla pnrpoeU
mbiob It doee notito# potmea' We ave notawaiw tl any 41 toe • 48wly
prepared oheap forma of alkaloida have been teuied in toakeipHato bl
Oeyloo. If nob we ubgll hope to bear that they wfWto to toed» %l fbetr
oie igrolvee aaoufiderabto earing in eoft, and it behoveg, thip Jto^rn*
meat, fully ae mnon ae that of India to do all in Ito power to ala the
devfliopmeot of toe bfnobo&e iodoafry.-^Ctotoa Titwi*
WONBURPUIr RESULTS IN ANALYSES
6F QEYLON 01N,OaO»A*
I AUE readers will notice jtUat at a sale In London of .olpobona
barkwoiqe was bought in at. 10«., per 1b, Tbig^tpaj, ptoolhly
be the hark reMred to In a oommunioation whioli^ hss.yeaohed ns
by this mail, Spootoneo* were eent to Paris to hq tmttoi ood the
results reported were
Aamplee ..Bo. 1 No* 3 . Bo. 8.
Mixed alkAtoi(to*>^Totol ... ... 41* .g6^80 . 88*70
Alkelcddsmaolttble in ether. 16*69 9*80 9-60
„ aoiohle ...
Oiviog Buipbate of qainina ... ... 18*75 < '16*64 31*85
Oan^rrMpondeat adds /f JBoa. 1 and SI were toured.with
cases, but In Oeylou No. 3 was not thought well enough of to have
more than a hag. These trees werp-tosted Mfore and tbtn .gavo
pretty good results,. The tests post 3(to.>aaoli am»ple«, With mneh
a test as these any buyer oau sea wbathe is g«tkingmud4he«vendor
sees he is jfettihg a fair price. Ode oliemist told UM to-day ;that
be always looked Out for the highest* class of hark. * He ^took <Ottt
all he wanted and heoould always sell it agaln>ftar hd had the
flrat rnu from it.*' We do not know whether it is pwing to the
different method porsoad hy toe Prenoh cjiamists, bu^ toe results
given above go far beyond ihafbest obtained tn>drava f^oui tbe
finest CaUtciffa ' i94ff§rkina bark. .V7e take it fov/i^ranted toe
Ceylon bark tested in Parte was that of U If Ceylon
oifioinatis hark has, iu one case, givea‘ 41 per oeat.' o£ ^alkslojdfi
and sulphate of qniutne at rates rista^ from 13*44 to l^'^5,''snd
even 21*35 (tbe latter more thap one-fifth'of the weight of'the
bark), then, we venture to say tliet no richer or more valqahto
bark has yet been produced in tlm world, j The bark giving Ii|.*35
of sulphate of quinine ia worth at least £t sterling per lb* weight.
Looking at Mr. Moons* aualyses of 'CctUtaya* UdgttialMt bktk
included in Howard's magfuificent work, thb figntes for tbovkry
best are as follows :
Qaimne •*• ... ...
Total alkaloid ... ... ...
Bttlpbata of qainioe oompated ...
Subsequent analyses mop hayo given ^ somewhat^ better results,
hat we ommot reeolleet any belter figures.
We eannot help suspecUng'soine diffemuco' in the, Ysenohi mode
of testiug^hut maldug altailuwanoe It would aseni ^that bark
evoeediiigly rich in alkdloids has gone from Ceylon ,'aiHl ' we eheuld
like to hstar sometoing niofe of its history.
‘ After wuhlng so far we received the following
' CXiV47aONA.
> FAKTiooaaas op aaaK sai.rs.
^ goto aod 36th March 1879.
814 ^DatewOaUmya, fiAt, fair la. to 8a, 8A, hoeid^t in.
i '17> de.> do. 'do.ibeld4e,toHgktm«;
34 do. ‘ da« >< qoiU,'very inferior U,6d., bought in,
' 26 do. d»; ^ de. davt, email beoken 6«^ beugtit is.
' 845^ do. ’New (HMnadiaergawi mfioe 6a. BA. (a gi. 6d.^ about ItO aeld
V} 4rf
3U de. c# ffe,. 8e. tn4a.*6Ai bought in*
I . t64 do.' » dev'^' vmy lftferiofy 9A to le;. 64., bonght io.
’ 1482 ‘dA’‘'3e6k Rslumblaii^ rntd^mg to good U. Hd to 4|, 84*^ 86p/ield
4a.-
r/ to'^.'de,'t»e "'Acfc''^eeldtofere tof iala.
*.fc I. M.
P'
14*^
•73
,-'28
[|*43
Ciller |k||r4a |ro<^^
H9 m ;}
119 44., ^94. ^
249'444 ItiMicr I 4 ttll» 0 ief. to
>4 44. llMwaiOia. liiiddtifl^^
i9 44. Ooii44mtig4»lk1r,44.| bOQglititi*
7 C4i4i M, 6i. |4,i4o]4< ^
4 44, 4d. <)4Qly» fl4« Hdft
7tP balff JjE..|. dMoBa i>4UMii| gV0W4 in QoyerBflMnt g4lii#B4
tt 04t|44iiuitt4it .
^ WnBYtnivtd 94.114. to lt«. 7fil
74. M, to 84, >i!
M 44. moMod to. 84, to 84, Viil id14«
^ 7t 4e. ttfttorU 8i, 84. to 7«. 14J
e4, S. I« oiimiimMi nt d4;ri^r4» tooeimbrn, middling t4 l«ir qnilt,
U84.t4l#atdmo)d.
8 Qkfit Onrlon dnefaooft nflteinBlbf l«if to good, 10#., bought in.
, 44 hogi do. do. do, «m 11 {juill and eblpoi 3f* 44 to fti.
^ *^ ' 1 I . . -.1..! . . . .w. ,«M .iwa r -
S3 bigs do, do. do. Saooirobri, middllag quiU, ]«• to
It, 84., sold,
' ' Your obedient Mrtaoto,
diggxM & tmuum,
61» Limo^mt, Mtb Msiioli. 1879.
We beg oor mdera^ epeoial ottention to tbe gradations in the
ptioeg paid <fot bark of the NUglri GoTornotent, C. cfflein^f
prorfiig the great value of poor Mclvor'a mossing process : —
Nttnftl bark... ... ... 8t. 84, ia 7«. 14.
aCoMOd „ ... .M 7t. 84. to 9«. 34,
Benewed under moM ... ,.. St. 114. to lit. 74.
*^18 use of a **8poke*shave” is the Utest expedient we have heard
of as adopted to take of the outer bark, In which the alkaloids
reside, without injuring the Uber or inner bark. In this way
mossing can be dispensed with.— Obttrver.
Orn^ m of m M 48^ t
Govemtnmit' sotbii in ^ < aadr ,d 44 ^ik i ., ^ ^
pIaAtiMria'B*«tlMfn»lAdto''wi^^ 1^, |ks^y4ibs0^
Meds tbo, wtwmoa or egtons^. 14 ^
^beieBHils* ' ' ' ^ ^
Tbe Oevdmaant Coder upon tbi'alovd Is eg daM
Ttb KovemWr 1878, No.
spoeiAhy on ibd tfeikoudah dnobdia, ptaslMlN^ in ,
bis pMoas gtttsnd Sspei^ m blnqbona ptantatlm* ^
Of tbs ijnigirUfnswforifardstbiiotte4v*srep4e48adth44^^ ,1s
wbetber the MSIkondidt site sball afiln be oiltjwd for «4le^ ^ wlM&4r.
Hoas abill bt eostiiieid thsie on tbs part CeopruijiMg^ 'lit,imp#*
that of tbs site msaauriug 844*86 00741,884^8 aqi^a am oHflt^ly
fbmft, of whieb 86*68 aoeea have been olearad and 3|*f S mrea haye t#e
planted* The plantation now oontaias 8.384 <7. guoolfwa trsM of.
growth and 6,868 atuntod; so tbsm are iato{t4^«!abe>iit 878, breoi #t asva,
aod about 160 per aere of fair growth* XiMking to the a»#|a now given
St does not appear that the loia of trees in Ui'ts long absndoapd ^ta^ialoa
has been so Oon^derablq aiwas at first suppOfOd.' Nfofvoi^ OsUoMita'
6f 66,784 trees, quoted at parapraph 34 Of Captain WslWs * dedeiM ' report
wss made on sMumption that 76 aeres, or three tim«i the ;% 4 s| quality'
had been planted. The value df the bafk noir obtshiable hu^ # tbS Mp*
position ^at the whole would be eoppi46d,^bean eStbttatsd wt eihwit
glfTOOi hut from ahiswOeld have to be Mooted the' Cost of igatliortdg
drying, earriage, Jto. The proposal to offer Iha etteigain f<n; sahi net
SOW approved. Nor doea it seem idviSabU to coppice, where the site is so
enmbared with other growth. The Government direot that the bark be
harvested hy felUug and grabbing npthe whole, after vthieh the entire
Melkondahlits oan be retransferred to the Forest Gepartment* This method
of harvesting will seeure the root«bark aul thus inoreaie the retam, and will
iilso l^rd nsefol and interesting information ae to the value of root^bark,
and the qatUit; of the bark generally When left entirety to natoral growth.
The CommiMioner will see that a reliable and thoronghly competent
subordinate is aft onoe deputsd to the task, which should be esped^ted to
the utmost,—Sfadrai fVasi.
THE MBLKONDAH OIEOHONA PLANTATION.
C Amm J. CAMFBBUi WALKER, Deputy Oonservaftor of Forests,
on apeeiii deputy, has reported upon his enumeration, Ae., of the
trees on the abaitdooed einohona pUmtatiou at Melkosdak. He says
The oleaiiog was a work of gvsat diflaoulty owing to the dense and
thorny natnse of the undergrowth which had sprang np and surrounded
the dnohona trees, whioh could sot bo botnt without doetroying the trees
thesasblves, and the absenoe of available labour at or near the place. We
had eventually to get Mopla labour from tba Bavasi valley below, mid
although the otesring has been enlBoieot for the purposes of enumeration,
and the work has been earrisd out within the estimate ofHs, 400, it is
not eattsfsictery, and in some poiiions of the plaotetion leaves muoh to
be desired. The upper portiou of this plantation site iu which 7*08 acres,
was cleared and planted by the late Bfr, 2£olvor is, as already reported,
perfoeUy bare of trees, and it is only the lower portion to which thie
report refers—the area cleared being 86*63 acres, of which only 28 88
acres would appear to have been planted. The total nrea handed over to
the mnohona department at Melkondah was 644'85 acres, of which 335^06
aeres was heavy forest The onumeration gives 8,947 trees remaioiug alive,
of whioh 8,764 are of fair growth, averaging 12 to l6 feet in hei«ht and
6 in oiroumferenoe at 4i feet from the ground j the remainder
t)M„ 6,688 trees being stunted and comparatively valueless. The whole
may be classed as C. succvrvbra, thoagh there are a few hybrids (chiefly
<7, any2ica and C. microntha). It may aafely be estimated that the 8.261
fairly^grown trees would yield 6,<:00lbs. and the smaUsr ones 8,6i>6lba
of dry bark, making a total of 9,60()lbv. were they rooted up. This
qaantity aft 2i. 64, per lb., the Inw sale rate at whioh 1 have estimated
the bark of the auociruhra species in my report (page 40, paragrah 74),
woeld realise Bl,187»19-9; but from this, the oosl of collection, drying
packing, murrUge, Ac., would, of oonrso, ^vo to be deducted. These
charges would he very high owing to the sitoafciou of the plantatieo and
abseuoo of com»ui»iflalii?#Si On |be other band, tba value of the unopened
forest land may be contidoT'^ oootidarable, and 1 think tlmft Goverumeat,
should they decide on selhug the plautatiou sits, rnay fairly fix Bs* 10,090
as an upset price, t regret eatremely the delay in •ubmiesioa of this
report which was unavcddable, I would fespeotfuUy urge on Govern-.
went the neceuity of passing early mpdam at to the retention or disposal
of the Melkondah plantation, Although t do not npprebend danger
from fire from without, there is the gresftsst danger wittiiw thi plMtatton
itself, winch is enhanced, not diminished by the reOMrt ifleatkig { ^0 4*7
brush wood being, of uecessity. left lying between the trees with » rank
growth of grass and weeds apTinglog np, a epavk would set the whole
inn bliia end destroy every tree. BhoaU Government deftade oq fjstauitvg
the plantatioB, u thorough clearing and weeding mu^ at cnee he under*
taken at oonidderable expeniCi and axteuelon in the more sheltered poitiOiie
of tlie forest, esinggested by the fiommiseUmer, would a advisable,
fihonld ^Sovetomont Ascide to aoU, the soontt it it aufcihe rl|fc
transferred to the pnrohasn, the better. On aoeonut ojt the SnacoetiibilUjr ,
of the tii#,di9tettl^ of pfoOBilBfi liber, and oesadng ade^ iMVition
1 i. Ml teilSt, M num m m* th* UrtlWM***. * iSciiirt, i..
VALUE OP A PLANTATION OP
0. OPPlOINALia,
(2b tJu JSditfiT of Hit Ceylon Obttrvtr,)
Dbab Sib,—I t would be very Interesting to me and probably to
many other of yonr readers to learn from some good anthorlty on the
subject what sort of sum wonld be likely to represent the approaimaie
value of 0. OMeinalls per acre, say at 4 years old, and planted 8 feet by
3 feet.—Yours faithfully.
Dikoya, April 27. O
Tan dllBoulty of answering sueb a qnestlon fs rendered vary great by
the tendenoy of the plants to die off not as iodivldnale merely but in
petohes. Bat for this, and were all the plants alive and vigorous, our
valuation would be nearer £200 the £100 per aore. We have more thau
ouoe stated what Mr. Kowson said to us on the Nilgirls, that 100 aeres
of C.o0leinAlitf tilth 1,000 well-matured tree of the aere, (fuetead of
nearly 6,000 which 3x8 would give), would—the stripping and mossing
proocBSes being mlopted and eaoh trees yielding only half a pound
of dry bark per annum,—represent an annual Income of £6,000. There
are diffienUies iu the way of the tnossiog prooses in GeyloU, but tba
trees oopplee readily. If our oarrespondeut's trees ark four years old
atul shfw no eigne of '‘insidious defunotion/’he ought net,usrtaluly
to look aft anything less thau £160 per aere,,aad he migirt stlek out,lor
£200. The habit of dying off bafllec all oaloolatloui, but belt
tememhared this very fact fnoreaies the valne of the Srssi whieh
come ton healthy matnrlty.
TOBACCO*
AF lata years the uultivatloii of iobacnb in Nuriumtund ;fiaf
^ inade coBsIdsrabla progress, and |hp. .results novr obt'a#sd
wre mmsldered ki$Hly BStlsfauioryr. The Hrgwst M most
taert plantations srs tubs fnuud'iikftibs vstteF Of said in
oetglibotti^nGds nl IPuysmd, Avstiobes, Ormigeo, Clmwi^Uik 4 ^
Tbs crop liwm tb«su disbicis is smimatsd m B0,008f
quidtalbwt 3da78», rp^ubtlng 8 money valuu. of 8(1O,(30(> frim#
to
gnQ|tdiFi#4, attsnilflin, and tbe soil r^t^reg. £ i#is
„ gmemfii Tbs avsiTme otop per im# wwpNl3i|i#ni
; - iy fc Wi llft w fa B ftllteiiili^ah^^ tw.tto wiirw';'«*p^g
' iM ^ ’b'
mmnUr irvm ,<m,.4 *^'' wi^M'
jM .tke «titmmf)!lf^t'^ tl»» ipttvg
, iMidi ft 4m, W(«^ tW'liJ* *»-
. 4tmitMk'r;^tl^iimi t«iidft4jitiavjre«ai|f«t ft in
yiitnt^ idiiMiy^ Imtm in bnMiifi pliwed ift. iltUr fidpnlnil
b^.j^'nl|^Qat4>} IWhnt t£« tebun^ it ^t 'lMttftlct^'Wblftbii
ftwM^rwb(Mft^b«ftittin(| e(ft» tnMt^SiV ynv, ft:b mra*
foify 'ill%bMi; Mt, tnd 41^ btftrtiiaftit tdmprftbr. U»
Anrt.^kt^-^pidiMtrir
SEEICULTtmE.
BttK ODLIURn.
1^4 ,ni OtkMtta, Itttft wtott to Um StenMir to ths
BojrtUwUtuwk GOftletjr, M«drM| to know if lillr oooooni) ia vbieh he
deilf» ire ftVIbUiihlo lo iho Medrei Pro«i4eoo^. He soya that be !■«
largo lb liotb 4oftd and dry coooom, oad wiohoi to know wbeco
Dr. Bl4lo wpf^Uod lofoimtUoa
under iblaboidt )eU0oidt1i«t Iron bit 4>#ti pononot kgoorlodgo ond
likfolMtlo% toatgr itik, oooooOt ore not found in tuoh obandoboo in
Soaihern Indio m would render ibalr oollootion remnnototive. Tnetor
illk olotbuMd to bo Ibodo intoma part of the HioaniB dominiom. but in
DO otbor plaoo In tbit part of India. Hr. Lotted euggettad to tbo Booiety
that menanreo bo taken to ouoourago the produotlon of eoooont/ Their
pretent talno ia Bo. 4 per 1,000, and the^skeins of raw silk forirarded
by him to the looiety tbow that, if eoeouraged, the ooooon trade might
bo roninnerative, Tbo Seorotary to the Society waa of opinion that
the ooooons referred to were to be found in oaiitarino plantationa. Ho
bad aeen aevoral banging in a aiogle tbree-year old tree of eoantry
almond, and ho belterod that with a llUIo enoouragemoot It will tarn
out a pfofttablo induatry, Speotmone of eocoono gathered in the
gardene of the eodety were placed at the diepoial of the membera, and
it wae stated that tbeee coooona were alaoaTaiUblaon trees on the banka
of the Bborranl river and in the Ouddapah and Euruool diatriota.
iUSSER-SlLK.
r B Qomnment of^ Bengal having called for information
rogardbg the onltivatiou o£ the tuseer-worur in the dlitrict
of Ohota Nagpore, boa now received ropliee from the diatriot
ofScere. Many of these are interesting, but that of the Extra
Aeeistant CouuniMiouer of Palamow contains so much intercstiug
and ueeful matter that we cannot do better than insert it here
bodily from the report kindly furnished us by Mr. Hume.
Ho. 121f dated Dsltongnnge, the 18tb March 1873.
From<>^L. B. FoBBxa, Ebq., Bstra AssUiant Commisaioner, Palamow
To—B. L. OLXPBAKT, B8Q„ Deputy Oommleioner, Lohardagga.
iBavn the honor, with rclerenoe to
XeUer, ****^S! the Correepondenoe marginally noted, to
iSa«SS.So!!!Mrtt U. pro.
SSmT to the OiHnmliitonat of dnotlon of taeaer-eoooons.
Ohe^aimpre. 2, I propoee to reply s^riatm to the
el* questions put by his Honor the
to Lleutenant-aoveruor, adding such Infer-
t^aBepa^Omawti^onw.hoiua^ mation bearing on the suhjeet ae X may
xSeTiSom tbs bsputy Ocmwia*
8. Wtlh regard to the first two questlDoa, which 1 propose to answer
^ together, tnseer-ooooone are produced in
™amow and Belonnja in large quantities
nnderthe name of -hoa.- From the
the state of ooeooitt 7 or steegge oorreepondenoe before me, 1 gather that so
oefl bo t el and betohed In eo* Jtttle is known of the manner of produo«
tion that I shall venture to give a detailed
history of the whole proceeding.
4. 1 will pmmlee oy stating that ia
ftd r SM are kato W* • iiinele^bred ooeoonB uO the eaeetilion.
tutorecagf^^vromii?
iuogle*hred ooooons are the exception,
domeetioated the rule.
fi, ThWf ait two harveita or breeding eeaione In the year, or what
Bmigal Mlkrfvowefe oall Vkande.** The^ first eommencai in Asear
Btoito ^totTr the aeoond In Assln (September)
a, ^g^beeoCiimi^ Sertie (November) for seed are carefully
packed in kodtaatraw, m egeotiy'tbe same manner at It done in the ease
Of leed^an/and eiowed aOay in acme dry plane till the following
Aieaib ree^rh that tlm tnuM-ooooon he* what may be
Itoa bi
IIS!!?!? a^jtolei the hraneh or twigIrmn
^edoeoim hang^ the lie fOIg is
«te^enofi, toM to:l«avet|<^ qI the wood adheSng,
' tothe cocdon.''/: ’ f . . ^ ^
Whmgsth«Mdlof tole &e.i»^ eeparated. The teaion
toiigoed for remtoifig thawed is separation etnsis the
bhryialli Iniide to die., (MsMwni not f eannot sty,
7. In the Jkmt (ilniie4t%? iho eoeoons are anpaohed,
the wood taken onl, and the ooenoae tb^D^lirei eteongnpon etatog or
tbteed and hung np to the roof inside the hepsei
From this tiase the labour of the breedeto eommeimei Alter the
eoGOoni have bean threaded, they have to be earefnlly guarded Irom
rats and little hOttae<aqnlrreli. The moth osts Its way oat within idn to
eight days after threading, and always daring tbo night, 1%e following
evening pairing tokee pbjpe m the eoeocne as they hang. Thensxt
morning the lemates are taken off tbetr reapeoUve eoedont, their wings
tied with a piece of cotton, and they are oepoeited on Utile bamboo
iraya to lay their esgt. | have been unable to ascertain Whether malea
pair twice or not. When Incubation ia over, the widge of the female
are broken off and eruihed between the forefioger and thumb over the
eggs, to ai to allow the soft down to fall upon them. If there is a
westerly breeie hlowlng, tb^ are ckpoSed toUt if not, a westerly
wind is produced by a small netid-ponkab being worked over them
from the west. This performance I fancy, Is a mere auperetittOo.
When the eggs have been
reoeptaoie or cradle made of a leaf rolled up into a hollow cone
and pegged to, or hung np Sgainet the wall, In about eight to nine
days the youug worms begin to appear, and the oradle ^ then taken
down and carried to the asan plantation, where It is pegged to one of
.the trees ; the leaves immediately above being bent down and pioned
over it, to ae to protect the young worms and at the samo time afford
them the means of travelling up the branch.
In two or three days the young worms leave the oradle, crawl up the
branch, and spread themaelvee over the tree. Branches of%thle tree,
with the young worms feeding on the leaves, ate then out off and
fastened to other trees, and so on from tree to tree.
8. All that is now required is to protect the feeding worms from
birds, auii, a flying tnseot called ** puchooi,*’ and other peete. The
worm goes on alternately feeding and lying dormant during the time of
skiu^ohanglng, until Bpinnlng oommenosa.
9. The first or Bhadro harvest iiJor seed only ; coniequently a very
limited quantity of ooooons are roared. These ooooons, when remiy, are
picked from the ;reeB, packed in nets, and slung to ths roof. Xwslve
days later they are taken down, the wood extracted, and the cocoons
threaded as before described, and the procees of hatching and fearing
goes on the same way.
10. With refereuce to the third question, 1 wonld state that In this
(8.) On what trees do the p»t of the country tbo domeetieatod
worms feed? worm Is fed only upon the aian^ree. I
am not aware that wild eocoDni are ever collect^ in the Jungle $ in
fact, oceuring as they do singly here and there, it would not he worth
any one’s while to do so, The asan-tree, found growing to sO-ealtefl
plantations, is of indigenous growth, and is never plan|M or grown
from seed, though Jam told the rearing of youug trees irbm seed would
uotbeadiMcult matter. It is, 1 believe, a quick*gtowing tree, and
capable of being utilised for feeding purposes in the third year ; but
after 10, or at most 16 years, the leaves appear to lose some neoesiary
ingredient, as ibe worms will not then feed on them. The trees of most
plantations I have seen vary to thickness from three to nine inches in
diameter. The tree is never worked two succesrire years. After the
Keriic harvest the tree is pruned and allowed to regain Its strength for
a whole year ; for this reason only half a plantation is Worked a( one
time,
11. In their wild state the worms will feed upon the foUowlug trees ;
—deota, seeds, kokore, bhjre (Zwiphm JuJuha), khowa, sal (th 0 rt(^
ruihutta), tend, and a few other trees.
12. Bpeaking Of feeding, 1 wonld remark that the quality of the
cocoon depends not only upon the species of tree, but upon the toil on
which the tree grows. Thus an asan plantation on black or
loam produces large, hard, and heavy coooous of a black colour ; while
l^wal produces ooooons of a dirty white colour, inferior la siee
and weight to those mentioned above ; while wild ooooons fonnd upon
koa«treeB are much smaller, softer, and of a yellow colour.
1.3. It is for several reasons a very difSonlt matter Indeed to forpi an
estimate of the weight of oocoone annnaUy
pfodoMO. lotaWT., rtstn
«^Ja^of“o wSgUt ‘I*** t**® *«“•' in*nn4oloq«MWM»nnto
collected fuiQuaiiy in tiiftdistrict7 8,440 in Dombcr; but 1 am toollned to
Lt tbo right doubt the oorrectnese of this etatement.
A. tar Ml •“•W «• n.,*r
stM. over whlcli they b«> weighed ^or sold by weight, but by
coUcctod? number ; and vary so much In weight
according to season and quality, that I dq not see how It ia possible to
fix the number that will go to a certain weight. However, as an
average, 1 believe the number stated by Mr. Deveria may be token as
fairly representing a bseaar manod, and in oalcnlatlng the quantity
yearly produced 1 have therefore adopted it.
I 14. Ooooons ato counted and eold by the khary, which varies to
number from XtlOO to 1,200 ooooons,«<more generaily the former ; the
higher number being token to boundary viliages, where, tp prevent
oompetltlon, rents are lower. Formerly the right to the whole of the
koa revenue of Palamow wae to the hands of Government, and was
farmed out; but within the last few years large and one small.
_ . estatoe* have elatmed and obtained tbe
• Rftnka, I o^npw* right to this menne. When the whole was
Dcogon. I Jiwi. In the bunds of G^etument, thevevsnue
derived from this louree atommtod to Bs. 1,600} It is now Bs® 1,126.
16. Tbe production 61 ooooons is subjeot to the following taxes,—-
patkat, and the hantm, (1) Ehootkar is the rent demanded
by ths proprietor of ^Itostf of the land lor the land on which the
idantation stands, or, tum fimp^lyi tor the use of the treee; (2) patkar
Is the tevsaao paid bjr. iho totner of the Asa revenne to GoTeroaeot,
'^Kf'fiS' •'‘■■:vt!'jTrH>,!?'-•-A ''?3
- - j I* r . -. I !■ i' • .? :.. ".(•.."(if .,.,»■
mi.
'{;iii ^
EMMl%*^ttStl(#tt oi> wW«li ow«i*w M I«e4ta«^ li A
LqmmmaI to *S# fiEiii«».<i to* ol Bi. 4, wbetotrhtofw^w w
Su^ wiitto toto mt mti it
IcS. It to jt^^wtoly IwioiiiMft to to ito »ppfwto^
Mrtimftto dl *'.totottow toS^tod otow tttoMto. jto
r tImA An nn uAtt ¥4r« OllUI<to
MtllOAtt 01 1'ffiinwat^ i niWB nuidifiw V*I««|* -T'- -
IwitoV. ftoto so prodweri I And Ibit on oo j^^ge, gad* o«til<to J
iSSmo. t^tbo tomoo utog bo ooaiidored M ft kboiiAi of I 4 p 0 QOtooM ^
M^Ot ft^ftOO ootoont p€9 boAMto S but M.J hfcft Widf U # VOW •
SgS^Af Ofogei to toktog ttoifMtoo mwkot v^oo o* • kbtoj tobb IN» 0, «
, ototog^OMT vtoto ptodtooft by toob ovto^n J
, tokiltovorp Itogft^ota wbeo wo eoiiilder tb» cl«} ^ J
V* ww oro tiigtcod m fiif work* sniovofAftotoiiooii* ptc^atodbyw *
ItfOUKHTtr fflfljBttoftffd *bOV 0 Vto bolow ,Hffc 20 ; but oJlowi^ * 00 ^ -I
^tor btototoitoot to tbo tmo woottnt, I pwfto to toiomo too {
totooboTi^ Oato<ia**f fto» too tomotv of ,*b« kw Jgth
T^hid thto ihfl AfMftSO nwaber of boniuu of the Iwt taree i
‘ WtoN o* woleb toojr beve ooileoted to* or reto *To }bj«
JSSroi o^e ftiutol tor the foot wrnml etoatoe, 750 b**f^ eod ]
{Sw^iS^'rf «10^ fctotSJ «*« Wood wew^ '
Kioere 8aU6e» or one-foorlh of Mr. Doveriae tooa* tt *•
B^DoeinK that aa a coooon-prodoeiog district Pajamow
th^fe the whole of the arto looladed in- Mf# Deverla s cal^jatloo to
yiaW^ pwwto at toe w outside 12.680 waugle
the marteUoto Hum «‘w w
TUverla in his memofanduBt Of course ilii^goioe X have obo e ,
AMfkAriain oelv to the Quantity now produoed* There cannot^ ha a
SSnbt ^hal with Buropeau capital and superftsion the eniiottut pr^iioed
douto that wito Supposing Mr. Dererla’e calculations
to*ba wrtoot as *to^toe number of tre^ P^bewha, aujl the aretoge
^ nmt tree to be 260—a rather htgu estimate—we find,
AM?^a the numfsr of cocoons produced to be ll»0o0,000, that there
m «000^ taS now boiog. w«k.d.ooBWno41nlui«.e.<U I.TCO
M^n^Vi'tod SSit’tho proaooHon ol lowor-
JL.’Sf gffi^dwVtahrt wltWn & iMl Sw. 0 l 7 j.fr. i wm.
^®r?Kittfcone-tolrd, This laUlng off Is amrihed to (1) Increase of
St^toton^ttd oonsnuaut destruction of aisau plaotatlo^ie j (2) grtoter
S^aud^r agrlottltwal Ubour and higher wages, making the produc*
sss 2 a-air^^'C'»'£is^^^^
?nu!!M?^idu»w hf their aecounteand registers that ooooons are bwd in
7 AjS*?JiVln a large number of villages Ihero is no aean at alb bu* it
to to tofouiadlnmoBtvlUegear 0 as, aadlBdc8t^^^^^ *“ M?
to foomlttg operations j and though the flgurot giren by Mr.
? 2 SlL Me aUurf and impossible, still the area of cocoon produoing
wa^d be found conMderahle and auite capable of supplying a
l^^«tenri?eUiSe. Is toat a truer estimate of toe area
one 5 *teentk ot the whole, but 1 should prefer to fi» U at
if tout or ^en »t oue beegha in 60. The limit, toerefore, in
%h!^toiit to^whioh the ttade oould be developed, depends rather upon
*h!L^mtor ot hansnas, or persons who could be persuaded to undertake
nmdfuitloa of ooooons ; and for this reason I should ray that a
SStt/iSffioii S 8 bX fbe number of cocoons now produced f ould
JlSto^SiSSttnttJe limit to which the trade could be expected to reach.
ii '^Cmtlng of tuBser-cootfons is not confined to any particular
je, Ane rearing ^ Umo^ the following oeites
mat ojttto collects the occupied in the work ;—Oheros, Kberws,
cioMonB, who rear* ^ Nraons, Bhuntas, Ohamars, poaadhs
bat 110 MowIimm
ssaw!””" a&tSBrtti 2 .vs
rppeegirenimdcoUtotsh^ duey the remainder
gBa".s!aaS.d?i^_-g-wb
S?«s?isr?sSsw»*£~ai!Sffw
oft a tew ooooons for making tb^e torkaadr, dnnd^i ko.,
RfWi
Snamsnteto, bSnoolotboftoy kind to wadsf Borne clolh to mada
? SSftve* In the 0 ya diatlfiot, but 1 hate nerer seen it. '
IJeteeteiw.iddiany) 20, Uave nefer Bet with any otbcr
wtSSiviftSSfeffleSi pwwni variety of ellk^produoing InsCSt In tbli
yySfyfc toeordhMtfy tok- port of the country but toe , ordinary
V but I beHire aoinc Mtoh
donWinBwUdilgtj. “
(tojuin «.5 m *»<««»■. w.
t sipi. kSi:bS‘‘lJSt^
m nMo |Kdw ..* from tb. Mlfblxm^ Iwj.* ""w •«». A ^
of 'the shelf. To one of these twigs X wonld resten, jne nijshlng cradi^
plulltg Hghtlj OW tt . Jg’?S,*^2*UMBri«SS
dally, as the young worms bsgan to wa^er, X
freshly gathered toaresoter thetwigf,
iVread thamselras over the whole length of the ehelf, «• gS
oame bu for spinning, they would attomt themseljea to the ^^yt ^btoh
St^oreo should bl'ittfifclentiy far
otMiation Of anlooing to ffo on. Should alltMeftwlsti^bo lonna
bSSmSa^, a littfe rain water Ughtly iprinktod over tosto wltb * ig«“
broom would answer very well. ... - a * <v*
38. For my part, I toouid be very glad iodeed to ^
ot tnesef-cocoone in these distrlcte in the bands
Buropean oapHaltots working on fair and honeet ^ngi^si. - Apart
from She creation of a valuable Industey, ^Jj? jj
amongst the very poorest classes at a Urns when they most nwd »
would; Ro very far to refteVe their neoessltlee and keep th^from the
door of the ttsier. I would not recommend the
!?aga;g:s.'
farms.
ADYEBT1SEH 8NI8-
THE BENGAL PURVEYING CO..
dBNBBAL BBAIiBES AOT OOMBIBMttOBf’ jLOWfS#
6X-2t Mtt&ioipal Market.
TlltOYlSlONS, Indian condlmenls, crcckaryi |tlaS|i
X every dascription of honsehcld reqnlsIlefesnppHtd^Bto wwssl
Baser'and Market rates.
Terms Btriddy Oitli.
In order to gain confidence we undertake to' ^iiplgjk 2
receipt of the first halves of currency notes w dralt for toirty^dmi ^
this arrangement our oouBtltuents will have the fq^tlomof apfieviee or
rejeeting the articles eupplied*
TO TEA PLABIBES AND DTSEBS.
conUdning \
6 per cent* Ammonia,
18 ,1 FMplmiedliiimStttSfit^^^ <
g „ BblPhate of Fotoslu
mlistoe to
9
A UONTHLT
! A '
JOUMNAL OM INDIAN AOmCULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL, IV .5
CALCUTTA; TUESDAY, Isi JULY, 1879.
No. 7.
NOTICE.
The hutmi AOBtcuLTUfiiET will U to dll SchocU (ml
Mis^txrke in IndUn <U Iwklf ^Hce,
R. KNIGHT.
CtilonUft, Ut Fob. 1870.
,i*W!W,.iai<WfW ai8a^^ .if | . nmu u .. .
CONTENTS:
Paqb.
COWUlBFOjrDBKCE*-
Lao «ind Artesian Wells ... 210
Codcoand Cacao Planting: in
Johora ..219
the Oottlvation and Oropl;>lnjif
of the Bamboo ..220
Thick Thin Sovriog ... 220
Cultivation of Finite.S20
Well Irrifration in Saruu ... 220
Koteghnr Kotee .221
Lbaoino AbticlkI—
Composition and Uelation of
l^lanfis and Soils .222
Anglo' Indiana and AgrionU
tura .223
Editobial Notes . f 2 k
Communicated A Skleotbo—
Agrarian Distress and Dlecon*
tent in India ... ... 223
Farming in India ... .w. 226
PrActioal Farining in lodia ... 227
Wliat is jtatlonal Wtivation ? 227
On iho Mannfiacttira of Cotch
from Ehmr ... i.,, 2J0
Produota of the Orange Family
in Uie Southern States ... 230
The AdTantages of Thin Seed'
ing ... ... ..231
Leaves and their Fanotions .. 232
Englaud'a tTodeveloped Agn-
cultural Beaouroes ... 233
Kspario Oraas Trade of Tunis 284
Sweets by the Shifwloatl ... 2S4
The Sugar Trade of our Colo*
iiioB ... .M ... 233
Africa A Paramount noocssity
for the futore Prosperity
of the leading Industue^
of England ... ... 235 j
The South Auatraliou Wheat
Harvest ... ... ... 28 d i
Tjim Gabdkn—
Notes .237
The Agri-Hortlcultural Society ^
of Simla .237
Sugar contained in the Noctnr
of vnriaus Flowers ... S37
Btrawheriics . ... 236
Kulhutty Gardens on the NciU
gherriee .238
Agti.Harticnltural Society of .
India .389
Pace,
FoBBflxnr^ •
Fqrosts, and what wo owe to
them —
... 240
Teak Forests of Burmah
... 241
Mimeiuloov—
Notes ..
... 242
Indian Iron
... m
Gwalior Iron .
... 212
A Geological Trip, and
iU
incidents from Colombo to
Behhuloyaf via Hatnspura 243
Gold in Sumatra .241
Gold Mining in Deocmber lost 241
Petroleum Enterprise.245
ArakanOil .245
The Planters* Gazette-*
Tfa-
The Tea Maikot ... .. 243
Jiidiau Tea Planters and Jieir
Homo lutereats .247
Ten in Japan .247
Tea Cultivation in Russia ... 217
Coffer—
Notes .248
Leaf Diseaac .S i8
Tho Eft'ccU of Now Coifoc ... 248
Notes irom Coorg on lljud
Conetruotiou .2>18
Cinchona—
Ciuolioua in tlio l^ndon
Market .249
Cinchona CuUuia in Java ... 249
Cacao—
Notes . M. 252
Tobacco 252
SBKlCULTUttB—
The European Silk Crop 253
ITio Empresa-Dowager and
Bilk Culture .253
Notes ... i.t ... ••• 284
AovsimaEMKMTS. 354
NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS.
Cotresp^idents nnd Coniributcre will greatly oblige ub
ioke the treubki where the returns of cu^fiVatioH ore
Indian weights and measuresj to give iheir
English e^vt^niSt either in the text, in parenthesis, or in a
fbot-^note. The bigfttl in particular varies so much in the dif¬
ferent JPropm0e$, that it is absolutely necesswy to give the
English t>alue of U in cdl oases* Jt would he a gre<U reform
fthe Qouernmd Mimed ihs . sem dourag t>t all the
ij^rej^tMtished bihit* • ,
COBBESPONDBNCE.
LAO AND ABTBSUN WELLS.,
To TUB EDITOU*
SiB,—I ace aome of your oorrespondenfa in the Jijrioulturist require
iaforiuatioa regarding '* Uo ** and *' artesian wells *'• 1 wag vsootiUF
pernaiog a very iutereBting acoouut of the iutroduotionof the ooohlneiU
ioaeot into the Island of Touoriffe where it has now entirely ittperaededi
the cultivation of the vine, more profitable it seema to thrive beat on the
eaotut, an acre producing lao worth A80 to 90. The inseoU only
require to be put on trees on rags, and they soon spread In IndiSi the
cold Boasou would be the best for its ouUivation.
With regard to artesian wells,—the implomenfs for boring can easily
be procured through aoy Calcutta coo tractor, the cost of an artesian well
IS trifling, and it can be bored to any depth aa iron tubes are Inserted*
and as soon as the spring is reaohed the water tiowa spontaneously.
In the south of Franco there are artesian wells from 1,000 to 1,300
feet in depth, but in India, I think, the springs generally range from
80 to 100 feet at most. Tho cost of the borer can bo ascertained* aa
one borer can execute aa many wells as are needed, and 1 think
its introduction into India would bo on advantage for ogrlottUural
purposes,
PHlIiO.
Allahabad, 3rd June, 1879,
COFFEE AND CACAO PLANTING IN JOHOBa
(To the MdUor of tho “ De\lg Timsyf
Bib,—I have boon much amused by reading Mr. Hill's very in¬
teresting reports on the auitabiiliy of certain dlslriots in Jobore, for
coSeo, cacao and tea plantations, and (ho very strong inducements
that he holds oni to planters and capitalists to go there and make
their fortnuos. It is to be hoped that eapitaliats, before embarking in
such wild speculations, will first of all be well asBured that (here
are proper seasons in Jobore, euitabte for the growth of the plants
and tho flowering and the ripening of their fruit at certain periods,
in order to obtain a paying crop regarding which Mr. Hill himself
states that ho could gain no Hatlsfactory information, and be ahio
further oomptains of the , quantity of rain and prevalence of cloudy
weather during his vieite to those places, from which it may be
iuforred that the oHmato is not adapted to the ripebiug of coflee or
oaoao. Does Mr. Hill fancy fora moment that the planting of eaoao
or coflcQ has never been experimented on in the Malay Fenlniuia 7
1 can assure him that it has been tried, not only in the Jobore
Btates, but in Penang and Province Wellealoy, and in Singapore
also many years ago, and has bean proved to be unprofitable for the
following rsasons; oofloa or cacao plants require shade, but from
there being no regular seasons, the raio, which ie nnosrtain aud
heavy at times, not only destroys the flowers, but also the yoUng
and half-grown fruit. The plants being more-or less in flower throngh
the year, there will be found on them berries in all stages of growth,
from the fully ripe berry, to the young green ffuH and blossoms, all
of them on the same braaob ot one time, which clearly shows that
Sto climate will not answer, and that it will never pay a planter
to keep a numher of coolies all the year round on his plantation
tor the purpose of watohlag and gathering a few ripe berries of oofloe
and pods of cacao dMiy,
Bingapore* 99rd Bay,1879. *VoDrs slucorely,
‘ AN ow
$mi^X^. Kltt$'iKKW, b |f»ac bw« 6i ihn b »|wi||^ of
^ lit ik4<ttMd 911 tli9 $ih FeboMr)r bil b tti9 OnkftUft mffUtkmn,*
] iberbofft mp»lt to Tequeittng 700 to latert bot povttoa m)y
9t tbf letUf foplyfog to bli Ia lb* loiao |ottrobj m tt b bfttdly itofb
vbUooooobjtOf'yoaryAtooblf 19 ) 1 ^ to oSrtf ^ a oootmtfof ubioli,,
•0 ftr MIOAA seoi oAo tcivl to AO pmctici^ iiMite, at i moBt wrUlafyi
AmaotdMlfoot tbai Dr, Stag (tOitli hts «Apr««Bed tlewi) tbooM bo
tudAOfd to laalte any loititar axiiorlfoettii wiib oropplog bamboo.
Dr^ King, bowem, does admit tbat yotiag bamboo sboota may, one
dajf beooma an arileie of exjport from India/' !FMs event bai
^ oeoArred oomewhat sooneri petbapi, tban tlie doolor antioipated, ae I
^Amif ihi« utaaJc raoelved my first coueignment of ** yoaog stems " from
Burmaby wbkb bear evldeuoo of baring been floated (Aliiob Dr. Kiog
aasertf they wiM not do)y tbe mud contracted in tbat operation still
adberlng to ; ibis 1 mnst remove ere 1 can make tbem into paper
Wbieb I propoae doing neat week; eome ot tbese eboots are over 20
feet in iengib, and 12 inobes in oironmferejicet and as regards quality,
all 1 could desire*
Oa Ibe rattf arriving at Bsngoon, tbe stems were crashed by the
rollel sttnbont tor Qoveroment. 1 must remark} however, tbat doe
Id their eatreme IJgbtiiess and balk (they have cost me 40r. per ton
carriage from Liverpool alone), it is clear tbat the export of raw
batnbocs from India can never develop into a trade; they must be
ocneeited Into stock '* where grown or produced.
truOMAB BOVTLBOGg.
Qlaxbengb, fiunderlaud. 2Srd April. 1870.
j. < v
THICK VEUBUS THIN EOWlNGf.
(Tk the Editor of the ** Eorth EritUh AgrMiurUV^
Slit,*—1 am glad to see a letter from Mr. Meobl on thick and thin
sowing in yoor columns. X have visited Mr. MacbPs farm and have
read alt, or nearly all, bis sayings on matters agricnUnral. and there is
no farmer for whom 1 entertain a higher reepect. or who 1 believe has
done more fur British agiicnltare. than tbe hospitable, frank, and
outepoken, true old Sngltab gentleman who is owner of Tiptree Ilall,
I bave, however, long been in doubt whether hia advooaoy of thin
sowing, based chiefly upon opinion, It quite proper ; for 1 think hie
•xpeciments begin and end with ibe trial of two pecks of wheat per
aorcb 1 have also very considerable doubts whether bis theory that
seeds OQght to prodnoa forty for one. will settle the question of tbe
comparative profit from ihiok or (hin sowing. 1 quite admit if returns
for the quantity of seed sown is the test, the thin sowing has it. Too
ooilof the seed is, however, only a fraebion of the expense of oultifAtiog
A grain crop, I have seen a good orop of wheat grown from rue peck
f)t seed per acre ; bnt the risk of failure is great, and wore we to sow so
little as even eight pecks pn oar soils here, the result would often be no
crop at all ; between worms, slugs, aiijd grubs, it would at timss
disappear altogether. AUbough it is possible to have wheat too thiok,
I often witness enormous areas of wheat, both In Bngland nod Bootland
that ought to have been ploughed op from being too thin. Mr. Meohi
roentioni hie average yield of wheat iu 1668. I had no wheat In that
year, but had to resow twelve acres of oats, which bad been completely
destroyed fay the grub worm, My wheat fpr the last five years has
avenged 48 bushels p«r< acre, while my returns ot oats are larger than
those grown on Xlpiiee Hall. The quantities 1 meubionod were sown
per Imperial acre—the iAcotch acre has been obsolete here ever slooo 1
remember. 1 made for three years in succession very careful expert*
menti on oats, and found in every experiment, aud m each year, the
heaviest and beat crop both of straw and grain was produced by very
tbtok feeding; nod 1 hive not seen any experiments, equally oarefuUy
made, which contiadlot th# reiults 1 obtained. X(of ^uld ibe resuiti
have been das to our wold clim»k, for each of the'years fn which the
expetiments were inade-1868) 70-*«'wer« beyond average, warm
and dry; lodeed the olimateof Aberdeenshire in these years wou^ Im
quite equal to tbe climate of Bsaax in an avoiage season. MeHfaet'eoutd
It have been owing to infeticxity of soil, for iomt of the yflots yielded
over 10 quarterc per imperial acre. The quantity oaMi grown pet acre
on any partionlar farm, however, does not settle tltaquest|oe of tliidk or
thin sowing ; neither, to my mind, does the mem opinionii of our hfsl
fi practical men. For 1 have ssen not a lew popnlar agi^femat b^ii^
wktghed in the balance and found wanting, aqd therefiii^J am qi^^
scepUcal wbeie opinions are unsupported by experiments Wl|s* fly
require te S^tJand, and I think iu Bngland teio, U |ilsiti«aaf&
other AgriWtdiil Itoektks take np this important qddiM timtimf,
tMsfirmHBco cor issue of amd June Mp. ifii
(To JMtIkr « dfedrwf
Biit,-*Some lime ago you were advdt^ng In 4tkdy of
sgrlottlture by educated natives, In oonnSotiqn wjth tbM
isn point X should be glad to see you taksnp and di^ nad
that is ^e ouitivatlon of fmur. In, the old hhl ^around
MadrM there are ettll to he seen some grand old mango treeSi I
sorry losuy that so far as my experience goes, and H is p pretty wide
one, many of the native owners pay little attention to IbMr preserve*
lion aud cultivation. 1 see op young grafted mango trees being planted
but I see the existing trees neglected; Tbe WeH-|f^wh TeMh fhhngd ii»
in my humble opiuion, one of tbe finest fittlte Ip t^ wpidd, an^ tt
Appears to me to bo a sad misfortune that H Is not morW Isviely colti-
vated. Take tlie old gardens out at Koodoombauktim, are.somo
grand trees there which are simply gc^t^ Ip rnhau They are never
pruned, never^ manur^, never cared 4 or, sw|^t Xn cr<^, Hm$f vben they
are let out to Ihe purohaser who will pay the* Itlghilt prigi lor wbiit
orop there may be. What I want to know is Where are mangoes to
ome from in future yean if new gardens be not opened f This Is one
of tbe Bubjeoie tbat the Horticulturab fioeiety should take up. The
society has a good deal of iufiueuoe and if it would tom Ut attention
to'this’matter, every eorapoantl in Madras woflld in a few years be
graced by flourisUfug young grafted mango trees. If bur pre^ecessoze
planted the trees from which we now obtain this delielous fruit, it is
our duty to our successors tbat we should leave them* at least as good
an iuheritance as tbat which has come down to ue. My advice lo all
house owners is to plant mango trees in ibeir oompounds* Some years
must elapse before they will }ield a fair crop, bnt the factV the trees
being planted will tend to enhance the value of gardens where they are
planted. As the natives do not seem to care to plant these trees, let all
Europeans do so. Those Who come after us will remember us the more
gratefully.
_ * MANGOBS.
WjfiLIi IllUlGATIOM IN SAEUN.
(3fbtAs Editor of the ^E^gUtkmn/*)
Sir,— la reply to your correspondent D. N.B.'s letter ontlie subject
of well irrigation in Sarun. I desire to draw attention to tbe apparently
fair, but in reality most misguidiug comparison be makes by eomparlug
the produce during the six years from 1878.74 (since when Mt.TytIer *8
wells began to exert their iofluence) to 1878*79.agaittst tbe six preceding
years, tit, 1867-C8 to 1872.73, Had no extraordinary eirdbrnetances
ailsen during the latter period, the comparison would have been of great
use and p good test, but D. H. B. omits to mention (hat In 1877*78, the
poppy crop was suddenly destroyed by blight of the most virulent type.
In tbat year, up to the commeuoement of February, when the poppy
was almost in flower, a first class orop was on tbe ground, but without
warning in tcu days it was neatly entirely destroyed by'the ‘defastating
notion of the poppy mould, Peronospora arhorotden»i which is olossly
allied to Peronmpora infoiUno^ tbe potato blight, that'' In 1816, as
every one knows, completely destroyed the potato erop in Ireland.
About the begioning of February last year tbe cultivatoce expected a
full crop, and Mr. Tytlor himself estimated tbe promised outturn at
not fese than 7,000 maunds, or about 6 seers 4 cblttaoki per blgab.
Tbe publio will realiae the,intensUy of the dlsacter when U is known
that only ltl95 maunds remained.
What the present year bae been, mey be,best judged Irnm D. H. B/t
own description of it* ee a most disastrous seasoujt*' At' tlie present
time no rain has fallen for more than el^ht montbain Sewan except
three petty showers at long Intervals. lary^'g from )tqiiMter to a ball
inch fall. In fact, the drought H fiewan bat bean ^ond all preeedeat
wUhln the memory of even tbe otdept oaittvMorA Bat lor welt
irrigation It would have bm almost impohitble to hope lor any kind
poppy crop. Mr. Tytler distineily natet tbat tho .number'
he hii made le <>< nfbat U requisite to «eeum4tm
oropbl'hlasidP^lviiloa. ,
In tbe presinlieart Mr* TptMrbm obtained about asanods ni
almcit .axhotly Wp’ftnif of the total ouitora oT
prospect In,laDt>IiwgaM'ttiere«Btd'«dthe Alton aif'
^' 9 ^ eonolitMvi evidem vt'ur'imptomnto,^ Ifir/^
xfeil irrigaUcn, Mnmpwt
<k '
i .i > mmjmnrAtr
yri'".'; ^ wwiwJ
'', ■'■!''‘;/a#-iiii[f^'pMH'«n^^ uw ^ugtit
'• ^''-'''■'##|.mji#w**pMwatng uwn to
AlW t|w witllf eftttie,
UlHiSiUi
i^aeeia
mm^
7»$56 19 n
4,949,11; 6
4^29 0 6
4,970 90 0
0,60!^ S7 10
9.m U 2
B,m 5 0
7,202 27 4
ATwafEepsr
big4lu
s* 0, k.
tbs ilviiAir bigh «v«r«g« Qf produce per biggb siitoe th« w»)ifl have
befA luAde Is ^ery marked ae compered wUb the epaimodic yialde at
former eeaeonfl.
AU tbe opium ditlriote north of the Ganges have almoat exactly
i4milav aoHer aad fair oomparivon can again h% made between them
^ttgb each oauDot be effected between the dlatrtoti north and aouth
of tbe Oangee, owing to the enperior eoile In the Utter tracli). The
following ormpatative atatement efaewe the average per bigah In tbe
iiz Opium dielrioti nerth of the Qangea from 1873-74 (the beginning
of tbe wells) to 187647
It must be allowed that Mr. Tytier’s dlitrfot oomparas favorably iq
yield daring these years with the others. In faot, In 187445 hie
average was better than in any other distriot in tbe whole of the
Bebar agency, inetading tbe soperior opium prodaoing districts south
of the Ganges—a dUtiuotion no other enb-agenoy north of the Ganges
could previooely olaim. In 1876-77 he gained a eimiUr snooeis with
6 seers 4, obittaoks to the higab, Arrab comioj:? second with 6 seers
10 ofaiitaoka
It has been Hr. Ty tier's miifqrtune to have the oomplelion of hia
■QOoesiful eoheme temporarily frustrated by euch unprecedented and
nnforeseen calamities.
As to P«K,B.'s assertion that neither opium, sugarcane, or tobaooo,
benefit tbe ryot, It must be Admitted that he has always shewn biDiaelf
lopamphletandletterthesteadydepreelator of those valuable, and to
the ryot, most paying crops which contend with indigo for tbe poises^
eion of the most favored eoUi. Ko one disapproves more of his
peritetoat enmity to tboio crops than his fellow planters, for none
know baUer than they that it is poppy and sugaroane and tobacoo and
Tieo that pay Bit rent in the villages they hold in lease.
0. J. W. D.
KOXE QHUR NO TES.
fitfl^Thiimentb has been very dry, for allbongh we have had eight
daya pn wJiioh.iain fell, yet tbe quantity has been lo slight that it, bsa
noi penetrated the gronod mere than a quarter of an inch on any
ecmaHon. Gf lAH we keve bad natkiafi fo speak of,
The toBofMng li aoomparatjtva table of tbe past five seoMms i-
J'
1
s
i
s
1
9
m
1
s
■i 0. k.
8. 0. k.
8. c. k.
B. c. k.
s, 0 . k.
B. 0. k.
5 5 3
5 16 0
8 10 3
8 7 0
4 6 1
6 14 1
5 13 0
4 12 2
6 8 3
3 15 2
3 3 1
4 4 0
6 2 0
6 11 3
8 15 8
8 8 3
3 11 2
6 8 1
6 4 8
5 10 2
4 6 8
4 8 0
4 8 1
5 6 0
SSA'S Zt^ Jr*
ewfigd lUhtnUg in ' tbim^ M
■
4 Wind fiewHiy |d tewarfie and
evening, ^
It lessening|i|l U4^iCmk"W$^ >!A(l ikbndei^ gnd %btiiiav
o have been vary Slight bdrOffM fafigesol Hale and ^MlU
getting the benefit. The weatM m bMfi baiy ai nmai, Mpeolaffy
towards tha aftemeons f this baap ii tefjt depm^^to Bm epbrlti^
p sitting upon one like an old man nl tbe mott&tidiiw.i| hi Um foKennmet
Of the rainy aeaion, and Its dBra|i<m varies^ beiing dependent on the
weiness of the previoui winter and spring} if tbsy have bent toollt the
base then comes on late and we have hot to bems! itith it fe* e* uhii •
time es when those Mesons bayebeendry, The natites beUevethal
after fifteen days of this hsee tha oAota Stovat eomea.
They have also another saying that ball always falls on the
anniversary of the national wdtd el tbeSomarsen paople (tobabilaiili of
the adioining Bill Slate of that name), da, on or about tbe Jfitb of Ibis
mootb, aadailhougbitdldnot baU on that parBonhir dsy lZMiyeer,
yet it did so within a very few hooTA as it feli on the following ntoming
J The thermometer <rht.), hang in so opeaAWrandib, W. n^li Is
^ about 64^ in the mornicg, 71<* in the evening; lowest 58^ hlgbait 78«;
^ Young female cones of the Ahisa mUhiana (vern, r<i4) notr form
' the male calkins came out last mon^h, Male eo|tes of tbe JHtmt
‘ eieaeha (vern, huil) now out. The mala oatkins ^ the yeW Were out
^ last month, and tbe female Aowers—rfsemblieg Imf^tnidi, but In oolpur
* yellow instead of green—are now out. Wild roses <7if«, bat ) pink
® and white arc now cot In wild profnilon; they are great bllmbera Sod
* a pine or other tree covered with them (the white ones) prSMnte, at a
distance, the appearance of the silver rain produced 1^ pyroteebnists.
The wild jasmine, with its pretty white flowers, is Ottt^ The white
potgntUta is forming its fruit, and tha nnwary are' traquantiy dcludad
into picking and eating It under the belief that it is a etrawberry, which
in outward appearance it strongly resembles, though In twite tt is vary
unpleasant Baspberries are ripe and taste pleasant. The bins
larkspur and white Illy of the valley arc In blossom j thiitlsi also*
I The clematis has ceassd blossoming,
1 Yonng monanl, kalij, koklas, and ebeer, are now being batched,
I Martins are still sitfing on their eggs, I find tbat monauls have bean
reared in the 'Zoological gardens in London, but t do not reaolleot
hearing with what success, Flre.Alss and mosqnitos In plenty,
‘ Food grains are about the same, and the prices will not be allowed
' to drop, if the Government clflclala here—who are also large landownati
' —oan prevent such an ooourrenoo. This season'e baricy harvest
oommenoedoo the loth , tbs crop may be considered a thirteen anna
one at this elevation, and above ns, though in the valley the outturn will
not have been so much.
The wheat crop wilt he below tbe average owing to the drought of
the past winter and spring; 1 should feel inolined to estimate it at an
eleven anna crop, sufficient, however, to tide over till theautomn harvest.
^he villagers have been extracting the juice from the opium plants i
for this purpose they nse a small Iron Initrumsiit called a fMviin (a
foor-biaded lancet), to make an iaoision In the dffdi (capiule); wbieb
operation la performed over night so as to allow time for the juice to
oose out and become slightly ooagalated before it is removed tbe next
morning, when the villagers go tbe roond of theptonts and aerape.it
off with a lean (blunt blade); it is oolieoted on its own leavei**^bottt a
doBsn tegether—as they prevent it from drying and toeing in weight.
The juice is then made op into little balls, petHt >mt plaoed between
fresh leaves in an earthen vessel and kspt there Ull a inffioient
quantity baa been oolleotodfor aale, X ought tor bate mentioned that
the iDoIatons are made diagonally lo prevent the julos from vanoiag
down aod so being lost,
la the valley rice seed has been sown In tbe nnrserles, and aheendy
some of them are presenting a brilliant emerpld appeetanpe ,from the
yonog green blades of tbe sprouting rtoe.
Hill potatoes are sprouting,
Aprioote are tnrniiig yellow, find will soon be fit ior toe toVto*
PiQtM, quinoM* pcacbei^ gmpsa fipples fpoor in quantity and quaUty),
walnuts arolooking tottly promiatng^ though not so well as tn pfetloui
seasons.
mthe garden we have the pissloitolower In btossom all its glory
Ureosiveditsnaseelram a fanoied resemblraoe in toe fiovmrsto tbe
appsarenoes presented at Gftivary j in the five aufim the. old monk*
saw a resemblanoo to toe wounds of Christ, tn toafrlplt styis the three
nails on the cross, in the eentral gynophore the pillar of the orois^ and
in toe fiisafiahtoui l^iibcesses the trays of light around the Savionr, or toe
crown of thornA ; Then there are carnations, coraflowers, pioka
balsa|tS, hesgtsSitot lupins, Htles, nasSottlums, and iwest peas, the
of bloom* Boses in ebondanoe,
, are bavtog mustard and crew, peas, beans, leititeis»
v^l^Ssii banbts, perticy* radishes; white in course of grp^h thme
. aifipfifMipi^ beet, oat^esr onions, tomatoes, sage, ibymo*
iitoillttr,Atoyfilit Wfi. %
m umto M^ptknu^^^
cAzctrrrj, Jtrzr u im.
caoMPDSmOW 4NB BELATION OP PLAHTS
Am BOILS.
of aoU U eacpoted to & fed heat it ii foimd
▼ V h7]i(iMjWptii M fill mil L’WJl'i Jl tbAt is combustible,
Audu i^ATt Wbieh^ witli ordinary heat, you cannot bum. Any
plant subjected to beat gives the same rasttlts, with this diiOferenooy
that in the case o! tbPflant by far the larger part is driven of^
in the burning, Jn the soil, but a small poriiou indeed, of the
whoteiis so acted on ; rarely exceeding 8 or 10 per cent.,
often falling much below this.> This organio combustible matter
exists in the soil, in that part of it which the older agricultural
authoriUes spoke of under the name of humus, carried to it by
various agencies, snob as falling rain, dew, and decaying vegeU-
tion, Homul is neither more nor less than the decomposed or
decomposing vegetable matter (roots, leaves, stems) which is
always found in soils wherever there is vegetation. It is never
found elsewhere than on the surface, where plants are growing,
or where they have previously Nourished and decayed. The
of ihaairiaits clnef sodroe. ' ^ » K' - " -
Tb6 other Oiganicsobstascss lb ihb havt oeoaeioa
to deal with When we odme to apoik Of wbauct
plants derive (heir food; but aftbS; “ sOil had ksiWWiijNlOll
to a red beat, what we have remaibiUg Is bdaerat only, tke,
material of which rocks are chiefly oompossd. Parietiei of
soil (hen are due to the rocks wh!^ Ooinp9N|W them. ^^AJj^ertUu
soils would remain fbrtile if the crop grown <m Uiem Ware returned
(0 the soil. A soil rapidly becomes steiild or impruduotiva II
crops are contmucusly taken from it without retminf tollu^
soil, in some form, the minersl matters removed by the erop. The
1 )lustrations that rise to our memory are the pasture lands of
Oheshirei which bad been rendered all but useless for dai)ry
purposes because of a neglect of this well established tact. The
Southern States of America are also welKknown to have yielded
for many years cotton and tobacco, until at last a paying crop
could not be raised'without the use of manures, ^ere Is an
exbaustless supply of mineral food looked up in the soUi a oertain
portion of which, however, is only availihfb at a time. The
rest lies locked up, ailing to be liberated by the alow preusessess
of disintegratioii and decay s and the other ohemical and
ineohauioal influences that are always at work. If all the potash
be removed from a soil by successive cropping of the same dees
of plants that*require potash for their matnriag, thennopcoflU
able crop of a similar class of plants can be raised,
however abundant the other mineral foods of the soil may be
until one of two things happens, Ist. either potash be restored to
quantity and quality of the humus is mainly dependant on the
vegetation which now covers, or has covered, the soil. Tiie
analysis of humus (proximate analysis) yields chiefly
Uhttic acid ... C4e His Oia
Eumlo tt Cio Hie Oie
Creole „ ... C 24 His Oie
the soil !u sumoient abundance to suit the need of the orop; or 2ad
till the natural influences, ever at work, in the course of time
liberate sufficient to produce a paying crop. The difference
between what have been called the dormant and active consti¬
tuents of the soil cannot be too frequently insisted on. A
chemical analysis of a soil to be of the greatest practical use
should make a clear distiootion between these constituents. It,
The greatest bulk of every plant oonsists of a substanoo called
oellnlose, the cheraioal formula for which is sometimes given as
follows:-—Os HioOs.
The close resemblance between these formulae, the increase of
oxygen and the decrease of hydrogen point to tlie fact that
humus must have been produced by the gradual decay of cellulose.
At onetime chemists, and at the present day, many agriculturists,
attribute the fertility of the soil chiefly to the humus. Vegetation,
they hold derives its obief organio constituents mainly from the
humus. It is now generally admitted that humus is not a direct
source of organio instrument. It is only so when the gradual
decomposition of the humus yields carbonic acid, and not in any
other sense. It would not be difficult to prove, that tlie carbon
of plants cannot exclusively be derived from the humus, for then
the whole vegeiaHon grown on a soil would require to be returned
to the sol) iu order to provide sufficient iiatutul food for the
eucoeeding generation of plants. This is not tlie case, for the
burning of fuel, and the assimilative power of animals are con¬
tinually changing immense quantities of vegetable matter into
carbonic acid and other compounds, and if humus were the only
source of carbon, then vegetation would gradually dimitiisU and
at last become extinct. Schleiden has calculated, that this would
ho efl^eoted in sixty years. Boussingault has also demon stratod
that the orop reared on an acre of land removes on an average
one ton of organio matter more tliaa is put into the soil by
manum ; and this Ji eccouf^dtshed udthoat any decrease of the
humus. Humboldt also states, that aU am of bananas yields
152,0001bs. weight of fruit, cont^dning 14 ions of oarbon, and
this rate of yield Can be continued for 20 years, so that in that
time 280 tons of oarbon would be obtained in ttiis way ; but it
could not be obtained from the soil, hecauss an aCTo of land
weighing 1,000 tons, and oontainiug 4 per' cent, of humus, could ,
not ^ield more than 20 tons.
BoUfslngauU sowed peas weighing 15*60 grains in a soil ex*
olusively oomposed of sand aud clay which had been raised to a
red heal^ and cbuldi tlierefOu», contain no humus, no organic
matter. He found. after 80 days growth, that the crop woighed.<^
6«*72 grains, ebowiog a JfliU^fofd increase. Ho rain warn wits?^
allowed to reach (he crop, it Was Supplied with water Mrluyu had
pieviottsly bean distillsd. These and other axp^dmenta of a
kind pravsi that the hlxtatui eaiuiot h# fhi' flflti'
is not enough for the farmer to know what sUbstancea are present
aud which absent, he should also have a more or less accurate
calculation of the mineral matters in the soil that are soluble in
water, that is activCf and ready to enter a plant as food, aud those
which are insoluble, that is dormant^ and incapable in their
present form of becomiog plant food. Tlio fertility of a soil
depends, not only on its colour, slope, shelter, the absence or
presence of a good subsoil, the state of disintegration of its
partioi«»s, its porousness, its power, of retaining, or evaporating mois¬
ture, and the presence in it of those subatanues indispensable to
the perfect growth of plauls, but as we have said those odneral
constituents must be in an active state, soluble, ready (o enter
and build up the structure of plants. An accurate acquaintance
with the ash ooustituonts of crops and the relative quantities of
each substance removed from the soil by each crop, this, tiAen
iu conjunction with a knowledge of the active and dormant
ooustituouts of the soil ou which the crops are grown, these two
factors lie at the very foundation of all intelligent farming; and
on which are built up all that mass of facts and inductions which
has raised agrioultqro from the deptlia of ignorance and empiri*
oism to the diguity of one of the exact sciences.
If any piant be burned it will be found that after combustion
nothing is left but a little asb, and this ash bears but a small pro¬
portion to tlie whole plant. Estimating the aeh roughly, we may
say that it composes 4 per cent, of the whole, and ibis a^ conolsts
exclusively of mmerol or in organic matter, such as potasb^soda, lime,
magnesia, silica, oxides of iron, phosphorio and iglphnrie abide,
chlorine, and more rarely, manganese, iodine, bromine and finorloe.
In the living plant probably none of these substances are to be
found nnoombiued or free, they are usually in the form' of ^ eom-
pounds, more or less complex, and varied In their propertlw and
composition. Almost all classes of plates are distinguished by
the presence of oertain acids, corn plants ccmiaio sUieic aQid-*<-these
do not aiwxys exist ia a free state, iliey are usually combined
with some alkali, suoh as potash, or soda, forming ifllcales of
potash, and oxalates of potash, soda or lime.
%'he larger |^att of the plant that disap^rs In the bUrnipg
,,ooikidstiog of abeut % per cent, of the whole is composed; llmoiid
entirely of four elements, sometimes bkiied organib eiemefl^v^oln,
hydrogen, oxygen, oarbon and nitrogen. The Ifvlag' plant
bbtiiai ill osfboa from carbon dio^do, |ta and
; ' I ' '—... ;
pt its
" in Very etnell
In eerUin pni^ nUi^fty ^e eeed. ]9y >rtti«
Iv'e^eitlMIt ^ trwf pift&t c^iifti ^ft^i«ib8)i«noe oeUed eellalose,
tlie lieire af
^ wUii ealpUnrin It^ in converted first into
; ^trHiei ond aftonrerde into ^npO^iisnr^ the oomblaed action of
stiiphnrio and nitrioaoids oha^M it intognn-cotton; and a solution
^nf'ih{y in alcohol {| known ns ooHodlon; and is need by surgeons
In protecting ulcerated iurtaoes from the ain Staroh, gum, oane-
angar, and grapaangar are In reality diAerent forms of oeUulose
in erhioik ^e proportion between the three elemeuis, oxygen»
hydrogen, and carbon are varied. There are only four combinations
of theiw 0 >^gc>^io elements which can be used by plants as food—
abeyarewat^, HgO, oarbon-dioxide, Co^t ammonie, N Hg, ami
nitric acid, NOa* The second anpplies carbon, the third supplies
hydrogen and the third and fourth nitrogen, all others mey
supply oxygen. It has already been noted, that all of these four
oompcands are present in the atmosphere* The water is evaporated
by the sun’s heat, the carbon-dioxide is derived from the lunge
of animals and from fires and volcanoes, the ammonia from the
disintegration of organic oomponnds, and tJiie oxides of nitrogen
from electric action and organic dpcomposltiou. •
The organic matter which forma, as wo have said, by far the
larger part of every plant, is usually grouped under two classes of
eompounds, vis., those containing nitrogen, and those into whose
composition nitrogen does not eo|er. The former are frequently
called proteids and the latter amalyoids. This division of the
organic compounds of plants is a very important one, for it gives
ns in reality a proximate olassifioation of those substanoe which,
used as food, are sometimes eharaoteriaed as fat-formers and ilesb-
formers.
The proximate composition of the orgauio part of all plants is
as foilowe
Amalpoidt (fr Starches, ' (Proteids or A Ib^mincids,)
CIlnloM *nd wood fibr. j (Veg.t»bl«) .Ibamen
Starch QIaten (fibrin)
Qnm I Lsgumin (oaaein)
Bagar
Oil '
The substances enumerated under amalyoids are of themselves
quite insufficient to support life. They are totally deficient in
nitrogen, without which the waste of the body cannot bo repaired.
Children fed only on arrowroot, sago or any other staroliy
substances, natural or artificial, will die of slow starvation as
surely as if food were altogether withheld. Hoiice all starch foods
should be mingled with some others containing nitrogen and
other mineral substances such as lime, pliosplioious, &c., necessary
to build up the body. In nature we find this mixture, notably
in milk, grasses, oats, wheat and barley, and nil leguminous
plants.
Plants then obtain the materials of which they are composed,
. organic and inorganic, and which they elaborate and build up
Within their own organism into those various siibetancos already
enumerated, from three sources, vv£., water, the atmosphere and
the soil. In their turn plants become the food of animals. In
the bodies of the latter, the materials drawn from the inorganic
world, the soil, the air, and water, are further elaborated, and used
to build up and repair the waste of their bodies. lo process of
time, diseaee and death break up and disintegrate the bodies of
aniiitals. Their bones become carbonate and phosphate of lime,
aheir muciales and viscera and nervous , system in the long run
become oavbon-dioxide, ammonia, and water, tboso mingle wiih iJio
soil and the air \ and are again icady to enter plants as food, and
begin the eanie great round of olworption, elaboration and
dU^ntegratlcm. This, shortly staled, is the great round of nature,
the ©onUnual building up of Ufe and all that it implies from inor-
ipittter; and the as constant return of the organised
4»|m4i»reii0ibe inorganic. Here there is no lossjl ^nly change,
tHinvi^¥ebieomifig th^ tangible; the Inorganic the organic,
like matter tjse dead'luete^al world entering into and building
np the world of Ufe^' tbok^ht an^ aoUptii each particle of matter
plpyUg, in 4r^ma! c^ futii^^oe, many parts, and out-
rtvaUng in ac4; ^^yersili^ of change the wildest
dreaoni nf eaetom
. . Am AGBldaWHBBi'''
T HB peisiblo intitirji^ Kursatan commmtlt^hae, on mbie
oooiSions than ondi engaged Hie attention of j^uUlo men and
been the theme of public oommept at frequently recurring
intervals. This is one of these subjects that seem to turn np
periodically, to fiash acrosit tliesenitU of' ofiloial and public notice
and to disappear below the liorixon, crowded out of Sight by every*
day recurring^ events. The large body of Baraslans ore gentlemen
in tastes, habits and education, and whatever they may be as a
class, have as individuals, rendered yeotna'a''« 'service io India.
They occupy positions of trust and authority in every department
of the public service. Tiiere can be, we think, however, no dmibt,
that, from various oauses, there are not the same,ready outlets for
employment and occupation uow*a-dayt, that there have been Jn
the days that are gone by; and one reason for this Is, that a
greater number of suitable oandldates for office and employmeni
in the public service and in meroauHleJivtoi ore now avaiUbfe‘»
than say twenty years ago. Natives, both Mahomedsna and
Hindoos, have found that an English eduoatiou is the passport to.
in many oases, remunerative and permanent occupations, which
were perhaps to a great extent, sought after Eurasians. There
are many positions in the service of Giovemmsnt which are now
attainable only by undergoing a course of education and an
examination which practically exclude all, whether Natives oi
Eurasians who cannot proceed to England and avail themselves of
the advantages to be gained by a sojourn there; this as we have
said, practically excludes all but the comparatively wealthy ; anil
those who are fortunate enough to secure the few scholarships
that are available for such a purpose. We have then a highei
standard of educational fitnoaa and a larger and more varied
number of men seeking for posts which have not increased in
number in the same ratio ; and day by day we are being brought
nearer the problem of how to provide an outlet, a suitable outlet
for whatever skill, energy, and intellect there may be in the
Eurasian and Native communities.
It seems to us that agticalture, the developing of the great
natural resoaroes and produots of the soil of India, has noi
received that due aitentlon and oonsidenratlon from the Anglo
Indian community which its importance deserves. There is, wi
believe, a permanent eouroe of wealth and prosperity lying looked
up in ilia soil, waiting to be released by willing haeds and skilful
brains and moderate capital. The most that Government oan bt
expeoted to do in this matter is to provide agriooltural colleges,---
somewhat after the model of Cirencester Oollege, Aspatria Agri
cultural School, and similar inatitutions in Eogland, where theory
and practice to a great extent go hand in hand,-—id order that thi
principles at least of agriculture may be efficiently tangbt, aniJ
in the college grounds practically illustrated. The attention of the
Government to agrionlture has for many reasons been fitful anc
not always either economical or sucoessful or wisely considered
but agricultural colleges in every presidency, brottg^ Into Sntimati
relationship with the lower and middle class schools of th(
country by means of judiciously established scholarships so as l<
secure the likeliest lads from rural districts, who would retun
to their homes and the occupation of their fathers with ideas ant
methods of culture aud a knowledge of the fundamental prinolplei
of farming, would in the coarse of a very few years, work out fo
the ryots of India more than all the legislation that has beei
since the English rule began. We are not however, at present s
much concerned with the duties of Government in this matte>
tardy, iuterinittont, and it may be wastefnl, timugh well infendet
ltd action may have been, as with the gregt possibilities lor th<
future, that lie in the adopting of ngricuUure as a profession bj
educated Eurasians and Anglo-Indians.
Bengal is as near as may be over-run with bHefiess barrister
and men with university educations aztd degrees, they cannot a)
be Qovemiiieht servants, or teachers, or mercantile assistants. I
they cannot, with all their college training, secure a living, th
sooner tlkc^ turn their attention to some other possibiUty 0
providing fiev their daily wants, the better for themselves am
ludiA i^pdcultare, we believe^has advantages as a calling, which
h«ys nof; fui yet been realised by many in this strait. Little good w
.think will cWmeof knocking at the doors of departments, mimorla
lisiDg Govemmeikt to help them in schemes of emigration, Ao
m
m IKDUN
My 1, W
. i’%
IttliDfMtiBg Ui» |n«lE«», md H my bel^e mw poliqgr
of d$pisismm ** ^ tbo»e who bdl^
Cat out lor tbofatolroi a teobr ot thefr own, dfstMteInt ^aagli In
antldittttati It mof «#|»iiir^ «a4 Iro^ghtod work: ^
fataro will tiriot iti nw/ai rotnrda df modest iodo^donco aind
lumliiliiMNi, Tlmro fa a irary wide field for labotir, naaluliiisa,'
wad laoAt to all who earh to eater on It, ia a Widely eon*
■IdereddiideaTOiir to Improve the hJreeda of oattle> id»e«p» C^oatSf
aad iMmltry^ whldt yean of ^norant hat^haiard and atartation
aanagement are feat datedoratinf. ^ Thdre ia weaHU andteeunty
of cA|dtal fa apraading it ofer many hoftomsi a variety of oropa,
md fa hreediag for the aaarket aaittiala need for food in the great
preaidea^ toame, ao that If one orop faita or one veatore be
nnaaeoaaahatf iba' oi^m may tide over itto‘ diffioalty. Ji ia quite
troe that alUSe devoted to agriouHore implies a renonoiatioa of
mwdi of tha eocdal eajoymeot% amtsaemeata, and com&rta of a
town life; hut a few man olabbing their modest oapital and
ooltoied fntellaoti; and giving thwnielvea eaoh to special datiea
in the nHumgeniMii oMieIr affairs, one to the management of the
laud, another to the |wepariog of anim^ for the market, a third to
theaaie of produOe, cattle, dfco*, and the general buainesa arrange-
manta and raqnlrementa of the farm, would find in the long run
an honourable and lucrative oocnpation, and would raise up all
over the eoufttry a* atandard of methods and prooedare to be
followed by the batter elaaa of ryots, and ultimately brbg about
whattbe perma&iut aettlement haa signally failed to do, namely, a
outtnred class of men> themaalvaa engaged in working and
IttUmatoly acquainted with land, atsudiog at the head of the
agrionttural oommunlty, and bearing aome aucb relation to it as the
aqCirea and gentlaman-farmers of England bear to the soil of
Britain*
mmmmmmmmWmmmmmmmrnmmtmKmmmigassfmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmstai
EDITORIAL NOTES,
r -A ¥94 ram, amongavl^^^
^ar ^ia graaa is dqwn^
Aiibmte ;ia done to iW young :
anj^maed to he the rimolt of accttmiii lml iipa^ ia^JitDt fo^
lor doubt, but that they arc iutfolML.
to it# loll height It is too hard and diy 4 ^ cat*
By burning it down, the youuff ri^n idmn,
danoa, and the only way we sec jmiI iajlof tha
Forest Department to prohibit oattla gW^jg^ in thf|LdQ«i|t#
altogether, and to keep a bolt two bunfm yaida
them continually out down, so that no ocmmuUloi^pn l^poiic
outside fires should affect them* Doubtless the. di^irtmant.
lose a little by this, as cattle graaing brings in # fair amoant
annually, and this would be more than made up by tha saving in
other direotiona. The report ia written in a popular atylOi and'
is vary interesting, as well asinatruotive.
Mr. BoBsnmosr reports the failure In cuHivating aix ^hootalfiC
Manilla hemp which he had received from the CaleuttC Solanteal
Gardens in July 1877 : all died within a few months from' drofi^t.
He promises giving the plants anoffier trial in August ffihi yea^ $
we trust ho will aucbced, m the Manilla hemp (Mtwa fearilifs) it a
most valuable plant, and would add very muoh to the vWlue
of our eiports were we sueoesslul in rearing it.
rriHB British Bormah Octulie contains the report by the Deputy
X Oommissioner, Amherst, to the Commissioner of the Ten as
serim division, of the Agricultural Show hold at Moolineiu on the
SOth March, and which, in spite of short notice, seems to have been
II suoosss. There were priaea given ranging from & to 80,
and aggregating Bs. 060 ; and we find that the leading Europeans
of the district contributed to the general fund, while Government
gave Bs* 660, and the richer Ariatios gave their quota willingly in
the shape of gratuitous refreshments to all-comers.
The Bhow was not got up in an ambitious spirit, and this was
wise, as grand affairs, like exhibitions usoally, repel the poorer
class of ryots ; they are afraid to come and exhibit before ao many
grand and great people. We strongly recommend this system to
the autboritioi* finch a Show cannot fail to do good, when a
farmer with bia own eyM saw a brother ryot getting Be. 30 for
ahawing the best sample of cleaned rice, he must have felt that
there was something real about the affair, and although ho may
not anderatttUd the morale of the syetoro, bo wiii know that if he
produoea and exhibits the best grain, &c., he will get some prizes
of a substantial nature, and be will find out in a secondary
manner that his improved grain lealisoe more for him in the
ha 2 ar*-l 6 ll is the uUlmato advantage aimed at. We think it
would be a good plan to scatter broadcast m the district where
these shows am held, and immediately after the exhibition, slips
in the vernacular, oontaining list of prizes, with names and
addresses of those who have obtained them. Thousands do not go
to riio Show, but by this means, they would learn what was going
on, and a little p^^^aI enquiry would enable them to verify the
oometneSB of the list* This th 6 >- would be sure to do, as the ryot
is a very auspioloua Individuat.
Wi have before us Oolonel Beddome's report dated 10th March
1870, on the Teak Forests of Burmah, and it would seem that there
loo, that reekleaanoss whloh has characterized our treatment .of
growing timber ail over the conntry has boen felt vary strongly.
Them Oeema to be no teak in British Burmah, except those young
plantatioUa triiich am at present under the care of the forest
Department, and wlU<dl must not ))e touched for a great many .
years* Tho large expofta of t9$k from Moulmoin are now btougkjfe^l
down from the'&an fititm fif fiiam, and those &om 1
IM FiUdj^li eom SonBKb.
Wb are afraid* that Mr* Bobertaon's projected experimenta With
European ploughs will not bp sueoesslul, not because aimb
ploughs are not the best, bat on account of the cost. What
we want Is a cheap plough, which will not ocst much more
than the native plongh at present in use, and which will turn up
the soil to the depth of from 8 to 12 inches. We have jest
learnt that such a plough is being turned out In the North-
West with fair prospect of success, and when the experiments
now going on are completed, we shall he able to desoribe the
plough \ as the inventor has kindly promised to pnt ns in
possession of all details as soon as his experiments warrant him
in doing so definitely. '
Aftbr Dr. Brown's death, another gentleman, a German, if we
remember aright, was sent to Burmah to look after tobacco there*
Since he went to join his appointment we have not heard of
anything being done, and should be glad to learn whether
tobacoo is succeeding there or not.
Ms* W* B. HOBaxTSON* Superintendent oC Government Farms^
suggetits the advisability of alterlog the time for admitting candidates
into the School of Agriculture from 1st September to the lit
of April* The matriculation examioatione of the Univetiitles
of Bombay and Madras are held lu December aid the resolts are
not published until February ; benoe the time Of the yaar at which
we open out new classes is inconvenient for oandidatea who have passed
the matrioulation examinations* *'lt is highly desirable to secure at
many matrlottlated eandldates as possibls, Ithasbeensaggeitad that
the admiisiODS to the Sobool of Agricultaie should be coufloed to those
who had mairioulated. However. 1 think that it will be best for tbs
present at any rate to leave the rules as they are, tor, under the present
rules, we can* if there are enough matriculated candidates, ^rm ibe
new class entirely of them. The object in fixing the admissions in
Beptember was to secure the attendance Of the new eiudehli at the
institution, when agricultural operations ware most active, but the
improvcmsntf recently made on the farm, and that are yet in progicie
will enable us, in fufure. I hope, to carry on a good deal of enltlvatiun
in tho summer mentba I propoee that no ohange should be ando' at
regards the admisstoa of a new class In fisptember iM^t, wheathe
oourse of initruotloo of the senior olase enda* Bat I thlak that «o
admission should be'granted in September of 1610, the new elSis to h#
admitted on the 1st of April 1881, Inetsad." The Go«e«noi^t have
•anotlonedtho change proposed In the ssaeon of edmiselon to ttie, Soheol
of Agriculture* .
1« is a itrange foot that, bowoveip iadolent and apaihetio the
Mysore lyot nay Im, a iliovdr of ri|ia waited him up and he g#ei to
work at hie fields with vigor. The mcent i^tn was agood ioalier, aiid
the two* day# Idlowlog saw hundeeds Of lyota out on theif firidii
ploaghtog,.ihU ^ihet oeenpallon belag pat aride* ThoU|h
|ha. vlripi^ Of iNiagalm* hats learned to place great vafek on
tatnnriog, m 10 to enuch nxpeme, in nmpy inatapeea, tq. 4 ilf^^
maanmlof their Hi^ y#t it it atnmfo ihat set O ^aliiila Plgfitb
1
iplenA k >''^''»4 »(bh<hi ot ;a«»ilt, «•
ipMlMlo iivhilo not
ftHw ot W ImW (kMt ia B^.wito
v^k«ai bol tkoM <iO extaUprtfoaioiilil^lAtMpto^
. Oao fooWiinii^ wha Iwogoao
lato tixniii^ a ttm BoagiOor^ iatrodnogd two lagliib
plot^bi oabtaliidiii tr»ia«d bin moa to worbiag^UMiaf oad tbo amity
of fhotbiBglittfioliocM BUKoy ryoti. WoleotaiOioibAttvoaRHTo
gttUloflwabmiot^Uab i^oaglM oa tboif taiaw, aad it !• by tbe
ota^ iiob t^ol tlp|pYcjBdloe wo^ttfotlotiQilaboxai will latlaiebe
bfoSiB tbroaibf Otb«t bmdownora mlabt oopy tbo esaanple stt thom
ia f Rgord to & jlag^tk ploagbs, as thiSt latrcdaotloa laoro gonendly
will really benebt tw oboatry aad tbe popnUtton.
IpBOfsesoB OomnsGiatr, of Poitiem, ban ooaduoted eome experi-
nieaiS) to detenaiae to wbat degree pleats re(][airlog maoh lime
cea grow ia soils ^prived more or lees of that substanoe. Ho
ooaolades tUat aataS has some mixtares, where oae element
dominates ia tbe soil, without exoluding others, eo that oaloareous
plants find, in apparently hostile soils, the materials ireoossary for
their growth, more the minerals in a soil are soluble, the less
is their presence in large quantities required. He found that sandy
soils are the most unfavourable to lime-loving plants. M. Cbolio,
has drawn attention to the feet that the fracture of the bones
of ruminant animals is more frequent where soils are oaloareous,
than tbe contrary ; which ooinoides with an exoess of lime iocthe
bone. M. Teiesier complains that in many sui^ical operations he
finds cicatrisation to be retarded, owing to an excess of lime
seoreted. lu the case of riokets, the seoretiou of phosphate of lime
in the urine is very marked, but science is not able to explain if
the softening of the bones be due, either to an insufSciency of
lime iu the food, or to the system being iucapable of utilising that
substance* In the diseases of diabetes and alcoholism, wounds
cicatrize with groat dtffioally, also due, it is presumed, to the blood
being in a poisoned state.
M. Beuxubtal has demonstrated that the presence of oxygen
facilitates the fermentation of milk ; the greater the surface of
tbe latter is exposed, the sooner will fermentation ensue, hence, the
importance of shallow in preference to deep pans,for a dairy. Up to
111 degrees Fahrenheit fermentation, increases with temperatnro ;
it undergoes no change between this and 125*^ but from the Utter
degree upwards, the tendency to fermentatiou diminishes, until the
aptitude ceases ; while congealed milk on the other hand retains
its fermenting character. The digestive juioes aid the fermenta¬
tion of milk.
Mk, C. laviMK, Oregon !*—Writes to the Journal of Agri^
culture4 n experienced peach-grower onoo told me how to
restore very old peach trees to their pristine vigor. 1 never tried
it, but give it here ahd hope some one will, and report. Expose
the roots of the tree thoroughly'—hunt out all the grubs and cut
them out; then pour hot water over oU parts where it may reach
worms, then cover over with the dirt from a blacksmith’s shop that
contains iron filings, dtc., abundantly, and re-cover with earth from
old chip-yard or other rich dirt. These Iron filings are splendid
for pear trees as well as peach. Your old tree if now triiumod
back will become like unto a young one.
fiVfi shillings and slxpenco is the cost of growing a bushel of
wheat in the Western j^tates of America. Two and sixpence is
about the cost in Spaltn, Thera is an opanmg far Spanish trade.
But the want of roads or railway couveyauco to the coast are tho
ohstructionsi and the eustoms dues are at preaent, the obstacles.
lUlpfflo knows but a now wealth of nitrate of soda may yet come to
us from the Afghan vatleys V Between Oharsbuck and the
Bharawuk desert, onfhbtosd from Caudahar to Oabu), the land,
although highly ofiltiyated, Is covered with nitre and chloride of
sodium. tt Is wonderful/^ says a correspondent writing from the
spot, to see the amount Af this Stdf that thete is. Going up to
the top of ond of tiie otd mitis or fMi that Uy„ close to Chsrshuck,
theappeardntf of the groihd lor* miles di if it wAre
kia. H. W. H; Brow^ of VyteidjK^lwbmHUd to the Bparfi of
Bevenue, asmall sample of mimUle hsthlii^ has beeu, grown
and cleaned on his estate. Vx^ Brpwoo wants to know if the
Gfovemment is anxious to develop the bOmp industry. Hr. l^owne
should do with hemp as he does wUhoofShe, and ask merchants ia
London wliat they wU! pay for it.
OOMMUNICAtED AND SELECTED.
AQBAEIAN DISTRESS AHD DISOONTEHT IH
INDIA.
O KB of the most hopeful signs of the times, so for as Britiih ludi's is
oottoeniedi ia the keen aad iateUigent hitorest that
to be eviaoed by thoughtfal uiou at home in the oouditiou of the
agricultural population of this country. It is at lost geuerally roeognized
that India b roally one of the poorest regions on the earth, in proportioa
to its extent, the variety and natural fertility of its soil, and tho frugal
habits ot tho people. We have not far to seek for the oauses of a ^poverty
so widespread that it seems inoradible to those who have not seriously
studied tbe subject. Tbe soil is undoubtedly produefive, hat its orops
are entirely dependent ;on a regular and abundant supply of rain, or on
aitiiioial irrigation, if the clouds of hearon withhold their moisture uts
certain periods of tbe year, the seed does not vegetate, or the young
plant withers up, and the land becomes a desolate wilderneiB. Canals of
irrigation my partially avert the worst oonsoquenoos of drought, but to
a very limited extent, for they too depend upou the rivers whoso volume of
waters is ameaeuro of the amount of rainfall. Ooo great drawback to
the sttcoess of agrioultural iadnstry has been the want of capital and tho
hereditary Ignorance of the oulUvators. Iinprovomon ts of any kiad hive
beon quito out of the question, The soil h »s been impevorishe I fritn year
to year* It is seldom allowed to lie %llow—It li never m mitred. As
Jt was workod by them ot the olden ime, so is it worked by the present
generation, but with ever meraasing difficulty. For ouo thing, sluce
waste lands have been so largely reelaimad, fewer oatUe are kept, and
since fuel has beoome soarco and dear, their droppings are no longer
Buifeicd to enrich the ground, bat are used to mako a tke. Bmall holdings
are also fatal to scloutiJic husbandry. Ueroud all this, m oonsoquenoe
of seeuril'y from invasion and plunder, and of better markets and higher
prioes, tho industrial population, lu spite of reourreut faminos, has
increased to an extent that must cause painful "suliuitude to the
Government, sod which throateus to Ueeonto a positive danger to the
State.
The oise may not yet he quite so bad as it has been depiotsd by
Nightingale and Mr. iHyndman, whu have judged of the whole from a
part, and have taken tho Deooan ryot as a typioal example of the peasantry
of all India but it cannot be denied that what Mr, Itobert Blliot
with exousablo exaggeration, calls the impeudiug bankruptey of the
soil is a problem of mote iustnnt and pormanent importanas than the
rootiHcabiou of the north-west frontier or the disarmament of tho native
levies. The quoatlon is very fairly disaussed in the ourrent number of
the i^mi'Urhj JRcvim, and certain remedies are soggosted whiol) might
be tried without harm or iuconveniencu, with the exception of the proposal
to reimposo aa inoome>tax. No doubts a tax upou luoomes Is theorotioally
]ust and eijimtublc, but it is, unhappily, siill unsuiUble to India, ,and
will ever ho so uutil the moral tone of the middle and lower olasees
bcoomes more healthy. The Keviewor cannot, however, bo gainsaid where
ho remarks that'* the cullivatora oontrlbute tbe largest aud most clastic
portion of the financial resourues of tho empire, and that without their
passive obedience the task of ruling India would be beyoud oar power.'*
It therefore follows, as a logical sequence, that *' the increase of agrarian
diBCootent is a matter of tbe highest pohtioul as well as eoonomlo eon*
sideration." With our imperfeot knowledge of the social history of Indbi
previous to the British era, it would he presumptuous to afilrm that
agrarian disturbanoes never ooourred under tho Mussulman dynasties,
but the phonomenett must have boon both rare and insignifioant, and iu
any case wo may be qnite aure that any disorders of Giat kind would
have been speedily supprosseJ, and with uumeasured severity. Uader
Driimh rule, the ** dumb n asses ” gave their first sign of disoonteut iu
the uprising of tho lyots, odteosibly directed agoinst tho mouey^lenders,
but virtually protestiug agiiilnst the harsh prooedure of our civil oourts.
In the days of the Great Moghul, nobles of the highest vauk were
frequently deprived of' their eetatss at the caprice of the Bmperor, but
Uviotioii by reason oCiudebtedneasis an iunovationof British origin, the
praetical lattice ofwhiohhes not yet beeu properly appreoiated by tiie
aativoe. Boring the Bengal Mutiny, It was uo uncommou thiug for
j dispesiesscd proj^rietom to .return to the lands freui which they had beau
onsted hy d the symj^athy aud support of their former
tohants ind depAidAihf., Bvietioa iu the olden time could not be enleroed
by afidikMM bMXttltf Uud Wea btld to bsieng to tbe State, the
m
0 l fight of
It h» ik ii*Wal feiiStot 1 *« ^
BrUi^ )««Uii^oii. nor Sa Oiiiw mf ^ ^ ^
reg«fd «4 i# «i $\kfM9 qplto MnPisb
hft alM&^ .iHr/iirn^ttg 7hotig(b;<|«dok
aeltM of Um D 0 W iulv»iiUt«l oiffnd theto Btitif]i ndfu#f llm ilitM
ora oQZkVetiiahtlf obtuse as to tbo impliad oondUtoM of; tbbll lippjorod
poaitioo* They object to ovjctioa oodot any droo^tnoofft and tho
Deooaa rycta art itgaU* committing ooto of vidftiieitfi dafnna»,ol what
they dcnbitcM eontider Uicir iMiiiral xightfi Oa the Unt oocaelon ttm
diatarhonccB yrw» queUed w»iliont moeh dfPojiiityi oma
at iha aamo ttmo ecnapelled to odenowledgo that tbo pc^nlar diacot^nt
waa not altogci^' doibiute of fonndationt An faiqnlry «ai accordingly
faaUtntadi and a roybrt preaonted throe yean ago, but there the matter
retted $ end nothing hai yet been done to ^llevitte dlitreaa or remore
dangeroTM mUcoaoeptioo.
The pioaent generation of ryote are tUtle avare of the intolerable evila
from tvUich Britiah benefloenee haa relieved them, and feel no gratitude
for the bleaeinge they bare tren^ailiy inherited. Boro and tboro eomo whUo-
hoadod grandoiffo may momblo taloo of torture and penoeuUoni imt
Uicee are«.^.Dttened to at old-world fablee* iireleriut, if enterteining.
What ia now most forcibly rentembered ie the brief era of piroapority
created by the American oirU war, and of which cetnparatiroly few
ovoited tbemaclvee to work out their doliveranoe from bondage to the
veuter* Their improvidence hea wrought iie own reiribttUoiii'aad the
money-lynder io ttiU maater of the situation, the iodbC of dependence
being embittered by the rcckdleotion of the good timeo that to speedily
ditt^ by. It may be regretted that no laws can be enacted to limit the
antouAt of usury, but it ia obvionely impoaeible to regulate the rate of
ifitereat by any other measure than the credit of the borrower. The
tnoney^ender ia. therefore, rather a neooeeity than an uodnalified evil. Aa
the (^ari^ly ttwUwer romarka
* The village banker is emeuiial to ike acclal eyatem ti the oounffy.
At dnee the purchaser of rami produce and the ^oal agOnt of the central
mercantile firms, alike the village shop-keeper and moaey.l 0 Rdar, he CDables
the peasantry to derive fall benefit from a good aeaaon, and to mofierato
the off*reoorring disasters of drought and flood. Without hlaald the rent
could not be reoliaf4. Hie funotioaBlnnormaltiditia, are moat important, but
in the abnermal times of famine they are iadiapOuiible. Than the banker
and ehotvkeeper is stimulated to donblo activity ia both ci^ities. He
advanoes from bis stores, food, seed, stock, and even rnenwy, to thepeassntry,
who can ofier nothing bnt ihebr credit iaxetum. By relieving thebctfAr
classes of the community, he lesseos the pmsuta upOn the pnblio purse.
But he does more than this. He becomes the Governmetit bnrvoyot for tho
maasei who are crowded ou the State relief works. Bspetieuse has proved
the advantage of leaving the transport and distrlbutiOQ of food supplies
to private trade. The Govemment officials give ample notice of their
requirements, collect and publish isformatioa coneoming the markets
from wbiob plentiful enpplies may be drawn, keep open the arteries of
ooinmanioatloti, and maintain order and discipliae amongst the starving
people. But it is the sowcev who epans the gulf which separates want
from plentif, and fulfils the InnoUons of dtstrlbnlion whioh no Btate
agency osn perform.**
This picture isimthfal eDongb so far as it goes, allowing for occasional
touches of the official style of Oriental tinting. That the money-lender
in tho present condition of the rural population Is a necessary evil,
we have already admitted ; but is H really quite imposaible to
alter that condition eo as to dispense with the costly cervices of the
ttiurtfP
The two prominent causes of the existing distress among the agricul¬
tural eUasea are the smallness of the holdings and the redundanoy of the
population. The magnificent opportunity of introdaelng a eystem of
large boldiogs Into this Presidenev was afforded by the late famine, but
Government ia over so immerced in details that it rarely succeeds in
tokingawidevtew of any question. This will always bo the eaee so long
as the Viceroy’s Council coniista of mere bureaucrats, roapettoble as heads
of departmonts, bnt possessing not the slightest knowledge of statesmsn.-
ttdp. That opponuuity was accordingly lost, but it might still be worth
while to encourage the sowCars to parcel out tbeir lands in larger qaantiUrc.
sheuld they be unwilling to cultivate them on their own aocount. As
regards the inoiesaetjC popUisHon, little can be done until the traditioas
of superstition have d ad cnl^ and men have tense and moral aoarago
enough to follow the bent i>f' ihelr own genius, and not that of a diataat
Hiioeitor. A happy day «wlU it be for India when the starveling son of a
staiflog weaver, boldly migrates to anothet proviaoe of the ISmpire,
and there achieves comfort and oompeteiiAe as au iu^enioae meehanio, a
skilful carpenter, or palnttakmg husbandman. If caste prejadioes be
diseottutonanoodin every possible way, many openiuga will present them-
aelvesto the orowded-out tyoto, who are now perishing ihrongh obstinacy
and igocranoe. la the meanwhile legislative reforms are nrgentlip needed,
A modified banktoptoy act might benefl- isUy supplant the pieceae of
eviction. Honey would be procurable on easier terms were the Act of
LifnItsffioB as betweeu neUVe and naUVe extended from to five
or omi eeven |«aiu. ZnlpiUonffient for debt skquld id«o n«
a rette of a general system of ooncUitti.'X'. l^i^iMd
the aAvshlagf of Mvicttdcf dnfi bovrowwr.^dladrus jUaii.
yet done mmnf to
!tototheatoestofQiir^0f9ctoi>^ 'the tof ^
menfcs have no totowtodye
But the,mar »b»u> toe iminivto^tofeei 4
all psrts ,ef Zudii^ canwA be ^igpetod
dqne> Indie to InmesipJmt
mitisAte the dUtress arising Iroffi l^eughtos^ Aim
anemfneatiigiicnUuriat, will^Mi hm por|ton ,of . ,
Commission, bring the unfortunske eo&j(hion of Xnoieii to t
aitsutiott of BuglUh ebatesmen, hut in the report ot thfi^ Peeeea Atofcs.
Commission they already posaesa very velnahi^ wetorlih Swe td#
Anglo-Zod^a; notably Ut ^ H, timotiate altofibtoll Whal^toto
B^gland to ttoat the qtottioA from a ootoo^ totoh rWff
A Short time back uh httereatinfi paper Was
Ebst India Aosooiatlon. The ptotuw he fstoto el
agriCttUttre was gloomy enough to provoke a good deal of ^aapusatoa, JhA
in forming a correot opinion on aolargp a qnestleAas the
and oonffitlon of the aoU of such an exteniive , u. lodla, to to
neoiasary to take a very broad view, and to considmihe evldeneeirom
dBEerehtpslHs ofthe oountry showing how tor the iOil has detotitolM
lately And hbw much the peaSenta have been UnpoVb^lhed,
Ur. Bltiot draws hia oondnidons chlefiy from the teattmogy ef fifanuU
Bobertoon and Hannan, two gentlemen poasessod of ectisideniMe ukperienee
of Jnpiaq agttcnltare* the former as principal of tbo Goveramient Agrtoifi-
tntol College at Sydapet, end too latter as jSnpettnUiideiit of tlia ,
Govetomeut Biperlinantal Farm at Bongotore. About uie end of 1S751!^.
Odvetomeut of Madres sent hlr. Bobeftson to report npon thk agrieuUtire.1
cotidiaoo of the district of Coimbatore. Accordingly, Ur, Bobertson held
a initiate exainlnation of the soil of the fiiatriet, the mode of eulUvetlobi
and the general condition of the ryots, and reported on them to Govemmint.
Mr. Harman atoo wrote a similar report on Mysore, The main toots
brought to the notice of Government in these two reports are, that of late
years a very large absorption into imUnrablo Soils has taken place, of pasture
ianda formerly eet apart by toe TiHago Oornmunlty for toe^gthslng of cattle t
that toe clearing of the forests thick with trcea. and ihelb codvertton -into
cnltnrable soils, have resultod in a diminished rolnfaU ; and, by depriving
the ryots of wood-fnel, haa drvien toem to use oaitje-dung as fuel, and
thdi diminished the resources upon which they depended for manuring
their ezhanated lands. The result has been that abaut 75 per cent. <jf thb
arablo laud in some diatriOU has become almost woiBilesa for purposes bf
cultivation.
Onr own Presidency supplies abnodont evideooe in support of ihCM vit#t.
In almost every toluka of the Bombay Presidency the process of btoakiog
up pasture land, and bringing it under the plough, haa gone on unchecks^
for years. Meadows, and grazing lands, known as * Galran * la i^e Deoegn
uttd * Churrahs * in Gnzerat, which were religiously set apart by the village
communities tor Ihe grazing of catUe, have been broken up and turned into
culturable soils. The sotilement officers have brought this toot exultingly
to the notice of Government, who have freely permitted it in the interest of
the revenue. With regard to the Dsoean,^^me idea of too extent of land
thus taken up may be formed from figutm Of the acreage under the old and
the revised assesementa in the following talukas
Talnkas.
Culturable acres
nnder old
assesimeut.
Todimur
i!«holapur
Bhiiifibari ...
Paudurpur ..
Baisi
Ua^eli
Pabal
Supa (Petta)
ICaimala ...
mifib
asi,882
190,410
84.270
248,405
Xfk7,m
101,240
147,244
271.194
1,656,468
Culturable aerea|
uudSc new
aaeessmeot.
270,07«
483,672
2l2,7bfi
00,798.
278,500
148,745
lOMH
1.50,227
200,242
Hilferenee being
lactoeae of
aoceage.
aiAit
MfiOO
hm
6A25
8l>,044
19,185
81,171
11,088
8di048
mm
These figures are taken from a Bsschttios of thg Hotobqy ISeverattMr
dated 28th October. 1874. Most of thO; tosrease bfadito JutoO aqii#S||wii
due to the hvepking up of pasinre lands' Here laud, brought ihe
plough might be touc^ibt to meim tnore revenue to Qovernmeui
hand» and larger reiumc to the cuki^tor on toe other \ tovgsr ekpm^,^
iiie coumry* nnd nfi uen^^ ^ the pebple. Hut itol^y
the wbelesalp ^estruttion of meadows, grealng Ianda, aod forasts bus
(Uio MroT.a ilMi’fBly, tMOwm apsa wild. Ow biiw ifvt AMrit
fof xestoriug toe nttifity of boil, sxhkusted by etfijjWttiwi, ■
Fbr a '*yfikr or twb ihe vblv laud b fooiffi to yislfigooft erb]^ jBat^
toe toed beqemsi Hpldly eibausted, and toe ^
ptotattet tortoer detekiMon- Be has no tome tokiwto iid bawtose
^^***«*»* ^ ^ etofipa to WM wTffi
what ihonldhaH been ttin«m*lNWi8ig tot dliiih^
iffl
XS 3 !&&i^-SSiS^^
4w^lkmltlM*^ >tmimr. tta jMW of »«««w (* Mtt
:W imiBifl'Ulirfr* mW'U «Md<H>lM. iiad'tt*|wMHM'it«MMit3r4l ^
nwitloWJIIIMMMlitt^^ 4*»ottiiltea' of'du
W>. j i ^ '. # if i l l l ltoinMIlOi i Ui i r ■aCwo -fttf.’ttt* Awy ttotii _
t»i ii MM iigf .I^Mkiogj.ol IbmtU) ttenteuaMWoM
W«MiwtMi'-Ai* |>mMi aa»Mi>W*t>A<itt •< Somr, okiMNw •'«*( lb*
Mo4KI«b«f M^'f*Off*4flnn tlieia4id«iMlh»«MI*d«Milot (bowtlut
ittMWMBiiit.lfffillSi tukva hMtk aicM^Ud iNtttt tlm inlltuuMfe
idtoxitroi mwA p^op^ttr whloii tb«
dlM^'iblui ^ f**<'f* ^0 ^ iVdtbiBg «l t]t«
IbaeottiferooMan ottb0«aiwag^, >te^ indmaea
jptoiliiee^’* Hr. WbitcoHba ftttributsa tliia atiU of
^gji 'b' Ihft '* nno^ftetatg of tho niiilHl, irMi tOBdiro tba poople earotoBs
ig^^ioipkiaHoBoflfiHrHndijiiAodooB tnwt totbe fielsBiitides of
tlw «MW#si« Md olaotB'ibefftoitliM mtniy cfth§ ryot* hoM mor« land than
.MrmcdiumtaiMii euUMe pv$p0dfy,’* The iUlioa aro oara.
go Mt libmiatfidd gnaUleaoy t but wbat is tmo of Uaaru and Bombay i»
a^imUy tmid of utilkor yatta of lodU. Bpeakiag of Uio |j[orth.Weifc
IIv. *Q. A* lUttatf In ona of hit Betllomaal BeporU, roo|arkB:
■* I do not Imitatato aay ihabSuUf of oar agticultitral popalaltloa never knew
yaax'a ettd'feo<j'air^i and wbat ttria io have their htmgat fully aatiaflod.’’
fogaed ito HliWl if la tnoogii to know that the ryot Biero ia deaorlbad
ae liviilg in a eoadition of ehroaio deitUaitioii and oompletse ignorance/ Hn |
Otida the onigy^r ooMuiiMe nidhlng U the peodnpe of hie lebonr hot the
oomeest giaiae* Thia coeoArraot teeliiiioiiy from aU parte of the country
woaid oertaiidf loem to ahoir that the fertility of the lodiao eoU has every
irheredeenanod* and that the laud tax ^ is ooniequently everywhere more
oaeeohh^hflm before.
What then are the meaearee to be adopted F Mr. BlUot very p^perly
aaggMta that all further breaking op of paiture lands ahould bpatopoe*
atoppid. We would go a little farther and suggest that wbeto the ryot is
known to poeaeet more land than he can wall manage he should be required
to allow that land to lie fellow lor a yeart or cnltivate it only with gnus or
fodder for the purpose of manure or for the use of cattle, the lands ihne
lying fallow ornsed for graea being Cfeupted from aaBessment, or assessed
very Ufhtly<i Hr. Elliot reeomtmmds the use of Indian salt as a highly
valnable manorsi from the nitrate of potash, lime, and earthy impurittee
which it oontshss. To place this valuable resource within reach of the
poor, and at the aame time to prevent Qovernment auffodng a loss of
ravenuei he suggests that the salt to be oaed as manure should be so
prepared ao as to be unfit for domeetie ore. At all, or most, salt maouf^-
tarittg salt pans or dep9^ there must be heaps of spit rubbish, which
could be oftered to the ryots for sale. A central depot, for instance, at
Kfaamgora or at Matoeaga, near Bombay, for the sale of agricultural salt
might thus at onoeaara revenue for the State and alEord a valuabje means
to the ryot for the fertilization of his land. Tliis suggestion is so simple,
that Qevemmsnt might well act upon it. Bat, indeed, the chief value of
all Mr..Blliot*a snggestioiu is the esse with which they oould be adopted.
He does not arge (ha Oovenmttt to attempt the introdnotion of high
farming, but only to obey the dictates of oommon sense. He insists than
ioiiie sestricUons shonld be placed upon the growth of scourging crops like
sugaroane or jkte, whioU exhaust the soil more rapidly than other crops.
But we do not sea hew, .under the present system of land tenure, Oovorn-
snent eonid so for interfere with the ryot as to dictate the kind of crop
whicU he ahould «r should not grow, thongb muoh may bo done in the way
of polptiiig out the advantage of manures or of growing certain orops in
sertidil dasaBlptions «f sc^h When a fow simple reforms like this are
affbetsd, it may be tone to talk of high faming and an improved class of
agrioiiltotH iaipleineati,*^?b'sies oj India.
4*mamSBnBswwammam
^ PJlAflMOAL FARUim m INDIA.
Id .wraa. first pcepoeed to Improve Indiau agnonJtara
w by ^feroe 0i esg^le, the rudiments of agrloaltmo, pf
Vfbieb the Indian ryot is assayed to |ie l^oraitl^ werit set aside i^s
•njperfinensi and astpitii);it[d baoe]lio v^af»,a)l oniqe ^otrofiaopil
to^a styfo pi wUph wpttlfi Uaveioiie ^qmdit to Jlr, Mac^i.
Pterw|tore4ifl^ I«l4asd disiialfiitions on jahsoils, drainage^
bensfit, whi(^ Uie poor Indian rustio
Vt dd^^atirpefiotioti was probably not
oompWto until be >08 Mfod to use a ma^fnifieent Bnglfob irol
pliM^b,4rawn byatapm o| four fajt Oovor^pnt oaUlo- l^so
whoi«towa»jrUfia®,of % «i< Jh^^o w^l
junlatathod thd .of iJkm> aiAftfi to
Jrff .«n ,>ppir^ iWiMdb^ pUhaps,
h iiMmd Urombsiiig
in;a position to ihvsstm^w In toiprofement of his land, Is
,osl|r too tm]|)pT Into debt It la
AiioaMtar/ lor to pcaftito thb Atofatot bonnomy in what mifiht
jba oalled the f* ItucnrlSi'^ of II thff country plni^b^
Ift titeooet ^ A tow sMfito|{ 8 , n«n dpr^ isKUde any way at all, It Is
pm^ramo to usp that Ao payfug A Itoglish
: The s^perimen^tiato inihfo dictoUntl havt done batter
totry asdlmprotat^naUvejnidetpnistltolu Wlc
use ^uropeau Imptophta. It fim'.thV
oonhecie/with Edm agricpiture. Ws i^tJuotioit fif ths lybt
began fit the wrobg end., flat the error is now recjisifMis^l, and
the propoedlngs fit lbs Ooterniheot of India, In thfi pepatitubht
of Bevomie, AgrioUltura, and Dotntuerco, doted Febrnaryl,
promtsa more senaible action in Uie futors. Tire Qovem 6 |r»
Osntra), writing in -Hay 1877, k quoted in these prooacdiugn
with much force His Hxoellency in Oouuoil is by no luenns
prepared to admit that beoauee it is not ueoessary at preaetit to
toadi to the natives on a soientifio basis, all the teohuioidities of
the highest farming, there is, therefore, no opening for jnstruotlon
of a highlv useful, if of a more modest Idnd, adfiptod to th^
present educational and agricultural standard of the onputry.,
Hla Ejroellenoy in Oouncll Is unable tp agree ^Ith his Hopor the
Lieutenant-Governor, that the altfimpto of the G 0 Ve:^ent io
teach agriculture to the people have foiled everywhere. Whord
these attemi^ have failed, os at Poosab, failure Jias been the
result of iueifioient management; and again, it is not necpisary
to employ specially qualified agrioultural chemists for the purposes
coutemplsted by Goverumeut in the establfsbment of mfidel or
experimental farms.*’ The development of agriouUure in India
must take a practical turn* Depai'tinenis, or their system Of
conducting business, are apt to run to correspondonco whiob is
totally valueless to the ryot, whatovor it may be to the Govern*
meht printer. The colfootors and other distrioto oificers are .the
men who can beat promote the objects of the Government in tills
matter, and every district in India ought, in our opinion, to have
a model form of its own, where any experience of a practical and
profitable okaracter could be brought under the notice of the
Kemiudarv. Hero, too, the ajcolimatisaljon of many valuable
foreign plants could bo brought about by the judicious distribution
of seed; and Snob induetiios as are suited to {he rustic Intelligence
might also bo readily developed under the favour aud the frown
of the district collector. Unfortunately, district officers complaiu
of beiug overworked as it is, and to add to their burdens agri¬
cultural returns would be too cruel; but there can bo little doubt
about a large portion of literary work imposed on district officers
being quite luperfitinus, aud if tUeso ofitoers were relieved of
spipe of their endlassdaboum in the statistical line, they might be
able to find time for wbob is much more useful—-agriculture and
aocliiuatiaaiiou. The Goverumeut of India sensibly tomath that
—Experimental f armn, indeed, when they stand atone, are of
oomparativefy small utility. To be really useful, they should be
part of a system of agrioultural fuatructiou. They should be
attached to a school where sound agricultural InstnioUon Is
conveyed to the class, and they should be (he field for o;.rryiug
into practioe, tn the presence of students, the theories of which the
reasons have been explained to them in Uie olass-xoom.*' Bat we
think the Qovermneut of India is still too fond of the class¬
room ” of theory. It would he preferable in our opinion to have
an humble farui where tliere was plenty of practical, but very
little of theoretloal Inatruotioo, in every district in India, to
having a few grand model farms with colleges attached at the
presidencies. We do not say (he latter do no good ; but wo
hold that the others would do more. The natives have a great
deal to learn and uulearu before they can be ooiiKidered iu want
of the higher agricultural education, and we are by no me^S
sure that even while the European professor is lecturing upon
Indian agriouUure his audience do not know more ^outlt
practically than he does himself.—/ndfori Daily ifetffi*
WHAT IS HAXIONADQULTIVATION ?
4 T a meetiog of the Victoria Agricullaral Sooisty. held at Beidelbsrg,
on May 5,1870. the following paper was mad by Hr, JoalahHitchelJ,
then of the Experimental Farm, now of fikelsmerghmidl, Kynetop. The
repnblioation of the paper pppoars to im to be peoulforly appropriate at a
time when the results of *'irrational, oulMtation'* have been fereed bo
promineatlp on pobllo attention—leBolti mraipst whiehit will be seta Hr.
Hltehi^’s hearers and rsud^ra wem diitfoeOy forevomed
Mr. OhaimMnand Omtlmenr^yyim thosabject of this paper that 1
am now to have the honour pf roadtog before yen was sononaosd at your
last qui^ty meotiag. I he'mve it gave sMeto some .mertimsnt in oenie-
qaeuceoftoeword‘*oo»vers!Mion?’ having been luhstltated tor the word
^‘OttUivatlon." The mistake* I hare no doubt, was entirely owiiig to my
Indifferent Beribbling. an>to go waV due to spy defect iathe tight of your
.haSOily sharp and sealoss Si>y|aiV« Such blnadete are amusing. But 1
ii<rb,bi all sober asnoo^iM ^e.qnsstioD, what to rational cumvslion?
and when the anbjket totejM on l^r discuisioa I hope-wwithont say
quesUou tottotel^tb^^ good illuitration
of what fo jtesaiini; pi(p|lp^ia gifi ratioupl tonto>;s8tlan. I a« qoite *»««,
how|ver;rtlitlfto4#i^.lw 8W-7 «anw *» apart
aitofiothsf fton my InaimfiMm of words* For tooro we a largo nuiaboi
or thf ^nlth^on iM, 'Hilt^
ItifKi fnd
Otift tmid mj piok np w3t tuty on mUlkp^ iliii
|»rtVMm« inittfBg or odttcotkm h it ibom i9t it ^ ao^ ic toif «o
|rr«t|o^!« v<^ Ai a mtiooAl «f «uHiiVAtioo*^2<yy fii«|i. a 10
p^m iteamt ‘of (o theit pbih$opby J **Toplotigk mtipow^Maifti^tia
mo«r/' in tba woida ot the old ionfft in tl|«»i' opittiop, If to, l»e a llffmor*
lltfif anteftainiDi;: tbii aboard notion of farminf art aofr *< fottliBd'*
on the laodr no^* course) beeomo fartnerf. Bot U addi^^ to tfaa
elata alriad^ poinlad out, we hAvatdto in the country, dlairiets a largo as^
OT«v«iaeroaflng number of Anaitidian-borQ yonIMe, fait growing np to
ttttnbood. Tboao young men and boya wifi leanii wbothar we takp tUe
troublo to teacb tbom or not. Their eduoatioo, loob as it iSi relaUTO to
W^tnrO) Is going on daily. It is imbibed from the practice they
see ottried on around them, and in which they are engaged,
lids b<nng the oiiae, from the nature of out proTaiUug practice
of agricuUnre, it is much to be feared that those condog men into
whose hands the cultivation of the land snuit fall in the oonrio
of time, will also become possessed of the erroneous notion that pUmghing,
eowisg, Ac.t oenstitutea the sum total of caltivation., Their fathers, let os
hope» they consider rational men ; they wUl therefore naturally eonoJude
that the ihm practice carried on by them must be perfaoUy rational too,
even althon^ it may consist of growing wheat after wheoti" or saooossive
grain crops and nothing olso. It is in the interests of those two elassoi, but
chitlly the yonUif, that 1 have asked the question, What is rational cnltivei-
Uon ? Let It not, howcTcr.be supposed that those two are the only classes
ii^rosted in this important question. It nlfeets the interests of the entiro
oommnhlty* Yet, strange to say, we drive along, or *'go«ahead” ns it is
termed* at snoh pace that we have hitherto taken no time to inquire whether
the seemingly prosperons coarse we have beea pafsaing is a rational one, ot
only the shortest road to ruin. We are rushing up oar social ediiloa, patting
in it, true, a lot ofscamped” work ; paying much altootion to *' schools of
design; ” to the technical education of the mechsnic and the artisan, bat with
a blind and fatuous disregard as to whether the fouadations of the strnotarti
are resting on the treacherous sands of ayarioe and epeoalation, or on the
solid rock of rational agricalture, and honest industry. In all this hurry
and hnbbub to become a great and wealthy nation, the eduoation of the
sgricnltttrist to ht.him for carrying out his moat important duties in
connexion with the State has been left to chance, no one seeming to trouble
about it. Farmers themselves have been so intently devout in worshipping
the golden calf, and making sacriflee to the god Mammon, that they have
bad no time to pay due homage to the beantifal but inexorable lawe of
nature. Yet the labours of the hasbandman must be io perfect harmony
with those laws, olLorwise he cannot hope for contlnnons saocesa. lie is
not pnxsttlug a rational system of onltivation, *' biatare to man speaks
wtsdotn, and he who most consults her is moat wise.*' Wo cannot, evon in
dealing with clods of Inert earth, transgress her laws with impaniby. True,
we have hitherto trausgtessod her laws, and I am sorry to say, still continue
to do so, by pareuing an exhaastivo system of eropping^fov it cannot be
called caltivation. ItetdbuUon has already overtaken some, and'^wom-
ont” farms are heard of. Howevor, it is ** never too late to mend and
when all tho agnaaltnral eooietios in tho oolony have followed the g^^od
example tet by your patriarchal society—as 1 hope they soon will do^-^ aad
constituted themselves farmers’ clubs for the discussion of this and kindred
subjects affecting the interests and progress of agrioulture, Uten we shall
have taken tho first grand step in the right path towards reotifyiug
past error, and inaugurating a rational, and, thorelore, an enduring system
of agriculture, lu my remarks on the subject of my paper, 1 shallin tho
first place point out what is not rational in our proseut practice ; iu the
Becond what rational cultivation is, and in tho third place, noUoo some
things that 1 think would tend io promo ie it.
la the first place, then, the growth of the same crop year after year on
the samo land, **wheat after wheat” for instance; the production of
euoeessivo grain crops without any manure, and with only an occasionui
hare fallow when the land becomes foal; buinidg straw instead of converting
it Into mauuie by the aid of stock, and restoring it again to the land j the
Uylng down of land to grass after it has been exhausted by the growth j
ot grain*»theBC are some ot out praoiicce that ate not rational becauso J
opposed to the laws of nature^Hiotaiion and restitution—which govern the )
growth of ptauts and the oontinued fertility of the soils. Botation, 1 have |
said, is a law of nature that governs the growth of plants { it compels !
ehenge of soil titnatiom No plant will thrive coutinuousiy on the same ]
spot. This applies well Io oak mid pine forests as it does to wheat, oats*
or any of our snlL voted crops. The neoexsity for rotation or change of
crop is caused, partly by e;i^astion in the soil of element* ossential for
the healthy growth of the plant, and partly in oonsequeace of the
eauretory matter thvown of by the roots rendering the soil unfit for its
further growth. Yet one plaut, by its death and decay from tbeio
cansee tnakoe tho most suitable preparation for the healthy growth
Of some other plant belonging to a different order. l.». this way the
]gB«at globe we inhabit has been coaverted out of barren rooks into
the thing of beauty we now see it, and became fitted for the snitenanoe of
‘ttan. It is upon this law that the modern practice of Btitish agcieultnre u
fuundedi and no system of oultivation oan be deeaed rational if it does not
mnbnMB soma rotation of crops. I nesd only insta&ot Jhn weU4mown
iuceess ot vfhsat grown after peas, beam, or nlovat :|tpLlllaitroto thn
i^nmtigss at rMim M ona timoBwadsupiv^^dthathbattoati^ to
a,|HmpBr tM
amwt oo«d4 fooh
Increased kirowledga baa ^ ***
' oojimetion with rotaticti vto tofiTO'alijro hnTO, compiwwticn*
If we would maintain ilia lisitilByr. ^of .^a aoil^ and bixroturoiti
Itsetitution and rotation, sbopfil he wt^wotS^ 4bt cia^ nol mar^
as a matter of faith, but the, , cyiiy^y p^totioe oiR all who ^eflro ta
cnltivaie rationally. WacBnnbtgQonploitgl^imd iowit%, mpbig and
mowiflgi taking oU mwa^, and giviiiigifpplaae minetal
substances removed from thoM. Wb cannot, Z I^g contiana this
system of robbery, even vtiih aonij^soil of brought
face to lace in the long inn with one of these
or barrenness, Tho time, bf eoosns, w)U vary with tho of the SOU,
but tho end must come. How littio toil ipoxorablo law roilltntioii sooms
io bo understood, or, if anderitood, how waTOi wo by punufing our pvosont
exbauttivQ prsctioo seem to disrogard it. Yol it is nq light mattor, W one
fraught with serioas oonsoquanoes to any imtnmnnity wb^ a system of
I spoliation is carried on, isstead of i^onal oultivation. The other day Y ’
! met with the following atatement bearing on this subie>ro in the leading
oolnmns of one of our daily journals, in an grtiole eomiaenting on4Biining
leases. In makfng a comparison between (he charge for a mining lease
and (ho cost of sgrlooltoralland, the writer proceeds to say Agricul*
torsi land rightly passes at a small ohaige from the Hovemment into the
permanent possession of the ouUivstor, beosuse by tlte lahonr of him and
bis saqccuors it will continne for generations without number, to yield the
prime necessities of life, food and raiment, to the inhabltanta ol the Stato—
becaqse, In fact, cultivation makea of it the commissariat, without which
the State ooold not exist.” Now, this bolds good only where rational
cultivation is carried on; nndei an exhaustive syetem there is absolutely no
difference between egrionlture and mining. The miner works oat his claim,
and the farmer works out his farm. The former abstracto toe metallfe
treasure," wealth’s representative, and the latter abstracts by means of his
crops, the real wealth of any nation, tho fertility or produoiog power of
the soil, thereby destroying ** the oommisiariat, without which tiie State
cannot exist.” This is a Btartling fiiot ; yet oor State looks on with
indifference at a condition ot ihuigs that must, in the course of a few years
seriously affect its own existence. Nay, not only does toe State look with
. indifference on the present system of spoliation without making any
attempt to introdneo a more rational one, bat it Actually, by *’ settling the
people," as we are pleased to call it, on too small portions of laud, renders
an exhaustive practice oompnlsory on the part of the poor settler. With
the frightful example of America before onr eyes, and none ot her vast
resources in the shape ot rich agrionltnral land at onr hack, we fall to
profit by the lesson. There, in Aincrica, such is the distance grain has
to be transported over country rendered more or loss barren by spoliation
that unless the price of wheat rules at from fifie. io 60*. a quarter in
Biitain.it will not pay tho farmer in the *• far west,” where tho work of
destruction is still going on, to harvest hia crops ; and they are aliowed to
shed on the fields. Nearer home, we read of an exodus of farmers from
already exbaosted districts of South Australia, coming to Victoria to take
the benefit of our rooenk Land Bill, and, of course, to pursue the
same system here that has led to the necessity of their leaving
South Australia, But to come home, within our own colony wo
are told by the ffamiltm Spectator of farmers iu the Western district, who
having exhausted their own freeholds are now renting land on a short lease
at a high rent for the purpose, no doubt, of carrying on the same exhanstive
practice. Meantime they have laid (ttteir own farms down to grass to
recover the lost fertility. Delusive hope 1 If it be the mineral constituents
of which the soil has been exhausted, there is but one way ot restoration,
and that is by restitution. However, '* the oonvenienoe of the arrangement**
it is said, 18 quite mutual, for the landowner will get a far higher return
by letting his land for 16*. to 20*. per acre^ than ho would by keeping a
couple of sheep to the acre, and the tenants will be able to make larger
oannal gains.'* From this it would appear (hat the Ameriosa system, where
** the settler subdues a piece of laud, flogs it to death, iuhI abandons the
atcass, and then repeato tho operation on a new subject,*' a system that
baa been condemned by thinking men in all countries, ia in fhU force among
us {indeed, some, it wonld appear, have already managed to compass the
death of the first victim, and sre sariouily eetting tost the ieoond. With
our I" limited area ot good agrioultural land ** this Is surely an unwise
course to pursue, snd must be attended by disastroue results. But then
' che landowner gets a far higher retan, snd the tenant larger ammal
gains." Here we have the tone secret—aq insane dasim to convert the
fcrti2itycfthcsoil,ataUhaiard8.i(ito hardwih—to mU the birthright
of mankindfor a few pieces of glittering ore I Corioas aaematy of hsmaik
law this ; wo will not allow a poor miserable wroteh to destroy his own
miserable life, but we make no attempt to prevent too destraetion oi that
which maintains Ufe, With tettiugalika that in the Wettem distriet, and
the Government adlactions of 80 acre lets, hew can we expect any k#^en
to be paid to toe natunti laws of reati|^tion aad rotation, or any at£k|l at
rational oultivation ?
Having pointed out some of our farm practice whito I conceive is
not ratiosi^ and endeavoured to show you whylthit^ so, I shall now
pam unto the question, what is rational caltivation? Tbeubjeotot farming
,if gain* Whstoar an agrieulturiit grows broad to atronfltiien man, wIm
togU4denhiahaar4oiltomakohiiaofcheerfRl connkjiiiaiaK ar opinmto
P9tm hSoi Whatoor ids hatisybo suti^iotoirti^to^
y0k tlw lyitett m to
prodiotat MtiUtoot «dftf iitUia
of Mw 1^ t>«*
irortilitjr «« ayrtam tt»»t
^'ttitiie oofiditSotto may bo • wlional oyitem
l$o Mmr eontaiudk; tii'&o loU l« the Itmet’o
!toao 11 i'!litii crop be of oapitol* If bo
pot tOBteie to Ui taadi in tbo ibe^i of isBini^ib fortilWof
. i^YH^eef^oa Atfriyloibobn^raH ble Uii4 wiU bo pim&a&ontlf eo
mn^ poorair So ia theft Uvjog v^y oa o^ital UuiMI of on intemt
alpfiOf Tbii le ea i^tionoene wA too oonunoa pnotioe. By followlog it the
pliqM OTigfiMBy OofttaiaoA In ibo eoll UyeMrbyyoot aioiotibod, and the
r liim«i>^ 4 tift iftiibliiff ofope of gt«la» ae auaUef of oonne, obtaini leii
end lONi of iftbirOit^ftot only, mavkyoni oft tbe oiptt&l in the toll* bat also
no ftbe oepitel be emptoye to wotk hie farm. Trae» the iame» may by tbi«
ttnoiiio oofttM of pifteiloei tvheft bie land ii in iteVirgiit freibneMi manage
to five eome moneys bat each saTiogi oasmt all be redded as legitinato
prodt^ becaoiO be ban etiftply been tranifenliig pii^ of bb eapital out of the
eoil into eotf e bank. Sbonld he farm the tame lend long eooogbi bit bonk
aooobfttie^ dwindle awaj^ again, for “the epoliation of land leadi to
pptetty*^' Kow, by following the oppotit^ibat it. toe ratioatl«"*«oariOf
and rettoting again to the aoU ananillyt in toe ahapo of manaret, those
et^mento of fertility canted away in toa orope add ofl toe farm, the fanner
0 ^ retain hia capital in the aoil intact,and will alwoya obtain nadiminithed
intereet on both the caplital in the aoil and that emplosfed in working the
term. Doeaaome one inquixe—wUl tbH rational tyitem« toil oonatant
manorhig^aL It pay P Well, all 1 can tay in replytoaaoha question la
••if it won't, we have no boaineta with the land. Why disturb toe squatter f
Why destroy hia rational and profitable employment of tbe land in toe pro¬
duction of wool and tatlow, if we take U only to pnrsae an oxbaastive ayetem
that must in tbe long ran ebd in rendering it useless for cultivation, and
nndteven for tbe production of wool and tallow? Tbe fact is. if we, as
farmers, are to eontinae to eultivate. we must cuUiTate rationally. It ia a
esse of Hobson'a dioice. that or none.*’ We must also make it pay, for
that is one of tbe conditions* Howj then, are wo to sot about it ?
Itia not my intention to attempt to lay down any course of cropping.
IHvery one must decide this matter for himself aocordingto ciroamstances,
dimatio oonditiona, and local requirements. In one part of tbe oolofty it
may be dairy atook in oonjunction with grain-growing ; in onotber sheep,
in a third the purchase of phoiphatio manures, and tbe ploughing in of an
oocaaional crop of green manure. Bo that it booomea simply impoasihle to
point oat any ipeoiflc course whereby to attain too desired end. But ibis
I may say, that whatever system may be adopted it mast be baaed outhe
laws of vestitutlon and rotation. In colonial agrieultnie generally tbe
natural tandenoy aaems to be to begin at toe wrong end. laslead of startiog
from grooe and tbe depasturing of stock, tbe production of grain is
made the starting point. By tbe continued production of gmu alone tbo
laud beoomea azbansted, and thereby nnable to pi'odnod grass, except of tbe
most worthless and innutritions description, htow. the rational course
would be to stAtt from grass as a basis, and in oonjunction with tbis,
ihrongh green crops, stock, and manure, advauoo to grain | than, m tbe
course of any rotation, book again to grass, The laying down of cultivated
land to grass after a course of cropping, may bo likenod to putting i£ to
bed ; of eourse the n|^e comfortable we make it the bHter it will rest—and
consigning it for a tfme to ’* nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep,*’ which,
if I may be allowed a alight liberty with poetic diction.
** Swiftly on dewy pinion flies from fiolds
Of woe, too often cropped with golden gralo.
And lights on slopes anrnfilod by a plough.*'
The bare fallow is like poking np too fire to mako it burn away all the
faster. But a green crop put in with plenty of good muck, and led oif on
tot laud, is the true *' roast beef of old Bngland.’* and will be followed by
plenty of bread and cheese and beer. As I have said before, if we take care
of toe grass, the grain will lake oare of itself, To do this we must take
care of toe mnok, and to get mack we ma«t have etock of some sort. By
means of stock toe farmer can odleot together part of toe ospital contained
in toe soil of hia grata laud, and apply it to bis arable laud for the time
being. By tout conoentratiog his fertile capitaUbe will eeonre a larger and
more certain return for hia outlay on the labonr of cultivation. In this
way toe fertility of toe farm will be made to rotate on the farm itself, along
with the rotalifoa of crops, and if restitution is mode for loss suffered by
pipdaee io)d, this ayetem may be carried on to the cud ,of time. The first
etop, however, towards the iuiUaUcn b£ sueU a course of practice
W toe «ab4lvision of farms into fields; toe next, keepieg stock
I'Snd taking otsm of toe tnnek 3 after that, lotatiou of crops, and last, but
moak impovtant of h(l, vesfeitatioOi tfnder present oiFcumstances, as regards
pcpal«tton and cost ^ iahofi#, not lea tliau tbret^foatobs of a farm should
be ftadtolfihts, *'bito gvaff 8 **of ecUTSa in the first Inatadhes The larger
the^hi^geriihoald be tbe proportiou of grass land. That a system
of xaUonal chliviniaift will net pay in this holony I deny. The troth in
toiit: m|ltor if ftcl Iqit Witoont witnesses. Bor altoough aft oxhanatlve
pMilce ia toit pjmta^ing^ opa, nod tehont fafomca nan hardly bo expeotod
to any oMtofi* yto 1 Jtowir ;toy#rel fanners who <?ul|a»aie toe'ir own'
sign flf toe times toto many Ice bs^teseed wito toe necessity of seme
eh«it«« «n« inntow to ^ ft Sptfftottotiitlito
heto tomfi will AndihlsbrlitoSWto’totoetltirdpftto
of my iot^ hi iiUtih t ytofi^ fo notieeiioitolhto|Ss whi«ihXlltonle^\
would tend to ^nicto ttoloi^^ ^
Punt on toe Hit 'of feuld tend io pfomoto fottonid e(M*
cnlture, X will veatore to nientloin pmoxif dubs, such ai tots so^ty has
had tbe hen^s of thtrodutoigtotoe cdtciiyi or, as they miglit be eallcd«
farmen’Schools for grcwn.ttp pupUlk ,
** Where each by turn ik end is tos^ht;'
They ire the mojt readily evailaUe end pmetleabto means of sgricnltotol
ednontion that we hate |t hand* These elnbt end toe mttonel shows Of the
Boyal and Bighlood SocieUes have done more to edvaftoe BritUh egHettf*
tnretoitapHsenb position of high eseeUeuea toon aftitotog also. They
have taught toe Britlah fannai to iblnk, and to express hiS toooghts. I
can esaore you, although you may not think it, X read with fiar more interest
end profit, toe papers imd diaonssioni of some of toose fkrmh* clubs in the
old country tban X do even the PorlUmKitsry debates to our own* Through
these clubs, and the ageaoy of the press in dfltostug the knowledge
gleaued at their meetings, and by that strength whioh such union give*, the
British tormer is fast becomieg a power to the Btate* Inatead of being
considoTed a more cipher, and told how he was to v^ at etoCtioiHi, he wilt
ere long dictate to his landlords how they must vote in ParliameDt on suoh
oooasioQS as toe "game laws” and tenant right,” Now, if fatmers* elubi
can effect such revolutions at they have done, in the praottoe. to toe social
and intelleotual position, and in the ptdiiieal influenoe of too farmer at
home, why should they not produce the lamo results to ^s eountryP Beta
we ore quietly, for the want of some such union, aUowtug one of the curies
of Sngland, the game laws, to be fastened upon us, and never bestowing a^
thought upon ** tenant right*” Ifarmen* olubs are a far greater neoesiuty
as a means of ooUecthig and diffusing totormafelon in a new country Ilka
tbis, than in an old one. Here wc have a clikate so widely different from that
of too old country, that we have as it where to begin afresh, and elaborate
a praetiee in aocordancs with climatic and local requirements. Kototog can
aid us more ia doing this, and itt devising some course of rational ouliiva-
tion, than periodical meetings of farmers, to “reason together'* on
quesUons affecting their toteresls and the progress of their art, By such
means many valuable facts, derived from practical espericnoe, and that
would otherwise be lost, will be corrected and recorded. It is from
fsrmeis* clubs that some scheme for the education of young formera
should emanate, and the neglect of their education, as 1 have
already pointed out, may bo attended with injurious consequences to
the State, The formation of toese olubs should be a simple dtotter ; all that
is requisite is fixed times for meetiog, a sensible ebairmaa, aelive secNtary,
and the apostlo Tsui’s dcfiimiou of charity, eliftoUy modified as rules for
the guidencoof members. 1 hope eoou to see them fiourUhuig in every
distriot to too colony, and 1 feel sure their establishment will be attended
by good leaults to farmers tUemseivos, aud to the oommumty at large.
Another toiog that, to my opinion, would promote rational cultivation i# a
law of ’'tenant right,” This may perhaps souua strange in a new eountry
where every one is supposed to sit under his own vine and fig-tree* Still
it is nevertheless a fact that we have a large and an increaetog dass nf
teouut farmers amongst us. Tbe eouditious here are very similar to those
which in Ireland have led to suoh a complication of interests between
landlord and tenant, paralysed mduatry and energy, and retarded toe
progress of rational agrieulturo in that oouatry. We, too, have Oar abMntoe
landlords, and tenants have in most insumoea io make all their own im*
pTOvoments* The sooner we have some legal enactment that will aecuxeto
the tenant at will, to the event oi having to leave his torm, just cempen^
eation tor permanent improvements made by him on the farm, and for
unexUanstod improvementa in too eoiWtoe sooner we have some tenant-
ughl of ihis sort the better, as suoh a hill would mateiialiy tend to
promote rational cultivation by tenant farmers, . Our meaUpreserving
oompanies, too. Inasmuch as they will tend to maiatato a higher standard of
value on stock of all sorts, and the praiseworthy—I might say patriotto—
efforts of Mr* Bfatthew U’Caw to toduoe fanners to luanutacture cheese
and cure batter and bacon iu snob a ^uy f* "
European market, may be justly regarded as ttoding inaierlally to aid and
promote a rational system of eultivation* But above and beyond alJ
things, X would urge upon tbe attention of cultivators tho duty of
reverenoo and rCipect for the laws of nature ordained by au alt-wise Creator,
without which permansut saocsis tn cultivation is stotply uuattatoaWe* Thi)
more we study and ejoimine those laws, toe greater will be our revereuoa and
lespeot, ahd as we obtain clearer views of the wisdom, beauty, and harmony
of oreatiou, the strongei* will our eonvietious become that they oaunot be
outraged, infcl-iged, or dUregarded With impauiti* Boieaoe expouudi thOiMi
laws. If, to toe ceurso of my remarks, X may seem to iterate aud reiterate
oertaln toings, it is because I wish toem to be remembered and thought
about. Thatobieot,! need hardly say, is far from being exhaustedi
and X only toe few tboughta 1 have tbtowu together m
tois papOr as a peg upou whioh you will hang more vsluaWt
informatioa | apd I will conclude with toe following quotatioo. whiCM may
be oatefoMy itodtod by statesmen as well as fhrmeis s—“ Thus, my fnemto'
toystoSl^rdltu^ Qoettm,*''if weiar;^ey to most populous provinces am.
[* aatthf obierea on all sides toot wherever an aval
|lCSlmWi0nattti|iirts]^,toj4^ijl,^iaito«^ 4 aljUadHipneWibitto culttvatod, planted, shaped, beautified, and in the
^ A AktMAA Alstom S. . A . _. Ji^ ^ I . * ^ ^ . . . __ .. WWIfl IttsT At /
_^ ptobuftlon ovvetod, taken into possession, fortified, and defended
Bqrsbytvf bflng homo to oui[ 0000 options the high worth «1 property h
. Iml, nail nA «Ul(a4 «« 'Ijijvidtr'it’M tl>t drft'Ml M ,
'llitt ew )M alfotM' t; H, on.ctMr; w»i 0*4^'
ptfttital m4 fill*! uiUoa 0^ eottol^fmeir *i|d> ;
iatit«iiit0re»b|al|ju«Mi1«iir« ««an0t bstt reA:ard 9t4^nf^ mfi vtfUtnie^
*f«l^e«, In i1)0 ifVent 0r ibe «mAU «oAlo,a»« iblQfS
veoembla. Ym, naturd lt«rwif hw) so orfiersfi ib* A M«ii bam><Hii bb0
IKlob* 9 m$$ hy btbU to b«}osf; to it $ ilio two Kiotr tofeetbor^ and the i»lmi
iioe ere stsbn from thoi*- onion. Who is ihora* than, that woaid apttofitity
fiieturb tiMs foonlaison-stono of *11 existonoo \ th&t woblfi idindty toy tUe
worth and dlfinity of sueh proolou# and poonUaf gifts « heavsn ? And yA
ws may tsisrt^ that if what man i^ossossss is of great whrih, What its dow
and accom|)!Uh«s unit be of |tlU greater. In a wide view of thiagiii*
We mnet lodh on property in land aions small part of tbs possessions
that have ton given ns. Of tbeis tbs gmtsst and most preoions part
eonalsts eapeeialiy in what is moveable, and In what iis gaioed by moving
bfs.'* The *^snovsabU ** and ** moving life ” ot the soil ii its feHUity. aad
ntatismsii as well as Xarmeve will do well to prevent the ignor^t or WAOton
dostmeiion of thii ** lonndatioa»stoQe of all exlstenoe."—TAe dasbwlAsiaa,
OF.g^JTea* -
' FBOM KHAIR.
{Communimted.}
A hh over Ih^ lilgb country (with a red laierite soil) that
extends from the west of Bard wan district to right across
the Soane river, there is a great growth of scrub jangle composed
the more damp portious of stunted sdl; and in the more dry
portions, of various descriptions of mimosa, acacia, ai^yphus, &c.
1 ^ 0 wards the Palamow district and on the high land bordering
on the Soane, the poorer people take mivantago of the products
existing in ihsso jungles, to help them in earning a portion of their
subsistence.
After the rains are over, and the scanty crops have been
gathered and garnered, (say in Marob, April and May), the country
begins to dry up In a way that no one living in the lower portions {
of Bengal can imagine. Xt is Ikon that the poorer people betake
themselves to their friendly jungles for pecuniary help,<«-aud the
mimosas, and acacias, Ac., are laid under oontributio n. They judge
of tho lime for cutoh manufacturing operation s very nicely,—they
see the leaves of the hhair (acacia catechu) begin to brown, and
know from it that tho sap is fit for use. They then choose
some old trees, and fell them (cutting as near the surface of the
ground as possible). Tbs trees so felled are cleared of branoiies,
and ibo trunk and stem are cut up into logs of from 18 inches to 2
feet in lengtli. These logs or pieooa of wood, are then laid
on some rooky spot to diy in the blazing soushine. After drying
thus for three or four days in the sun, the pieces of wood are
taken and hacked into chips of from an inch to two inches square.
The chips are then packed loosely in earthen pots or chatteea.
The chattcea so packed have water poured into them till it over¬
flows at the mootU*^after which the pots so charged are put away
carefully in some quiet place for two or inoro days to allow of
the water to permeate the chips.
When the'manufacturers are not in a hurry, they wait till (he
water in the chattaea is of a red colour before they deal with the
contents,—hut when pressed for time, they set to work it up
at once.
A fire-place of very ingenious construction is, so to say, dug out
in the ground, and the cbatfess charged with tho chips and water
are placed on it, a fierce fire is then kindled under them and
kept on burning till the boiling point has been attained. It is
further continued till the cHatieea prova that about a third of the
water they contained has been evaporated. The fire is then drawn
and (he juioe so boiled out of the chips with the aid of the water,
is poured off in other earthen poto or chattaea, or into large earthen
tubs. The ehatteaa that contained it are cleaned out, the chq«
being spread out. to diy tor a swond boiling, or fuel as appears
best. The clean juice tlnm otoiued, is now again set on the
furnace to boil, and is kept boiling fur about five or six hours,
till it thiokene into a syrup. At lids stage of the manufacturing
the fire is reduced to a steady blaze, and the syrup-like juiqe then
simmoring is atitred ofi and on (ill it begins to string. If the
cutch is meiely'for local consumption, the simmering mass is
kept on the fit's till it is fit to set, when It is poured into ho]es
dug in ihe earth mid lined with leaves. It is allowed to hai^deu
iA Uiese holes till it can be handled, when it is taken out and
placed in bags or otherwise. If tlie cutch is manufactured to pay
oft a maAofwn's advances, and for cxpoitation, the men mix a large
quantity (sc V About a third) of ashes (obtained by burning dried
» oowpais'’) l#the stringing syrupy juice, and after taking care do
mix it op Wej,/p(«Mir out the stuff into holes in the earth,
■where it hardens very aooi»„attd m taken out and sent tui
From the result of fiolcll manafaoture carried ou by me, I have
found that fifteen tors ot chips prodaued fteven-ind'a*half
ohitiacks of purs cutolv dr ny 00 lbs» of chips, pieU 15 totoi of
to toy vary and can
Sis mi^naik0tmr$
hy A hr mors. I poat^d the ^hjefe
vpry dark brown red on lbs outsfdi :fli4 i^hf fiHowii^; lo
to Jti a dry place could soacoely he toNd fa
fhe nativea'generally use six, ^Ighl, itoc tot ft
odch to ekpodite the boiling of the eto Of titeitor
The fire-pfade hocess^y for working all thto'poll
itoticri. It is constbeted as follSws ^ ’ ”
After a good piece of level ground has hto
in A' apt where there is plenty of ventifptfoin ^ft»e
west Two holes each about two feet squaSe ‘ are dog Info
the ground to a 'depth of between two and three fto Stltoh ,*
thflss holos arc opposite each Other in a west to east lihSi the
western one being the furnace end of ihe fire-place,' and thp
eastern cue the fine end. These holes are from four to twelve
feet distant from each other, according to tlis number of edriMd
pots Or chattaea that are to be sei over the fire at once; BetWesit
these two holes other round holes, eaolj about six to nine fuohee in
dioiuetey, (one for eacli chaitee to fit on) are sunk. The interVenliig
earth between all these holes is then dug out oarofully, leaving
about nine inches to a foot ot earth from the surface downwards
as A ro6f. The holes at the extremities are then sloped Upwards
from the floor of the furnace. That is, ihe western or furnace-end
hole is sloped -upwards to the west, and the eosterfi or fiue*«nd
hole is sloped outwards to ihe east. The inside of the fire-place,
including the inner sides of the holes on which the chattaea are to
bo placed, ore all plastered smootU with fresh oowdmig and clay
well puddled together with water. After (lie plastering has dried,
a gentle fire is kindled in the fire-plaoe for two or three days off
and on, this hardens all the parts, and after that it is ready for use.
The outiets on the roof of the flue ouoe fitted with chattaea,
the fire is kindled under thorn and blown by the western
wind, draws along ihe length of the Hue, like the
flame Of a blast furnace, and by banking up the flue and
to the requisite size, tho heat is very fairly graduated to any
degree required. Ooce the working of the fornace is fairly
started, the earthen pots, in relays are never kept idle, and very
often while (he chips and water are being heated at one end, the
juice is thickening in the pots nt the other. Tliey save time
and space too by pouring off (ho thickening juice from one
chattea into another, concenlraliug' the consents of six or eight
chatieaa into two or three of them.
The prepared cutch or hkair is cut up by the mahtyuns (who
have no wholesale businesR) into little squares weighing about
an ounoe in weight each. These are sold at from a half to three-
quarters of a pico osoh. The cost of making them is about one
pie eaoli, so there is plenty of margin to work on ; more so when
the addition of a third of ashes to the outoh Is not included in
my cost of production and is included in tho selling figure.
FBODUOIB OF THE ORANGE FAMILY IN THE
SOUTHERN STATES.
”T1HIS interesting genus is composed of Btnalli,^evergreen, inuoh-
*0- branched trees, growing about fifteen feet high, and having
coriaceous, ovate, Bliiiiing leaves, and odoriferous flowers and fruits,
which combine beauty and colour with pleasant taste and odour.
The leaves are pale green and when bruised, have a very fragrant
odour and a warm, pungent taste. They contain volatile oil.
Of the eight species of citms, yielding interesting fiowera and
fruit, the sweet and sour oranges, limes, ahaddooks, lemons and
citronb are the ones interesting to us. Tho flowers, which have a
delightfal odour, are large, white and attached by short peduncles
simply, or in clusters, to the smallest branches. The petals are
oblong, white, concave and beset with numerous small glands.
The filaments are united at their base in three or more diStinci
groups «avl s(i|)port yellow anthers. The calyx is sauoer-shaped
with pointed teetb. The flowers in tbe several varieties difi^r In
colour and odour. The orange flowers are of a epeamy wbltp;
those of the limes and lemons vioIet-blUe, and of tho citrons imd
shaddocks the same as the oranges. The soot or wild orangh
flowers possess ihe largest amount of volatile cih <
The writer has had some experience in orange onlturs, exteodiiiig
over A period of two years at New Orleans, and closely wateto
the different stages of growth frmp'see^ to (he full liearlng tree. ^
ft! Florida ihe orange, lemon, and lime grow wild and m footo
in abandanoe. In Louisiana and Mississippi they are grown Irotii
the seed, Tim sto are planted in early springer in net-beds In.
January* When one year old, tltey are transplanted in a nnrseiy
arrangement ^ At the age of t(Vo and a half years, they are btode^
i,e,. the lesdKngs ore of the tor variety, and to pmduoe teto
oraogfii, fttUy .totuM taken from bearing treep to
InsertlA Tbia, w done to render ihe tree more htoy* sito to
swto»*dU«gs are subjto to a root disease oallod. heel, whiti to
pour 00*^ Hence, orange growers resort to
nteaoi iP to^aoiitto omgu* XEeirtotoirAto^fiBtedat
.
ij 1 “ i','^
}My?
m
.Ml
kloftli* W*|io&aa#^ vl|,
jwptjry
ljiil;flaiil.t>Uie
tid mr moBt
iji
they ittt fatoored to
i<r]i»da. Tberd bat lUtla^ ^feirefloa
Mair Uvcmble looalitiai
caltivalion and atudled traattnatti, A^at tlia yaar 1810
iiawicaB nflta latrodoc’ad aa <irnaii!^enta to tbrt coowt^y by |bo
. ... .• ii.r%MA AtfAnttAvi itfAtt naiQ bv uoxtlOUi'*
I ora^ife fiowar^
Tt?SSwiiip&; W Sa ianuary, 1866. a cold wavo from
TaKM^mht tbe Umpaxafcura down to 19 <» f. above aoro, and a
of tbe tycea were killed. Not m^oclx attention was
SSItotbeeultWatlou afterwards until 1867 and 1868, and since
j^en ofange growing bas been quite sucfleesful and assumed
••S?:SSS3U*l«pb™».l».«lm^.«Ud.^
isr.*i'*fciJ'ni«tS‘.ii"!.'is£ "f ST
ioiM 0l lb# pulp. «n<l I*»‘ Iw* “«* least, citno Mid.
Aa tba orang* ** ^ ''*'**® known iin tlia nwtb, a brief
ac^nt^U not ba out of pla«o. Owing to nnfasourabla conditions
iTwld oUwatW, tba beauty of fcbagc, the wy gratofol
JS™/of tba flowora and tbe delicious fmits are very imperfaot m
nSose looaliUos. where the trees attain perfocUon.
Tto^SlMs itoomes from Flotidi. is a good representatioo. 1 lio
in wSb is made from the rind is generally lew agroeaUe.
S^eoU of the flowers bae.only a faint tesemblanoe to the odour
«®»SL flftitfflra and the oiango dower waters, an usually sold,
havfbot 2X^0 dilate Jio of tbe fresl. petals Prof.
ItorolMton exhibited a epeoiinen of oil of noroh which, ritet being
a™i^ on oloth a .hort Urae, gave tlie true odour of the potale,
JSS eome aridity. Tbis was considered, and doubtless was, a
Sokis^inteu, but other varieties ars probably made from whole
^^TiTtims of fl*oweriny^^^ boginiiiug of February until the
irJh of Aniil inihealtby trees; unhealthy ones are found in bloom
or L^er l?ie lit week of February finds most of the trees
wSJJminir The petals remain on the flowers for about two weeks.
uXomable oo^ditfons ehorten tbe time. The bum d.ty of tbu
Mmmohere maUtUlly sfiects tire flowore—when too wet tbs polUn
iuiured and tlia eeoretions ate imperfect. Dryuess has
w the pollen and nectar, but dooe not affect tbe
of oil When the temperature is too low, but few flowers
the 0^^^^ ttro liiSpid and no nectar is secreted. The
Sfwers Me^Ugbted, When tbe busy bee is tound collecting the
nS tbe couditiouB oro favourable for the devolopment of
fle^s and fruit, and then the flowers contam their most agreeable
"^An ordinary tree will yield from two to ten pounds of flowers
oidinarily aboit seven. As soon as the petals begin to fs l a
Smvas & spread under tbe tree, and by bnek shaking the petals
■Sl fell with soma loaves, which are easily separut^. Ue time
Shan flowers ate most fragrant is early in the morning, for lato m
tbs day tbs odour is greatly dimlmsbsd. ^lor to the Iste oonfcot,
nwroes collected and sold orange petals lu New Orleans. A toa-
eancer foil (about 2 oxa) was msssured out, put_ upon a ohiua
SitoBod set in tbe room, for which Uie negro received about fifty
Sitl From two to throe plates would perfume a room for a week.
nJ.^. flowers nroduced iu the extreme southern borders are
Mfoy ed to poseesa a stronger odour and mow oil The dillerenoo
U Mownted'^for in this manner: In the Itopios and semi-tropics
She te«« to not begin to bear very muoh until about twenty
veSt?trd, whrint£to country they begin at abont seven. The
SJJSMWent is more rapid, tbe tree more vigorous, and it is
m supptw a better development of odour in the flower.
^oWiter wax Informed by en orimge grower who bed exteneive
Katous“rdWeront oountriVand fully coufirmod tbie
mtwoiltion. The flowere are more fragrant, and tbe fruit more
luUiv. bn* not eo sweet ae in eome other oouatries.
rtewmWetbaye the products of the orange from over the
Mamwtrft-nsea name fnywrfcd always adds an imaginary
^«aot m«rXin a hundrSl per wnt. It is smd to pay tbe
ZUnShaar of Oalifornia wines to sand bis wine to Franco, and,
l^vlad the' label changed and translated Into French, bring tt
toAlst«\aTfttdgbte and doubln duty, and then reelieo one
bSntoW on the franefelce, beoause tbe coneumer oonmdere
rtt'fi* eiiMrier to owr wine. Joet so with one nemli and tlie
SLnto W^ and fmit juioee. Almost aU*tbe wude
ilantJ^td fbe. oibrid Mid »imported fleers
ifdAPiCQ ' tu tnn h^d ift tbA Boutbe FJoridu furiiiaboB fiowflfs
B^ettirii :*>* Ameelaa for tto
cittic anil), twit inloO and tfBs of the rind, Md **,,,“®
Itosr. '
dist!08rafi»r «towe*,^^1s|^^ ^7 !«“• ^
bait of tba tlma ataied. Tba writar had no meana for expenmaatiitg
fortbepba«iiaojstlstoha»#lw jpetala hsrmetlcally sealed, and
to make U!« pxeparatioat dtreot* ,a
Orange flower waler ia one of tbe moat egreeahlo Tebfeloa for
nauaeoui meflicinee that wo have, and pbarwaoiot oim
mZ^freah pteDaraUons, tbev wHl be fnUy appreciated and Ac
expense will ifpt to greater. The eyrnp of atjliar flower ot fruit
bsa no eoperior, eepeclelly the syrup of the fmt. A fronej eoUa^
from orange ttoweni is very fragrant with the orange otour. the \
flowers, placed iu tio Cans and sealed up, are Itnowta to have
rained toeir odour unimpaired for iiiiio muntbs. As a perfume
they have no eiiual. To sit under a trM when m fall blooiii is
dolightfiil—tbe tragranoe intoxloating. If any one baf ‘
Bwup of orange from Iho frtab juioa of the fruit and itjbe
will not want to use any more which Is mwle from Simple S^p
and a few drops of the oil of tba riud.-W. B. Bjsb, w Amsiww
Journal 0 / F^armcy* *, 5 -«-BaBaBe 9 a^^
y THE ADVANTAGES OP THIN* SEEDING.
rnHAT the inquiry into tUa roUtiva advuutaga* o* thick and thin fcwitig
X has a paauUar claim on tUo attaoUon o( agrioultutUitai espactally at a
otiWealtimclikcthapitasant, will bo nnivofsally admittq^e Any aUoratioiW
in cur aysfcems ot field oulbuta. which give promUa of luoraaac of prodao-
Uoa without entailing a proportionate ittoroaeo of «peh<iltnr«i arc certaiu
to Gommaud ihetnaelves to a sufCering agriouUui'al oommunity j hut whan a
propo»al «ot ottly dooo this, but holda out tbo piobahiUty of inereolied
produotion with reduced outlay, it deserves to be all the more eagerly and
oarefully tasted. It cannot be said that thato is any novelty about the
suggestion in favour of thin as compared with thick seeding, for, baaed upon
snecessful CNperiments, it has long found an able a drocata in Hr. Haohi,
and more than twenty years have elapsed sinc^ Mr. Howie, Mains of K^elly,
near Arbroath, gave to iho world tbe reHulte of expariineuts oondacted <ui bie
farm, and which have been received as valuable testimoiiy in favour of
eoonomistng seed. The oonditlons of soil, oUmatc. and quality of seed arc
however, so varied, that difiereab experiments cannot always bo expected to
bring out precisely similar result*. Hence, perhaps, it ie that many
still hold out for sowing thickly on soils, wher$ it mav be that peonUor
oonamueut elements ha ve tended to favour that partifmlar method of
cultivation, withopt, however, establishing any general rales Twenty years
ago it was quite a common practiQC in bootlend to sow 8 husheU of oats, fi
of barley, and 6 ci wheat pec fiootoh aero, bat in recent years these allow¬
ances have been considerably modified with profit to the cultivator,
We mentioned uistancea of sucoeasfal crops grown in this way-»onc, a fine
crop of potato oats, from g bushels drilled per imperial aere ; another, with
a rather emalJor allowance applied in a eimilar manner; and a third, a crop
of barley, fiom only a; bushel per imperial acre dulled into tbo eciU
The last mentioned will no doubt be deemed somewhat csoepticoal j and
oonsidoiingthe fickleness of seasons and oE British cUmato it might nob ha
sale to lay it down as a practice to be invariably parsniid. But after theim
and many more equally noteworthy results had been brought to light, Mr,
MUue, Mains of Laithevs, Aberdconabiro, has just startled Mr* Meoh), Mr.
Bowie, and other enthusiastic advocates of thm sowing, by recalling in our
colnmuH the fact that he had asoerUlned, by experiments on his farm
ftovetai years ago, that 8 busheU of Oats, drilled at i inches apart, yielded
the largest retarn. The idea of any farmer even erperimenting with 12
bushels of oats poc acre, is enough to * flabbergast * those vrho, by earefut
experiments oil their rospeobive holdings, bad long ago sntisfifld themselvea
of the advantages of thin sowing. As Mr. Meohi hoppto expressed the
other week, the precise allowance uf seed must be dotermhiiiad to n considet:*
able extent by tbo olimate and the ooudidon of the soil i but taking the
couutry all over, we have no doubt there has hitherto been, and still ii
too much seed applied. We claim to have bad some experience of farming
on even higher altitudes than that of the Turriff distrlot of Aberdeenshire ;
bat we con hardly ooncmve the eironmstanoes under which more than G
bushels of oats per acre sown with the band can be justified. Anything
like that allowance is necessary only in the highest attitudes, and on the
poorest soil. We heartily sgcee with Mr. MUne, hoi^ver, when he points,
out that it Is discreditable to tbo agriculture of this country, that there
should stiU ha so much difference of opimon—even where climatic and
other oonditious are not diwimllar-* regarding the psppor quantities of
seed to sow. It appears to us that onx national ogrianltural aoolotiei rnigUt.
by a scries of exp eriments with thick and thin sowing, ooudueted in difibrant
districts of the conuiry. solve this questioa, aud so eonfec sttbstantUl
benefits on Uie agrionitaral int erest.
Bevexting to some of the experiments whioh have almody been plooed on
record, we find copsidetaWc diversity of oidnion nod of molts ; bat such
as they are, vfe tnakeino apology for re-introducing their sabstonoe
toonr mdetti, ) ,. -
Me* MoMfl** eapetfmentshava been so often referred to, that in speaking
of thm-aMi^loWl proofloo adopted at Tiptree, we need done more than
EMant vM hM’often been recorded In these column*, that Mr# Meoh
A of irheat per imperial acre (drflkd) an aifiAtiage of
illl^
I||» 4^4# ^fiim 9 ^ft«pftr Aar« ititoo tibfrjAljiit
l94iiUifl«Jv4^]^f«j|^ti^ ht fraqo^ntl^ fjliikM S8 baiWUi p^t
um^ fm lx#mMib M I»f>0b m 10« ba«h«U. U« «Mt:« tiiAfc
tmitig naif M iiiilnt Kn Z»t« dUtrlcti^ bmitw it hmfeiMii Ibe {
buttheidoiief lotrin^lSbAffaeLiof Oits to the boro tatiE^ly ixpa^ lit»^
exp0ii«iw« M^bhieirvotioo^
t7« »ty Mkt rohtr to ibo t^ritcuii ptirsuel nsirov the iren4uMHia
form of Motps of Eolly, the Juxationt grain ctopn i^^irhkh it woaUl bb
AUBouU tostt|:)pa«i aaj^irUere»for ^aflSU|Of ear, or etrtog^ and biUk of
•traw, ibottt ft (|«artftr of ft oenttfry ago, Bit. Bovie, in eommon irlth hie
hrolher ftgritttM^f woe in the habit of «y^lylng 8 bntheU of oaU, 6 of
hfttltjri and 5 of iah«8t Pftt fiootok aont bnt at the teenUof long and
ftftieftti obieryatioii, ho ^ft> iadnead to undertake expeviuenta with a. view
to aioartain the: banehti of thin eoeriog of oate in preeied diiUi, the aeed
heiitg by the me of the proem? all eoverede In, and at equal depth*, with a
UnmuMi of eeed^^bedi. The «oil, a brown loanii waa mthor in poor
than fai rloh eoadition. Fonr late of ihrao ringa eaohWero earofalty
joeaifliod, and the seed earafaHy weighed. Lot one received d bushels, lot
(fro b httsbets/ tot thcea4 bn^iele, and lot fotr? 8 bushels per Beotch acre.
Bach lot received 2 ow&. of diasolved boaea sown into the pressed drills
with the seed, though there waa no perceptible iofluonee from this as
eotnpared with the rest of the field, which received no speoial manure*
liUt one yielded dSb bu^U per Bcotoh ftcre i weight, i2| la., with 85 cwts,
1 m* 8 IN. straw, ^ot two gave (tSf bushels; weight, 48 Ibe., and 88 cwts,
1 qr*81 lbs, stSftWpi X40tthree yielded86| biMiels ; weight, 43^ lbs., and
4S cwfa, 1 qr, 12 lbs, straw. Lot four gave 86| bnahels ; weight, 42| lbs. with
47 eirts, 2 qrs, 10 lbs, straw. The ineroaae of atrnw perBeotoh aere in No, 4
oyer 5o. 1, amounted to 98 imperial stoues, whieh at 4d, garo ^112s, 8d.;
the ittcremeof com,U qrs. at SOs., £2 Os. 8d„ and the satiug in
seed, Ci qrs. at 8(h„ gavollr, 8d.*»<or a total advantage in money of
£b Us. 7d. per Bcotoh acre, Mr. Bowie also found that the two thlnaest
aown lots were flrst ready to stack, as from the greater strength of
the straw they were more easily dried in the stook* From the close
ftpproxinutlon in yield of lots 3 and 4 (or the thinnest sown) he was further
led toinfer that 8 bushels per Scotch acre sown by drill, or after pressers
was about the lowest safe point in the thin sowing of oats. These
rssuUs are reported in the October number of tho Highland l^iety’s
TroiMaetioiM for 1865.
■ jki.iNd«am%'Smfatthhmwadftii^^«^
mi with half ft bhslMil pser aertfinnd' li^^to
■ Ihaoone'<lnaitNbhiholp«sere. ■; ,/
Kr, MSlne^ Maim of Uitbep^ Abhi^leem^
. eipetimmts in 1888 aodtwo f01lewJng>Mts, wlOt Bil Oh IWiM
I8N> that 8 burfiels of cats, dtillid at 4 the Idt|ejlt
raittma, both ofgrainand itmw, whUeplpti dkiM
abontaqnaiter per acra mere than tfmwtlsrdfifls, of.aeel
put into tha ground by Ms* miming
from two to twelve bnshels paf acre, Wa bava not byen flni'Mitf
detailed record of the MMm of Lalthara experimeBtald the yofse imand
. 1889, but in a oommnnieaiion addressed lo na in tht foUoWhUg yS«f* ICr,
HUne observed that in 1868 the ve'sulta * were decidedly in Worn of thNr*
towmg. The 7 and 8 baabel lots prodnoed (he hsaVM^m^ ftf fiffsinaiid
atraw.' la 1870, Mr. Miloa’a expertments m the eosHilg of oi^ dOJhot
appear to have borne out altogether the theory wMoh he hat advnioedia
favour of thick sowing. Indeed he himsaH admits as much| for in
referenoe thereto we dud him wriUi% in 2870 «m< Thie year (1878) |hn vemllB
are not too deoided«-*t|i#thickly,>sown lots on ^a whpla producing tihe
greatest yield | but when the extra quantity of seed used la dednCled, the
advantage is in favour of the 4 bushel lots,’ For the bendilt of raidisp
interested in this subject, we may reproduee the table relative to Mr.
Miino'a agperiments of 1870, pubUshed by ua in that year, tt should be
explained that tho grain weighed 48lbs. per bqshel, but in the following
table it is calculated into quarters and bnshelB el 40 lbs.
AvBBAaB os TWO nxpBftigxnm
FisM Fo. 1,
Scad per
acri*.
Total graioa
Qraia after de*
ducting seed.
Btraw and
chaff.
Fcrccntagc cf
grain*
Bush.
Qr.
bush#
Ibg.
Qr.
bush.
lbs.
Iha.
5
7
20
5
a
0
2900
88*58
2
6
6
81
5
4
81
8042
86*09
4
6
1
4
5
6
4
82^7
87*41
6
a
1
82
6
8
83
29B5
■ 40*42
6
6
7
18
4
7
18
8709
89'84
10
0
1
10
4
7
10
2709
42*10
44
6
1
1
5
4
21
2850*
40*75
In the year 1656, Mr. Bovfie made further experiments with the new of
testing the loregoing. The 1654 experiments were with a maximum sowing
of 6 bushels and a minimum of 8 bushels per Bootch aere. lu the later
testa the maximum waa reduced to 6. and the minimum to 25 bushels, so
as, to ueoMr.BowieVown words, to get at * the back end of thin sowing.*
It has further to be observed, that whereas in 1854 the season was dry and
aiUgtUarly fine for the maturing of cereals, that of 1856 was quite
tiie mverse, bejug wet, cold, and unsuitable for lilleriog. Another
difference has to be noted. The 1654 experiments were on brown
loam mostly incumbent on gravel, and in oomparativaly low condition.
The later experiments wore on both Malus of Kelly and West Bcryne.
The soil of the former waa similar to that on which the previous ex<.
porfmstats had been conducted, though in good condition and mere
suitable to the preiser; but on West Scryne it was described as *browa,
heavy, and somewhat stiff, and slthongh not clay, inoumbent on clay and
a litUo sandy gravel<^ot so suitable for the use of the presser but lu the
very highest condition. Hiough the 1856 oxperimonts were on land in
comparatively higher condition, yet the profits from thin aowiog were
greatest ‘^hers the laud was in low conditiou«»a circumetauce partly at-
tiihutable to the higher price of oats at tho earlier period. The results from
the flve lots on West Boryno are reported In the March number of the
Blghlftod Bocnety's Trantcations for 1657. The pressed lot sown with the
minimum quantity of seed, ois. 2i bashala, succeeded admirably» and as
compared with the pressed lot sown with 5 bushels, the difference in favour
of the smailer quantity amounted to £2.14s. 2d, per acre, or an increase of
6 bushels com, 95 imperial stones of atraw, and 25 bushels seed to the acre*
The loss by the use of guano on rich laud in a wet season were estimated at
at £2. 17s. 0^* per acre, aod the total saved by the use of the preseer, and
eowiag 8 bushels, was found to be £114s* Id. per acre. On Mains of Kelly,
the lufircoce of com from Mt bo^ihsls, as(«pimpared wUh 4 bushels per Scotch
acre, gave 6} bushals at 28ft per u 13ft 7d> i increase of straw, 68 imperial
■tones at 4s.„16d,;. saving in seed, 24 bushils at 26t. par qr., $c. 9d,-«total
aavtug per aers^ £2., 2*. 4<ft The increase by sowing 3 buriials ai against 5
huihilti waa shown to be per acre, 64 bushels com, 81 imperial stoues
hay,and2buahcla of seed} leaving a total saving from 2 as againat
8 baibels ftmeunting te £2, Oi. 2d/per acre, being a triumphant confirmation
of the advantages of thm sowing. Mr. Bowie has ever since used cotly
about 2 bttchels per imperial acre, and has grown very fuperier crops.
On December 2, 1868, wu teperted the ceaulta of onexperlment by Mr.
J. B. DhB. Lydlatci Ormaklrk, in favour of thin cowl ng. Thia experiment
with wheat waa conducted on two statute acres, the erop of the previous year
having been potatoes. iA the rate of a peek per acre, the leud waa aewn
irith.midibi«iditlM«M<aAli«,^ariai<b.iax 7 iMbw *|)Wb:;TlM
gnl.tbM.h.ai^ mMm ««»• *w ntiim i-»/ si.^ (rf
lituOMli «f T« llM., bHM« i buiisi .f m wMi'iimS* ^ villVilMb
Field iTc. 2*
4
6
4
87
6
0
87
* 8709
WH
6
6
5
88
5
5
83
3998
35*08
12
1
30
5
5
80
4497 .
8408
Beferriug further to the above, Mr. Mtlua wrote on Dec. 14, 1670 :•«
The difference in the percentage of grain to straw in the last three years,
as shown by tbeis experlmentB, is remarkable. In 1868 tho experimental
lots yielded 46*6 per cent, of grain to 61* 2 of atraw and chaff In 1669
they yielded 44*95 per cent, of grain. In 1870 Ho. 1 field yielded 89*76,
ftad Ho. 2 only 85*16 per cent, of grain. The Longfellow variisty of oat,
sown in Sto. 2 field may account for the low percentage of grain, but in Ho. 1
field, the variety of oats was the same, and the quality and oondKion of
the soil were very similar to that of the 1866 and 1869 ekperiments^
H* B. AgrkuUuriiU
y-
LBAVBSAND THEIR FUNCTIONS.
A IiEAP, whaterw b. its oonfigaration or ooloar, to .Jvqv
ui objMt oC intoTMt. Bat liov feir people when tho/tee .
letf a. it V.T.S ood fiatton !b the breeze teallp know whM they
aretoiAing .b Beevee appear ia an endlea. variaty of Iomi.i, riu.
and oolaarl. IHiey are often so transformed that it to mor. bj the
plaM they obeapy than by their A)mM that wa kn«>w they «a
laayea. Uadwgtoond ateme or rbizoinas have them at aaoh point
or node aa Uttl. thin soalen Bod. are enraloped in peooltor
oeramento, which generally fall away non after the wdhury
loavea luve oegnn to expand ; tboea enveloping Matoa am only
leave, in a modified lorn. They are quite prominent fn the
hickory and hdne-obeatDnt. The aeatoa of balb., «, offta Ujly.
oreeitwly modified leave.. Flowwe ore only atfgregaHon. oi
metamorphoaed leave.. But it to with iMvea M follaga tkM wa
ate more imntodiat.ty omoemsd at ptMaah A ocnpl^ toet
wnatoS ofthre. part*; th. atalkoratem
tha wpanded blade or lehriaa, and twp moall tetf>|ik..a^M,da^
L to bate of to toaf-»tldkwrftod|hpulen Tito onto
part to to blade, K«**«*« »" *HV**?,,
^<fio or ttlpulei. The W*d. a leaf ooiuieta of th^ JWtioni}
to woody !r*«*-iroik,'5^h..Ot vmn., to gmen o«I alar po^on.
pulp, and to ontalde «»*«>'««» •pWfml.,
ft mally an extoWw of to,<M*«. »>«* of tito item, to oompeMd a
«»lto, with fmquont opmlngt
iuti7oTOtS3i^ixr«w£r*s%tW
%
m
— ittejwwn of
»|t)wil%k ^«&l8grovjai^
_-aro but UW «pttll.
„J»HJ <W^ of foUofo ipfunM .b%|iii^.oai ^ prlooiplo of
,it(M0^ ^ groatesi poaiublo oiljr|a^4o, ibe aiv $ iomo forma of
rag^atw a^etn to bo ooDoiritotiod Ip^ im aoodm^hmont of tbo
tbw., Tbuatbe YAriOd* i|^a of OAotua^ wbooe
llAtfvo habitat is tha hot, arid pUifis ol ttio iooth^wostf are ooa*
,footed on the prlndiplo of prosootlng ^ least extont of surface
the al^and this surface is ooeoted with an epidermis that ts
Almost impkeioas to waten this is in'coessarjr to pforent exeessiro
tran^ratloq in that very dry olhuate. The pulp or paronohyma
of the leaS Is toads up of several layers of cells. These oells
are amaU gtobatar sacks, varying from to q|« of an
inch ia diamolsir. A layer of the^e of a rather elongated
form ia arranj^ed immediately hepeath the epidermis of
the upper side of the leaf with the ends to the surface,
'nese are oronrded ^uite closely together. Another layer not
quite so muoh elongated and lees oompaotty arraoged, is found
on the under side of the leaf. Between these two layers are
mimerous globular cells that seem thrown together without any
great regularity Of order. Among these are numerous irregular
passsges, intercellular spaces, through which water and air
circulate. These reach the surface through the stomata of the
apideniife. lb is worthy of notice that by far the larger part of
these breathiug pores are on the under surface, and this snrface
always seems to avoid direct emiLshtne. If a leaf la inverted,
turning the bottom side upward, it will, if possible, return to its
natural position, and if prevented from eo doing, it will sooo die.
A few leaves have been known to grow in a vortical, instead of a
horizontal position. The frame-work of leaves consists of wood,
and is intended to give flriniiesa and support to the leaf. Ibis
divided into numerous veins or nerves that ramify every part of
the green parenchyma.’ Thera are two distinct systems of
venatioa of leaves : the parallel veined and the net veined. In
the former the fibres run nearly parallel from one extremity of the
lesf to the other; such leaves are usually long aud narrow, linear,
as ill the grasses, oorn. Ac. In the other the veins are netted,
ramUying the leaf in all directions and dividing the parenchyma
into numerous small squares and diamonds. This style of venation
principal vein, midrib, extends
he leaf, and from this numerous
exists under two forms ; in one a
from the base to the apex of
smaller veins branch ofE aud run to the margin ; in the other there
are three or five nearly equal ribs rnnning tlte length of the leaf.
The first is feather *vemed from its resemblance to a featlier, and
the other is palmately veined, the main ribs branching out like the
fingers of a hood. The shape of a loaf is generally determined
by the manner of its venation. The two principal styles of
venation belong to and denote two different classes of plants, the
parallel^veined belonging to the xnonocotyledooons, and the net-
veined to the diootyledouous divisions of the vegetable hingdota.
Thus the veiuing of a small portion of a leaf will indicate to
which of these classes the plant upon which it grew belouged.
The green colour of leaves comes from a granular substance,
chloroj^yll, found in the cells of the parenchyma. In its absence
no truo v^etable structure can be bnilt op from the original
elements, aud it can operate only in the presence of sunlight.
Low oryptogamic plants will grow in the dark, but they contain
no proper chlorophyll. Chlorophyll has been found to bo
composed of two diifereut substances, xauthophyll, a yellow
substance, and oyanophyll, a blue material ; their union forma
chlorophyll, or leaf-green, It Is thought that the yellow colour of
leaves at maturity ts caused by the prodommanoe of xaothopliyll
at that time. Besides chlorophyll, the leaf cells contain the
proximate principles of the plant, and hereUhe real work of
Dividing plant structure is performed. But this brings us to the
oonsideration of the second part of our subject, tn's. : tlte functions
of leaves.
In treating this branch of the subject, it will be necessary to
consider tlm loaf under several dilferoot characters. Leaves
^onld be considered as real living beings, capable of performing
vital lunctions, as workers performing a large amount of important
work. Wo may first oonslaer the lea as a pump. One of its most
important offices is to pomp up water from the soil through the
roots and stains of plants. This it exhales through its stomata
in the form of invisible vSpour. By this means a large quantity
of waMr Is earned up from the soil to the atmosphere. Thns a
large portiefi of water that would quickly settle down through the
dSsper soil and find Hs way Into underground passages, oorried
up and giiren^ off to the atmosphere, where it is condensed into
elends and descends In rain, thus watering and makiog fraieful
SOrih^ Withont this work many parts of the earth that now
hlrmffi native rose would become arid wai^ae. The amount of
zifiKa^. IhpS oahdtul up and exhaled by the foliage of trees and
plonM Is (minetue. A san^fiower, with a leaf surfaae of^?'9 square
fept, eilhalad .thred pounds pt water in twenty-four hours. A
plaqt, In ahput three-omra^half months, gave off in vapour
taittSS ltS dsfn water. A msdium-sised forest
triie ^l pvmp up and, male abdut five barrsls pf water in
tweotWpw h<K»a,. TMh i%b ?a5cnt 8Q0baijfels to the acre.
Ah^aoiedt grain ok*grap wi!f^ ibhat the satne.' SVokt this lb
iday bo seen why apowoitfd
rMof ftoonatry. . ; ^
wemay ch^ os a fights^ UoaduOthr* tt
isoaeolthotoost;tp^hft^;Oiii^eto of ele^d^y ever made.
Mosi lOsveS haye notobeid.|fl|^ | each of these jNi|ts is pewer*
ful to aUrnet'Ilm electric dm ^ the air aud ihrohjdi the Otein
convey it silently to the groahA Adagle blade ol gMi i$ said
to be three Umes as p^effnl p attract electricity at a due
cambric needle^ and a twig covered With leaves is more efficient
than the best eouatruotod ** patent mint.'* A tree covered with *
leaves is the most efficient safegdara from Hghtutng that oau be
found.
A green tree imconstantly conveying eleotrioity f^om the earth
to the air and from the air to the earth. True, It aoiaetimse tries
to carry too large a load in response to the efficient colteoting
power of the leaves. They gather it in faster than the trunk can
carry it away and it is bursted. We say the tree is etruok by
lightning. It has often boon struck before, but ibis time it Was
ovoTwloaded and crushed. Trees are natural lightning-rods, more
effioient than all the artificial ones that have ever been invented*
In the next place we may contemplate the leaf as an organiser
of organic matter. It ts here that it has performed Its most efiicieiit
and moat important service lor man. Through its agency every
particle of both vegetable aud animal organispi has been either
directly or indirectly built up. Bvery plant, tree and shrub baa been
directly built up through the labour of the leaf, and every animal,
whether fish, reptile, bird or mammal, whether domeatioated or
wild, useful or injurious, has found its support In the matorial
organised through tho labour of the leaf. And even lohg before
tho present order of things existed, tlm lepf was at work.
TiirougU its labours vast beds of vegetable matter were laid away
far back in tho oarboulferoua ages, which by heat and pressure
have become coaf, forming vast storehouses of excelletit fueL
And still further back, in times when siluriau seas washed the
shores of limited bodies of laud, the leaf Was at earnest, ceaseless
toil. Thus we owe to the leaf not only what makes Ufa pleasant,
but our food and raiment and fuel, without which life would be
impossible. Without the leaf as an organizer the earth would
sink back into a lifeless, pulseless waste.
Lastly, we may consider tho leaf a ohomioal agent, withdraw*
ing and oonscUdatiug various poisonous gases, which if left in the
air would render it unfit to sustain life, and thus convert the earth
into one vast ofiaTqel-hoose of the dead. The air contains of
its own bulk of carbonic acid, consisting of two equlviuents of
oxygen and one of carbon. This gas is a deadly foe to animal Ufe,
and if permitted to aocumnlate in the air would soon reader it
unfit to sostaiu life. And yet there are certain procesesa oonstantly
going on that tend to augment the proportion of this gat ip the
atmosphero. Ifivery breath of every hnman being and every living
animal, and every bit of fuel that is coneumed, and every particle
of vegetable matter that decays, and every volcano that sends
forth its deadly liiines, are adding to the quantity of this gaa in the
Atmosphere. By what agency, then, is the equilibrium maintained ?
It ie through the agency of our little friend the leaf that tho work
so essential to life and health is perfoimed. It is constantly
employed as an analytic chemist imbibing this poisonous gas and
analyzing it, using the carbon to build np the orgaoio substance
of its own structure, and giving up the healthful, life-giving
oxygen to the atmosphere again. This process is sO regnlated as
exactly to keep pace with the liberation of carbonic acid throu^
the agencies mentioned above. Other deleterious gases are thus
taken iii and rendered itiuoouous. The blue gum (ffiuoafgpltis
glohulu8}y of Australia, has become famous for absorbing the
deadly gases in miasmatio districts, and thus rendering them
healthy. Thus the leaf labours preoariug food lor all living
animals, and raiment and fuel for the fords of creation, as well as
all wood and bone and ivory used in the arte. It also purifies the
air, makiog animal life possible, and olothitlf the earth with
beauty, that the life thusjmserved may be replete with the Ifighest
enjoyment.—B»v. L. Tbupun, IlUTOHiifeON, Kaiiitta8.«<»TAe
Joarml of lictence.
ENGLAlilB’S UlSlDSVfiLOPED AOBIOULTORAL
BBBOUBOEB.
W ITH the general stagnation of trade, and its coucotaltant effects
on our Agrioultaral markets, we iball no doubt be doing goad
service by pointing to our undewloped egrieulturai resouroeA In laot,
tbfe subject mppears at the present time to be one of natioiMl
importance, if our national prosperity is to oonclnhe fu the lature
as it has fiourished in the past; tor It Is tar from heing positively
uQoertain that w^ have reached the senith ol our Indatlrlal prosperity.
We trast our iuduitvies may revive, yet though foreign oompstltion,
OTsr-prodttQtloUi det^reciation of ailmi short hours of labour, strikes,
intempsraaoe, athliterailoas, heavy taxation, foreign policy, high
tailfis and evaninn-spoii, may be assignable causes of trade stagnatloo,
allot which haveheensimilarly eaperienoed in other tlmm of dei^on,
it is not apNirtlug too mnob in avering that our present iudostriai
stagoarion bos b^sn mo<ffi louger continued, and has anseu from
eu&eiyuasw wausss. We not shut our eyes to the fact w
have i»ot only hullt up e giorioui fabric
^puMve^ but that we
on over the world,
hy'iSlJtei miffi alndi material, «ad money, end we befs leaped
m uw^d lijr pow«rfa).
tolknifi* bem |»«li4 m t^^ifi^oti lo gi»bn, wb br^ >iirrbin^a^ ;
witb Imfltifort tb tftm bifliiifld odaotrj. md noyf b»ll tb*
40 ibitbobi bf, ml# ^Ii0 buifiodM of tb« otb«^ bfttl it bliiiMf
00 i0pal«4 for 1»|r 0^ ^rt'riilr.' Wt it *n oiitMy bebr fflieiiomeiidff
|>r««entb4 Ui out triiirl#»i»ittltit«. ftbd with fhit pr04^«0t bbfbra at, vt
000 only Mk abiiittftf. K tiio old marktM wur npt toko otir goodi.
Wbtt arb urt id do? The tatwef ii obtfoiit, for wt matt either Ood
* new onfto«B«te, or we mail itirn our c»ptial> Into new oUhanbli of
iaduetiy) ^
Vhefireiof Ihetealtemetivee le one with which we need not here
engage oenelvet ; but the very fact that we hare andareioimd food
eeppliei and nadereloped ggrloeitural reiooreef Id oar owneooatry
tney give bi eonrege, mud nHuveat ne from drfftfeg in a lea of
Indlflerenee, by elmpfly trueting to Protidehoe. kihiiet«4hoald thloge
ooae even to the woret^nr agtioaUnrel reiooroeemay help out old
oottvtry from beinj Ooniigiied to ^ein ! Let ur, iheri, lequlre what theie
teevuroee oral Oa the authority of the late Eloberd Cobdeii. *'we
hf«e land enough tokeep one hnndred ndllloniof (wuple* and U an
equlreleni ahandonee of capital waa employed on our farms, with the
emne skill eg our mannfeotureri conduct their businem, there would
not be hands enoogh to ooUlrate the land/’ Lord Dude expressed
the same otdafoti by saying ** that If all the land wee under onlUretioa
.Utoe *fouid sot bo bends enough to till it/' We bare 80,000,000
acres of lend in the United Kingdom and the CUannel Istends, and
of this ooreage llWicehore faelf-^namely, 80,000,000 eoraa—ere under
nailivetfon* The feet that attbe present time, this nnltUatcd lend
is yielding illtle, and in some oases nothing, more then it did at
the comwenoement of the century, in spite of ogrioalturel chemistry
having made prodigious odreDce in the seme tloie, showing how two
blades of grass cOuld be grown where only one grew before, we note
tbe undeveloped ^resouroes of ihete 80,000,000 aorrs, to which we
must odd thn 80,000,000 acres not farmed at all, or at any rate hardly
touched by spade, plough, or harrow. This state of thiugs crrtaiuly
•eema to eorroborate the conclusion which hes bben drawn, namely,
that we am a manufacturing nation and not agiioulturists. The
teietivft proportion of persona engaged in the maaufaoturiiig and
agiioultnral trades certainly oonflrma this view, for out o£ e population
of say 84,000,000, there era 1,809,000 agricultural labourers, earning
in average times J&6l,000,000, whilst in tiia manotecturuig lnduf«ir{es
there arc 6,628,OOl), earning upwards of £327 000,000. If we revert
to Franof, we find by way of oontraet that 18,988,000, or 83 per cent.,
are engaged ih agricuUnre, whilst only 9,274,000, or 27 per cent,,
are employed in manufacturing and other iuduBtries. For a oonslder-
able number of years our manufacturing industries bare drawn
heavy supplies from the agrientturat districts, and it is Also probabia
that In cases out of every 1,000, capital has rushed iuto
roaunfooturing of every kind, whilst the odd unit will scHrosly bo
found ic an agriouUural enterprlee. We believe that thH slate of
things hat also largely to do with our present depressioo of trade, for,
now that there is a foiling demand for our manufacturee, the surplus
labour is at a loss how and where to settle itself, and what we
require is a more natural balance between our maunfaoturiug and
agricultural industries. If manufacturing is no longer oUr monopoly,
let uS make use of our agricultural resources and develop .oem to the
best possible advantage, and we may be sure it will add greatly to our
wealth, besidee creating a greater exobongc of commodities at homo.
Let us DOW turn to our home food supply es another undeveloped
resouite of the country. Our meat supply at the present time is
calcnlated to average 2| os. pet day per bead, whilst It is Indisputable
that we have the means at our command of prodactng six times as
muoh i in other words, we are now producing only £40,000,009 instead
of £240,000,000 worth of meat. According t^o niiother emlnt^nt
authority, wc might raise our annual home supply ut beef, mutton,
pork, corn, and wheal by £400,000,000, or in round nucubers by about
£13 per bead; yet this is being neglected, loatead of doing this we
are annually importing £118,000,000 Of food supplies from abroad,
which outward supply we might thoroughly extinguish even if it was
thYes^nd-haif times as large as ft is; Instead of bonefiting by the
tthfUe^se quantity of food we require, we leave others to make capitsl
out of it. Under such olroumsuncss is it surprising that according
to latest a<|vloes, the Oanadlau province Ontario aloM infetids to
ship to Enslaud hi tbs coming spring some 250,000 heed of cattle,
and 600,000 sheep, which quantity Is a much Isrgor number of cattle
than we received from all outside sources during the whole of the
year 18777
In oonoluslon, whatever may be the upshot of the paralysed state of
our eommerce in every manufacturing town m England, and however
stnmgiy we naay argue that because we have tallied frou former ciiees,
we shall recover from this present depreailon, sura U Is that, should
our foreign trade expand to an unprecedented magnitude never
nntlctpated, we shall largely benefit by employing onr nndeveloped
cgrlcuttataf resources in the manner we have alluded to, whilst, sUouild
ft come to the worst, au^ the wdrld refuse to take our mknufaotared
goods, a proper and judioioMs development of our undeveloped agrionl-
tural resnarces will remein our only hteans of being able to cootlnue to
pay for onr ev«r*{hor«asfbg imports;
SOlKKOfi AHD FEAUnOE.
(Dmitry
tj.i i 1,1 wm ■'ll'wwwj I
y E8PAETO GEA88 TRADE OF TUNIS,
T RB followiog detailed account of the manner in which the esparto
grsAS is collected and shipped may not be without ititereaf,
«B|)eeli|liy elhoe many inquiries have been addreseed to Vice'Ooosnl
llnpi^is pti the lobjeqt. Althongb more goes to Great Btltoln from
bnta, ygt the ^uaniHies cbUected on tshe more southern nod
shipped at and f^rba are v^y eonsiderahle, and m/*ya 9 (»|id^ally
exveed those at Stigg, on obeeQa^ of shoitheei of distou.:^ eua ' oon*
veianee by water^ tilhif than by oagtelt, wbl6hiikl«re|i goil^ U
Allies 1itla4d. From Ibe pah
& supplies have lately heed mntj siBabi ^
jnnrhey inland from bust the gross g^ei^over ft loirge tindtof esmW,
ae is the ease at Oabes, a dame pretty weU lmof%mod mm* miles
further south remid the eoest. Here, tntewts^ IbA Akoslak hows Info
tbe see, being oue of the fewxlvereln theeoOntry wPl^ eeudewMee
to (heaea all the y«or round,. It Irflgates Aftr^ ^ fP»d hu|l>f
mile in width on Its left bank, exUrndlagipaOT eoulse»
niid a luxuriant vegelalloo oppmire In slrdug, wfTh IH hkre
plains around. Thestaple product Is the dhte
consumed In tbe country. The last mile of the ohedtiel ^ the flysr
forms a tidal harbour, which admits of the patilige hf boats up to seW
(one hordeo only, Tst eonsiderahle ttouttIO Is experlmmfidsbf them In
briugitig down (he gross whsn tbe sea is at all roughs ouaeoeuttOof
the bar lormed by tbe aceumulation of sen l at the en^nOs^
sometimes also happens that navigation Is oltogsthtr sutpeBdsd from
the choking up of the passage for the Waters, and thk send heS to ha
cleared away at conijidOreble eost end labour, It i«t# be noted too
that loaded boats can only pass freely up the river dcrlng the ten days
at spring tides, and empty ones during five days at neep tides* The
right bank of the river olose to the ssa is high and and tlie
bundles of grass have to tm pitobed over into the DHtges baoentb*
Bomctiines, without any other oontrlvanoe than what osu be supplied
ly the rigging and a few planks, bales are put On board,
bbipmenta are made from tbO port of dost direct to Bogland, hut
owing to the bgd bolding ground and the ehaUowi, veseeis loading Its
twelve miles to tbe,nnrth*ward, where they find good anchorage eoute
two miles from the shore. The bales of gross are first weighed near
the river, and then put on hoard the lighters as described, during tbe
ten days of spring tides. If, owing to the neap tfdee, the lighters
cauuot approach, bales are carried down half a mile over the sands,
below the bar, where they are easily shipped if the water Is at all
smooth, end the wind from the lend. Eara% 25 miles further south, is
anoihrr station from which supplifs are drawn. Its small berbonr is
formed by the narrow estoary of a stream, which runs only after heavy
rains, (keen or Eogreen. about 80 miles from Sfex, is another place
which furnishes largo sopplies, It is brougbtfrom a distance of half
a day's journey at the nearest, to three or four at the furthest. It is
to be understood that the supplies near the coast become soon exhensted,
and only if prices oiler well^ can they be sought for at a distance.
These are the principal stations where tbe gross is oolleoted. At
Sbtrah and Green there ore no villages user tbe shipping plat^es, end
the agents havo to camp out. At Zarat there is a small one, but some
distance dfi, where there Is a tepid spring which irrigates groves of
palm and mher trees. At tbe former fwo places^ only tirooklsb water
is 10 Ue bad. Though at Gabes it is plentiful, yet It is all bafd and
brackish. Besides tbe mentioned places, there are those of minor
importance, such as Bugarab, in tbe bay, indenting the land opposite
to the island of Gerba, and Eersie, a port 30 mllet from the Iprlipoli
I fioutier, where good anchorage is to be found even for large veieels if
it were opened to foreign trade. The following le the way in which
(he grass ia collected i^-Mooh^ Is brought by the Arabs themselves to
the markets. Money or goods are often paid or consigned in advance
for grass, which is to be delivered at some indicated sbore^statiou.
A 'lvanees also are made for that which is yet to be pulled and got ready
for transfer, when auioials have to be hired to bring it to the coast.
Bu}ere are sometimes sent out to an Afab encampmeut, which serves
as a centre, and tnlcc with (hem money or goo<is 6ha latter genernOy),
oil andoloih (lastyear, barley), which they barter for the grass, and
then bring to the OOMI,•^Soowtf/ of AH:8 Journal.
8WEET8 BY THE eHIP-LOAD.
T he ship Sehetia reached Liverpool, with one Uundted
touB of American honey, being the second shipment
of honey made by Thurber Brothers this season ; the first
one, eighty tons, reached Liverpool on the Ath of November last*
Twenty-five years ago Mr. Thurber made a stir in tbe bee-world by
selliu^ at pne time two thousand pounds of honey, th^ prodoot of
his apt ary jaear Cherry Valley, New York. So much honey had
never befofis been raised by any single producer in the Cnited
Etates. and the sale led hundreds of staid farthers to embark in
What looked like a most profitable field of iudhstry. The result
was not flattering. Poor seasons and limited bee pasturage
forbade ^lofitable bee culture, old-fashioned hives, such as efght^
tenths oionr hives now are in Bngia»dt then |he only kind
known. The modern means ol robbing bees withoht killlng'iihem
had not then been thought of. Haviog invented' a' hive that
enabled the oulturlsts to obtain suooessive oTopi bjB hobey fiiem tbd
same oolonies of bees and eddoate them tp stoYe the iapne' ianeak
litrie glasB-eided bones, Mr. Thurber begad to look krofindi loi^ a
region that would stippiy the lood foi^ the bees. Be ssarohed ior
this in the equable climate Mm jjleniosfilsi^ stAte of ‘Ffo^da;
Sheep rnisiug srae the ohiy Indtretry of the natives fouhd by W.
Thnilmr; when kefifettbadied that section, in whiofi bd Aft^wAidi
located. The oonntry idlMid vfks thought good enough Xpf sheep
pketarhlgi but ho'hne drskmed that the sotloohldbe mude to ’pgo^
•hmtai tflkldb' Idtim itmid tiiiie mofitfau el tlie yei|r. Mr/ Tki^bi
B? ».—. •j»Siri=i.“s.'a
. sgMiate r^narw-
,SSJS&S!»S““ “*"
^ faftoMnk We.*"*4farfe- ^qn» '
: ! IBE STJOAR tRADlS Of OOJiONIBS.
*-TN Uifirfwwly SM«*i «t«tittk»l iiMrwt to the »yM*l o«kmi«l
I «.dlt.t>o.^l«.Ot 0* th. mtH Kingdom. . t.bl9.« given
.bowingvtU. qnwtity «« «r’««
niwiBiriOB* io oMli «* ‘''® 1® y*“* .1 t.i
hw been wld ot UU ee to tbe effieets of the eontlnoatai
l^tiea npoB tbe eoger iadiietriei -ot our oolomee, tbe Bgaree
M« of tatereel. They do not ehow the trade of our ooloniea to bo
in the 4ecliaing state that has boon represented. _
1868.
1867, j
1873.
1977.
t
Cwts. 1
t'nts.
Owls,
Cwts,
278,766
221,000
419,282
1,144,467
tMXm
86,947
4,085
1,937,209
7ik07l
10,880
2,445.704
23,969
141,932
41,005
272,5,848
118,885
183,168
38,657
7p2C9
660,481
3,000
616,902
M,39H
601,418
40.832
619.677
77,903
181.713
718,437
102.386
62,023
85,950
1 168,410
918,783
80,112
71,493
120,682
170,606
608,253
34,842
70,091
95,138
129.390
808.420
65,850
65,489
482
182,006
69.275
280,784
63,87ft
668.226
1,310,785
0
145,509
31,892
115,993
CA387
828,807
1,412,649
110,512
33,060
112,900
20,990
61,419
920^60
1.522.928
16
1 107,363
I Not slated,
i 144,069
1 24,30)
! 67,761
017,080
- 1,916,991
7,107,107
6,675 058
1 7,693.227
1
; 9,092,286
1
PosftBSatoBSe
I»d»* uses to m« enOeai
.mb Apjril»troia IBSC, 8l»t >
Ifaieb) .^
Maaritiao... .
QUeewiland
Matal
Hoadums...
West India hlandi
Bftbamte .
JiuQiaiea ***
Windward iBlandi:-
St.. Lada
St. Viooent
Barbadoe*
Qrouftda
Tobaffo...
toeward UlandB ;—
Tirain IfflnudB ... .»
St Christopher.
Nevia ...
Antigua ■•■
Moutaerrat
Butninlea ... •.«
Trinidad
British QuIau i ..I* 1..
—£conomi«^.
apbioa* a pabamount necessity fob the
POTUBB PBOSPEEIiy OP THE LEADING
INDU8IB1EB OP ENGLAND.
[B* Jab, Oolmbb, f.b.8. Edimboboh, ]
Ute aoverninent Boooomlo Botenlet. Btralt BottlemenH.
I tISTBHBD to Mt. Biedehew’e peper ou the opening up of Eeitern
Aftice with *fe»‘ in‘««e*‘- *“'* *““'** “ **"
tred. now Hand the quentUy of good, at
i inatook whlob cannot be “placed/’ lead manufacturers, like
to look for new worlds to conquer. Africa Is pointed to
^ oC these new worlds, and in my opinion most justly so. I may
at the outset to quote from a paper I had the honour of
be permit OftnietT ot Arts in W72, in which tbe followiDB
wS'oOo^*-" Many now laudi am iookod upon la the ea A light in
whBh «>e whole of Africa wai iMmerly. ai
Where Bd«ht^«np”^’b“*”',* it Jjduf'b “Ot 1
Beeaase nought grows there.
^ 1 ...am iha • Flora of Tropical Africa.’ now publishing,
$at a el to rtquiro no prophetic foresight to prechof.
meals sPObdoraitlchM M to r^^ lo eltoT my
ft great cojf® ‘^fill/loMtlea. aXat tbe tin., of wrttiiig the above
0at a „ to tTnot™ no pK.pl>«"o to precliot
„toaliiWbao»l.vi'*» **"'‘f|^,; h,a oaoM to eltev my
a nreat end at the time of writing the above
p^ntoD wilb »wwd ‘0 ^’''flJ;j,J"^niMnntoatlon with the late Dr.
paper* X was, I mey f LU like POTiuuoesq possessions on the West
'who oaptotod tbe FC sj P coiiected, I could
ttSSrinVb®* «rrt V«etah^ M«i'*ble to
Sm bi>* nefertMatoly. SveHam and ethe«, from
eommfmirt eh tor^W. .S?.? *”! their attention, oH *«pm want of
ggsasiaaig^viftwV —
rsShz? s's.ija
Mi., end JKto ^ftiSefl^ IbO .pot a.tolhe<Jtt*HHe«eiMalueble.
ateu'eWe Oatrlage and iabetit'. frtdghl !>»*<» '“*
nuv be very good, but not obta,iaabfB in wfflelent *“*
»rtkv be too hiiniihere may bo no pfosent demand, »r ****?
able to topwSnt ^rweUrwmgnltod abd Mod psoducj, aitUough *«««“}«
oases such now products, all other things being equal, be a^ to
SSl tah s^ toet thdse Varione
hundwSwelsht of any such euhslauoo ebould be letii togetbor wUUall
‘‘TwouW either gendral-or specH to JuU
uartloular oountries—were distributed amount eoosuU and reeiden
afaroatl, and the resulting answers tabulated ami arranged,
reliable information may be arailabie On oooasione such as the presewt
one^ If the Bociety of Arts could iustUuto
would doublless aoonio. 1 append *‘*towhb a sbo^ who
toetructions and desiderata. T 1 beo
may wish for further informat on on the .
to refer to the paper already mentioned ff th 0 t f
** The Connection between Boonomic ^‘^‘wy and *
Besearcb/' in ibo Geoffraphkal Ilevim (June, 1878). X append u
specimen set of questions.
I Specimens and infoumaTioh dbsibed on oommbbcial
Pboduots, &o. g
I.—FrpefaWs Produttt,
A.—Specimens and information on ri^etabie products used as—
(a) F(»d, such as grains, eaoulent regetabies. starches, edible fruits.
sacchartoe sttbsto folded cflfecti,
charms ordeals, and customs connected therewith.
frt Teatile and paper materials, how prepared, with articles nmim
faetured therefrom ; whether bulky or not, and if means exist fo.
**^*lJ)^**I)jeing^*and tanning materials, how prepared and used, witl
fniiJ^ fljed and essential oils. .
f/l Ouwi, gum-reeins, oleo-resins, balsams, &c, { caoutohooc, gutta
nflroha : m the oasfl of these tbe followings , * .
^ 1. Sample of crude juice, without any prepMSt on
belog taken to place the same, immediately on Ju,
Twsfls, in order to guard against any »l'<»ntoDeowobaogotoklDg pja^
11 two such specimens can bo sent, to one shonld be added a ema-
ouafttity of liquor ammonia. Caro should be taken to exclude Ugh
Girona unwed cans would be convenient vessels to send the milk,
2 BamX of guttawperoha or of caouiehouo*prevared Iti aeman
dii^ren? wVys a^posslb^c^uch as with the aid o/ (.) artibcdnl. best
hot watoV; (0) natural heat; (rf) alum ; (e) liquor ammoma ; (/
frcfliie acid (?) : (J) »oy plant, and also eendiuR aamolJ quHnnij ot il>
.0 usLj (f) fresb^Htor i (0 »»» water ; (J) burning sulpln.
falu ff care to note tbe lime occupied, and a I the steps of each proofff
ns^/iw every experiment an uniform quantity of the seme mflk,
a ^ Bamples of the wheydike substance which separates from th
caoutchouc and gutta-percha during its coalescence.
*^4 Bamplea of prepared oaoutohouc and gutta-perohn in the fon
or forms prcpcis^^^ to export it In, care being taken that U iS as cias
in th 9 »v.tBg. yield of ewh kind of Ifo., .nd <■
HiiVAriiiit seasous the beat season lor collecting, and llie relatlye ytol
dLSoo %f * 00 I.« in p«otio. tbo two tattw loMl.oa. .konld »>
brioJOTtod to. A«pa«im.noftU«,l«iii,.aowiBg imithod. ot t*ppin
WwdlTklTw ii* ^ AlpdiBildlni, * 0 , i*tlvr.y .Itopei
m^Uou.noD.trootlon. for c»bln.t wnrk «Bd epgt.v«.g. .bowIn* the.
bv rboriBOuinl Motion with bark »tt»«h«d, nbodt, Its Inobn. thick .
lila • s .lab from tU. oentr., and aim front the Mpi nnd two or Iht.
laMaii 21 inch.* Mnat(hS- 3 fMt long from .oaod wood, m a. to .bo
SlZ «ain lu.tre, oolonr. to. Ttoy nhonU pot b. wn..h.d,
MlUbod* Infoimatiou B« to whether qnlok or elow grovrere, .Ir
SniareUgoriK^ Ih, root* nud bolM ere Oft.
'8atat'Ce'?‘S'.ortoi perfnme. nnd Ineeim. for mitoelfrneo
pui poses, and customs ooimeoted therewith.
fV®CM~n’.“7...b of the to... having .he Imv
Unnla and fruit atUohed (loose flowers should be seourecl to prove
' ^ I • \ ..**rt rniitfi if liable to split open to be secured with string •
• plants may easily be dr.
iLtweeu sheoiB of any porous paper, care bslug taken to change t*
' I oJpTH faw Vim.. .i Brto, till th. pUnt. kb ph'looi'J •>7.„2
‘ snecimons s'lould be as cbsJfacVristic Us possible ; leaves on ditterc
I P^tU of a tree vary In some instances very considerably, Alsosccti-
^ ot the leaves, flowers, and frutis, attached, preserved
i a jar or botSeg In some spirit, as brandy. cpirUs of
* acid, or aeoluHon,of salt, care being taken that.tho mouth of the vls
S V.h?fe“'*l7fcBPd tuproducl. .l.«nld h. ..-h«.
“ ‘'toft"’® “ mtJ’. Utnn op. kind of
. ,tbi toAtrabitMO., oompletB vlvw!-“«•>
•ndtBhti
m
THE lin)UN A.QftI^J 0 i.lPtrElST,
ilaiy 1,
to*-* ^ it.
<4i> TifBM«U| wM4l^ «mrie or wlwtiw m
W)t««hfc to 0mt t|sN»stb$ir
ulMtto plifo tirttMolor^ %Mtii^U0ii, on iotioduc^d or oonmofolot
tbOBO
<0) JBortf tittdo rootwi, coa^mnoe, loottUty wbW*
l>rcKktt 9 «t{ Sow iw^oif il«A obtotiud sod i^ro^od} II Uw i^odwoti
of «te*dor oot, tlioiiflaftUlorioppWaWo»a^mbor
•od dtItrilMt&oaof (|i« tw«i^ offoot of ooUarttoo on m of pUiit; orioo,
mwa ol trmpoili «od data oo whiott ony^taoii ^oioitr am bwwa.
D,«^fnitUo oondltiOQi under wbtoh the plantgirow heii ao-
(a) Uetoorologioal oitrervallooi ae to heat, humlditFt elevation* 4co,
(0) 0oll la oroieb eaeh tree groere ; whether the^ grow in eapoied
orahottired eoate; aoiitary or In ofainpe; on the liiree or in the
depthiof foreiti; hjr river banhe oriavaimabi,&c.
Pareeli ol eeedii or Uve planta or euttinge ehonldelwafs be tent II
obtainable, ee lueb a oolleotioa of live plante would be blghlp intereit-
tng and valuable*
IL^^Animitl Preduotfi
tJeodatorlof-**
A-^lTood,
B-# 0 aoeharln« aubatanoee, oa honey*
D^Petlnmea,
B«<»S^ta and oife«
F«-”fikina* parobmentL leather,
a^Balr, brlatlea a^feathen,
H*«Horn« ivory, bonee, 4 co,,
l*»DyeB and plgmentt,
L-*8heUa
Sl-^rala, aponge^&o*,
Alao apeoimenf, alive or preierved, of tbe anlmela giving
varioua aubatanoea.
lIL-^Mlmral Frodmtf.
Snob ai gold, ailver, oopppr, lead, tia, iron, and other minereta end
rooki obtainable; eeotioQa of minee and atrata, apeotmeni of aoile, Ao.,
and any other geological information.
ZV.^Maehinerp JUanttfaeiureh
lllastratiouB or modela of-*
A-»Natlve agriouUoral and meohanicel tools and implementa,
B-*Xen'xte manufaetorea at cotton, ellk, Ac.,
0—Wood work aa tnrniugi cabinet work, ihlp^ballding,
!)*• Stone work, ^
B—Bope and bahkit making, coopering, dyeing, painting, Ac.,
F-Paper-making, printing, book-binding, Ac.
K—JMae/niyy, 4'c,
lUnetratlona or models of—
A—Olpthing, dwellings. Weapons,^mestic utensils, Ac,, skulls, Ac„
Uloilrated by drawings or pfaotogrj^i If possible. Also information
on manners, euatome, religions, Ac.
B—AntiqnUiee, each as old bnitdings, temples, remains, Ae.
V/.— if&tuml Uistorjf CeUeotionf, moh as insfcts,
Birds, ahellt, J^c,
All information given on personal knowledge should be distinguished
from that given on tbe lestimony of others.
Great care should be taken that tbe labels should be oorreotly and
securely mfixed to tbe apeclmena and that tbe letter or other account
should oolnoide with tbe numbera or names on tbe speoimeos.
For mlneialogleal epeoimeni small canvas bags are better than paper,
and, if packed lightly with paper or grass, will travel well.
Vegetable or animal substances should have camphor packed with
them, as a preservative from insects,
Vegetable: subitauces can be preserved wet in strong brine or spirit.
Small animals can be preserved in spirits, larger ones can be skinned
and the skins robbed over with araenio paste or corrosive sablitnate,
•Inm, pepner, A04 but plain white arsenic is by far tbo best.— of
Arts ftmraal.
XHB SOUXH AUSTRALIAN V^HEAT HARVEST.
rpEE South Australian harvest ot 1878-9 will hereafter be
A referred to os the third of a aeriea of harvests ranking in
yield per acre oonaiderably below the general average of such
events in that colony. The Observer's oorreapondents have sent in
their annual returns, and our coutemporary has summed up the
raealti!, and drawn' therefroin oertatu conolaaioud. Foremost among
Ibaieis ao estimate of the total area reaped for wheat this season ;
this is given as l,288|35d aore;^, or 1^9,700 aores in excess of
1877-8, which in its tarn showed m excess of 80,897 acres over
1876-7* The total yield is eatimated at 9,007,624 bushels, which
16 equal to au average yield of 7 bnahela and a minute fraction per
acre* This return then, if realiaed, wUl not be tbe lowest the
colony has seen; the yield last year was rather better, cis., 7
buahw 46lbs. per aero, but the year previous it was ouly 5 bushels
241bA The total yield this year is thus less than that of last year
by 27,068 bushels* Allowing for seeding at a leas ihiuk rate than
formerly, there will be required for seed some 1,410,000 bushels.
Formerly, it is observed 14 buahels per acre was allowed, and
more lately bushels* but as thin sowing is more genei^Hy
adopted it is believed &at an ailowsgioe of 1 bushel pet wm
be ample**' Eatimatibg that i|300,Q00 boahela will be re ;ulred, at
; Ibb ntie>cl5 bushels pe< :4c JBi^ a; ^
filhefb will be left avadabfel & -
rSwiMatieg In round numbeli* ifjwjp, fe
irbiat.” In^analyslug tbe reiw#,^wnt^pw
ImmemedispMdty of yii^; the low rangiitg ffW ,
lo I2| bushels per aore* W« do bet any s^atfs^fiis
regarding high individual yiald% b^ cat bb»b^; {*
mentioned aa belonging to thw ptefIcnS ^ ynjr. Itis evtw^x
however, that a great proportion of land must have yielded nothing
in diidriotsafEordmg^eloweathnd intermi^alaavnip^
teauKs cl a similar character must have oOonrred In' sioU of Ibb
two preceding years, a vast number cf thciib'aimeged in wheat
production must stand badly in need of the conosesiimi^'jbpF bavo'^
adted of theState.—dttifrofcimn* . ^ r
jvWBWwamewnwwMMW j <* ,
Owxpa to its heavy rain-fall, Aboo Is, as regards vegot^cUi
far the richest part in Bajputaua. Ou the higher parts the
mountain, humid types appear which are unknown ou tbe plains
below. Most noteworthy of these is an epiphytal orchid (a
species of if ertWea) which cllogato tbe mango trecsi and |n the
rains produces fine roeSmea of detioatepink fiowors*, The OOcurilOg ^
of n charming white wild rose and of a stinging nettle, also
at once reminds the visitor to Aboo that he has left the arid
region below, and recalls to Ids mind the semi-temperate vegeta¬
tion of the Himalayas and Nilgiris. Magnificent trees of Mi^Ua
champaca are found, espeoially besides the temples, and weeping
willows adorn the nfargia of the lake near tbe station ; bat the
latter two speoies*have both doubtless been planted. A yelldw
jaemioe abounds on Qoroo-Bikhur. the highest peak of tbe moim-
taiu ; but this is also doubtfully indigenoua. Cratesva religiosa
with its creamy yellow flowers and delicate tinted etema is common
on the mtddle atfd lower slopes of the hill; while C'an'iva corondaa
is so abundant that during part of the hot season its pretiv white
flowers eceut the air for miles around the statiou with their
delicious fragrance. Tbo prevailing tree on the slopes of Aboo is
tbe luaugo. It is doubtfully indigenous, and was probably
originally introduced by the numerous pilgrims who have for ages
frequetited the sacred anrines for which tbe mountain is so famous.
Now however, it is thoioughly naturalised, and is the commonest
of the larger trees.— Gazette,
Oh the banks of the Ea Wai Kbyrwi, a river in Assam,
there is said to be a peculiar growth of bamboos; tlie joints
tending abnormally downwards, and the loaves shooting
upwards, instead of drooping. And the 'fact is not ouly
asserted but explalued also by a story which might prove
iiiterosting to Mr. Balaton or Max Mhller,. Quo day, about tbreo or
four hundred years ago, a mau who dwelt in those parts, and
earned a livelihood by working in the fields, went down to the
river to flab, for a chaugo. A large fish that he caught became
transformed into a beautiful maiden. He married her and bad
two daughters, from the youngest of wLich sprang the Bajaha of
yainlia. But after the birth ol the second daughter the fish-woman
grew tiled of her life and returned one day to the waters of Ea
Wm Kbyrwi. Her husband went with rod and line to re-oapture
her ; but she dragged him in and the fishing rod stuck, point
downwards in the river bed, and took root and grew—wherefore to
this day the bamboos on the banks of the Ka Wai Ehyrwi, grow
uraido down. The Raj of Jaintia, already noticed, was au nexed in
1835, the Bsjah having sacrificed a British subject to the Goddess
Kali.
Lentils (vorn. nmur) are growing; the barley is well into ear;
the wheat ear is also forming—the crop will be less than in former
years, but there will bo ample to enable the oultivators to tide over,
until tbe autumn crujps are reaped. Where the ground has been '
well and coutmously manured the crops are fiourishing aud will
yield a full return. To show bow great has been tbe drought of
tbe post winter, I may mention that where wheat was town
late (December) last year, it has ouly now commenced to sprout,
i. e., after tU4 snow that fell at the bcginniiig of the mouth* The
new gvast is sprouting and looking delightfufly green* Glover is
coming into flower.
Oahtatm r'lxiABAN, B. E., notices some large artificial lakes
in the AravalU Range; one lake indeed he beUeyea to be
the largest of the kind in India. He writesA vmry
notable feature in the Aravalli is the number of artificial lakes,
some of them moat pictures quely situated ; the principal ones are
the Dhabar, or Jal Samand, the Rae Bamaud, the Udsy Bagar, and
the Piohholla at Oodeypore> They are named in order n^ordlng
to their size. The Dhabar, which is perhaps th4 largest artifioim
lake in the world, is nearly 9 miles lohg by upwards of 5 miles
wide, and covers an area of neariy 21 square mues. of which ^8
square mile consists of islands. The area drained into it is 690
square miles* Its greatest depth was 78 feet, which was }ufit
before entering the range of hills which from tbe south-west
edge of tU« latm t« the dam I found to be 62 feet. The l^e
BanuM^dl vilite^ ,98'the inarch down, and have also calcuUtM
its ares, Ao., frdm mapA Its length ts fi^^iles, width 14 p^U*
area. t»ii^ cad creg droned into i(|,i3194 pqtlstcs
im
iST
yh.,iidw,s4*r:#i
otti«r iak«)l
long by U vta0 {«rebi»2 i
11^ i^uttre, iuIIm oi^ ttw
its areftl'2 aqtiara ^
i# tbiorm
m wbi^U lim hm ™ < .. _
iba^ flo^fring iiito^tbe t}4bt SAgar ; two
__ t attd Derail^ batwfaan
tguara tniUik IkHIq; i^omb of tUa draioagoii^t^ tbo CJday Sagar
wUicb otber^wo /iKotfild bo tbo eocond I«rg»»t 4k«* Thog tboao
lour lakoB ' alob« bbld ia tbeir basing the d(«ixtifo ol l^W g(|uare
mtleg of country. Tho water ig utilised Mmewbat for Irrigatibu,
but uot to aiiylargo
wUiob rooeutfy oocurrgd at South Norwalk, Couu., tJniiod
Siates, where three persons in one faxnil^ died ia ooasequenoe ol
dfinking water from a well tainted by drippings from a oesepooL
ought to be A warning to. all persons to beware of the typhoid
S oiBone, sure to b« found lb wells near dwetlingSi ilany ol the house
rainage nan peroolate to them* The gelatTnoue matter often found
' upon the stones of a well Is poison to the human system. Whole¬
some water in alwaye odourless and colourless. To test its purity
thoroughlK^ place fait a few grains of Jump sugar and expose it to
the Bomight in awindow. bhould the water became turbid, even after
an exposure of eight or leu days, it is a proof that it has been con*
taminated by some kind of sewerage. If it remains perfectly clear
it is pure and safa Such su experiment as this costs nothing to
make ; but it would be well if all families who have the faintest
reason to euSpeot that their drinking water is impure w>uld take
this way to asoertain the truth of the matter, in order that jthey
may provide in time against the insidious and deadly poison
contained in all water contaminated with sewerage. The above
nrtrcle, clipped from a northern newspaper, is of special importance.
The writor, on seeing the above suggestion some years since, tested
the water frdm his wells by taking a clear white glass bottle-*-a
Florence oil flask is best—and placed it with water and sugar in
the sualighti well corked, and soon found iho water to become
turbid. Ho then pat some pure rain water to the test, and fouud
it to remain unaltered. He immediately sank two wells, at a
considerable distance from bis bouse, the last of which stood the
test perfectly, lu addition to this, be built a large cistern of brick
and cement, and bad has the satisfaction of knowing that bis
family are nut poisoned by such impurities of water aa quite too
many of our citizens are now sufleriug from.—'jSf. Auifuatine Press*
aekuowiedgsd iraat^by kiflhg oat^Uiise exbmsive gmimds as a pleasiire
garden, which wm Open tb large plot being teisfred
as a lawn forylfar, flof ee thow^i aha bthlg pubUo purpoiet. |u these,
grounds fruit and orUaiubatal flower# nfUl ha cfpltivsted foe dlstrlbudoh,
and saperlments tiuderUkati la hQltf#it|tgre,Jagrieu}tare and arbalieuf*
tore. The Society purpose holdIbgaaaditIny/bOMmsileing with the
year 1879, three floWef. shows i dufitlg mO Jast. week ^ Nay, the
leoQod in August, ami the third abbbt the end of September or
bsginuing of Ootobea With a View to the ii»p»ove«D«at of vegetablee
now ouUivaled lu the neighbourhood of Simla, and to, eneourage the
ealtiration of other Buropsan, vegrtsbter, the Qemtniitee propose to
bold moutblj shows In the New Uatket or some ^otber oenvenleikt
S ace, at which natlro producers only wilt km allowed ,to ooqipeta.
urliig the winter ao order will be sent to BnglaUtl for flower and
vegetable seeds, plants, bulbs, fco., wUioh wlU be sold to subtorlbers
at co«t price. Orders will be registered let any special articles requtvid
by subsoilbers. In order to oarry out the abofe objeotB, a oouslderable
sum of tuciiey will be required for iuitlal expenses, tbousU it is hoped
that eveutusliy the garden wilt be self-iupportlng. fbe OommUtee
trust, therefore, that they will receive liberal support from the publlo
of Simla aud of the Punjab generally in thoir underfaking. The
BubsoriptloDs have been fixed to the sum of Be. 10 annually, and ft Is
hoped that in addition to subscriptions for 1879, which are hereby
invited, all residents and bouse proprietors of Simla will oonldbute a
substantial donation towards the first heavy expenses wkfbb mbit
devolve ou the Society, The Committee invite oontribations of plants
HI order to stock Iheir garden lor the approaching season." afejor
Henderson is the Honorary Secretary whose signature li appended to
this notification. The first of the flower shows announoeu was held
on the grounds ot bis house, ** Dahlia XiOdge.*' Dufortunately the
fiist heavy shower ol the ehfiia lursat coincided with the exhlblticU,
which was consequently aticuded by a very Binall number of persons,
and robbed of the attractions of the Viceroyo band, which was to have
been present. Nor was the show of floweia at all remarkable.
SUGAR CONTAINED IN THE NECTAR OP
VARIOUS FLOWERS,
T he sweet-taaled fluid which is secroted withiu the cups of
iiisect^fertilised flowers is called nectar, and the object gained
to the plant by its presence is that insects, induced to vi>it
flowers for its sake, are useful to the plants by effecting a cross-
fertilisation. In many instauceB this sweet liquid is exuded from
Bpocial glands, but in other cases from portions of the flower
THE GARDEN.
fpHE Dutch official trade returns show that the export
of flower bulbs duriug Iho sixteen yeais fiom 1831 to the
end ot 187C, dmouiitod in value to 10,(140,000 Dutch florins,
(about £1,636,000), or an annual average of over £100,000.
It appears that the value lies been atitntally rising; thus
the export for 1870' if set down at 1,C66,0()0 florins (nearly
£139,000). According to the latest survey the land devoted to
rearing bulbs of tulips, hyacinths, and similar flowers amoants to
240 hectares, or nearly 600 acres. Of these al)out ten acres are in
the neighbourhood of Eginont, about ninety nroimd Velsen, while
the remaining 500 acies are iu the neighbourhood of Haarlem,
flehoten, Bloeinendaal, aud Heemstede. But besides these special
localities, where the oullivatiou of the bulbs Is carried out on a
large sjale^ there are innqmerahlo small patches scattereil all over
the country where tulip and hyacinth bulbs are reared with great
care and success.
Ok fruit trees there are the apricot with its red and white petals;
the peach with its pink petals: the cherry and quince with their
while blOBBOma; the apple (about a month late this year) with its
delicate pink and white blossom almost as charming us a young
maiden*s cheeks ; this year will not be a good one for apples which
only come in plenty every other year ; last year being a bumper
season^ this year will give us less, and the vine, which ia just
burstiug into leaf.
In gardening,, matters all' kinds of flower seeds ore now being
sown : pinks, the tulip crocus, and other perennials transplanted.
* Onions tranaplauted, potatoes, peas,dbo., sown. Paths arebeing put
into repair.—*Deec<m SerM.
AGBtaoRTigirLTURAL ttOCIETY OF
SIMLA.
T he, fpllowip^ pryiqHtotu# has been issued by Oils Society Tue
Agri-HbrtieuUarai floslety of fllmta have resoiyed on extentilag^
■ th«if uplien «l iwWart,. .wl «itb ,|«# (»ft,, i.*,
)«M, «Klk «ptiOa 0* P«triMW,,9( ^ ‘ Blwi^gtou *
.ttmtM .ii4w tlw ol 4>„' 1. ih.
On* oUitMl (ortiloii in fiiml*. ’Di^pwywi
which do not seem to have been specially adapted for this
purpose. It is a point in dispute amongst biologists wlietUer
this sacobariue matter is a truo secretion, or simply an excretion
of effete mailer from the vegetable cells—a bye-product ot the
chemical changes taking place withiu tlio celts. The latter view
seems to be favouicd by tho fact that a similar sweet-tasted
fluid, much sought after by iusocts, is exuded on the diiforeut
parts of some plants quite unconnected with the flower, as in
the laurel, brake, ferii, lime tree, acacia, &c* The bright colours, as
shown by Imbbock’s expeumentH, servo to guide iiisoots to the
flowois, and the odoiiis which they emit fulfil the same end.
The importance of these guides to insects wilt he apparent
fioiii the following estimations, which show how indispensable
it 18 that aa little time as possible should be lost by an insect
c(tllecli»g honey. The formation of nectar is obsoived to take
place most fuely in hot weather, and to im pi evented by cold or
wet. By biologists, tho visits of bees, buttoiflies end other
insects arc buUeved to have exeicised in past timea an important
influence in modifying the Bi7.e, shape, colour, &c., of flowers ;
and Uia following experiments are of inteiest as showing to
what an extent this action takes place in nature, aud as helping
to determine tho value of this factor, The nectar was extracted
wtih water, aiul the sugar determined, before and aftet inversion,
by means of Feliling'a eoppoi ttolntiou. In the case of fuchsia
—which is not depiiyed of its nectar by any insect in ibis
country, the nectar being inacoessiblo to native species—wo havo
probably tho whole amount formed, but in other cases the visits ot
bees, dec,, may have reduced the amounts considerably. Xu this
case it is a clear colourless liquid, having an acid reaction aud
an intensely sweet taste ; that of many others bos the strong
characteristic odour of honey. .
SUCUB I» BLOWERS.
Fuchsia, per flower
(la^tonia ahanaides, ditto ...
Everlasting pvs, ditto ...
3^etck (Vim CreccaJ, pei raoem
Ditie^ P«K single flower
Red CioVer, per bead 4..,
Ditto, per floret ...
kt#bksbood, per flower
1
J
Total j
fiiam. 1
Fruit
sugar.
Oaue sugar
(at fruit)
7 69
vee
69
IVS
fi’4l8
0*176
0*888
ae>
9 98
8*88
1‘60
8*16
8*15
O'Ul
III
9158
9’168
7*98
595
1 9H
•ea
0*182
0*099
(Kins
ss«
6*41
4*68
•
i-rs
Apnroxiinately, then, logheads of clover yield 0*8 gram sn^'ur,
or iSS give one grata, or 125,000 one kilo of sug.ar ; «ud as euoh
head contgini about Sfi florets, 7,500,000 distinct flower lubes
{)o9i»l iin«v 4^ notice in theta ttmlU U tbe ooo^rrtnot nt whiit
to ht oaqe^tttfftr, tnd In t)M» «««e of litohalft In th«
fkrotKMrtfoii of oetrJy ihree*foiiftlit of tUo whole. Thia it I^ii;?khh1e,
it naotlly iu|>riotedtooo»ttl!i no otno^to^tif, Iho
of the fitter ^ng mouUy rtgttiltd to oerttin evidenoo of tduUort-
tfon. Tbs rnttatfon thttefore ttliei whether this ohtngei ^faloii
pitta woila the onjftr jo fn the potaattion of tbo it dna
to, ibo td^ion of Jotoat with which it cornea in oontoot while in the
honeyrhiiir, or etotndad cetopha^pia of the intact or whether the
procetB of invernon soei on apontanaontly, tt may perhapt be the
ca|Of«*A. 8. WmdJStf In Ckm, iVettt.
STBAWBEEHIBa
TMBtESTSE qutntiUea of Btrawborriee are conauwed annually
in uParit, and although the extent of market garden |
ground doroted to their cultivation in the nighbonrhood of {
the oapiiai It rery large, it would, by itaelf, - bo wholly 1
intofficient. In epite of the dilficultiee attending the tranaport of j
BO delicate a fruit, moat euppltee are brought by rail from great
diatailiMa and one source from which a oonaiderable quantity
it obtained ie a place called Flougartel, (Finittere) not far from
Breat.
The fruit is grown there under conditions wliioh, at first eight,
would not eeem to be at all favourable to the cultivation. The eight
eolected is the level delda or downe, at the top of the cliffs close to
the Bea, and their limits but rarely exceed a distance, of 600 metres in
land. Further from the sea the fiowerf are likely to be destroyed by
the late frosts, and moreover, as the winds are etronger and the
fogs less intense, the earth dries tip quicker. The fields on the
cliffs are divided into squares oontaining about 60 metroSi aod
bounded by hedges or low walls of loose stones, whioh shelter
the plants from the wind, and, at the samo time, retain a portion
of the solar heat they receive. The extent of ground occupied in
this cultivation is very oonsiderable, as it forms a belt round the
whole of the bay. The gathering of the fruit generally commences
about the 20th May, and terminates, for tliose to be sent away,
about the 24ih dune, but is continued for locnl consumption
uutil the middle of July. The quantity of strawberries sVnt
away is of course known, but to estimate wbaiare locally consumed ^ -
is almost impossible ; probably in no place in Kurops are so many
eaten as in Brest and its environs. They are on every table, from
tiie highest lo the lowest, at each meal, and great numbers are
lost for want of hands to gather them. At the end of the last
century and the beginning of the present one, the oaltivatiou of
strawberries at Plougartel was limited to a local supply, but since
the construction of railways it has taken a grcr>t extension.
According to a report lately read at the Quimper Agricultural
Show, the ground occupied in this industry is 500 acres. In 1875,
Plougaitel sent to Paris 2,000,000 kilos, of strawberries, as
against 1,650,000 kilos the previous year. The consumption of
the nearest towns-*Brest, haudoruean, Motlaix, Lorient, Quiinper,
lilantes, &o, represents a further amount of 1,800,000 kilos. There*
fore the 600 acres prodnee a toUt of 8,80O,o0O kilos, equal to 7,000
kilos per acre, which sell at 20 cents the kilo, equal to 6.'K) francs
the acre The costs of cultivation are calculated at 250,000 francs,
coDsequeutly a very couslderablo profit is gained by the growers.
KULHUTTY GAUDENS ON THE NEILGHBURIES.
rpBB soporintsndsut of the Goyenirostit Botauloal Oardeas, NeUghereiei >
^ (orwardod tlio following reonarhs to Governmeat on the 0th Morel
last
Ja the report on the Ui^ticuliittrsl Gardens at OotsoaBiu«)d, for tbs year
the Bupsntitoudeitlt'states that the nursery at Kolhutty containsd ,
perhaps the most eitensive stock ofspplei pear, plum, pesoh, fig, almond,
mulbsiry, rsspbsny, neotariUe, apricot, vine, loquot, lemon, oitroo. sod
pineapple plants at that time to be found in India. In forwarding this
report to Government. Pr. Clcghora proposed to eventoally abolish this
nursery garden, os only two gardeners wsio employed, and these were not
sufUcient to keep Bio garden clear of weeds. This proportion was appedved
by Govemment.
Puring the following eleven years oppursnt'ty little or aothlag bad beta
done to maiatain the stock of fruiUrees for, on my visltilig the garden
early in 1869, there were very fow ol Ihese plants to be found in the nnrtfSriei,
t'ttd with the exoeplion ol about one acre Cdevotad exclusively tO' the
cnliitaUsn of vegetables and fiowsrs for seed) the garden was in an
abandonsd state, and h«d more the appearance t>l usthr|iL Jungls than a ^'
nursery gar4«n« Thp large stock of plants e&cn^n> M'jih the ^
dent^i^resKkt miwt hard *iither died out i^x Veen dUpcsed of ait|
nctimiwd. ^ - , ^
plum*# almdads, Aai/shd iw ■ fil^^
ifaat they will not Uvs, l»*f IMf*
informid ihc that he h*d psresvsssd ift ctihim iG^rees,
trying thaaj in all maimse cf slMSen# a^il
tions, but without success and had finally enl^vsAhalas
Doling the petiod the garden iihs been under myiietuesgi J ipMitSd
grafted peaeh, ebarfy and plum tiaw. nodhavshitilalii^lipmM sdnai
grafted ou the common pesoh and cherry, tmt the was .anythtfig
but satiifiictory. Boring tbs first and seeood ynaf sttfr gfs^tftg, 'the yooug
tresa mske a> vigorons md healthy growth, but by fibs ^ of the Bkifd year
they become etunted and batk^boond, having apbmmiffi^ dxhanstli alUhs .
vigour of the stock ; thoold they produce hlosscm, bnds dSidhg fits fourth
year, not more than cnS.third of the bnds expand, and, If any noli set, they
invariably drop off during tbs stoniUg period* ^
After Seven yearn’ experienee I have come to fits flomfiiWipn that the
climate of Kulhntty is too hot, the subsstl too4ry» and ^hs teamn of dsonght
! too prolonged, over to produce the finer kinds Of stone fralt. On the ether
{ hand, however, it is admirably adapted to the growth of all the eitrni
family. iTango, lime, lemon, Ac. Boms varieUet of fig, loquot, and
pomegranate thrive equally well.
There is no doubt but the norseriss at EnlhoUy are vShtable to the
Ootaosmund Gardens for the propagation of a young stock of fraiUtreee,
and might be more largely ntilixed than they have ,besn. Sesds gstminated
earlier, grafts of all kinds take more readily tiiere than in tiie eblder
olimate of Ootacainund The yonng plants shonld alwi^ibs told o9 within
the second or iJUird year from date of sowing or grafting, or they become
too large for removal.
1 took charge of the garden In 1872, and since then have raised and
distributed a considerable number of young fruit4rees and other ptauta
from these nursetiei.
Three years ego the terraoe revetments were repaired, the trade prnned
and cleared of paraitces ; but the number of gaidenen allowed ia not
I snAloient to keep the garden in thorough order, asthfilbtime is mostly
taken up in watering the yonug plants in the nnrSsries snd keeping down
the weeds, which grow very rapidly at Enlhutty,
Several experiments have also buen undertiken in the cultivation of
C'jtton. American maise, cholutn, coffee and the cochinoal, cactus plants, Ac. *,
Some have succeeded and others failed.
The truit*trees at present in the garden comp rlute the commoner varieties
- -of 4ipple. orange, lime, pumaloe, peach, fig, pear, pomegrsnate, Ac., Ac., but
not having been praned or manured for some time they are all more or less
overiTin with parasites and yield very poor crops of indifferently flayou^
fiuit, #
My reason for recommending the eale of the garden at Kulhntty wav
simply to provide funds to onclose and protect the more valuable Ctoveni.
meat property (film’s Fark) at Conoor. However, if Government do not
approve my recommendation, but wish to retain the garden ae a branch of
the Ootaoaiunnd Garden, 1 would rotpectlully beg leavo to submit the
fciiowing saggeatlons
That the garden be tliorongbly overhauled, the nurseries mannred and
stocked with yonng fruit-trees and such other plants as arc known to -thrive
at Kulhutty.
That the old and decaying fruiU trees be uprooted andTOplsced by heifithy
young cues.
That plants of all the different varieties of Orange ooltivaied in Xudia of
Europe be procured and planted in the garden.
That a few acres be cleared of scrub and planted with peppermint
eolycinth, datura, and such medicinal plonte ae do not thrive well at
potacamund,
^ That a small area be planted with the valuable (HhoAou* eaktsBya, var.
fedgenano, ae I am oonfident this variety will thrive and produeb eeed at
an earlier age at Kalhutty than at Ootaeanmnd or Keddtvattam.
Ti^ a infBcient number of noolieg be employed to keep the garden In
^ood order.
That the present stock of the cochineal cactus be^ planted m i
around the nurseries, so as to have ptautsoif the spot, if fiie (K^nesl insect
should ever be intredueed. >
That the stock of yonng frniMrees left unsolfint thsepd of daoh year
bs disposed of by auction. ^
When the fruiUtees name into full beeriug, the prodtse of the . garden
would, I have m doubt, oommind a much higher figure thau at present. Ike
revenue derived Bom the sale of dragiolooe wonld inafew ea^er
the whole expenditiire lacurred in potting the getden in thorough Ofiljsr.
Bhould yon apptbve my suggestions. X beg yen wfil be so good eato
leoommend Government to tenction an outlay of Be. 250, <hi ekeesi of the
Ha. 166), alresdy aanptioUed in G. 0., Kb, llh bf Jaanatylaat.
ThU sum wonld enable me to carry odtlbe iififi^^fhlAbt^
gar^D with ^tf dnriog 1579.80. > > / . > ^
Mr. Jaufitteon'e proposals geoetallf nppsnt^U odd thi i^OjpBSSd
BddifigMldxpeiidititmlbgitebffeottQllmmia iab^ « '' su.
ant,, AwuluH^-u^ti^
IlN lifi ttft^tlg
Th* l«ltoii^i|f f^otliMKftt war* «}*0t*d lifnilMki!il ^
Ut ti0iijt*4f Baboo 8biv Farte|^ and UiM^m
. o( lb* Sba OoBifaiij, Oaabari tad ot tb* Eatbiibor Th
Uii^iedye^ Aanai.
tb* D 4 iaB*» vt lb* lowing gentlaiaan war* wtbgattad a* dwtrona ol
Ctapttiaiu B#*ita Botdoiii Bapnljr 0o&iflita4ooar» Cbtfctagoag Hill
' ^6|ted hf 4ig titarviarjr, aaooodad by Hr. H. J. XiaUob.
A. ^ li. Wwblv ISaq., litnagalr l^yd'a Babb, X>arja*ll*g,«^pro^oi*d
by W. W. B. Oi4^b aaboadedby Hr. W, Stalkartl.
8iip*rifil*iiiil*iil Oomftia*iil HortiottUural Oardao, LookooWf-^pro*
pQtad by tb*B*di*ltty, teooQdad by Hr. X4ailoh.
Hatiftgar^ of lb* Aw* Agr* I)iatuol»—propoiad by Mr. Ifi*
Bookf flacofkded by tb« SaoreUiry*
El l&ayer» Bsq.^ OooUbl FMtory vid Baraitebt QorQekpore,-«>pro>
pfwad by Hr. W. B, Oavrbora, aaooodad by ih* Baoraiary.
Liaot.*Cotl. W, Bm Tbomaoo. Bepoty Oomuliafouar o( Bomob. Oantral
ProvlQQaa.^^poaad by tUe "Preiidont, saoondad by Hr. S. H. Bobiutoo. ']
Br. A. B. Bbtfalma, 7tb Baglmaut H. H. 1^ Barbatoporey-proposed
by Hr. W. F. Qrabama, aacondod by tba Saeratary. .
Bockiogbam, Baq<» Haoagert Amjoora Tea Batata^
OOVTBXBtniOBB.
Bom* onta of tU* Cooo«de«Har '* (LodoUua mh^Uafim ) and deeds
of otber palDfa..-4roBi Dlraotof of the fioyal Botaolo Glardeu, Haaritioa.
, A fBW aeada of AmhertiiA from Major FaoaUaw*.
A oollflolioo of plant* and aeada from the Andaoiana,*»from £. H.
Han, Bsq.
Seed of PUheookbitm tematt and taakr*-*from the Baperiotaodonfc
of ibe Boyat Botanie Qardao, Oaloatu.
Some aoolimatleed AmeHoan inniaa seed, nearly aqukUo imported
■took,—from Dr. S. Lynch.
A, few tubers of Oeanera, Achimlnea, and Xydseoa —from Dr. T,
Beanmont.
beed of JSuea^yptut buryyantt, and of a tborny molon bnab
(^AcantboMicjfM horrida), —from Baron F. von MUeller.
Some seed of the “Forbidden fruit,'* of abaddook and orange,—from
Colooel W. H. Loea. (Qormloaled freely.)
Some oakes of "Umwot*’ Or •" Amanta,”—from Baboo Srlmobuu
Tbakoor of Berari, Bbagolpore.
Tile Baboo givea a note of the mode of preparing these mango
cakee, which be deaorlbei as superior to what are generally prepared.
He usee the finest Bombay mangoes for the purpusoi unadultered with
any other iugredieul.
Gabdbn.
The Head Gardener's monthly report was read, of wiiioh the follow-
lug is an extract
“The late unusual dry weather, whioh may contione for soma
time yet^ has sevemly tried the plan is in the garden ; many palms
hate either died, or are about dying for want of water, and ^be
general collectioo of plants have suffered proportionally, Wa hate
a prpjectr just now tu band for deepening our tanks, wbiob, in
oonneotion with ohannels from different parts of the garden grounds,
will eosuie a mot* eopiouB supply of water to be stored up for future
use ; in faet, w* can Wdly have too inany tanks in a garden. Labour
has eblofiy bean ntilixad In watering, digging obanneis, potting off
youogstoi^ aaed-Bowing, and other minor works. The new plant*house
is progressing, and will, I think, be of eonilderable serrioe when
ftnMm ; w* mast, boweter, bat* a shower or two of rain on the fioor.
iiig to settle lifirm before roofing it. We have been supplied from the
Commissariat Oattlemheds with a large quantity of useful manure,
wbleb will prove valuable tor appHoation to oar new orchard, as the
trass will bk bsne^tsd thereby, 1 herewith add a list of aeeds oontri-
batedshioa laet report; also noting whioh have germinated. All the
following eenda welra eown In the ordinary manner, axeept the double
ooooehn^ for whlidtHtafior 4 feet in depth were dug, the soil ngam
reptaoed to within n foot of the original surface, the not laid in position
on ha *14^ hlnolnf th* widest sion* downwards to allow for the
pSMSige mO YUdfmatttaTy parte of th* young plant (which, when
they gormtnotm taadt With no obstrnotfon in downward oouree),
Whioh t Undbtetand grow* to th* length of 3 or 4 feet before emitting
the prteisry leaf, [Bee page SHQ, WiCHiawi* Leaved JPlanth
vA RAIMA)
“Wohavd ■eonrod hbont 19 Liberian ooffee berries yesterday,
which maredntf sown.
**Hr. GleCiM add* tiiot som* of the seeds referred to nnder the eon*
tribnfelon hcadt hita germinated; othere have not. been eowneoflcloatly
long to report On. Thoseed**! Amkeretia nabUit from HsJorFanshawe,
tm'v# nttlor4mBnteiy«^*d«
AmdsQiftm FOB figfiba.
fpSi, D*P»V dli|tM9i>K HIII*|
jkrblttit.ilmii'.boBt
' ‘ ,*.1 |iMi«ia Ilk.
* tiW%a»M hk
■ijastas^AS .
rot r«is|[iig It, add prdteflii^ hg i|
From Major Jaeob. HgeCotif*; jr«ynhr* Stef*.
for seed of PUkeeeieHwa eemaa, (Ootipi^, witl^^» I hOVer bcktt
Interested,” obserfas Major Jacob; “ tfi' ^pa^ op ' JP^UeeMtem
Memo, page 84 , Vol. Vlof th* Society^ JodflkAU ilt appears twhia that
this would be juet th*' sort .of tee* foc Bejptevlianai and l am very
antiooi to give it *n extensive trial, 1 wHtefh'teik JOW can lavonr
me with a large supply of seed, or teform m* jjinw It oan bo gcA^ 1 Ikatf
be happy to take a* onoh sepd as 1 can get' m ptg^wewl if neoisesKy.
Alto, 1 ehall be glad, lf> you wonld kindly favour sow with limple
direotions as to the best way to treat tbent t time and manner «f
sowing, and management alterwerda If yon oen help me tp any way,
I riifU ta Bintly ®b1|gri.“ If ^ -v T,
From J. H. Bridgman, Bsq„ Oornokpore, on the Cabi«otef seed* of
sundry nsefui plants. The following is an extxaei of Mr, Bridgmaa**
letter
^ I have to thank yon lor a packet of the J^hoel^iMm eamn teed,
whioh reached me ten dayi ago, and for whioh J am muob obliged. It
was followed by the number of the Agri*Horliooltnral piety’s
Journal referred to In your ootA where I found, in the page Ipdiea&d
by you, an aooount of this very valuable tree. If It will ve^tate and
thrive in this part of the world, a great benefit wilt have bsen^aiued,
** Mr. Buokiand, the gentleman in charge of my indigo fautoiy of
Bella Harlya^ Lshre, hae grown eueossafuny the Meana Inawtiane, and
hM an abundsnoa of seed. I need not, therefore, irouble you for any.
The Ueana Is an annual, and requires ouUivatton end irrigation for ite
growth. What we still want li a deep..rooted perennial grass tbht will
grow spontaneously, and of whioh the leaves will afford good’pisture to
cattle. I say ' d6ep«rooted * beoaose it is only a deep»rooted grkse that,
finding moisture for its sustenance in the subsoil, will give teif (u thu
hot season. Those deep-rooted wild grseies of this eonntry with wbiob
1 am acquainted, all yield a leaf too coarse and harsh for cattle to fsed
upon ; and if a grass, such as X have dedcribed. wbiqh they would eat,
could he found, the discovery wonld be Invatnable. In a letter from the
oorrespondent of the iHomwr with the Thull-Cbotiali force, ^published
a few days ago, the writer spoke of the eioelleuce Of the beef and
mutton, and the thriving oondlHon of the oatUe of that oountry, wtdoh
he attributed to the good quality of the pasture grass prevailing there.
That must bo a very dry oountry, and it seems probable that a grass
growing well there would also thrive In these provinoSA I suggest that
some of the seed should be procured, if praotloable, for the purpose of
experiment in the Benares province.
*' Since 1 last wrote to you I have lighted upon an extract 1 made
from the JPieneer of the 9lh of October last, descriptive of another
veluable tree, of which the ouUivation Is suggested, It is. called
Catalpa biynmieides, and is described as ' possessing a lovely flower,'
and aa being * most valuable for the lasting qualities of its wood.* It is
easily propagated, grows rapidly in almost any soil, and. so tar as is
known, la free from the attacks of insects. *The woOd also, besides
dnrability, possesses beauty to a oonaldeiable extent, Its general oeloue
being a warm buff, taking a fine pqileb, and being well adapted lor
cabinet work.* If you have any se^s of this tree, 1 shall feel greatly
obliged if you can spare me a lew.”
The Secretary iiiaat{ooe<I be had applied to iha'Society’s •eedemen
at Phtladfaelphia for Seed of this Catafpa*
From B. Buok, Bsq., Director, Department of AgriouHure, N.*W, F.,
JPP^yhig for certain varieties of spring wheat. (Application put in
From Baron Ford, von MUeller on the subject of lieaaa (MoMeem)
luamriaHt, '* Let me thank you fer your kindness." writes the Baron,
“ m forwarding so liberal a supply of seeds of the JStteMmna imuriaat.
This auabtes me to push this plant farther through Australia than 1
could do two or three years ago, 1 have sent for seeds of J^tuea diusr to
the fern tree gullies of our mountaioa, the nearest place to get them
being 40 miles distant; I hope to hava them for the next mail. The saads
of Arauoariat 1 have ordered from Queensland* Australia being a
ooDtiueot almost as large as Borope. I need hardly say that for some
? ear8 we can never get too much seed of such a superb grate ai the
'eosint4[/teanu3 for distribution.”
The Beoretary stated he had despatched a farther and larger SQfiply
of the Jfeana seed.
OOMMUHICATIONS OH VABIOUS SBBJBOTg.
Oommnoioatioas were submitted—
1. From Assfitaot Secretary, Government of Bengal, P. W, D..
Irrigation Branch, applying tor information in respect to th* propoied
onltlvatlon of oDooannte on the Midnapore and Orissa canal banks, a*
the Lleuteuant-Governor is willing to sanction an annual sum for such
purpose, (Information given.)
2, From Oaptain J. F. Pogson, on the subject of a laedkrfnal garden
at Kotegbur. The following ie en extract of Captain Pogaon's latter:—
“ t am much in went of some J>iffiutiis putpurea seed, and If you
cOttld send me eOme X ebouid esteem It a favour and be greatly obliged*
I have tbe yellow fox glove, hut want the otber, as it f* tbe right hind
for medicinal purposes.
“ 1 think all or nearly aU, the medlolnal plants of the phaTmaoopteta
may be made to grow to perfection in these parti, and 1 have therblof e
decided On starHng a medlelnid plant gaerden* I am gradually ghtehig
In seeds and roots, but I do not know where to obtain certain seed*
from. Of these Momardioajillader^ia, oailed • spirting enoumbem* and
‘wild oucamber* teoije. Jtls stated to be ptouUar to the south of
Butotte, and lhat is alt my present information, On looking at •
.Ohennft'eUit, I find Its priparatlon * Blatertom,* priced wholesale at
, as. 48 per oonoe. Batreot Ohtretta is down at Bs. 90 per lh„ and
* As<mUja Aug* Is ^8 , for a dram. * Atropia’ Is priced the some.
Bx^t Be^llhd^na 9 ,:Md numerous other things which could
If the toie^^Ofild$!pnie In carrying out this project, the pubttc
wenldla ainw^ymM' kp ilently benefited. I do not want money but
aid in o|rt|ial 9 | roots, and thi* might be aoemapUstana
, PogMN^
,, ^IWinS^tili^ m% M ft^t, i' Ip Ut. i;4 b '
4 l# #^Bibl of ghiltiai tbff Jfteui o&tho in
ov^or loiMlo iiftolottorMlMOiiloti 00W to ih$ mia^t, t 4 |t ##b
I Mia Ifom llr^ DatbiOr who In omwot lo mf ^aatUoo iiot 4
oKpo^ooIjrAlfofiiUiogrlflfot wontiwol o inaoon* IRot tiipo wpi
moM lOf It* oofBptotfoo. wblob I jar«moi» ineoii* tapping Ih* Mm
*b*n^ lor it* inli£ 3 :bi* txpttiment mifbt now bo r«peat«p fo ib*
$ootftj'* 004 oth*r gardio* ip nod nboot Oalonttn, nod the h{th*rto
umIm* bwiynii troo migiit bo tomod to Yorjr profltnblo nooonut
b« IVom 114 Si|p«rint<otdenti of tin HorHonltaria Otrd«n« Lucknow,
Undlni for nnnigi^^ lOnt* bark of Buoalypm oitriodpra* ** Tbs ieav«*
of tlio ipooios,*' obien** Mr. Bidley, <^Aro vorjswMt icontod, and 1
fonnd tb* bark wa* also iltabtly toentod. It pool* off in Jarg* piooea, and
IcaYo* (b* •(*»• otoan ana wbite. 1 tbongbt it uigbi poaafbiy b* of
aoapia u*«, medfoioalJjr or otberwiae, and if 70 U 'tiilak so, joa could
porbap* gat it tnalraad and aaoarialo wbetbar ft I* of aoy ratua or not,
Tba trae grow* very rapidly bare, and In ifin* tba bark could ba
produccd^n quantity.'*
Tba ffeoratary mantfonad be had Iranatarred tbia bark to the Baoratary,
Boononiic Mnaaom, and it had bean taatad by Dr. EanuyalaU Pey, with
tba following leaulU
''IhaYBanbtaittedtba barkoC JS!r^eniyptur dtriodora you banded to
me, to both pbysiotogioal and obemioal teati with the following reauita;
** A i^ong decoction prepared from the bark waa adminlatered to a
oat, and the animal showed no aymptoma of uneaBineaa wbataoerer,
baooa I coneluda tbera is no toaio property in the bark,
" 1 tried to find It there wa* aoy aetringeut property to the bark,
but I found it contained more tannin tbao many bark* o( a elnxtlar
nature; but in comparison with babul bark (Aoaoia aradioa) 1 find
it contains lass. On inoineration it yields alkaline aalta."
4, From tbe Baoratary to tba Qoterumant of Punjab, submitting copiea
of reports of Canal Officers on the experimental oultiration of JReam
Itmitriani on canal banka in the Puojab in the year 1878, from seed
supplied by the Society. (Tranaferred for pnbUoation In the journal.)
5. From P, Miohea, Baq, Gbaseepora. Borne useful notes on the
prodacUonof sugar in tbe lieoarea district. (Tranaferred for journal.)
FORESTRY.
FOftESTS, AND WHAT WE OWE TO THEM.
fllHB different aUudardof IntelUgenoe exhibited in the adminlalra-
lion ot the Imperial Gorernmeut and that of our own could
hardly be more strongly shown than by tbe fact ttiet the Home Gorern*
meat has recently gooe to great trouble to obtain and analyee ooui-
pletu returns regarding the condition of forests and timber supply in
the colonies, and now has pablished them, juel about at the time when'
onr own Gorernment has entered on a course that will lead to the oes*
truoUon of our poor attempts at forest conservation just to plegse one
or two political loafers and to secure one or two hireling votes. In
tba returns we refer to copious eridence Is supplied of the rainous
destruction that is going on, and its reckless effects. lu soma prefatory
remarks prefixed to them reference is made to cases where '* strong aud
welt-establiEhed Governments look on supinely while the timber
is disappearing aud tbe whole country is becoming treeless and bereft
ot the shade so necessary to health, end even to existence in tropical
climates." We ere iurlber told that" In some oases something little
short of a meteorological revolution has been caused by the extermina*
tion of the woods. Stroame once regarded ae pereunial now run dry
under exposure to a tropioal sun, aud tbe periodicity of the rainfall has
been seriously dUturbed iu many leoalities. Bo many testimonies con*
verge towards the eatabUshmeut of a counexiou between raiufall and
forest eree, that it U difficult to resist the conoluslon that much which
is gained by throwing a little more forest land into cultivation U lost
in tbe lowered fertility and the disturbauce ot the cUmatic equlUbrium
of tbe whole diftriot."
If euything were required to add weight to tbe important tesUmony
and serious wgriiin,^^ wnfeb imve been pebiiihed npon Ihissnbjeof,
It Is supplied by the fact or, w« will say, the probability that a cause is
already at work in the same direotion whioh U laying waste vast regions
of the earth’s surface-^a cause which we cannot in any way remove,
and in regard to wbioh we have only to chhoa* between oo^psfating
with it. or striving to mitigate its effects. Somf very extensive and
significant erideoca was collected Boma year* ago by Prole^r J, D.
Whitney, and published in the Af^cdpan iVittarafisf, ,to ehow that
large trac^ upon the face of tbe earth were undergoing demicatlon,
that there bai been, end is still prooeediog, a great deoteaae of itatm
cm tbe earth, and that, if this process eontinues without limit, ws
wa is dMtgar ot d»ytt| np. ObMmtkM In pnitnl Owj^te..
In TbibUfc, point to a great dessioation in those "TOere gmat
mountain takes existed there Is now nothing but acid valley*. At
BO dSetiat tdma, geologlegily spsaklBg, Um vaUeff^^i||^ste tmi
^t#4fsh<Ai'; .
W greet
0 ta Llilags^ue** .
eUesql a rapid 'drying.
basin wwt^olthe r-
^rsat Balt Lake Has, ihott are
how much greater area it
parts, aacb s* Arabia, Fersl*# lid Sveh
proof supplied that tbe qninMty *f waUf 4
at earlier, end not always very refflp4 per>s*lii; efM* afs
in many oases altogether too vest to 1 m attrilwtsg iki emy
of forests even were thete proofs that such ,lor*sti\,iiiA eysg. hem
desfroyed, We seem to be thus brought In face ot Ui* lormidable
phenomenon of a gradual and most extensive desiloatiiQn, cd the
snrface of tbe earth without any means ot estimaUiig to Sfhat
extent ft will proceed, and what, if any, wilt be it* ffmlt. Aud
if this is so we have to choose between oo^nperaifng: with this
influence by destroying as rapidly as posilbMhO foreste nffiloh oppose
this dessioation, or to endeavour to counteract It by earslully pressr^
Ting these as Invaluable bulwarks against a terrfbls foe.
Let ns npw give a glance at what mankind have done, and are dolnm
in regard to these alternatives. An article by Mr. F. L. Oiv*hld, In
the Mrt7i American McviciO for Jannary, gives a telling summary of
some of the leailiitg facts which answer thii qneetion. The writer,
after sketching the evidence proving tbe wholesale destruction of foreit
in the oountries surrounding tbe Mediterranean, in tbe oourm of which
be states that " since the beginning of the 16tb century tbe popnlattoti
of the four Mediterranean peninsulaa has decreased more ihan 65
millions.” and " the rate ot the decline from year to year bears an
exact proportion to tbe decrease of the forest area of tvevy district,”
proceeds
Affghanistan. Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Alia Minor, Qreeoe,
Mkeedouta, the eoutheru islands of the Mediterranean, and the whole
of Northern Africa,from Cairo to tbe western extremity of Morocco—
countries which were once blessed with abnndanoe and a glorious
climate—are now either abioluto sand wastes or the abode of pSiennUl
droughts, hnngcr, and wretchedness; and wherever Btatistloaf rseords
have been preserved, it is proved beyond the possibility of a doubt,
that their miafortaues commenced with the disappearance of their
arboreal vegetation.”
He goes on to show that ia.the vreetern hemtaphere the foreit area
has during the last 45 years decreased at the average rate of 11,400
square miles annaatly. In the United States the rate has advanced
from 1,600 square miles in 1836 to 8,100 in 1878. ” We have,” be says
*' been wasting the moisture supply of the American soil at the average
ratio of 7 per cent, lor each quarter ot a oentnry during the last 185
years, and are now fast approaching the limit beyond which any
further decrease will affect the climatic phenomena of the entire
continent.” There ie much that is suggestive and signiflcaqt, if also
something that Is rather fauctful, in the sentence, ** The treelBss
regions of America lie ohlefly In tbe west, those of Africa and Arabia
in the north, of Nurope in the south-east, and of Auitralia In tbe nci^h*
west; and the theory that all deserts on the faee of cur globe me
been produced by the band of mao is, therefore, supported by tbe
remarkable ciroumataaoe that the most barren portion of loot conti¬
nents are found cn the li U turned tewardt AtUtt and whioh, according
to all geographical and ethnological probabilities must have been flnft^
reached by tbe waves of emigration which emanated from that com¬
mon home of the human race.” The writer's fancy again finds play in
tbeobaervatlon, "But the interlst we should take In tbe preservation
ot OUT woods might rest on even a broader basis than thitr agrlenltnral
fmportanoe. That man was not oreated in a desert noT In a cotton
field or a city, but in a forest, is one of tbs few poinis ffi which Mose*
aed Darwin agree ; and, with our forestiif we would lose their health-
giving atmosphere, the music ot their song birds the puriit enjoyments
of our early years, and nature's remedy for the mental diseords of
mankind. Woods are the native Iffe-eiement of tbe human face, and
a horae-siokness, an InitioctiTe yearning after Uie garden ^ home of our
foi^tbers, haunts the nomad of the desert, as weli as th* iBbabitabt of
iuxnrioQB oUies.”
It Is not necessary for empbeiisiag tbe Immense importance of
preserving a proper proportion ot forest to linger On eonslderaUons
such as these. Not that they are at all trivial. They arc of great
weight,>and there can be no question that, even If it were possible
withonfc material injury to turn the whole land Into a oorni>fleid or a
paitnre, U would still be well in the lotemsts of harmony and beaufy,
and Mr oaltivatiog and Soothing effeots, to retain Iraem of woodlkmli.
that might present to civilised man glimpses of the primeval natofe he
has quitted. But In comparison with the trotnOndous issiiet Involvod^
not to tbe welt-being, but to the very ealsmaos of ^ meuklAdi ffmee ooti^
siderations becomo relatively ot alight moment. The fsal Oneltlon lor
a oommnnUy settled in a new land to consider is, doSi it dsmi* to retain
the country as a home lor futufa generations, and. to jptessrre ttie
Qlimatio conditions, and the namrai batanee of lofsst and ehaamiirA
by which It is fltied to Mjistatn and nourish hiimoti iilA or dpes it idpe*
contamphite becoming a looest vIMtatlon to the land, deMmsyiag he
wealth, rifling Its resouroes, stripping it of its ferUlity,: and leamg it
poorer to each sucossslve generation, until it flnaUy rsmahm p desssl
spot on the face of ^e earth, unfitted tor ever, to eusmin ^vagnmlde aiwl
ammamfef ' Codd t^he dremi impoffanco mf this qiMto oanehe
xmdlmdl6Hhcphll^<tmiDil, it would be answered. Ip a nmient, awl%
in.^piteha wayas wonid effeotoally prevent hsne^fjth ^
to grntilT.eheir dhfsam ^
and nmbltltms, the^turM tteaimes ot thh eountipi^^
nm Aflysf likely m Im l•pmeeda^Al(lfrahMf*n^
'%V*.
kf.% I;
fj|«W tlk^ i Ijiita lutely tisitiiMl tb<j ({Ml^
4 : ^ ^ Idtb bt »tii4, iliib^04 nt B^gooa
HSSfi™ ^ mmhi on, tba monrt*'tlio l$tb* Mr,
Ofitw0|ft)« FoM Boportffkobn fto«Qi»|Muiie4 m» aji^lo Ob&iinCby
irblQ/btlOttf i!% ttlltfitoibt irofll Urblob plttoa 1 fteitodt the
Uifi^iUkk |>t*bf^|abiM Ab9ti^ii bnl ttlteH in ib« tweot;
ptOttUUotia Jb Baring j ttienoe t oaoouaad
into tbi noittfOU^b lOveoio on ibo Fegu Yiima, au4 ninmvX to
Bongoott oti ib« otobiog ot the ^Ist. ilt dayligbt oa tho 23adi 1
umU^ hf Moanter fox Aloalmeia ftxui ioudod tboro tbst oveaiog^ Major
SoatoOftliQ Oboaw?«tor of ToonaMorim, had kludi/ ptauttOd a toar for
Md iu whtob I ootdd bQ«<» m in a abort $ptm of time ali tha diifeceot
oiaaiM of lomt^ Ho aras abaept at Mooraoraddy iu kia pnaofpal teak
tofeataon tba bnuka of tin Xbouogyeeu, where X was to join him, Ou
the Sith, I ataried bj boat* whioh delivered me and my oaniu at E^vleu
near MagMoon on |be Hoaodraw river on the 2(»th. The same eveoiug
X marebed to Haakerlkf where I wae met by elepbaute whkb Major
Beaton badblndly hired far my oamp, and traversing the magaifioeot
evergreen forests of the Donat range X oroased those loouatalus* aud
Join^ Major Seaton at Meerawaddy on the Siam frontier on the eveu'
log of the 28tb ; thence we TisUed together eoine of the prlnolpal leak
forests of Tanasserim and the pine forests (Pinuit merkutu) ; aud
travelling apoth^st up the banks of the Thoangyeen until we reached
the Meglar riveri we afloebded this stream trending weit-soath-west
till wo arrived at the foot of the Moolcylt,oae of the highest tnoautains
in Xanassorimi Xhia wo asoended from the eastern side, and descended
5 pr the west face, which took ns sin days; altbongh we only halted one
ay at the top, whlpb 1 found to be as near as possible 6.500 feet above
tbe sea; and 1 bad the advantage of seeing both evergreen and deciduous
forest and bamboo traota at different eievatlons. On the morning
of the XI th Febrnary, I left Major Beaton at Assoon on the banks of the
HoondraWp one long march from the foot of the Mooleyit monuteinp
as be bad to return to the Thoangyeen forests, and by one very long
march I reached my boats at Eyaen and arrived at Moulmeln on the
morning of the 14th idem. At daylight on the 15tb, X left for Itaugoon,
from whioh port I sailed for Madras on the 19ih, arriving there on the
25lhi
8. The greater portion of Bonuab even all the plains is still one
vast forest, except where oleared for rice cultivation (which is almost
entirely only ram fed). The country is now what India must have
beep Many oonturles ago , still a Forest Department hai been con-
aidered necessary, and large tracts of teak aud other valuable forests
are being formed into strict reserves. The country is chiefly
oharactcriitlo for its number of Diptera&arjmt (wood-oil or edl trees) of
the genera J)iptgr 00 arptujthorea and fiopett, gigantic straight growing
trees often with very valuable timber, which form vast tracts of forest.
Of all these numerous species only one is also common to Bouthern
ladte, etc., the Piptamoarpus (urbtnaimt and I am uot even sure that
might 1 tbiuk be lutrodaoed
with great beoem into the wssteca forests of this Presidency. The b 5.I
of Burmah whioh is exported ocoasionally to Madras and elsewhere
is quite distinct from that of our eastern forests, (Ooonisur, &c.) 4t is
the produce of Shorba and of Shoraa (or P^ntacome) SUim mis.
whereas onr sdl is Sfivrea rebutta which does not appear to grow iu
fiarmobatali, This is an important question, and as 1 have brought
over ipsoimens of both these Burmah sills, 1 shall ask the Quu Oarriage
Department (who chiefly use this timber) to compare and report on the
three different qm^^ies.
4. A great nnmber of the Burmese trees are Identical with south
Indian ones : but about one in three were new to me. 1 was in the
connfery at a tiitte generally A little too early for the flowers aud too !
late for the seedt but 1 was able to couWt a tew seeds that will be of
nedifl onr plantations and gardens, and Msjor Beaton has kindly
promised to send mi seede of many trees and bamboos that X was able
to point oat to him (be knew the Burmese or Karen names,) and wiuoh
will ^ of great saluo to ns.
6, Our two mM« tnluable bamboos in south India, Panibtm
nmadhteesa and Mbndroeal^mtu sfrirfne, are both very common all
over Burmsbi the former on river bonks, the latter on dry hiU slopes ;
bnt there are very many other bamboos quite unknown to u«. Three
of these, the Dtfn^tooaUfmHt bmtdUu (Wabo of the Burmese).
tauoe thai
^akea; they conn#
intradaued with very great advantage to this presidency. Major
Beaton has very kindly promised to send me seed of ail these | the two
latter X paM9>M in flower,
g, Tha t«»k forests in Tenasserim are always in small patches here
andi tlmen tnianpersed, with tracts of quite a differant character.
Mimkif iW larger trosi hove been cal hat, biu there is spkmdld
yoalfgmw^ ;j|owavct. | saw nothing to equal onr Aaomaioi uakJ
foccsti, ^^iwsnoMoflhateakiiq^^^ from Montmsln hoi come '
ftow thaS^ B^eswf' BUciu .Do th« Bangconand Pegn side there
f. 1 wt mm iDmmMuA f«' iHm ii oafo . m to
duettos It,
i«t m»f ,«i» pMtaUy vur tt,. tim
; ' l l' i ' i 'r i '"i'i i .ill m ifij<fj> nin i , nj, '
'#i’Mt 'fdahikifotia'i & atf
--—_ Sfliqec''iiiaegofy wlOifddf
hTetambut took plantall^s; T&y oa^^-^I^Sk'iw farasiflT^ hht
s^me two bundM' aolree were piantad^W Ihal'|«asl and about th*
same ovory year tuUSequefiay. Xu tl;^ tamhfMu tl^ in
felled for planting, a terribly dense gto'«^o| iwb . gi^antb'gvasiiis'
springs up. a very large species of 10 1^ last h%h,
known (o the Burmesh by the name of Kyoe^^and ^
nemifera^ another grass *^aimost as large, Tficss seein qnltS to
choke all otber growth, aotHt Is only here and thmra iff small patshSI
that the teak promises to midte way against these grasses. ItappeCrS'
tol^ iatposslbfe to keep the growth of these grasses down, and it
has been equally imposBtbVe to keep out flrei which apparsntly haVe
every year run through all the puhtailous attarty destroying largo
areas*
^ 9. ‘ In this Fresidency 1 am glad lo lay we are not pestered with
either of these grasses. Taking the vary best porUons of the ^ three
older plantations (a very JicoUed area) the growth is as follows :■»•
. .«• 23
... 10
1872
1872
1871
f Average height
•••i H girth
[ Greatest
{ Average height
,f girth
Greatest
I Average height
*'* I >1 girth
15
-16
8
13
10
6
which ooutrasts very unfavorably with Nellambur. The country ft
besides terribly feverish and kuooka up all the establishment,*80 that
these plantations will, I anticlpaty^ he abandoned before long, and I
cannot see that tbey are required when there are large tracts of most
promising natural teak uu the hills dose by in which if the same
amount were spent ou flre-traclng, Ao,, the results would be most
favorable. Thu , two grasses above-mentioned do not appear nutil the
forest is felled and burnt, so that they are absent from the tiaioral teak
forest. The system of planting pursued here is that of sowing one or
two teak seeds in each pit, not planting out from nursery beds as at
Keilambur. This sowing plan has never answered with us. as owing to
rats and other vermin, insects and grubs, the growth has always been
most irregular, and it has been atMOintely necessary to supplement to
a large extent eabscquently by transplanting from nursery beds-
10 . Elephants ate so abundant iu Burmoii, that Forest OMceri have
a flue supply of (his labor, and I was surprised to And that these animals
even wJieu iu full work are scaroely ever fed beyond the grasiim they
obtain for themselves. In rare instaaccs cue measure of paddy U
given each evening to each anliaal. Our elephants are much pampered
i am afraid, and it has always beau considered necessary to give six ot
seven large measures of itce daily to each animal, besides oocnanuts,
oil, ghee, Ao„ making the cost of their keep esoeediogiy heavy ; yet
almost all our elephants come from Barmah. This question must
receive the attention of all our Forest Offleers using these aaimals, and
though it might be lujudiolous to at once stop their nee. 1 think more
economy osn be gradually introduced, and 1 have always felt certain
that in the absence of very strict supervisiou as to fesdlug, that a great
deal of the gram or the amount paid for it goes into the pockets of tho
mahoHti 01 faifjdar^ 1 have myself detected glaring iustanoes of this,
when elephants have received no grain for many days, though it has
been paid for.
11, I had the opportunity ofcolleoUng a great many orchids ; the
bulk of these 1 sent to the Lail Bagii Gardens at Bangalore,as most Jtkely
to succeed there. Most of the remaiiider I have given to the Ootaeamdnd
Government Gardens.
The Qoverumeut have per used with iuterast the OonservatoFs
account of his recent tour in Burmah.—Ifadi'as Atbtnt^im.
Tubs public roadji of the Into kingdom (now province) of
Ilauovor are nearly all planted with apple trees. Tlie gaarfliang
of the roads aro instructed, and take interest iu their trccfii*
They guard the fruit till ripe, when the trees are sold aiuffly by
public auction, and the proprietor has to guard thorn and take the
fruitdowu without damaging the trees. The money goes to the
direction (olhce) of tlie public road. These trees give shelter
ornament, and fruits. To plant ti*ees along railways has not been
found practicable, by reason of the telegraphio wires, &o. In tho
kingdom of Wurtoniburg (capital, Btuttgardt) much has been done
lu this respect, and proposals have been made to plant the side of
the railways, but I do not know with what result.—A oted toh
Begxjsld, m Dietetic Reformer,
Tub pjophocy of a time when California may beoomo as
and as the eonds of Bikanir, may well startle a generation
ttocustomed to reg^d that fair province as the future garden
of the world. Yet that oonUngonoy is not only uot improbable
suppoamg tUo agencies a^ work are permitted to continue, but
the steps in the process may be exactly anticipated in diuu
Foiest deimdatiou. of a oUaraoter as reckless as any ever known a
India or out ot it, has been at work there through a long series of
years. Even now momitainous tracts ovei which the ioresta
^e waved, are growing bmg; and In course of toe, nothing will
^ seen but bwrenwck^ Without the resistance o4ered b> the
tmemots, and thou wodl| m rain'Stores oan be preserved in the
|Ujrtamls; and, ewe an .-aliernation between
’reasons of short deafeBK&ve rains, and aeskons of even more
deauuofcivedro^lii PfeoMy the same thing hss happened lu
.India, end k hapjwdng da the slopes of the Kbiuo, tlte Khone,
aud to Bofftoia em now.
tm i^iW’
lx % tm <>< lorMto, tM 0sn^0hiUim^
in wMjltiw^iVy wat to » <0,
^ Fi«R6h itoieij <Ht Agrie«»ltHW| Md oontAtnmdf w Wlw
ia t^e tMm mv^7 ww eiiitiDif in ntim
Awrdiiigto ihk mmmwt, which i$ druw »|> Wrtr
Mfetid y»i»^ itttdy, the mth U the loreete e^i; <wly Jo
StttyoM hot in en oeOntriee te ooiotiilleelo^y in the extreeie* Oee
nnlfeciel eomOletot it heard on atl' hhudf^tbat the etoek U being
m^ly exhanned, and that tbete U m economy orooinnioii hfvdenoe
in the my of edmlniateriag the pohUo and private foreaMi. The
Biredieh Ooveroment te beginning to be eerloaely glaftn^ *t the
enpof t of timber from Ite territory^ vrhieh ia no longer Umited to
SnroiHif bnl hae eateoded to euoh dletnntrregioiie aa Braallt Anetralia,
and tW Oape of Good Hope* Xhmmuk baa diieovered that two4hirde
of fta foreata are loat; end Baaeia. having enhanated the breite in the
aeigb^uthood of ite large towne, ia now oompeilvd to go to a vaet
enpenie in ttanaporUng ite euppllea of wood frosi the interior. At for
Flntaitdf wbteh wae onee ao rich In plnea, it ia already beginning to
he abaolnlety dennded. and that not so laueb in conaeoaenoe of an «
aotna) aaportation of iimbar aa of the habit of aetting fire to whole
meeaea of treea in order to olear the ground for agricultural purpoaee.
Fireiaalao a groat deetroyer of umber iu Algeria and other parte of
Alfiea« but in this oaae sot artlSoial bat aooideutat oondagratloue muat
be held to bleme. Jo Auatria the young piaste are destroyed by the
nattitf, a^ilat the old ones are out down remorieleaaty ; and iu moat
parta of America the sole idea of a forest ii that of au iaexbaaatibie
mine of wealth, Germany le without doubt, the country where moat
oommon aenao hea been epplted to the use and preaervation of the
loreata, and the French cavant cal la for a more aevora applioatfoo of
loreit laws to l^ranco. whore he maintaina that with proper management
there might bo plenty of Umber left lor the public nae.
MINERALOGY.
A n Amerioan paper puhlieUee a eammary of a very Interest in r
lecture delivered at Washington recently by Mr. P. W. Morriai
the Superintendent nf the Yellow-atone National Paik, on eome of
tbo natural curiosities of the region over which he presides and Is
engaged iu exploring. Among these may bo mentioned as the
most novel, a mountain of obsidian or voicautc glass, ami a road
made from this material. Near the foot of Beaver Lake, the
explorers discovered this mountain of glass, which there rises iu
basali-like columns and countless huge many hundreds of
feet high, from a hissing hot spring forming the margin of the
lake, thus forming a barrier where it was very desirable that u
wagon road should be, as the glass barricade sloped for some 300
feet high at au angle of 45'’ to the lake, and its glistening surface
was therefore impassable, there being uoither Indian nor game
track over it. To make the road, huge Urea were made against
the glass to thoroughly heat and expand it, and then by dashing
cold water from the lake against the heated glass suddenly cools
the latter, causing large fragments to break from the luass,
which woie afterwards broken up by sledges and picks, but not
without severe loceratious of the^ iiauds and faces of the party,
into smaller fragments, with which ii wagon road on«-quaiter of
a mile long was constructed, about midway along tlm nlope, thus
making, it is believed, the only road of native glass upon the
Ameiican contiuent. On reaching the Giund Canon of the Gibbon
river the explorers found the eastern palisade, for about two miles
in length, to consist of vertical pillaia, hundreds of feet high,
of glisleumg black, yellow, mottled, or banded obsidian or
volcanic glass.
This obsidian it seems has been, and ia still used by the Indians
for making oirow heads uu^l other weapons and tools, and the
mountain has formed a vast quarry for the material of sueb
iustrumouts or weapons of a quality and quantity nnequallod else¬
where,
INDIAN IRON,
I T is sincerely to be hoped that the Goverament of Beogul will
be able to ^diider soma such suhstanUal aid to the Bengal
Jroa Company " r < will put its prosperity, as a oommercial under*
taking, beyond thu p >S8ibi!iiy of doubt. The present poeition of
the iron trade of the country i« really a diH^>redit to the adminstra-
lion. Iron oree, of various degrees of exoolleuce, are found, it has
beoc known, for centuries, in several parts of the country. There
are large deposits in Chanda* lu Saioin, in Kumaon, iU'&andelkund,
the Nurbudda Valley and sonth.oast Berar. The supply is
stated by Mr. Blandford to be, iu many inatanoes, inexhaustible.
Near Salem there are immense bode, 3o to 100 feet thick, the out*
crop of which may be traced fur iniles. Oue of thmn foiWB the
fidge of a hill l,h00 feet high and 4 miles long; in another plaee,
sear Salem, there arb 6 bands of magnetic iron, frbti^ $0 to 5(1 feet
tbiok, which nm alJ round a hill 4 miles Ixig Al' ^hardi neaf
there ia 4 hill S milea long and halt a l^dad, 'whiohi
as 1825, Mr* Heath, a Mad^ ^ aahj&f |lpi
eitablisbed works at Fptto »eter attccielsd.
ware finally abandoned in J8§pj ; Attempt wat mW* 4
Baneegunge and another at With ha Mtmfadtoiqr
result. Subsequently Mr. Mitaoderi a Swedish
some works under Government In the 'Y^Slg.al i»N4pttdfia*'
Those probably might have aooeeeded, Miah
Henry Keatinge was removed, his suobesioe ifmpit **
and did not oare about iron, and the Got«ri»imt|t^ta 'OjaA of thbse
miserable fits of retrenchmeiit, off erhfeh we are |nw phW^fmlpg
the results, closed the works, dismissed Mf. MilaOdJJ/4W*
mined to throw no more good mOuey after the il75»p0Of Wlfioh B
had already embarked in the undertaking. Attoibw gHoiapt was
made a few years agO at Madras, with but little of the emmon or
krio wledge necessary m suocesA a pieoe of rashaess lor which Messrs*
Arbuthuot, tbo promoters of the Ooinpany, §nd Urge shareholders
in it, have had to pay heavily. The Bengal Iron Company will
not, wo earnestly hope* contribute to toe list of nnsUocessful
experiments. One in oident in its history illuiteates the sort of
defect in the Uw* wh ioh so often stands in the way ol prahtioal
improvement, and wh ich the Legislative Department, if it oootd
only get its head out of the clouds, might do sitoh incsloalable
good In removing —Cinii anti JUiliiary ffazeiic,
GWALIOB IBON.
(7b tAc MUor qf ike '* mU
Sib,—>O f Indian iron, generally, the Civil and Military &aietts of
6th Juoe, oontaioB these remarks : " Iron, as we pointed .out the other
day, ■till stands iu need of those expensive Investigations and
experiments which Government alone Is likely to oonduet to a 111000181 ul
issue. The Government ought assuredly to do all iu its power to
enoourage lhi« branch of industry, for, till the home manafacturepi iron
is established, ail other maottfaetures labor under a grievous dls*
advantage. Boppose, for iuetauce, that the cylinder cover ol an engine
is driven out, a mill may have to be olosed for months while a new
cover is being obtained from Eoglaud. In fact, till iron and coal are
saiistaetorily estabUihed, the future ok all other meobauloal industries
must remain undecided.*'
2. In the publloatloo of these very oppoitnoe euggestioue I find
oooasiou for oontributiug to your oolumne some valuable, information
respecting the iron of Gwulipr, communicated to me, in 1876, by an
iatelllgent Eugiish blaoksuilih, whoee testimony, you will perceive, is
professedly based on personal knowledge* 1 myself linpUoitly believe
my informant’s statement ; and 1 take for granted the praotloabilUy
ol honest poUtUal action, on the part of Government, for rendering
avaUahle, iu the interests of the Empire afe large, the heretofore
undeveloped material resouroes of au eminently friendly Native 6»*
3, Impelled by a desire to acquire some knowledge of the tnlnmli
of this country and of native modes of dealing with tbenii my Informant
visUfl Gwalior iu 1874. Ills observatious on the spot satisfied him
that the Gwalior Territory oontains what is better for ntility than a
gold mine; for he there found the country between LusUkur and
Beepree, 60 nillea or more iu extent, to be oue unbroken bed Of brown
bemaiite, the noheat ore in the world, yielding, even to ruda uatlve
operators, so muoU as 76 par cent, of iron. What the maximum aqd
average derth of this bed may bo, had not then been diaoovered : hut
the natives found their material vrithin a foot of the surface, and a
depth of 13 feet was the lowest that had been reaoUtd.
i. The native mode of working the ore was of course primitive {
yet U fully answered, as a pretimloary process, for providing really
excellent Iron, la a crude state, must admirably ao^t^ for all the
nltlmate purposes of a wroughMron factory .oonduet^ dn European
princtplee.and with snitable raaohinery* The fuel moployed by the
uaGves was charcoal ; from 20 to 80 seers of oharooali-^worked iron was
the product of each heat; the final operation on the mam with sledge
< hammers served no other end khan that of bringing the metal into the
crude oonditlou { and aft this point the application of Eoropean science
' and invanttou was needed to convert ibe obarooal^worked Iron of
Gwalior into the best iroa in (be World, for Which a4adt4 and more
r'^jfltable market would be found all over tndU than for any other irom
6. My informaat had fully ooosldcrod thp comparatiye merim Of aatf
iron and mrouyhf iron, from a remunemitive nmnt of vfewi In tha
India of the present, whereitt the ooostrbotmn of ma4incry tOAhy
considerable exteut Is not attempted, it wonm be qciiii' a mhiftaka to
expend mooh ^rt and money In orectlpg faraaoes f^ ftbi^liMmufacfthrc
of lion without at the same time providing pteddBay, furnaces /Or
cmvprting tha pigv into maltodlAh %rtm, Exmoiilva demand foe any
other thantrod nececiarily belongs to.klm Indiaorilbafatiixe;
and my infonmant therefore deemed it a cardinal point to
oant iron buelness a very subenBuatcplace in his s&mne,abdlo
very earncebly lor Mm ooncentration of energy and canBm nrlt^iiv
'itdy ii
m MBICUitUBtST.
■A
tfiiUiMt from ih$ mrmitit
0pmm^ iw tb* pti4^tii>f pfotMMO miP *«»,
Ifflm Itt « tMt «|4
|H»i«M lor ih^ nradiaoClM olm«t)Mb]e^on s ft
ol
g> wttti ffrif, |9 ahtotuMf i^U%'i
^mH»r Mi fiuit«r(il U tv ii iii»ii$ ^aMPfnt^
ir«Kfi iro^i tftktii from the rude ehttreoat futufteeB of the
tifttire oMfftlOPi of Oweltor. eq1 poifeeiing tb» deeideffttum ol ft
^boaloJmpmgafttloqtJl^thte moit eeoeUeitt ertele iron df QireHor, Ju
ttm whteh U4e nmetred from that eountr^. Si quite leedf lor
fwMiftm oofSTortroft into duSihed eftd Boo, ftod mf iaformiot’e
propc^ pmii wUh^tt wfti throi'faid, ilmpie, ftad expeoittoae (1) be
woftldhefttit la hi| faruftoe j (2) he would imlte it, when hot with the
•t^ bipiiifiw Jm i«mm of impurittet; (3) be woutd enhject U to
tb«|liftt httS<kottheromagmUL tFht fu^er-eeNWlleftf gaeZCfy of the
QWftttor iron be thni proeed ; u tod of it, ooZd, mey be drown out
br •implohftmmerlugwZfdotff loliffifti ; this oennot be dona with
Bnfflleh Iron,
7. H7 InfqrmftQthenet^ed Ills ooneepKoato be thet of a new nud
most iafmrtftdtindiiitrf for Indift, whiohonly needed doe recognlHon
ftod eabitftntiftl support to beoome ft seuroe of unecempled psrenoiftl
profit Xheld,the leme opinion then, ftnd hold U now,
8. Three years ftgo the Maharajah Beiodla's attitude in regard to the
pre his territory was underitood to be that be wontd work it hlmtelf,
It isiald that at ono time, eertafnlv more than a doxen years ago from
the present time, he oonseuted to allow an ootsider to derelop the
mineral wealth of his territory, and aotnatly advaneed a lakh ol rnpeas
by way ol oommenoement ; but there the matter ended, and Soiudia
loet his money irrerocably, From that time, it would appear, the
defrauded ohim haa resolutely turned a deaf ear to the orertores of
ereryfaeoeifflreadeentarons "oharmer," My informant was oredibly
informed, io 1875, that bis Highness then intended to turn hts attention
to the iron baalness after aU the expense and bubbnb of the Prince of
Wales* dspeoted visit had oeaeed.
Lord Cleorge HamUton, in his speeoh on the Indian Budget, delivered
three yeari ago, eald ** Again, the greatly inereaaed daraand tor stores
of all kinds,espeoially iron, which could not ot pmont he manufactured
in Indiot had caused an increase under that head ot from ^200.000 in
1896 to between two and tbrea millions in 1876-77,*' Tbo italios are
mine: and Ibe question I would ask is WAj^ cannot irpn be mannfaatared
in Indjft, and of a Mfsr than that procured from England 7
The profestional opinion embodied in this letter is, that it most
certainly can,
I conld not, as you know, liavo sent this letter to the Cicil and
Military ffatetto without disloyalty to your paper. I hope the Lahoro
journalist will very kindly accept this explanation and find room for
me amongst bis extracts. *
As my name carries no weight, 1 do not offer it for pubUoation,
BCmBE.
I 2 tb June 1870 *
GWALIOK IRON.*
A N able letter which appeared in our oorrespondenca columns yester*
attention to the valuable qaalitiesof Qwalior iron.
Every one who bae had occasion to employ that material, has been si rook
with Its exoellsnoe, and engineers on ths E, I. Bail way, pronounced
it to be without exception the very finest they bad ever come saroir*
No doubt the fact of its being smelted with charcoal haa a great deal
to do with its exeellenoe, just as Swedish iron which is also smelted
with obareoal, is without comparison superior to any that is manufac¬
tured otherwise. This soperiorlly can of course only exist in countries
jthat ace well snppUsd with timber fuel, and we fear that the Gwalior
territory hesatreikly been too far denuded ot trees to admit ol farther
drafts on Its rAsouroei io that Hoe.
Still, the statement put forward in our correspondent’s letter and
which we know to be derived from as authentic source, deserve a
oareful examination ; and we would press upon his Highness ,the
Maharajah of Gwalior not to lose the opportunity of sigoaiislng bis
reign by 4he development of ibe metallic resourees of hie dominions.
More real wealth, as our oorrespoudent has truly observed, is to be
derived from Iron works than from a gold mine; and if (ha Gwalior
Terrlterry were to take tbe lead In creating the former, it would
establish for itself a position that every other Native State, and even
the Govemmeht of India itself, might envy, SoindJali. we know, has
had many eaUs on bit parse lately: The Prince of Wales’ visit, the
Xmperfat Assalnblagt at I>»lh!, and the terrible femfoe of 1877, have
sajy stralimd bis resonroea; but with a wealthy State like Gwalior,
under the role of a Prinoe who personally soperintends svery branch
of Che ftdmtnfithratlon« snob Ipsies are easily repaired. At any rate
there bl no way more ready or effectual to repair them, than the
eitabHshment ot works Which wilt give employment to thonsands
wlCo ImpoTsdsbing ftoy^nnd which will make one of iha necessaries
nrW' qhi&p etiity bbtalnahle by all the natives of Gwalior and.
tbksnrronndioitStatfti* * ,
ate not cohhseltbil b^s Highness tq rush at ooee ;into a vast
OttttSy on irttoWwIwi; Wqarejilmp! 3 ^wpf«ssi 08 fib opinion which we
Bit Sure every lonrplUSt and man of bnskSss ihougbont ladla wilt
eindorte, that interests dt^smd tfa^t the statements Sonlained
th Our nocfe^denl^ fetter ehonid W thbfcftghW silted by the highest
ifttemlonaf, talent Ui^ EngkMnd sad it$#yt,v Wfts to rfflweys and
omMMisiatnert, Xitdia U not the mmbie^d Badlllit point of
flew that iA used to bsj and we me imm wmik
tol
obly to express a wish Cbaelsd d <k)«70 ibe fnnde himam to
meet the expenses of the way) to< b|vd the metallie rseoerces of hie
territories examined and reported ob 7 by ^ofesilonal assayers and
mining engineej-St dosens would volnbt^ tihefr services from England
in ths hopes that business might rssult from the investigatloo* An
adrertiscmeni in any of the Home papery setting forth tbe facts of
the case and ealUng for tbe assietiniee of euchjpemoni, would draw
forth applicants, from whom it would be esey' for the Maharajah, with
the friendly aid of the authorities at the India Office, to select a few
whose opinions and experience could be tboronghly relied upon,
lu makiug the above sufgeetlou we do not wish to prejudfee the
Interests of the gentleman from whom our oorrespondent derived hie
information, and who, as far as we are' aware, has been the first to
draw prominent attention to the metallio wealth of the OwaUor State*
Strict justice demInds that his Interests should be oarefully attended
to, And we do not doubt that should tbe Gwalior iron works ever become
' an aocomplishid fact, Maharajah Soindiah will not forget the man to
whom he first owed tbe suggestion of tbeir existence* But we do say
that before prooeedJng further, ft careful enquiry oonduoted by a fury
of impartial examiners, Is bef^e all things requisite* GrCat miitakos
have been made before now by not attending to this preosotlon, as the
unfortunate Euraaou Ironworks abundantiy pror^ but there is no
reason why, with the/xpsrienoe now gained, each errors shoj^ld not bo
avoided in future*
There is oue fact in the history ol the lron>irade which seems to bo
established beyond dispute, «is., that England Is ceasing to be the greet
centre ot manufacture that It was in former years. A note la our first
page to-day, referring to the death of Mr. Orawshay the '* Iron King
of Wales,'* says that gentleman floatly closed his works owing to a
dlspuie with his workman about wages. *
The full import of that sentence can hardly be realised by those
who are unaware of the prodigious dimensions to which tbe South
Wales iron manufacture had grown, but we believe that we are within
the truth in eaying that 14,000 workmen and an expenditure of A9,000
per Kpeek in wages, reproieuted the extent and cost of Mr. Orftwsbay'a
establishment* In fact he had nearly four times as many men in his
service as (here are European eoldiers in the whole of the States under
the Oentral India Ageuoy I
When will tbe Gwalior State be able to boast that Its army of
irou-'Workers is equally as great as that of the private gentleman
whose death^has lately taken place t-^JDelhi ffazftte ; ISeh June 1872*
A GEOLOGICAL TRIP, AND IT^INOIDENTS FROM
COLOMBO TO BELIflULOFA, VIA
RATNAPURA.
[By A. 0. Dixon, Soibncm Mabtxii in the Colombo Academt ;
JSlaohctor of SoiencGf nAth Avnimrs, of the London Vnhereity^
^0.,
T^ANY attempts have been made to search into the geology
-wX of tb/s island. Several writers, however, bare put it in tho
background as offering no great reward to the student of nature, but
although it may not be of much interest to one accustomed to search
for fossils, yet it offers a great field of study to the student at rocks
and their formation.
This land upon which we dwell, upon tbe soil of which so many
Europeans have for a considerable time oast their lot, mult baVn
some place in the earth’s history, and no doubt that although soma
are apt to Uesciihe tbe bulk ns granite or primitive rock* others,
more correctly as gneiss, yet this metamorphlo rook of so many
varieties may not even be of such distant age as ie imagined. True
there are appearances in its strooture that point to tbe Laureniian
age, equivalent to tbe beds ooourriog in the basin of the St* Lanrenoe,
in which formation, alihoagh highly metamorphosed, we find.the first
dawn of life on the earth—'the oldest known fossil, the JBbsvsa
Canadenee,
Mefamorphio rooks are of various ages ; they may belong to the
primary, secondary or tertiary periods, and there are tome features
worthy of notioe here that to point to an age much younger
than the Laurenttan. If such should be tbe case then we might even
hope to find that most valuable of ill minerals (eoal) ; that mineral
which for a lo'og time was prouonneed absent in India on account
of tho occurrence of rook not much nnllke our prevalent one.
Another point worthy of attootion is the vast dlsiutegrating power
busy at work, Those of us wbo had from northern climes known the
vast power of frost In ths palling down of rook masses, but hers it
appears that we have even a greater force fn the case of moisture
and beat. This disintegration has gone on to a vast depth, as Is
evident by the great masses wo oome across In various parts of
tbe Island ; a notable example beiog the Haipe slip.
Travelling along on tbe high-road to Haldummulla, by ooftoh or
otherwise, may seem to mauy a saocesslon of monotony, bat to the
■tadent of nature, whatever branch he may delight io, he wlH find
much to entertain* For pi ocosideraole diitanoo from Colombo
we have a tolerably flat diktriet with here and there an undulation ;
here and there the oa^ok, the disintegrated gneiss standing out
promlnwtjy. fitlll further on^ we meet with ronnded hills apparently
detaolied from the more dUfant; yet having a basal connection, and as
tre progress we are scKHi ahhi fa make out tbe great cnlmlnating points
of the elevatsdregwni, > Bmitdtngon the top of any of these, we then
are the gmmrftl outline at the whole with its wonderful valleys, and
obtain ft Nr fdfift hi viler lystema Cerf we look on such a
•ceoe as thif 'Withoat iroiKlering bow Jong these rtinning waters
have been deenpkd In fiarvlng out the Jsud into the fasbioo in
which we'aow lee ihfifid how the atirlal sgenoioshave assisted and
left such 4 fiottflgurftUan, often tbiuklng why the etream shottld
fififfi ifthih la^ elfettitOBS eottrses when others might heve iBilee(t«
ip,b)eb #kni«>i
^Tht tiro pri^noti arn f»]»p<a' att4 ^liUbditotia; wa %vdla}fp$r b
niftHV lerna, Itia »o*t oumwiiit being of ciw t^oteeb f«ri#t; Am ibis
,ooMft 0 tmf nttob dumiegtAiei to groel; mmaA,
Tba ied elmunfe. itf 6 om|>tiiion netel ere in oomMnntlon
erifcb fto neid oelled ttUek, Tbe efboffy of elUei# for Ibeae ii w
greet tbet bltberto alt efforta to fled ofte of greeter affinity for
ibeliint ordinary tampereture bee felted, eiTet elowiy tbe tnyaterlona
trorklDg of bitore enloebe it for fcbe «ae of ptent Ufa. fhe other
prt^not, llffiMtotie, tbe ftmvgtitol ibe Sitibeleae, It mnoU more ebon*
Sint iban la ftilerelly tbongbb It occurs aoon after lasting Awise«
'nalte tilt abe tlUega ,£f«nttgewette« the nen»e of erbieh tedtoetei tu
ooonrteoea, ettbet tueeeata of tb« Mmwveit, the Hme burnorai dwalt
tbete, Heny of the namea of theee eiUegea are apt to be passed
ibrObgb ibe mltid lo sitoooe, bat on eiiqalriiig into the orluin of a
'itord wefliid mnoh in a name; auob derivation is often diffioott to
tribe and not bnown atailio tbe present dyveliera wMob would seem to
Point to tbe feet that many of tbeie reoetved tbeir names from a wiser
gapsratlon ttmn the present ooo, and this ie etil] more evident If we
look It dbo ancient templee eitnated on ibJs loute, for wkeri sbooid
we be able to find any amongst tbe present race, eepable of eaeeoting
sndb work. Llffieiitone is found on this road every now and again
In considerable (^uantltyi with a considerable break however, at
Biatnapata.
Ita occnrreneo la orystattloe, tbe alae of tbe crystals varying very
much &i well as tbe Aardneu, bat all are readily scratched with a
knife* Felspar may be acretobed with difficulty and quarts crystals not at
ijl. As to purity,In some oases we find oousiderablo quantities of
eUlolDus grains about the aise of a pin’s head, and pblogoplte, a species
of mica lu six-sided prisms, as well ns other matters lu small
of ibeie limestones contain a great quantity of oarbonalc of
magnesia and are then called dolomite (after the French geologist,
Dolomieu). We have oonsldorabto masses of suohat Ilummata,
lanTtanda. and llva, all Uetweec Polmadulla and Daleogoda, at Beil*
holoya we have a good crystalline, limestone ooDtalniog hot little mag^ .
nesia. natives, however, do not appear to use these hmestnties for
making but prefer to calcine tbe sbells, which are abundant
lo the streams. Formerly, however, they must have used lime for
soma purpose, asmmalns of lime^kfius exist, which have ovidently been
used. With careful examination, probably eeveralof these inaBsea of
lime-stone would be found to be jolowl as one bed or vein.
At Batnapura there Is much to interest the geologist. The 6 ai
natohea broken op to a great extent by gem pits from winch no doubt
many valuable gems have been taken, are especially noteworthy, The
ervftals whether occurring as a whole, or water worn, in their venous
flhadee, Wdness, and value, are very Interesting, Let us think how they
camo there. They werelotmerly oomponents ot the sesame gneUsio rocks,
the softer parts of which have been carried away and those harder
gravelly masses were loft in the beds of Ihe finofent streams. But
ttems of still grester value to the geologist are to be found here. In
this district as well as In several others we have the river gravels
of former ages; it may be of pliocene or poat-pllooene times, tu these
gravels have been found the fossil bones of the elephant, namely'
two metatarsal bones. No doubt many other bones have been dug
up in a similar manner aud thrown away by those who knew not
what they were. In this particular instance the bones ware much
prised; money would not eeoure them, They were required for
laedioinal une. His said the tide of clvillsatiott is westward ; let us
bone that soon Its cirela will have been complated, aud that suoh
stremge superstitions as are eo prevalent may soon be dissipated.
Mnoh has been said respeotiog a geological map. As new dopoHits
Of rooks of economic value are made evident, then we may be lo a
^ir way to ask for such tor the whole nf Ceylou, Much inijht he
done by planters and others whose lot it is to be soa'.terrd over
various pits ot the Island, if, when they find a fresh rook or deposU,
a cave or its contents, Ihoy seek lo know the why and wUorofore of its
oeourrence. ^ , , ,, , , „
Another product of value which occurs is good briok,nafth, w«=l
adapletl tor briok or tile rnnking. Among Hib minor products of tlio
rocks we have in the 'Bdaugoda dUulct, the ocenrrenoe of the uro
and valuable metal, Molybdenum, so useful in analytiaal rh«eacchtoi>
In the same distrlot we have also the oocnereuae of garners, nm
rubies, as related by Dr. Gygax. of the lime alumina variety, and
around Hatnapcia the valuable ore, black oxide of manganese
Perhaps when ihe railway traverses this district we may look forward
to the dense and impenetrable jangles giving way to trees, shrubs, or
plants of value, It rhally seems a pity to see the soil derived from
this gneiss spo idlng its smergy in such dense masses oi i
to see the /aaf^r. Iiowsfcr pretty they way appear, preying
tUmperiog tbe g< id jdngia trees wbich are Of value. A i
knowledge of.forestry and its application would be of great serviwsC-.^
G&serrer.
A COMPANY Ima recently been staiiod lu Glasgow caUed tbe
“ Indian Gold Minos Company, ” with o prelimjiuary capital of
.-CbOjOOi*, for the purpose of woiking the land bold by tU© Wynaad
prospooting Company, th© rrinco of Wales^ Cold Prospecting Oom-
fpany, and by soioo private parties. The Directorate appears to be
a'lfood orie, and ineludes the naiiios of Lord Claud *ToUn Hatnilton,
H. ; ^bo flight Hon’ble Sir James Fergusson, Bglt y Sir William
J.W. CmmingUftm, Bart, ; Sir James n
Scoblo, Q. C. (late Adveoate-Goaeral of ; WHr. Ssmifel
h Howard (tbe well-known <Joinel 0 |;l«O*
ttdinift tif ihA nraUwiiiiainr eaultld tfi Sn raised, and
I a^Yiew to etyawieuoiiigf ,, tiff
of the BIreetots, aM wiefcW I; ftfi ol Muffi*
Jingineers, are now in.fioiteij!* ijttS'ire :|toae^n« to
Wynasd, Messrs. Bwelajr and pomM,
appolfited poliolfcofs of the tb«
arrrimgeiimntsforthetai^o|t|be|rppeir^ :
W« understand thata.prospSetusbhs
under the ahspieies of ibiue eapvriswd mm AAf flanthrs ef
Wycaad in view of proipscUag tbe gold SsSfS Of
While wishing the enterprintog pmjeeloiinBis^QSSIt ^ OdeaSlnb
to refer such otonr readers as may fe^ Interesteillf t |0 ^bnJpne number
of tbe Jftdkn JprMturitt, Mr. A* Bosooe, one of the {rre|eelots, isat
present in Calcutta with a view of starting bis ssbsme,
OOIiD IN 6CIMATO*. ,
S UMATRA is altracticg praotioal attenth^n as being the gold iilsasd
of nailqTaty. Mr, Yerbeek, an engineer, for years iuceessitely
has been making investigations In tbe FhdaoifHigblaiidB at SupSyang,
into the pdesibilUy of flodlog gold in large quantities in river beds
buried there under volcauic loatter. These investigations have resulted
Us satisfactorily as poselble, and the said engineer has secured the
co*oporation of one ot the wealChlSit inhabitant! of Netherlands,
India, in forming a company to work a mining oencesslon granted to
him lor Bvo years. Tbe ospUai of Lbie oompany is Axed at 400,000
guilders, divided into shares of 250 guilders etch. The prospectus
which appeared yesterday excels in clearness and simplicity, aad it
appears from the articles of assoDiation that people have to do here
with the application of capital to mining operations lor tbe gold ore,
which, as Mr, Yerbeek declares, Istobefoond in abundance. Bboutd
this trial succeed, the company have a splendid future before them.
Should people inquire whether wo believe in a ,good result, we an¬
swer, roundly, yes. And that, loo, because we consider Mr. Yerbeek
a very iciontlfio, and, at the same time, a very discreet aud calm
person, who Inspires us with the utmost confidence in the solidity of
his observations, Within two years the results obtained by him are
to be made’known. We heartily wish complete saoeesi to the pro¬
moters and shareholders of the company,—Nnfauia 8 rd
May.
GOLD MINING IN DECHMBEU LAST.
A fter repeated requests (he Madras Qovernment have at last issued
Mr. Brough Smyth’s report of his discoveries in December last
justly held by those who toured with him, to be the most important of
hie invesligations. In tbe early part of December some progress was made
with the compilation of the maps of the distriet. From the 10th to the
20tb December (says Mr, Brough Smyth) X was. engaged in examining
the ecuotry between Devalah and Villirymulls, At Faroherry Milt
about two miles qud-a-half east from Oharambsdi, there are native
workings which, both as regards their extent and tbe manner to whinh
tbe mlmng operations have been oonduoted, are of unninai interest.
The quarts has been obtained from large and small exoavaiioos, from
adits, and from shafts, and the manner in which the htoken quart« has
been disposed of. would almost suggest that the works had been managed
by some one who had the miners under strict control; The qnartx vein
contains iron pyrites, lemonite, hmmatfte, and free snlpbnr. Several
dishes ot broken quarts were washed and minute speaks of gold were
'Seen, and BOhseqUeiitly fine gold was got by amalgataailDn. All the
tests have not yet been eomplete<l, but 1 am satisfied that this is a raef
that should he oarefallj and thoroughly .prospected. Notes ware made
ttspeotlag alt the outcrops of quarts observed betweanParoherry Hill
and YellirymuUa. Ou the Naikeo Sbola and Little Windsor Estates
sixteen outcrops ot quarts were examined, and some of tbw can be
traced north-westerly Into Oheppah Tbodeh, Ooid—same of It rather
«-OMMiiiHikjat.UliaMl, near which ibera are quarts
/eius; aud between Oharombadl and Moopenard tilghleen semrata
<>**^^nps were seen. On the Moopenard Estate and op the estates at
Ml fl d - IHlhf ?d f ttyyffi a^a>ih 9 fe -irB nnmefous reefs, OoTd was .obtained
by washing ths harth ip several plaoss; end to my (humble oplutoii
there is a reasonable prospect that anrlfareus quarts, Ukdly to yield at
a rate that Would remunerate the miner,, wilt beAU^srea in the
district. Fleoes of quarts contatnlng gold wete tooud lying on the edge
of a track at VsUlrycauUa; hut the genUeaiitt who wee eo good as to
condttct me m the mh h^:nok et tbet time aseerteioad from jsibat
reef *hsy bed Um hi W, H jnay perhaps be tbe peef eefarrellip in
paragraph Id Of my report of the fith November. The gantiOman who
gave me the toftwomt^ ooetaioed in that peraavaph 4 sraa, I was tpld,
thiPqtMifm fWu on metf estates; some of tt
oiykttg thedatos^end thsy are sstMIng spa
tioa. This khid of prospsoting, thoegh osk
that which ha* teiaBed In the diseovevy of i
'OaUtdmlsieshm)* f»U Jto he of benefit. ,
« indetMfotioformatlotfand atiigti
. Maitiiialay, Mr, J. H. Thomson,, i
gentiemen who have estatoi in the diltrlet,
ma snsy are smsiiDg speeimam to M w examUw-
prospeoting, thoQgh neeeaiarily far short of
Win thedlsoDvevyof rich vetiie Ift Antimlia
fA>' ' .
,t}it,^^'!.'ife i 4yji ii ^ l i 'ffi iiji ^.' 1 ■*' wiafat js a . t'fr i v ,
9 i$
ta| iftwwtold loiib bti jGmittt Oam-
mumibla givraatli l^Uag thftt the proptfial
h imgl/tb ^lTMalrfdtefOiiribly by tbg i^ewlfttigg ««oUons of the
g«Rimutt|iy of Bengal agd Batma, tTbO prbipetrtaa U extfemely
iKiodatttt In Iti regaireinenti, and Ue aapeeUHt^e are bated on tolerably
leBable data* It deierTei foeoeii, and wtU dpnbtlei* merit the cu-
jfmamgeibant ^d support of OoTernment.
It It foitdiSie that the Oompany Intenda oondnlag lbs operations to
simply extraetlog the crude mineral oil. We bate unfortitnate eriaeDoes
to aW that lu reftniaitdUtlllatton. local maonfaetnrers oannot
eompete with foreigni eithet in cheapness or (jLaaUty of produotlon;
and an undertaking fpr sueh a purpose woaidj therefore, under existing
Ibots, only imply failure as an inevitable result of the force of
eireumstances.
The latest quotation in the Calcutta market of the dnest variety of
American keroslne is Its. 7 per ease ol two live gallon Css four gallons
Imperial) tins. Xbls. it should be noted, is the retail prioe, inrolving
two or more prodts, besides freight over, perhaps, ton thousand miles
of a sea voyage, with insuraooe and other oharges. .Wo oau
aympathise with the itroggUug efforts for exlsteneo ol the Uangoon
Oil DiitiUery ; but we oonld not recommend^ the example of its
proientors being followed; in faot, other (hiogs * being inpposed
equal, taking the resonroes of the oouhtry and the present outturn
of earth-oil, there is no room, just now, for such another drm.
ABAKAN Olt.
TCTB hate belorw un iW valuable opinioiMi of m gentleman
V V deputed by the Obvemm^t of India to ex amine the
mineral resourcei of ArakaUii They are contained In a pamphlet
comprising the reporta ol the Geological Survey by £*. B. Mallet,
Esq., F. G. S. Tlie existeobe of large petroleum deposits in that
part o^Brfitish Burma Was ioferted li^>ht the fact that, over a
large tract of country, the oil is found poaing from the sorfaoe ;
and the investitation, of Mr. Mallet^ together with tiie labours
of Mr. Savage (in whose property the Company referred to
proposes to start operations), have put it idmost beyond a
doubt that at some depth the oil would be found in very largo
quantities. Mr. Mallet, at page 193, says ihat-^
pQtroleum*bearing rocks ooonr throughout the Blands, and that
the cU-besrlng rooks of Fegn, wbioh are within 70 mUes of fismri
in A straight line, are believed by Mr, Xhtobald te be nummuiltlo j
all the known oil looAltties being situated on ninntnulitfe, or still
yoonger strata. The eoal also from the fiamrt Islands is quite of
the nammulltio type." m
The exislenoo of mud volcanoes is also believed to be aacooiated
with large quantities of mineral olL Miiibain in the island of
Ilamri, where Mr. Savage has soma 70 oil welis, is close to
nmd^ volcanoes, or salses, and is said to resemble in position and
geographical features the best oil localities of America. On the
ODuiieotion between mud>volcaaoes and petroleum, Mr. Mallet
writes-^
Our readers ere of oouree aware that rock oil is obtained in
variouB parts of the world ; and the chief centres of production
of late years have been Peussylvania and Canada, both in North
America, lu Asia, the coast line of the Oasplan Sea. and Assam
and Burma are the localities known to us in which it abounds. In
Europe it is a pretty well known fact that the city of Genoa is
lighted by means of a naphtha spring at Amiano in the State of
Parma; and even in Eoglana oarbonaoeous shale, yielding oil, is
no novelty.
But in reverting to Mr, Savage’s undertaking, it may bo necessary
to add that he is nob the only iudlvldual or firm who has, daring
the past year or two, been prospecting for oil in Arakan, lb Is not
long since a provinolkl journal offered some lotereatlng resnlta of
the operatioDB of the Bombay and Burma Trading Corporation in
boring for oil in the same neighbourhood, which confirms, or rather
greatly strengthens, the statement he (Mr. Savage) furnishes of the
riebness of this region in liquid bitumen.
In reports relative to the subject, we are sarpriied to find no
reference to a point which cannot fall to be of interest to many
devoted to such researches, affording room for inquiry and elucidation
the prevalence of earth-oil all along the Arakau hills and their
northern continuation Into Assam at corresponding points on both
sides of the range wherever It has been sought. The Inelauoe of
eoinoidenoe may possibly bo only casual or accidental ; but the
ilmiiarity of oocurrenoe, so tar as observation goes, readers the
general oonolniion not altogether Improbable "-leaving the queatlou,
whioh has never been fnlly discussed, open for (nvestigatioo.
We shall be excused for using the hackneyed phrase onoa again—''There
is a great mineral future for Burmaaud in inaugurating a branch of
mineral industry lor which the oapabUliies of the country are peculiarly
well adapted, Mr. Savage deserves well of the prorloce. We wish that
the BUCoeSB of other undertakings with which we are acquainted bad
been equoliy os well aesured. However, the standing reproach of the
g^ot want of enterprise among Europeans in the Bast can be hardly said
to apply with justice or force at the present period. We find ]otat*stook
konosms springing np everywhere, atorted on all sides of India, and
among them may be enumerated gold-miniog, Portland cement. Ice,
soap* and a hoet of other Oompauies. of ivbich though lost—but we
hope It will be none the backward for that"-}i the one intended to
ba the pioneer of " petroleum enterprise’' in Arakau.— mmes.
TbV 4«ag iean oil wolls donot now. we learn, yield the quantltw^they
dld« Very opportunely attention has been turimd to Arakan. There is
abnndant reason for hoping that a fresh stlmnlns will be given to the
nommercial prospects of the dietrict. Experts have given an opinion,
that the areals largci wherein oil may be found in quantity and quality
Wot to disappoint the most ambitlonispeonlation and the most liberal
prelisaiiiary oetley* The late proprietor of this paper had great faith fa
tkebfolect now set afloat; and though his own hopes ol etarting a
Compaiiy were grievonsiy diMtppointed, we know he was interested
enou^ in Akyaband the dletrtol m rejoiee in th# nesj^peote opened
to the ptevInsHt* Whatever the niult may be^m Savage ought
to leoilve unitintied emdit for pioneering the wa^, and with iimlieU
lAldns, and nndw dteeouragemeot end difiSeulty for persevering to
adoommUb Atbmaiiy have dewgd tleienary, but wbioh he
wmtlM%«imd,iiofitabie.-->^^ Ifcns^
" The sources of the mud in the mud-voloonoes ate nudoubtedly
the gray shales which form luoh an important part of the rooks
throughout the islands, and the mud ejected therefrom always
contains more or less saline matter. It is well-known how frequently
mineral oil and salt are associated. In India, they are found toge¬
ther in the oil-producing tracts of Bnrma. Assam, and the Punjab.
That tba Bamrl rocks do oontain saline matter, I found by examm-
ing the sboies or clay from the oil-mills In Tslchyong, Setaung, and
Minbain, which when lixiviated with water, all yielded soluble
ohiorides and suipbates in vmying proportions."
The association of petroleum with mud-voloonoeg is also
found in Java and at Baku on the Oospion, where a single well
has been known to have yielded 2,000 barrels a day. Mr. Mallet,
however, ie of opinion that the Arakan salses have no connec¬
tion with the muddy pools *’ of Assam, and that Arakan is an
oil territory by itecLf, entirely separate from Assam or the wells
of the King of Burma. Another point noticed by Mr. Mallet is
the resemblance between the babbles of gas emitted from the
Oil-wells to those of mud-volcanoes. Aud Mr. Bavage states
that Oil boring to a depth of 150 feet, the gas issues with the
oil with such force that tlie son ad of it oau bo distinctly heard
from the surface. A similar plienomenoti occurs in the
American wells. On this subject Mr. Mallet writes
o Becollectiug the great teusion at which quantities of gas are
often stored op iu coal mines, and the force with which it escapes
from the ' blowers ' there, as well as from many bore-holes In the
oU regions of America and elsewhere, it is not difficult to eouoeire
that 10 some oases, gas mud*voloauoea may be caused, where the
other necessary oouditioua are present, by the pressure of gas due
merely to its continued alow generation from carbonaceous matter
at the normal temperature of the strata at moderate depths—but,
given, certain coal or liguite-beariog rooks producing oil and gos, if
they are situated on a line of vulcauio heat (although of low
intensity insufficient to fuse, or materially to alter, the rooks accom¬
pany such earbouaoeoua matter) the teusion of the gos and vapour
may, doubtless, be inoroaaed, by the larger proportion of gas compared
to that of oil, produced at the higher temperature, and by the
increased tension due to a higher temperature, where gas is stored up
iu a Auure of given capacity, la this oonuexion the difference
between the petroleum of the Irrawaddy Valley (in Burma) and of
Hamri (m Arakau) may be noticed—the mud-voloanoea of the
former region have been described by Dr. Oldham os * very sluggish’,
and as never exhibiting the fiery paroxysms to which those in Hamri
are sabject. At the same time the oil is dark coloured, and as
thick as treacle, or even solid at 60^ F., being indeed often spoken of
as ' Haugoon tar,' and contains parraflne to the extent, sometimes, of
more than 10 per oent."
Mr. MalJtft Xurther observes that " the Hamri or the Arakau oils
are associated with much gas, and are themselves sometimes as
transparent and light coloured as brandy—they have a lower speoifto
gravity thau the above, aud at 60 degrees are perfeetly mobile—
without vcnturioig to assent that the above differences are due to a
difference in the temperature at wbioh the oils have been produced.
It may be noticed that at Baku on the Oatpiao, where ihera are mud-
volcanoes subject to fiery eruptious, similar to those of Arakau, the
oil is, In part, of tbe same pale, transparent kind, and is aooompanted
by immense quantities of gas."
Thoe far we have confined ourselves almost solely to the
reports of My. MaUat They are suifioient to show that there
i| a prospect of a profitable and very extensive industiy. Some
mtUsf lufocpuaMou before us on * the subject we sbati reserve
‘ ' a ,
fBB TBA IIABSBX, ^ ,
I K i»tir im», ird Itftd « few wotds on iiie ^roipaets of kut,
and oenfiiied oimlvoi to the toflfttod volute pot upon eerteixi
l^roperttoe, milifog it Impovilb)^ to liavo a reioouable dividend
ijNN»lorff4«bowfVOrgoodtbo3ro^^^^ might havo been. In
tbii» we pxopote looking to the matketi that exist for tea, and
kow wo ^umid meet tboee markets. Bor all praotioal pnrposas
00 only market we ;ltare at tbio moment ie Xiondon. Varioua
mtfolea seem to have a tendenqjr to gravitate to oertain marketsi
tea to Xtondooi ootton to Liverpool* Doabtless I^ndon is 0o
"Ibmt market for ic%ny artioles ; there are congregated a vast
aumto of merobants and capitalists, which of itself makes it the
most «ait01e place, heeldee it has long been looked upon by
foreign bnyertaa Ms place to get supplies* There is no reason
however, why Indian tea growore should not look around them
for other markeM. Australia, for instance ; we think a strong
oBcrt should be made to secure Australia for a market. The
consumption of tea there is large per head of population, and
that is fast inoreaBingi and this increase consists,-*>wUh the excep¬
tion of a few Obinese-^ntirely of Europeans, and of that class of
Europeans who will likely prove good tea oousuraers. We will,
however, conAno ourselves at this lima to the London market.
The eoDsumptlon of tea is steadily inoreandg in'/Great Britain, the
following table shows the quantities consumed there at the
several dates.
Total ooDSutaptioo.
Iba.
E’er head of
population,
lbs.
umy.
1801 .
20,237*706
l*2ti
8S/.
mi *.*
20,702.800
1*12
^ru
1821 ••*
22.802,013
1*08
96**/^
itoi .
' 20 007.100
l-2,‘)
1841 ...
30,787,790
1'37
lbs. 2tf. iilfl.
1801 ... ...
71.406,421
1*97
2,».
1861 .
77,049,404
2*69
Ir. 5d.
1871 .
124.723,063
3'92
Hd.
1877 .
140.483,744 |
4-60 1
M,
1878 ...
1
197,409,000
6 81
M,
This table shews the expansive tendency in the way of Tloaie
consumptioo, end, so far as appearances go, there seems every
rsasou to expect that this will go on increasingly for a very long
period, aud for this reason, the preHeut consumption when ooin-
pared with that of fifty years ago may seem • large, but per ee it
is txci edingly small. Bor instance take it at 4*50 lbs. This Only
amonnts to one ouuoo aud C drams per week, and who shall say
that thore is not room for further oxteusion here. But there is
another point, a few years ago this consumption wad entirely of
China tea, now it consists to a large extent of Indian tea as well.
Last year the totsl imports of tea into Great Btitain were
kOiiflOOiOOOlbs, we quote round numbers—of which India provided
34 million Ibe.*—the percentages being China 63| per cent. India
Idf per cent. This year, the Imports promise to be about 220
million lbs. of Whidh it is estiumtod Inilia wH! provide 18 per cent,,
as the extensions which Itave beengoiiNf for the past 5 years
will now be coming Into uriirgi aud they will speedily aToot the
Indian outturn.
That tho taste for Indian lea is spreading, way be assumed
from tb4 fact that the stocks at home haVe usually borne a steady
ratio to the quantities retained for h®*®® untillast
year, when a leap In favor Of Indian teas wore made, /rtie
increase in deliveries for Home ooneumptiou in XB78 ovef 1877^
was 11 millions lbs., millions being Chiua, aiuI 8| millions
Indian. Let us therefore take heart; the taste for our teas is
steadily inoreaaing, ami tide increase will he helped by the ,
attempts which are being made just now by tho Ohmoae toM^e
0a itrong rich flavor of Aeeam teas, by using powerlu- chcil^ls
in the process of manufacture, ibie is their only hope, as -
lim 4|W'l^d0lki»kci''!iSM^^ il igim:
'befmtks. NowaWdrfaslothwidisitb^ ,
ifiake; In k word the questtou ^ l|hidbjF
4hattU£y;HhatbetMa4ihitted,ilmto«fl^^
clissifloatioa, At present Jadlin tea 11 claesM as >dtOitaiige
fekoe,P^oe, Pekoe Souchong, SoudhohgJ aUd
iwt8peakoftholower*^ras we might alh«c#
wasteproducts, as red leaf and duct, 0ei4 are the
of manufacture, and should if possible ^cotd 0ey wtuli
never go home, as the prices realised them far them Is loiv,
compared with 0e freight, insurance, ohargeC and duty* ^e
think an improvement might be made In the olassifleAtieti, the
great advantage of the producer, and also of the oobaumer, wa
would suggest, jthat only one oiaas of tea should ^ ^ni to
Eogland. When tea is bulked on 0e factory, It would be hotfor
that the red leaf and dust be eliminated and uB the rest pb^d
aa Pekoe Souchong. By 0i8 means wearo oonvlnoed that a good
all-round prioe would be obtained, better than 0e average pf the
several classes, the expense aud trouble of elasaifioatien would .be
avoided, mom labour would therefore he available doilog the
busiest season, and 0ereby a larger outturn Would be ebtoiiiedi
larger breaks would be ofiCered for sale at a tlme^ and last though
not least, there would be much less broken tea and dust, as these
are to a large extent the results of the multitudinous claasifioafelon
tbat|;oeson. lu a late circular from a London broker, dated 29th
hloy, wo find the averages of the various classes of teas to be as
followa
s, d, Ko. of qacHttkma*
Pekoes . 1 10. 13
Pekoe Bouoboog. 1 3t ... ... 13
Ooogoii .0 9| ... ... €
Now a general average of these gives Is. 5d. per lb. and it is pre¬
sumed that the lot would have realiised that amount had they been
I all mixed, whereas we observo the Pekoe fleuebong only brought
Is. This has been tried before, but never properly, as planters
have never been able to resist the temptation to remove tho fluest
of the Orange Pekoe, hence the result, so far ss 06 price got lor
the gross hulk was concerned, was usually a failure, because it
wanted that very quality it should have had to make up for the
thiunessoC the Congou. Wo feel oonvtnced that with all, 0e Pekoe
tips retained, the result would be a Pekoe Souchong, that would
reatixe a very fair all-round rate, higher, in fact than the average
of the same teas if classified from Orange Pekoe to OeUgou.
Lot us now look to other markets. America oonsumei tea
largely but purchases mostly from Japan, why should we not be
able to induce her to take from uh. Tlieu Australia, we have never
we believe, attempted to open out relations there, the popu|aticn‘
is comparatively small* but is increasing fast, and the Australians
take all their teas from Ohtua. This is not as it should be, we
should send trial shipments, open out agencies, aud use O0ef
means to apread a taste for our teas. Have we done anything at
the Cape, and what are we doing in Oauada ? Now that we are
soon to have a commercial treaty witli A%han, we should find an
Opening there lor about three million pou&ds per annum of grron
tea. Then there is India herself, Europeans, Euraeiaus, and even
uativeri avo fast becoming tea-drinkers. In the ofMaf yeOr
1S77-8 there was imported into India the large quantity' of
2,323,033lbs> of tea, this was doubtless principally from €hf»a,
and why should this be.7 Why because we send our cheap teas to
England It would be better to encourage the coneumptioii
of these here, aud send nothlug bpt the finer gUaiUttt to
Londofi. Tiiere must be about ^ to 10 niiHone of, > these c^ip
teas made in ludia annually, and it Would be more' -Qeenomloel4e
^ have all sold here, 0en seatloLopdan, as all ollames; df
wbatover quality bear the same Itolgl^ and duty per >0.,
It if a pity that Aim oensummatten of t^e ^commetoial pkrt
of the AtfgHaa'^'festy whfluld have to be delayed pp iimg* ,^or
six years 0 b tei^ tra^ that C3ed to ^xlst between top toa
gsidene NorthtlSfest and.Oabul
dud ito^ at imsMseneemeiit, use may say,, of ^tbs/te
it lia^ bw s)geod titge to
r
itinv,
T™r—-s- vWjN #1% •ifp.AMp
(imiini .'1^ lift ii «Mt to iDtekltmv.' Ik Uftiift mom*' Ixigi,
, eoiDipidBK two iMiidncI i^oftodft WMbt At llnrilittr tit« Otg*
. and ^ft tft* nnftQy j^trilnid ftnflfftpodftdthofttUlo
dontak^iq^pfttl^ ftu](i^t« oiE .coj^pftr and nypram, with
( 'Ot» olijftftt m ^fiaft it tM ftiltwr* ^oW W^ftftee ■<>
UWill' 4)]r ftoOMdiwift e( gmm OftM. • 1< to thM paokad
io' 9 iiii|Ii bi(g44f iboni l$Ib9a to 201)»* oaoU for ooa?eoieno 0 o£
0W»iW» «l» Wi^y foWAwUa through the Tran*-
HImaUygit pww» by raeana of aliaep and goata, thoaa hmiy
aulihtda iMhg ^vod moM attitabia for tho olaai of work and
tha o|f tho toad and oliznate* l^ow tbaao marofaanto are
atmonaty waiting to be ablo to reatime tliia traffic ^ain, but
tho loaoottro oonaltion of the road from onr frontier to Cabal
hlia oS^tualfy otoeed tbo trade, and tfafa has led to great loss
to tho i^lanters intereeied, beoaoeo of iheir class of tea being
of the lowest j4i of China variety, fhea ISinmsit is ill adapted
for naakiag the strong, pungent black tens now wahted in
London, and they are in oohsequenoe heavyJosers by having
tb mahe black tea. If the treaty is to bo gooa for anything, no
time should be lost in carrying into eifeot the commercial part
of it. The quantity of tea annually made in ilieso three
districts is 2,000,0001hs., «o that it is not a petty trade.
« Mn. F. LrnpB has recently published a very useful large scale
map of the tea-moduolng tracts of India, compiled from revenue
survey maps, from personal surveys and from reports from tea
planters. The sheet comprises maps of all the tea districts,
including Chittagong and Cbota Nagpore; is carefully coloured
(each garden being clearly marked) ; and is mounted on canvas
and follers. The else is aWut 6ft. by 3ft.
INDIAN TEA PLANTERS AND THEIR
HOME INTERESTS.
I F union Is strength,” we think we are justifled In saying that the
Tea planting interests of India are lacking an ImportaDt aonree of
power in dealing with many of their gdevauoee, through their want I
of some uniting agenoy which would enable them at need to take
common aotlon,
Ihe long diitances which separate the varione tea distriofs, and |
the vast area over wbloh As^oin, the largest of ibem, stretches itself,
have seemed hitherto to stand in the way of much Jnteroommunioa-
tlon i and not only has there been little or no coocerted action on
the part of the different diatriote, bat the iodividual gardens have
remained isolated to an almost ineredlble extent,
We think there can be little doobt that the occasions are not few
when the planters would be great gainers if they were In a posUIon
to act ttnttediy. In all that relates to maoU needed law reforms,
t(f the imperative reqairements in the way of better means of
transit, tm,, to a host of other sabjeots, the weight of the vast
intersits hoand up In tea oan only he fairly felt when those iotereete
can ipeak tfaesame thing at the eame time.
Tha G'Otemmenf, both at home and in India, have never shewn
IheaiMtves indisposed to listen either to olatms or anggestions whose
•Quroe anUtled them lo refpeot; and wo are quite satisfied that,
wen there an organieation which fairly represented the various
intsieits of Uu growing In India, the CtoverniBent would not only
hear but weloomo whatever U might have to say as to improvemente
in theaglstfng laws or other matters to wbloh such an agency would
natp^ly turn Its atteniloo.
kfany of our readers will bo aware that last autumn a smatl hot
inffUfi^tiar eommlttee of gentlemen in London, Interested in Ataani,
watted upon the AierelOry of State lor ludiiu and pressed upon his
ata^On some Of the dffhcuttlea eaperieaoad, espeokify In Upper
Aiianh m roiard to mekhs ofOommuniowfon. As cue result of their
aethifn, im tmdtrataiid that tha test sod of a new line of some 70
mflde latlany in that dHtliot has already been turnedi while
mateilal hoprovdmant has been made in the existing highways. Here
is a jNMeni and impartimt Ihitanoy of the, advantages that might
fairiy heodfiMtad wnecta aeundlroottstltuted and tboroughly representa*
livo Aviation to be formed Which should unite the |arious tea*
”wiates.*e;. eOnsl4eration to form such an association,
in Lenjdoa i and provided tj^l li| haWs
is 4 beliM II mi|^t W % Semis Of * ia.
to wm' wnma^ iiwodld reprlsstit. ^ ^
Wlimohk news of UI aattin
ieui^M^Wf, hntliteli
ler the news of its aettiid
watnndi aiM itvtt tie
systsesStoji/kSiT*’
r B crop ban lallmi oft lW^jSir owing fiO sniA tnw pcioea in
Vekohama, that it^i^tthlps^ proiluoeri to piek the lower
grades ; ffndlng nd markdt hdrp, my tend ihe|r tsds aon^ psy
*NitBU Bishi steamers, and also ^ddfiA
The uamerons tea. planlajklonn whi^. la the unmedlate
neighboarliobd of Niigata prove tbn failaey of libotdds, (h«t tea
plant# cani^ol pe ipared with profit beyond, fhe $6th ^^ea of N«Ifi
The ciimate of this dlitrict may be hdefiy doioyibed ad foUews sf*
6. and &*W. oummer winds oreatlng a slight oorrent aettklE No^tUf
and thus causing on increased temperature; a wtater generally
eommenoing in December w&ih N. and N.«^. winde, followed by
heavy falls of enow and gradually decreasing lempemture, which
is at its minimum towards the end of January or early in Febrnavy*
Then come warmer days, the ihemtometer ire^ently idiowfngfi
to 9 dogreoB, Bdanmur at midday, followed by heavy snow etonxm
I from the N. and N.*W., Which continue till thb oij^ Of Idi&rcb, when
tho spring may be laid to have eot in. This season of the year
is generally genial, with a clear or sUgfhRy dpqdy eky, though
I stormy, cold weather Is sometimes earperieneed. From the
I middle of May till the end of September the weather Is warm,
if not hot, the prevailing wind befpg 8. ; thunderstorms and
heavy falls of rain are not infrequent in July" and Auguet. A
rainy season is unknown in this neighbourhood. From October
the weather is cold and changeable withS.-W* Winds.
Tlie snow which covers the ground to a depth of from 4 to 8
feet, is undoubtedly a great protection to the tea plants against
the more severe cold of mid-winter. This covering ie speedily
melted away by the warm south winds of spring, and while
gradually disappearing, it refreshes the budding plants. Tho
soil of this part of Japan is a chalky clay, and the tea'^elds,
situated on the upper slope of an immense plain, extending
seaward from the range of mo?intai»s some 25 miles from
Niigata, are well Irrigated by large streams.
Applying these particulars to the luxurious growth of the tea
plante in this distriol, we find:-let, an absence, of intense and
continuous cold ; gud, ample water supply, and fine sunny spring
weather, uuacoompauiod by night frosts; 3rd, ounUnuoua tummev
heat, with refreshing rains ; 4th, a temperately warm autumn,
during which season the tea plants are in full blossom.
TIjo tea producing places, arranged according to quantity, am
Murakami, Muramatsu, Kurokawa, Niitau, Goseu a*>d Tatemura.
Murakami produces the largest quantity of superior teas, while
thoso at Muramatsu are on the whole preferred in tho foreign
market ; tlie Kurokawa teas are considered superior by the
Japanese to those of Murakami, but foreigners make no distinotion
between these two sorts. The average annual produoe of the
various crops of tea is estimated at about 500,000
Mail.
TEA CULTIVATION IN RUSSIA.
TT is reported that the culture of tea ip the Caupaansis to be
•A encouraged by the Russian Oovernment, The plant at present
grows freely near Soukhum Kaleh, and experiments by the
Qovernmeut have shown that it can thfive equally welt in
Miugrolia and Quria. As it is believed that the plant y 7 oald also
nourish in the recently annexed Turkish provinces a tea plantation
is to be established at Ardahan. Some years ago it appears that an
attempt was made at Tiflis to establish a Busso-Oermati Company
on the basis of a Government subsidy to develop growtii of tea and
place it on the market, but the projoctoj's imaging that in order
to roll the leaf it would be necessary to introduce a large amount
of coolie labour from China, and as this did not meet the views
of the Russian Government, the ^project lapsed* But now it is
thought tliftt the cngagemeuit of a few Chinese foremen will be
suffioieut to secure that the Mingrelian colonists sst about the
ottltivtttioii in tbs most approved way. Only one more is needed
to put tho Oauoaaos in the field against India and China for the
supply of tea, and that is capital; but unfortunately the state of
the Empire knd the abnormal iiinoroosness of capitalists iiiduoe
the impTeisioni, that it will be some time before tho tea market
will be seriously 4^etdrbod by this new competitor. The efforts
of Jht Imperil '^veromeatto foster manufacturis and trade are
%eTO dnlfinitir^nfMa CBnw/mikHl,
248
THE
Ja!y 1,
•^FFEB,
fpEB follonfni H Upm tlia (iMe e-^** 4ooordlog to the* Sfatli^leni
X Ahitfaol lor Um X7ait«d Kiogdem, 1871/ the i^opalerity ol tee itf.
ft beverage iaereiefti afeeadlly la the Uotted Kiogdom, white the denuiQd
lor coffee remftitti etftlloaarg* Zo 1883, the qaaniit^ ot Imported lea
retained for home ooaeoiDptioa woe 758,933 owls., while in 1877 it was
very nearly douhio, the exact amonat being 1,918^811 owls. On the
other hand, coffee Ihll away during the lade period from 992,628 owte,
to 288,268 cwta,t a coQttderablc didlubtion when the iaonate
of the pppulalion Is tahen into account. I^or can the decrease be
eaplained by the theory of a larger admiaiure of chicory, for the
Qonentnptioit ot that article remained almost as stationary as that of
coffee. It Is a cartoai thing that a beverage which presents so many
advantages for the working olaeees has not come into wider nee. A
mild sttinolant, a beating agency, and possessing great scsiatoiog
powar, oofleo would seem to be the very thing for those who have
''to^ Jpt honre to the open atr : hot use and wont are on
the sidetea, it appears, as strongly as ever, and even the rising
generation mast yield to their power, or we should see soma evidence
of an Increased consumption of coffee concurrently with the enormous
development of tea imports. Perhaps the now movement for coffee
taverns may do* something In this direatioo. by nafoldiug to the
working olasees the virtues of the berry which they have so long
negleotetl. True, there have been early coffee etaiia in the streets
for many years pest, but the article vended at these eitablishm ents
18 not eaaotly oalcttlated^ to create widespread popularity. The
cut ions decootfon may possibly be sastaining and heat'giving; bo far
as thickness goes it leaves nothing to be desired, tint the devour
is distinoily uauseons, and the sediment so plentiful that, as a
workman waa ouoe heard to remark. * one gete meat and drink at
tho same time/ la former times, it was not very easy to obtain a
good deacrlplion of berry except at a high price. Now. however.
Ooylon, Costa Uica, and tlonlbern Madras produce very line qualities,
wh'ch can bo bought at much lower rates than the so-called ‘ Mocha,'
and are quite, if any, Inferior to that standard of cxoollonce."
LEAF DISEASE.
(To the Editor “ Ceybn Oftsfirner.’*)
Dbab Siii,—In these limes when a care for leaf disease is so
mnoh wanted, I conaider it worth whllo that the following proooss,
how to apply enlphur in a liquid state to the ooffeo trues, should
bo an widely known as possible ; the groat advantage of it is that
it can be &e.^doii6 in dry weather. The diffionlty is to get the sul phur
to mix with water, but by the use of soft soap that is easily over¬
come. Mix 29 lbs. of flowers of sulphur with 4 lbs, soft soapt work
the two well up together, and add water, very gradually at first,
until tbo quantity is made up to 13 gallons. 1 find this quantity
will do 200 trees well. Apply with a common garden eyringe,
which should be held under the tree, so that the mixture may be
forced up on to the under side of the loaves# A good deal falls on
the ground, aud the stems and branches should also get a coating
of it.
Old beer casks cut into halves make eyceUeut tubs for making
up tue mixture in.
Labour.—One cooly mixing, one cany tag water, and one using
the syringe can do an acre in two days.
Cost of sulphur in London is 11-0 aewt; soft soap 14 s. per cwt.
I have just done an acre hero very succeMefully, the weather
having been very favourable for the application, and if it is not
attended with much good T shall be disposed to give tip all
endeavours to get rid of Bmdeia vastatrU as hopeless ; time will
shew. 1 ought to add that Mr. Morris saw the cofVee to which I
have applied the mixtuie, aud thought the expcrimont will be a
ve^ fair one.
For the most of the foregoing information 1 am indebted <o Mr.
Charles 6. Hadden, who was a planter in Ceylon, more than thirty
yearn ago.—Yours truly,
Waygalla, May 10, Zd7U.
J. F. Moiu.
-2 owts, snlphnr, and 32 lbs. soft soap, were used in doing
1,600 trees. ’
THE EFFEOTB OF NEW COFFEE.
T he MandeUbtad^ot the 15th March says‘With regard to
the Kotherland vessel Easiim Pot, which left Oliilachap on'
the 4th February last bound for Eotterdam, we learn tUo following
details. Shortly after she left ^he port, frequent casus d|^.^ver
occurred on board, imd with each a violeaoe that tin uin died
on the lUh February, followed by the mate, the oaipenter, and
eeveu of the mi^ai <l tetri ri Yberfm^
>a
««-2ra
_iAbey tell
dyritederod
tbeerdw, who wore lOeq % flrt ipa# dlte^
imd they wmre so weak at one Mine eonld tealoMF Atjm
^ pm Otlter calawlMee,howeirelf, name to -
4or«q|iweather prevailing Tor? bii,
dtronpit among them then decided to fiO Op V, _ _^ .
th^ sails standing, and in this position they to nteetihrir
fate before the vnnd and the oorrent# On tim ntb VoroU r
in with the British barque Mapnf/lmL wnlohitemOdiately U-, ^
them assistance. The oAptaln Of the iteynfteiiMi^t Ohboi^
the disabled vessel his mate and five sailors to oonvqy tba veii4 te
Batavia. Daring the latter voyage ihere were no Wm bainmlltev
but the nine men were in such condition th^ nmiftttited; k
immediate removal to hospital on ordvdng at Balsvfa. deaths
are attribnted to the foul air ezhanatmg from the oomo^ vhioli
ooDsisted of now ooffee. Last year a vessel Was dispatched teom ,
Penang with the same cargo for Atnerlca and the some phenouifipB
occurred,**
The Daghkid of Batavia, in its issue of the 19th hUroh, soys t*-*
** Eight seamen, tlie survivors of the crew of the irof. who
fell sick at sea, and had their vessel towed to thiis port by the
British barque Magnideent^ have been conveyed in <^riagee to Mm
hospital. The Magni/iGeni met the BasHan Pot in a dlsOoled coo-
d|tiot}, with eleven corpses laid on the deck ; these men presented
a frightful appearance. If it be true that damp ooffee produces
such fatal consequences, as occurred on board this vessel, measures
must bo taken to prevent the recurrence of this danger.**—CAina
Mail * •*
NOTJBS PBdM OOOBa ON ROAD OONSTBDOXION-
) Msreara, 21 sf April 1879,
O NE of the exemplars of tho ** Inge V^a ” is calculated, t think,
to porpetuato a very natural error iu the treatment of roads.
The cfvilixed instinct wo are educated up to, teaches us to clean
everywhere, ** BdaCtilO oiu inaniyum uddda,'* aud so the road is to
bo swept cle ar of the loose eaitli, but let us examine# The object
of a road is the smoothest possible uniform surface lino of com-
municalion for facile movement along.
Tho invariable defect that impairs this theoretical condition is
stones cropping through the surfaco of the road—unless indeed
undue traffic has patched it, when it clearly requires macadamizing
—eryo the more earth the bettor. ^
It is the denudation of the earth covering from the existing
stones that as a general rule makes a road dangerous and dis¬
agreeable. This results from, let, natural tear and wear ; 2nd,
avoidable damage by rainfall being allowed to acoumulata and
run further distances on the road than uocossary; and 3rd, denu¬
dation can be in some degree accelerated by the Inge Va"
process.
How to tho second divison of my subject, to which the first is
ft sort of text. 1 intend nothing leas than a reform of heavy
account lu the very mould and form of the roads of the future.
Engineers will be at one with me in estimating that the heaviest
iiems of expense, and tho processes requiring the greatest propor-
ttou of care and ekill on roads, are tho barreling, oiil verting and
drahiing, next the bank cutting. I submit that ail this might be
avoided with tbo effect of having a better road at a greatly
diminished first expense, and after up-keep, by simply sloping the
road coiitinuouBly across its breadth from the sido cuttings to ita
outside fait—no upperside drain whatever nor under bnlvert, «avo
where a hollow or ravine would aooumuiate more water than
could pass across the road without iojuritig it; the ordinary
down wash upon side cuttings wUl never result in great oonmara-
tive damage u only the road be sloped to the lower side. Thejre
must ho no mistake about the slope however ; it may be a Very
easy '>ne, but there must be no defect iu ite extension to the
outsit e edge of the road. A quarter inch depression to permit the
water to run along the road acoumulotively will vrear away the
read in a valueless manner, and such a road should therefore be
the Hui>jeot of tLOoeasiug inspection.
On roads the water olearauoe grade may be so low as to
be barely perceptible ; as the road gradient inoreasqs, the oleatoimo
grade must increase to shofteu tho necessarily diagonal course
Ills water flowing evenly across the road when rain is falling.
I speak not without book on this subjeot as I have had roads
on this plan under my eye for about 20 years, ndne however'
macadamized, but wore tUie tried it would only, I think, tnofe -
plainly prove tho eiflciency of the .system; and the grand xmdt
would be two, ayo may be th»e or tear, miles of roOjl .at the
expense of one. ...
The roads, Macadam brought Uis great improvemants Into
practice upon, were through level oountries with the watefsM,
soto speak, {ponging at shert distances right and left of th^,
and the anoient road traoes breasted the hills straight up ana,
down, when it would be a moot point whether barreUitg womdmot
be the best plan, but with our roads, mostly side outs, the ee<;iion
mioal enlargeboeut Of road, breadth, consequent upon ayoidailM. at
the dangerouadi^ on thd ioSide margin,j wotfld ht a frmOdihg
^'MEm
, iw iw *»>■>*■» ,» - lu f ii / »B i ii liJHfl H ' K ' . I' ) ' ^ '
' m ASTAums, ai0,
¥ B prlpt^ u «# b»f» A right to doy the fdlo»ieig,4oenttent for ihe
fitlorihitl^ ^ odr repim
loeeiTAd Ax BmU$$f Ch|ftiin,PAtocito«
At Ccdombo; AAeoimt of fto propriehwirof AbheMoid litAUib^ e/e
AhtotifeidiiAA < e.'4}rilbff.
2 fiideAiSMiMtoBArk I, 4.. 2 0 18
21
to
0 . gv. IhSi
urntmUuUM
11 1 81
1 8 20
8 28
*■'"*■*-
18 1 26
218
H
1174
2094
Wi
nm
m
loto ..
mmmmm per lb.
20li At 7/7 ... £ 70 8 1
0 120
■ 7
4/10 ... i2Gi 12 0
Ud
(Mnetien from ihii weight wil tor JMt htheo-eAiAt 88 | ted toll
together 70 IhA Th# qnAatltf iplA ^i005 Ihi. WA«tod
m go into (be deleitt «1 the (other pee^jElA
>#P!erhA{»i thoie who ito bettor AgiiRidhtod with the enetonii which
l^lAto (ho.fAle of horh willexplAiowhl^thi^o l^hl^beiMiehtArge
dedoetloQi. Sorely, 2 tbi. out of eforp hnnMl^iilsihl to be Ample lot
A&Atyele, tbet AQalyoteCo to mAdenotbyotohicMidiitgllttMtM!^ foe
hiieioetf' tot to A ehemlit Ui whom aU eoald piece eonhdeoee.. Bye end
aderoioopie eaEAmtottttoti< wooidi of eonrec, be open to Al1.«<*€tob4t
OINCHONA OULTOEIB IN JAVA.
tfiB ttosiuiira STirmf ** tn enroBOKh dmmciB.
Report of the Coamieeioa Appointed hy the aovermeeiit oedet of 22lb
llAiobtord|No,22.
(!ttan$tat0d/^m the Ihdckfw fto Ceyhm
^pHB iatenUco of tho Ooveminent order dAted 89th IfAiob, Ko. 2ti waa
A thAt wo ihoAia give oar tecUmony lOgArdiegthe qAeitlon of the
geihering b; renewal of baik, or w«a recommended in Brltieh IndiA by
Molvor.
In JavA, the modo of gathering the dncibcna tork bai toen faitberto
governed by thoneoCMUy of. inthe flrrtplaieei thltining cat ttopleieto and
when the tnperlorSty of 0. caKiepe trdp^MA ww dtreovered of
gmdnally remtxring aU epeei^i of clnehoni. with toe wroeptom •£ C.
rttccirubra andC. (#oinaIir. findiubetitvting C e«Uiaya kdifni^Emh
A portion of the in«cir«ere and ^enfahr planta io How M^ciontly
thinned eat, and the dneaSea ai4«ei tow mnto toWher oiMioiM ahould
be carried on in order to onlUVAte toe pleatatiene in the meet ptofttablo
4Bega
IW
4
183
6
0 1 la
41
u
m
H
881 ct 1/5
128
17 Fackegee
Dirct. 24 per cent.
Cniiaxa,
4(2 14 2
18 0 0
859 14 0
8 19 10
£350 11 11
Sea Itioe. £250 at 28/8 per cent, and Duty
Freight 80/ per ton of 800 Ibr.
Bale chergH m.
BrohetAge 1 per eent.
London Book chaigoe
Fire ittiarenoi .n
Interert on ebargee
ComtniMioA nod gnAM&teell per cent.
To erodit cif the Fropfictonof Abbbtafbrd Estate ,a/o '
28 18 11
1878.78 p. iflat Natoh m
Lcndon^BthApHll879.
£826 15 0
B.B.
The Agititi through whottthe aalee were efleoied tolng of the higheat
powIbleehAtobtor^il ttuittotihCii forgeantod that no deduotiona for
Icei of Weighty ihidygtMx otoef toaion or parpoae, wonld to permltied
Whiefa itotoAOt JoAitod toe onetomi Of the trade. £dti etidonbtedly,
the dedtottool m» «iid| in the naia Of the bark which cold at
7r. 7g. piir ib^ thto p ectoridorAhle earn of money, fhe original
welghtof the two Mto AAab||^ we toppoee wn* owte. 2-^f 8 , eay 287 ibs.
CChbiiaredooed lerloia.ot Wh^gpiiOf taro paekagea;} to 21 Jba. Then
we tore dedjmitioii <liW4^Miifeeo,W8pteiia2ml>of
Slto. The gnanltty Aolli* toto «8dneed4o.20li IbivOr B 8 | too leer than
tho gnantity ibi|Mi it the fltot dednetton w4e for lom of weight.
Lem ooeme; eatmotbe helped, ilmnih we
Obonid tiitheo oii^t to rntoit ^ mototoletonog toe roptge. Bat
Ito after dedootlon of gnderitood ftoto Mr.
Botoeh At Itohed^im>
Uftimut * am, I.
Atoto mli didiinftoOhJra la^%j|to||ton to
A88i4pp8d
In tho Britiah Indian CoM#9| there exhti a didhreaeo of opinion aa to
how this is to be done, and tho two modes hitherto pcopoied are mlltd
«* AloMing ” and Oopideieg/*
The Colonial Government appointed a commimion todaeide the yaloe of
both systeni, bat this commiiaion eama to no final deoision, Tho chief
defooder of tho first system is llelVori who Was the first to reeommand it.
‘strong donbtf ae to its good romlts were raised by Bronghtooi and it waa
nnttorlj reieoted by Dr. Bing.
The •* Coppicing " aystom ie nothing bhWo than the eoiting of the tree
down to A stump. whenby» natntaUyi the whole of the hark of toe fSsltod tree
can bo gathered. From the ntem young shoots nmke thoir appoaranoo
wUioh will yield hark for a aibse(|ii^ harvest.
In mossbg, the tmo is not fellod, hut hmgitttdiaal strips of the hark art
taken off the atem to a height as fiir as a man «an reach, and alternate
strips of equal breadth are left on the tsaa. This opemtioa parfonnaA
toe tNo in immedUtely enveloped with moss. On the denadated po^tiona
of toe tree, toe bark la leprodnced, and in about a year the hark has become
so thick that the strips of old bark, which were left by the operation, can
be removed without injury to the tree. Then the stem is again enveloped
with moss, and the following season the bark newly formed on the places
whence the first strips were removed is gathered. Proceeding thus, the
half el toe stem bark is gathered alternately* and one can in this way
derive produce from the same tree for many years.
This at least is the purport of the theory of too inventor of toe system.
If all goes on exactly as deseribod, then both syiteins may be considered
as gooA but the latter as deserving prefocence.
Both systems, es they have been applied in British India, have the
duadvantages. The figures which indioate the amount of bark whioh a
tree treated according to both systems can yield unmistakably in fivor of
toe mossing, though as yet those figures have been derived Aom Mr.
Hclvor, who was very prejadioed in favor of hia own method. In toe
second place, the atamj^ng wu performed in British India in aa slttgether
wrong manner. That is, the oinehona trees were treated like oak eoppicis,
and all toe shoots which appeared on the stomp were allowed to remain. On
account of this, both less and poorer hark was obtained.
It is evident that the buk of the ahoots is of a mneh poorer quality that
toe bark obtained by the * moseing* system. Bat toe result might have
been foreseen, since in this mimiier poor bark of thin bnnohes is obtained,
and it if a fact universally known, that toin brnnohos give thinner (and tbere-
foi« lew) kark^ and this bark ecotainf a smaller qaantily of good
aUcaioids.
Therefore also toe opponenta of the stumping syetom that a
tree, eight yemrs after the opevatbb, will produce aoamely aa much bark as
an eight year old tree raised from aead,
Had. toe method been brought Into precUoe in a rational manner., and, aa
is toe cose here in toe Gwvemment oifwhona entirpriie, of aU t!m shout
on.y a lingie (too strongest) alinwed to mmain. than not only, would moCb
.more bark havo beau obtaiuedig toe same period, but, the baik would have
bees thioker and of a better
QeHatnIy it is walbknu^ giat the sprouts of a tree that has been
become* mnohmore apeedUy
I of a oartmn totoknemt dj^^Fegasd totheoioobona thisfeot is confirmed.
AA ohjeotetoto^lpitom^ that after atumpmg oat portion of
Utom U8p.|8 s|>||pgto^ML CmtoinlFky toooBlngtooptw seaioaWs,
2S0
'lai ''m^
l«ai nftar tulaj mooH^i ih« M fi« «y#»t«d
<rem « Oiongbiwtfr««*fc«
laBiitiik ladi« dlivc^ propotttwi «f <b«n|?*d pltf^ *lV«Sr»
&0»«/b»tr«m. tbii0Til hm ba^niflMWily a«perf*n«^^» ^
liii}f. it ow b* 0|^ly rtnrtOM by dialog ^atM^4i0d itttm^
luf d Miftriana alio mwcaed T0iy ir4U
In i»wf«o0 Ifc U iMH fcbak tti* «*ihflr lyitem ri|o bai iti dfdwbielfi. Tb«
gfeaUit ol tbM« U that, in tlia caw of 0. anccw^g at IM, «ia cpwaaon
SSngtfW a very oncefiain rwolfc So Ibat Howard in hie work on iHe
'* BriUab India Cinchona Hantatioai/* speaking of ^e vaiaa of both ijiUini,
usBi «• I have grave doubts of the poawblUly of carrying out the plan of
renewing the back with conuner^ succeai.'’
The ceneequence of yonagplante beating the operation bettset than oW»
ii that it cannot be perlonned repeatedly on the tame treoi and thua
laoTopvw, no yearly orop can be obtained.
If the operation doeittotftt«ceed,<»aM If the bark does not renew on the
tarcd phwes, then much is lost. The wood on those plaoes which oo»e in
oonteot with the atmosphere* rota *nd the death of the taee generally
foUolN. In Sottth Ameiioa the CescariUeros aleo tried the same »yvt^
though in luder manner, and the death of the tree was the inevitable
''^toMUiMUtoWUgtnttewtaiMtkewemflOMtmet macibOTil. Th»
MtUil ii H w»» B «m >>• withBiioklaMinjuiartrilenUww u prapw
ttl»B *•>«» it •* «**"l*4 ** ““ •CwanUMOi. In
SltnJlplwIittpiu » •kUM penra o»» Mk« o»»e that u Wtta m
oC ttt tMBMWB 1»J« 1* wmo«4. withont whi«h * tenml ol the b»tk i*
‘“rStoUttippliig mv tuOt intko tw drooping lo. , timo. »4 “
been aeserted that not fora year after the operatioa did sWio%ru^
trew regain entirely their healthy and vigorous ^
With ns IhU has not been oonarmed. Some 0. tumfufim ^
languished, but then it was found also that tho new-formed bark had been
^U^batk^had therefore not been replaced, bnt noveftheleai, the trees
atiU live two years after the operation, and appear very healthy.
Both new-formed bark, and the old bark, which has been for a season
under moss, are of better quality than the original berk.
Mr. Brouahtott etatos that C. offictnolM is modh better snited for
fAM thftu C itwctru&i'ft, and it wfts therefore of great importance
in p»ctl,. llconuib. .ppliod tj,
1 imfir-i An .xpotimont mtli tkMo tan yo»t oU.
iua not Tb. ‘r«» dwopoi fo. , Utn., tot now. Ii y..«
the experiment, they look exoeedioaly healthy. In the ossa of
WSf-Xn trM 0.O WlMm.nl nl tok mt p.rti.1 .tripping
»iiceMdtd.peeailytoa«mptatoly. .
Ai!Ood«>mp»riwnolth» twomothod., nnd a doortiou ot tt«ir rri«.i7.
m^hin tto indarity. 1. only pomibl. nftar carrfnl enpenmont. with
towlon. kind.. Tto rtnmping mn.t th.«. lor a prop., «o«patl»»n.
bo wriedontM In Britob India, bnt, a. i. alwaya done tom. only
*”Tto°m»tit9'^**^k'p<tou^''by a tre. nndst both mottod. mmt
Tb. qo J , J qo»naty ol the bark determiaed by analyaitt
a’long U. of year. »« gi™ oortalu.y In
Uto mallm. ^oo ItwiUlbonto inoontoaUbly prov-od how many timma
‘^N.^rttouJS^'dVlTuna'toirf object ol tbia raport to, damonateat.
appoatato mi that in the morning ^oUm ata. a wrong
“‘ ii^^ub.to pnwod in BriUri. India, and that an i«p»o,.ni.nt mart
U ^od^h^ «i« mmovoalmort aUtto objartlon. to tbia ayrtmn
"'an'ToMw ta'ktoW^SIa cioobona bark oooaiata ol aapainta Uywa.
Ato it aoami coitaia that tho alkaloid, whoao oairtanoo chiefly datorminaa
a. ndao ottbe bark, ate almoat entirely aod altogether lonnd la ih« onler*
^rtuyar. otbark, ooaaiittng lor tho moat part oaUe, and only to a
CTtrr* m tho jnnotmoil layora, which eontam more bark fl iraa,
^ -x-j and oarolnj ahamteri anatyaaa by Howard, Broughton, and
«4„. „j;/.»rtoloaa»J»oa>oteoiicUeion.
2™a indM 1 no BO *M aa to amort that, th« mom oella and Ion bark
flbSTm tlxbrtWltiA AM ind,.d.ie appaar. to b.
tto laot with regard to bartai ot th» iamo apoolo. ol olnohona. tot old bark,
wiS mom tor a oartoln panod. oontaia. more colt, ttoa tto
bark and aontriaa aloo mot* alkaloid..
^Etoowri bark oontman nw loo. fibtda than momod bark, and alwayt
fatoUoain thomaitota highwptico. . .v .... ..
It tbi. lo trno, than tha doiliwtioa ta avidwt «*., that by
JJ toontarmoat bark, bot liUUl of tho alkatOUiu motiflo.a, and tha
Lwa. i, .tout aa proflirfil.. Horoorar, pa<*i«g and ttwport aia
taonttadonly loriioh bark, whilrt by gatharing tha wbda of lto
SS both •ontom ol oapona, wo inoanod for tto innormut flbronb yortton.
w. of atry little aolno. Boaidu, when |to innormoot Ivor 4»
^ M flm W. tto daogm ot lomoring Ui» «ii»mhl£iii». w^oh it riftotM
SSoM fl^baTadaita woca.to«ittoly a* odad. -' . .
^ rtm rfpf ., tha propMition la not OtaO, that, wdtoad M,
h«tk«ibi««lM)o''^«tolM^ h«'|Wi(kinA «t;r<djf«qi
totbrt.tni.' ■ ■■ ■ *'
' Xf ita M* toaa .tto of«flitoti»4to, to* rtW 4
itmU «M apoodity, *0».to tta'j»^rf;SoIW,U!»^>--^^
hindamd fn Ito vawtiii *M Uto.tito '.‘ito tormj*^; «* to* .M* .^t
to bdndotod. An tto>l!g»«a 'oowi ¥^thg' tcdlow^i'; <)(totoJ(Wioi4^
ofttooqrktWto.o^MimaUl tbt tlWl .IM.tUd ojion^''
lormprothaga hnndradyMH.'
,r Ut^hto WWato* to Mwanmawort ^ , i a ' ly ^
The two«ewii»r4 eerteinly mitiky e^,.
elnehone, imetiier, img in eoo^^et^ it tenet Jw
removed, srhi^elecfekes
W Is tlte cew with the corlc teee^ 7 i;.
Pr(wee4iug in this theewtlote ^Kr, cn' iWes begun In
Pebruary ISIS, itt eonnectien with the aevecuswnti^mf* dn^****-
The inveetigntion ni to whether that view is by tie|i must
netaraUy he double t enfttomioel end ehetnioel* ‘
The results of thedrst er« given ne foUaws t*r ^
Ifthsynreooniirmedby the nhtmiwa iMteljidf ,whUh WiUw terri^ on
duriog 1479, then tt appeers n legttimete spnelui^*^ eo^^phig (ee tim
melbod msy be celled,) la regard te speolee rleh ip qulpioe, Is abpve all
other methods of gathering fer.end.avfiy per|iim$di, nnd yields mnch
better bark and much more speedily, wUbont iejnry to ^e tree. The out¬
ward appearanee of renewed bnvk is entirely dUfereut to that ot original
berk.
Thefifere the operation cannot be carried out in conswetton with the
barks poor in quinine {eo-oallod pharteaeentieal bathe)# whioh are valned
by appearanee, but chiefly in cannection with barks rich in quintee (so-
ealled manufacturers' barks) whose value is determined by anilysis,
i Here follow the paitieulare of the mioroioopic inveatigetion *—
For mutual comparison, original barks both 0. mociffiJiw and of C.
calysayn ledyaWona were token, also berks which had passed some time
under moss, such as were renewed according to the method of Molvor, end
sooh as were renewed after ecreping dt the bark.
In the applleation of the method ot Mclvor. experiment* were made a* to
the possibility of substituting in place of the moss a ooveiing of ity’ufe,
which offers practical advantoges. Some trees were left entirely uncovered.
After the scraping, one portion of the trees waa covered with moss, au
equal proportion with injukt while a third was loft bare.
So far it is obaerred that the scraping has pi oduced no ill effects on the
trees. They have not been checked in their growth, and have not ehcd
their leaves on acconnt of the operation.
Externally tne baiks obtained* by these various methods are easily
distinguished from each other. The original barkhaea light*oolored or
whitish exterior, altribatable to the Uehens growing on it. »y moiring,
these liohona seem to die, and the bark acquires a much darker appearanoe,
whilst here and there aroaU knobe are formed tike great lentlcelles,
Renewed bark, after partial stripping of the tree, is itUl darker extetoally,
its entire upper layer is smoother than that of the original bark, which has
been long under moss, whilst the above-mentioned knobs are much more
numerous. Finally, the bark renewed after sorapiog, is even darker
.xternally, but smooth and without knobs.
^ Bark which has been covered with mou is much more brittle than
otiglnta bark, and renewed bark even more brittle etill. At the britOenesi
inereasoe,mproportiotta8tho bark fibres decrease in number, whilst at
the same time the cellular tissue, which oontoins the best aUmloids
iuoreases, mossed bark is better than original bark | lencfrid better than
the former, . '
Bark la renewed much more readily after aerM^ing then after partial,
•trippiugt '
Alter aoraping, not one ot tho trees, even those which Were left bate, was
backward in renewing its bark, whilst most of the trees wMeh were partially
■tr ipped and left uncovered bad renewed not at all or Very Uttie, and some
even of those whioh were covered with moas add Wefe very
incompletely covered with new bark. From this it pp^vf that seraping
la much lew teiurious to the tree than partial stripping.
Therenewal takes place infinitely qolokbr In the fencing pmcasi than
in the partial stripping, Renewed bark had, three montha ettev
the scraping, aitoinsd to thres-iourths of the thibkiwei of the original
bark, and would thus in one year oertainly be aa Utidt aiiAe original bark;
whUst tha bark, newly formed two montha after the partite Ateipping, had
a thickness of Scar^ one mllHmetre, Since CO teevenyest ted aemped
^Irsdper trees, after a cetapingrtocbioi^ to about fleet 4^' the gcoand
yielded CO kilograms of bark of superior qetefty (better tlum that .hitherto
brought to the markeVae the worthlese dbrone toyer wna wanting}, It
may he cottedentiy asserted that one yew aftovthCndratenflh an equally
good crop msf be ebttened, and eaCk Lettoer toie eeu jttMie yearly prcduoi
teioutlklteofbaritol to^bitecptolityo v ..
Bueeihibfu appeariH bteo alter icrapii)g,to mcovOr tees toai
Jbsdbemaa, and ihia method is, therefore, for the lattis imeteae m
indicated. (Ulotsoitetabte f^Eo. 0.04]
'Onder the microioope the renewed barka ean; mutey be diitiiigiitehec
ftom the old. In Cteer to give a regttter review, weteteti itew Itetee what
Oto miuroso^b ittvestigation tougbt fegafdtog ; batiE, ami
thoeeof jbsdjjNrteuii VfiU then bo dealt Witiu v" < .
Themigiate bnih of wocii'^n M white
Itei been dtoctebed Und repmeented ,hy '^Stoeter'«ntiiOfte Hcfctehetew
•ftSSiii oit>Ues toteltlmhiihertoflviate^
. PW*IPPPPPiW!P^
$t$ 9 t hhmvtdt tiMli
^ ^^tOifeia 'Iqr
/;■*'' ^ - ' ' .''’<>1 : - ' ^
l^fi^iii^li## ^ mofTftiNiMe* Tti# 01^ ^ ^ <x»rtfK
, taA aiW 4 >Im^ in iiie ofigiiuit ba^k nit nmuliM itt tmgintsni
BAsie dlinoUnn. ^o <A |k» nmdnUniy
r^n nntiix!Mly>n^ 4iv^
tnsnOi^ 19^ibn9ii» imdnr mmi tita knfk of lim im tmn had
ttnonkid ^okatMia birk dbfea Inonafod la nvmbav i^arr
duoto tbn baU ligrafn of Ulnv
nnd Of^ftwci et jbo tb« OttliinnoiS i»0tti0n«f iheirliolf Ufo waodeff
ttMi4thatbalk*’ fatbbM kijlldiat la tba Mafkcit, and that
akiaaoid «mtbnf$oDi liadldabi nblgkir gmotint of alkMoida in it*
On iMObfint iffIKi^p^ltibniW imnu of the oeiimar tiwmo U>o
fibrotti if Mrfonndfd^ % 9 \ a tbi^ar of Ofllf and the dcatii
fomovad fbrOiar (mm tba ^mla df fap tnbas. 1 !ba modallaijr laya am
inadlt utbia dleaily nliiblf iban in tba ofigionl batk, and aio ffmatlyanlargod
toitardi tha dostdat, wMab indtoata# « qoioltar UiewM ol c^li in tiiui
plao6» “
Tha barks fanearad after pavl^ stripping and eoaand witb mess for
ld»16 moatbi bafSi under the miorosappa an antiraly different appearaaoa
from oripjn^ bark* In tba first places In all tha ipacimanf examinad
almost alt iba Golls of tlis aonex and bark are arranged in radiai rows» so
that ronoirad bark is reoogiiistbls at the first gUmoo. Moreovor>fcho cells
wbioh are larger than broad, alwaja boro ibaSt greatest lengtii in a radial
direetioD. In tha scoond plaoa^ wa bare observed no sap fcnbei in renewed
bark*
Finally* the layav oonUinittg bark fibres* is very email and oonstitu^
only one-fiftb of tba whole tbiokneas of tbe bark*
Tbesa fibres are boweverpUoad very tbiakl;^ together and separated from
aaeb other by only very smalt mednUacy rays* Tbe absence of eap tabes
is observed in barks of diffarent epeoies, espeoially in fnlUgrown barks, and
as ibese latter ara» as regards ntmlity and qoantrty of alkaloidsi better than
yoniiger ones* the sap tabes are certainly not tbe seat of the alkaloids*
Ike abseoee of sap tubes in renewed bark is therefore no sign of inferior
quality.
From tbe anatomjcid stnetare of renewed bark, tberAforo, it may be
inferred that It ie ricbar than mossed bark, and this is oonfirined by
analysis.
From tbe examination of bark renewed after aenping it appeare that
when only a Utile of tbe original bade remains over tbe cambiam layer, the
renewing orginates wholly in tbe eambiam, and tbns tbe inner layer of old
buck which remained etter the soraping is thrown off like leathery
eoih.
This layer then forms a protecUug eoforing round the. oambiom and the
young bark. If tbe soraping is less ikorougb, so that a thicker layer
original bark is spared, then this is not thrown off as cork, bat tbe new
forming proceeds [orig. *ontsiaat’ may also mean ^'fails''] from the
medullary rays to the oater edge of tbe bark fibre layer. The stmotare
of bark renewed In this manner is the samo as that which appears after a
partial stripping and covering with moss*
We also examined bark renewed on varions parts of ttie stem after
partial stripping.
It appears from tbis that the bark which was renewed at the lower part
of dm etem contained more barb fibres than that which had formed on the
upper and middle portions of the stem. Tho chemical analysis, which
showed mote etnohonine for the bark renewed on the lower part than for
tbe other pieces, made their composition readily apparent.
* . Intbedesoriptiou of old and xenetmd barks of *C. suceiruAra in hia
**Quiiiology of the B« 1* FlantaUone ** Howard also mentions "abnormal
foramtions ’* or ^*eeUe filled with gnmnlations of some earthy compound*”
These are vary Ihki^walled oells, entirely filled with dark oontenta and
which, equally with the other cells, are in original bark arranged
tsngsntiealiy andittiienewed bark radially. In the latter they are seen
in greater number nnd aUo between tbe bark fibres, whilst in the
ease el thi:^igiaal caUu fbey are met with only in the outermost
It^em, eiitside e|,the,i^ nf sap tubes. In this above-mentioned
work pewatdrSpeake of * spiral vesaels/ which he saw in renewed bark.
Aoepr^ to hia sketchf these are not vessels but prosenebymatons oells,
and their eppMtenUB in the eovtioallayer,,wlii«h otherwise is always com.
posed ef pmahymetone f^sanb is ,yery vemarkabte. These oells were not
netieed by ds< wa did indeed see in siwefmdrn hwk, renewed fit months
^(teratrip 9 ing,ink>ngM^ihalaectm dells having sopae resembUnoe to
thaae, bni they wajiUjOnly speqkled and i^owed no pjfiriil or stejHrtiaped
thldMBlngi ^ Tb eelle meyeover did not,^ong to the bark but ar^
profit^ ^ the woody por^ Of the,camb ium layer. They m medullary
itedif' e<M {flV tWoed^fidffWhyina mIU Wil^ a sotnewhat abnormal
■ pO^QU*
Mr. Froqfilitiiin j^atSa new lomaUop of tho bark begins af^e.
leeree part (ffIke enrlkencd % uhqiimd, and so, procecils. Tl^ experimeots
msde hete bdve not eoafirinid’ titip. The feimation of bark begins
nt all parte oftho auifl^of thf wimndibiUM ptaoOe, unepnneeted with
Moh other, latlmugh nitfinttiyo^ wound tlie new forming
heghm fitft,endpbeo^ moit;<aiddlji,, , ■' T '
Uik im p^ df wai euaudned*
m '41 ihu'ttiieitbi'WiliMd lb utidp, ^
removing the loosened strips, he,altowed them to remaio fixed above and
bblovr,so that the nolon with thetmietmlAad.' The bark partiuily renewed
op this wood. the inner side of the lotke^ strip of b«k» however, a
new formation bad also taken place, which, howhfsT, on examination, proves
to, omisist of woody fibres. ^
1%e bark of UdffBriaM cinchona has under the miSroscope an entindy
diffienot appearance to that of Cntvceiiruktd.
Even less than in the latter arc erretaU to be itlacovered hi
bark, whether in original^ or renewed. Bap tubes are found in original bark
only in very solitary instances, but never in renewed bark* Where they ere
present they are oonsiderably smelfer than those of C. itceoiru&i*a.
la original barks the oells of the cortsa' are invariably arranged ha
tangential rows* and in renewed barks* In radioal rows*
In scraping* the innermost layer of the originri bark* wbidi is toft,
ebanges jnst as in the ease of C, snoctritbrc, and the new fonnation, if the
scraping has been deep enongb, prooesds entirely from tbe cambiam
New-formed bark is, morsver, mueh poorer in bark Cells tban original
bark.
Itenewing takes place much quicker after scraping than after partial
stripping.
In original Wperjatia bark, besides the usual cells* three othfrlonuu
. of cells are seen, which deserve lepatate notice. Two-thirds are thiiuwallcd
and filled with opaque matter. Of these one kind, which is entirety filled
with that' substance, is seen in the outer portion of tbe ccUuIm tisvue*
and these are, like the last, extended in original batk very mairkedly
tangentioally* and in renewed very markedly radially. The second kind,
whose contents are much smaller tixan the oell.wall* are seen bt tiie deep
layers, between tbe bark parenchyma, and arc almost round or square.
Both sorts are found in all the examined barks, but in renewed bark in
greater number.
The third kind of cells have m entiicly different appearance* and are
called by Howard rosin-oells. They have a very strong thickened well,
with very plain pore-channels* only cccasiontlly branching. contour
of the oells is moro four-cornered or angular than those of the surronadiug
cellular tissae, and they are readily distingnishable from the latter sot by
tUeir greater sise but by having different cootonts. These are traueparent,
insoluble in pure boding alcohol* are colored* not blue but dark brown by
iodine, and only partially fill the cell. The celUwatl itself Is, like the
bark fibres, colored light yellow by iodioe*
The thickening of the celUwall is often very disproportionate* Jn all
original barks these oolls are found in only two or throo layers of the
outermost cortex, Immedtately under the eotk-forming layer* Very rarely
two or three lie next each other and thew number is small.
la barks renewed under if^uk moss after scraping and after stripping, the
same cellr are much larger and sometimes extended radUUy in a marked
maimer* There are also scattered irrAguUrly throughout tho whole oollnlar
layer, but they always end where the bark fibres begin. By tbciippearanoe
of these eetts, not only immediately under the oork layer* bat in the whole
broad cellular layer of the ooftsxt barks teuewed under fq/n4and rioss oau
be inimodiatoly roadity disUngulshod from original barks. This reuewed
balk agrees in aiiatomioal struebnre very closely with tho Qainn Uojet of
Mutis, desoiibed |by Howard as fig. fid on Pavon’s JSfuwob QMo^ivt
both in the broad layer of these resin-cells, and in Uia absenoe cf sap tubes*
Only the cells of the renewed barks are muoh leas in number.
lu the same work a study of Harsten on ciuohona barks is reproduced*
and tbe latter says : Tbe resis-oells disappear oontemporattoottsly with the
formatiou of the organic bases, and elsewhere again that tesiil-aells are
found very soaroely, or not at all in the bettor barks.
This may be the case with regard to some speoies \ certaialy the appear¬
ance of these eolls need create no fear in the breast with regard to a poorer
quality of ledsfer bark, since their appearance in abundance i* coupled
with an tucroose of the cellular Ussuc and a decrease of Ihe bark fibres
einca also in tbe original bark, which is so rich in quinine*
these colls are area ; and stnoo, on the olbec hand, in lucofruhfA bark,
which is of much less value than UdgeHam^ these ceUa are wholly
Wanting.
In bark, Which has been loft uncovered after sand scraping, the resowed
bark is almost as thick, though the abovo*mentioned resln^eeUs appear
Boaroely in such numbers, or so widely distributed ee is the case with
original £eUg 0 riana barks. Thai, oovering with ii^uh aad with moss after
soraping does not give mor# barb than when the covering is omitted t
otherwise the auatoiSjoal stractare and the'' oheuMoal analyses will decided
which method of treatment is to be oboseu.
Oovering with iejtift modifies the bark in tha seme manner that moss
does, and it may he supposed that any thorough shutting out of tight and
beat would have the same elftect.
Naturally, analysis must imufirm tbe exactness ol ,tiie resuHik.bat the
anatomical investigaticn appears to teach that scwping is faf^ind-away
preferable to partial shi^og, does not injura tha tree* and that tlie
eoatmuanco of these expMiments l« legitimate and of great importance.
This method of traatihent will enable the plaotcr to gather yearly abont
A kUo of bark of superior quality from each ls<i!s«rton« tree.
; ^ BxjurfiLOT HoKxe.
fiandong, B. H, C. G. SoffxxFKc.
^ UtikJliC^y, ilfp. JA§ CcsimMn.
CAcm
pXiAJSIB, of CMQ m lor Mi.l« ftt tbePoiedynl^ OonifiMiit tm
tti|^« but tfaa l^uldftdl yaviotf ii mor# pbi^Urt^^oobt
l«ai tor UMfeasoii that it Ii hanliiriiud^m higfgir erojp* Wa
hat^tNNNihiaHugati allhijidiafirtineaoaoiohMhainrie^luiMd^
M harittg « great future before ii here, that to i^laut a»^ grrow
it ioooeialuUyi the youug bioao ndiuai be ehadetf; iudeel, thii!«
the reooguiaed method eteiywberei W a pro|»rl6tor of a place at
Kadug«ha?a waa tOUtog me that he thought this wa» a miitaho;
he had planted up hiaeetate there—at etake^-^did nothing what-
eter to ehadethe young ptauti^ and that they are etrongi healthy,
and doing well. Thie, it eeemi, wu not llie happy luok of a
lavoOiabljggeaiDn. For before ho committed himiell fully he had
tried the previooe eeiiooi a email portion only, and finding that
enociiifuV had more courage to adireotiire further; this style of It
would a wonderful saving to what at present obtainsi but In the
lOaitter of a new eoterprisOi where so much depends on its getting
a fhir start, it hiay boa question whether, after all, the extra outlay
at thebeginniogto thoroughly ensure its complete success, is money
throwaaway* However, lama long way from my text, which
wee gttnmonde ’ book and his article on Ooooa.” This is the eom*
pletsst thing I have yet seen on the matter, indeed, it is somewhat
oenfusing in its oompleteness, as you have the cuHure and curing
in diferent places, and they don’t always agree* Howeyer, there
is much to be learned from it; a wnukle worth knowing for those
who have oaoao beaus to ship, is that the red colour which is often
aptnwoiated by buyers may be got qp by artificial means; red,
eartb,briokdu^aad"eveu Vermillion having been used for this
purpose. Another fact which seems to be ;,esbablMhed Is that the
Ooroeasadd Trinidad varietieB don't do well together ; the latter
has a very bad efleot upon the former, and in Venezuela persons
found iutrodaolng the Trinidad variety were subjeotod to corporal !
diasUsement.—iforiros Ttmsa
Amidst all the prevailing trade depression it cannot be said that
coffee holds a bad position, whilst as regards another kindred
prodnet, in which Ceylon vrlU soon be largely interested, cocoa,
the maiket value is steadily on the inoreose* The latest advice in
the Fullifi Lidger Cof April 25Ui, was to the effect (hat brisk
demand prevailed for all deseriptions of cocao, resulting in large
sides and re-sales, and rapidly rising prices, closing at a ge^ieral
advance of lOs., and for Guayaquil lbs. Grenada is now quoted
I02s* to lOSa, fair Trinidad 107a to 110s*, and business done in good
Guayaquil at 120a The deliveries for the week amounted to 1,625
bags, whilst the landings were only 877 bags, chiefly Ooloniol.
One cause of this favourable position of (he article is no doubt to
be found in the great falling off in the exports from Trinidad, one
of' the thief producing countries: the shipments for five months
in the presout and post years, stand os under
lbs.
1878.0 ...
1877*8 ...
’^Ceylotk TUmtt,
... 4,523,880
... ... 6,665,460
defloienoy^ 2,131,570
TOBACCO.
H aving resson belisvs (bare will bo a great demiod nest year tof
first elsas tcboccc^ properly and deanly onred, I will ondasvciir to
riiow ybnrphuitefs hew tOeyesaprodUos such tobacco, and compete with
the AmeHoon tobaoee growen.
let Ltothemabandott (heeldinethodufssfatohlog the grenod only a
few inches deep with a wooden plough. They dhonld plough at least
twdveuMhesdeep, Mdloosely*letfittg the gmund rert bhtee or tour,
woekSf after which yent planter shcififi colleot all the reftite vegeUble
maitor he can, pat it in a heap, and when dry, bam it, to it will bs r^y
to eoalteV’ over the groaoA before the seoond plooghing. Previous to the
swmnd plonghiifg U would be wed to tan a aoarae hawo w Over tbs Arid, Ihot
«U the large lumps or oloda nmy be broken, theu aeatter ndher heavily, say ^
hoff inshcvmtlm ground, the bmntas^ which ' trhdy' i^ugh^ ha stoas^'
ways or in a Mvint dicaetton to Uiatlnfore,Bgejn vm or twisa sweS,
then svsa^ and with cars lay off the ground for you|r pMi s, in fT****^^
sad Bnghoid fbi ptoughmau iu l^g eutttwgteand moksa net
With a hoe.sjalinplsm«Kiii^ uhl^ wiMioo^, wmatsmlikH ^ '
long. Ofls'maa shsoidihia-^ilsto^ws'drilytVWi^
ahdto»lwaald|ihmt.wa'lhs snriksi^^jia'tl|^^^ptoii%
readily inlgatod.^ .‘1111011:^011
inigatod and if posaibls In dark wshihdv ^lip»;iwsk
Bsstrs jsus plsntamwsstla < osm
eaiiltopa«s«iiimui^j ssihvpian»dhi^bS(S|*»Jtsj '
bwl&saib isrigstoog^dSthatiU
watow, Asl tobisdo' sSse .ptasto^y/sAh he
watoMdsvirr dsyfe^thvie thusswasklf ^wfidilto nmbhfi^ iM^ sn tr ^Ito not
water your tohamo is thi iiMnitog,.if ysaA^^lltoAOhd
the water to eyapsrabe, and hsadenthegre^ I jmlhal uifMflnlAaiSiBisg
so giving the wetoroll night to punstrats to^tle^rOOl el thi )Bs ’
civefbl not tonUsw asp Wsede togroard>etwees^lhft|d»ato; pttK Idlwp, and
kiiiktlmfUstowellearlhed tt|b to tiw fliat lsaA iltsuldu^
lookiiig puay or deitoato#‘ptose» ie|md eaeh ftonA av4l^aliifalUf^banlt
wood aabee, of bettor atUl, pOadrettok ndied withfive petto of good earth
this ahottld he done alter UtopbmtoemwatefedioUtomriwdhe Aie «&d '‘diy
monufe will be washed away <firom the plant, whtMMi^fhe uena^ff uasd
I after watering, will immedinfely sotot^ IntolhegtolioA Bnlkfguperto*
tendent of AgtionUnre, Kerth-Weat Frovinses) to Ids pamptoet says ** top
the planhstohan eight laeeee come esh^^ 1 senaet.sgies to Wito, for during
aevatolyearalexperienes,heth here end in Amerito, I hnsenlwayaloniid '
a go^ healthy plant eapable of preducing 18 to 18 gned leaves. Of
conraethe aaokers must be plucked off, and the plant topped when the
lemjea ere but haff-grown. Many American planter# only nip the top
when the blossom appears. Again Hr. Buk aay» **do net< allow the
bottom leaf to dtiggle the Igroand.’* Neiiheroatt 1 ageein this^botMy,
•« by all means allow the bottom leaf, to remria,” by doing so, yon eove
! the eaesad leaf fiomeonlraot with thagvoand, and ean euro it free ftom
sand. Tonrtobaeoo will befit for cutting when the eder dmagee from.w
deep green to a shade of yellow t but mamy olyonr plontoireutdhetr tobaeoo
too green, oonseqaently it is a diSeult mattor to cure snoh tobooeo evenly*
la America when the toboooo is ripe, the lower leaves art first pluoked,
and oared by themselves, aad sold to the mouth of December os priminge
at a price of 8 cents to 8 oen to per pouadj The etalh la then out just above
the ground (the root beisg left to rot, and manure tiiegronud.) By no meane
allow the tobaeoo, aa toon os eat, to be thrown to heaps on the ground
(In^an style) t if you do, it will very qokkly diioolor and ferment, and no
man oan aftaiwards properly care the same. The Ameiictu plooter. olimye
when cutting his tobaeoo, is oooompanied by several boys and a very clean
cart, and aa fait OB the stalk is out, the boys carry aad place tbe tobacco
carefully to the sort, by which it is taken to the euring «hed, there it is
carefolly handled, every two etolke tied together and ploi^ 00 poles, tto
two stalks being allowed to touch ; when half onred the atoiks ora stripped,
and tied np in hands or bundles, and the leaf thus bundled niesly pocked
on a boarded floor and frequently tamed, until thorongbly dry and oared,
when it is packed away in hogsheads oontsining about 1,808 pounds for sole |
the sulk is always thrown into a heap to make mianrs lor the next yeari
If bright tobacco be requited the American plaator dries fals tobaeoo m
much aa possible to the sun, and allows it to remain several nqlhto is the
dew ; this dites the tobacco quickly and brightens it. Zu Atoerica the
bright leaf oommonds the highest price, for tonoy btonds of'smoking
tobacco. Fair bright tobacco will bring a prise of 27 cento to 86 seats per
pound. Five yeare ago 1 saw a lot of pure goldso'lssftobStoo sold to
Biohmond, Yitpua^ at the great price of 800 dollars par tOO poSddt* Xn
America the price paid for common fifiers is from 7 aM to It sebtoi sod
, for Wtoppera (outer leaf) from 14 eenu to 22 eenta, Fs^ fine wmpperi
will bring exoeptional prloea for fancy bmuds.
Laab pearl syw n piece of ground to the MadatodiKriot, pot quite in
acre, planted with tohooeo; the prodnee waa ve^y fine. Xw#* told 1,809
p^de. Xi wu grown on rather poor ground, but Writ matotfid with bntnt
v^etahle mattor; but thia tobooeo wu oil spoiled in the odrilff • sc loon as
ent, it wu AhrowhonUiegronadtolteapa irhereUwuAttewsdto temshi
for two dsya, and when it wu taken np (he IMvee wsrs sU (jolted end
I ditoOloreA and full of sand. '
Xe it not uessy to handle ihetobuooss to Amerlchj when ^Otg oertoln
byio doing, yos will ohtoto a much bsitof piids. ^ The^tisid ihiilor oaring'
tobiooo is a long open one, roofed onhri Wtek the Sifek sdtthiii^ dstrii low to
keep out the rate, and moveable ends^ thh tobsceogbogldbsksag sou
not to iouh sad have Iff (he sir^ poekibls hstwtou tbii mm H Von wish to,
export your tobooeo 2eXtogtond; yon should tole<4 top huAsat and SttongiMt'
leaf,aud All of a unffemn color. X would udylie tost dll tohum lor
•xportetiom be first stoAmel tfieu neatly tied to ^sndlei upeeriy u
tmariblsilpitoitesWiiglit. tfib idvutogeof atMutoisg tohsttw
U couriderable; firat, your planter paya ftalght oaly lUytolM^Ap^UOt ^
Btems,andtoebny8ip!ty» ^yAilyfostebtoeof^hkeistoeAi^^
toesfiottW ahipy<^ tobucc.to ltedahoads, Veiy,sl!to|Wly ^o^ sttoto
^(AeU piece It under A tomw.
tobuoo to hogstM^aL^iitot'f^to^M Who
hands tou tebssto to ^ pitoer, nmit Imvs'hiT^ '^1lirr#d with
ptoiP top touldlif Into u sM tompssii thus tot pnriw wUiptosstm ^
253
AiN>4.)b%4ii
ii*^'
i|(}li». Tbei
^ «a^t]
) doiqi «e4
., h tM <rff tirorf
.'%'«fU)& hopi^ mJX . _
^ ]Uii4zM to
litH^yremW^te tto pUa^^i io^ «t||^t it. fiu^ iitwdl
FXiMttleiACovt^siii ta tri p1a&t«r«» unldta
iL. — iL... -j I iog^gjilea, k«a|»U deta
;*' '' '' ' %‘l •
|^,^iSU>b(MrbiQi|f «dyiff<4 tk« 0oymnwnt to offo» priaoa
foK tho]^ai| loj^BOOf I ^oTtiitniek^ skoold thitok tho
Xi oyary otbox pviaoa ato aniiftati:i^ giveo
‘fiat0)0^iytfj^^<l^o!ptAUo^ Wky,thyttW0tti4 it by vieflidiwra
^ l^.;i»y fipfiti Ofit^ odtiyoiiQii and mnaaruigof tho sugar
into Bmoo litebog^s auggoa-
U<^ Olfi yyi^r lavonMkiy raootyod and AoUd on.
TaojotOi lit Jane* Ton acoo fun am
niiiy t^ ottte tobOioo ai
SEKICULXURE.
THE EUROPEAN.BIIiK OEOP.
QiCKlblBS fWi 8>« fifitertaiued of u fnlloro in tie Buropean siik
P ofop* The opfifityies wkiefi grow silk »ro Italy, Frafioo, aod Spain
in BuropOt «>i4 io Ohjna, Japan, lndi&» AiU Minor, and Syria; to
wliioh ime Intnljr been added Amerioa. Xbe Amerioan prodnction.
koiifver, Is 80 imall tut it may be left out of aoconbt} Aeia Minor
and Syria wary o&oa prodneeri on a very largo aoale, but bare long oeased
to be ao, and tbe Bpaniib crop baa also become ineignifloant* Bven
France ii rapidly falling oft in her onltWation of tbe ailkworm. Fraotl*
oaUy, therefore, manafacturers now depend tor their aupply on Italy
and tbe Far Bait. In Europe we may eay roughly ibe^;ltalian crop
oaoeedi tbe Freoob upon an average nearly four timee, while (be French
exoeeda iheSpanleb In a*still greater proportion. We may further
Illustrate the Important position ocoupied by Italy in this Industry by
saying that while a good Italian crop is expected to yield about eighty
thouaand balee, the average import from China to Europe lalle short of
that amount by about hfteon thousand bales. A failure of the Italian
crop meane, therefore, in eB^ot a failure pi tbe European supply;
Bpw It la said that not only in Italy, but in France and Spain also the
intense froaU of the spring have fatally injured the ooeoou* The
hadneia of the weather, moreover, has so^checked vegetation, that there
are not auMolent leaves for the vrorms, amongst which there is in
con8e(|ueaoo very great mortality. And, io addition to all this, it is
feared that if heat now sets io, the damage will become irremediable,
at the leaveeofi the mulberry will be dried op altogether To a large
extent theexoitemoat that prevatla is founded upon mere apprehension,
andlt Is p^ble that matters may not turn out neatly as badly as
it la isaied, Hoeh may happen before the harvest. Bat it is not to be
fbrgoHen that the Injury done by tbe eevere frost on the night of April
14,' whi nWer repalredt During the two months which followed
that disanar, repdrts vvere in oiroulatton similar Ijp those now ourteut,
blit they wcr^ eet down to the designs of speoutatora At the end of
Jpfie, however, they were found to be oorreot, anJ a sudden and
eXtrnprdb^ry idse o.f pfiloe was the reiult. Persous interested in tbe
Uadd feea^ber all this, and are resolved not to be caught a second
time,. Therehes, therefore, been a great deal of speculative buying,
and oeibMKiueatly a tharp^ upward movement of tbe market during lUo
pMt^fOrtaighl, Tet it does not necessarily follow that the experience
of three yeaii ago.U about to ha repeatod, aowever, without dwelling
further ;oathBi point, tat ws iake thereiyorts from the silk districts ae
they te^oh lie; end, while bearlag to mind that they may prove to be
ieuMpieriilied, try to forecast some ot the oonsequenccs which
wlB aneue^dl^fitld they tarn out to bo well founded,
Ai to be mtpeoted, the etateihenit m^iot Jin a perplexing mauner.
the Ot one tirodj^ lostltrijtloa, interested not in silk
^ gOM tlie lengBi o! sa|ln« that the reports
r and tfa*t tim crop, in Italy at least, is going on
laUon Is the other waj^ lathe
_i. one^Wrd of the ItdUan btop
imfavear*
--“ilywtii^iaU
eent, to make op lor the lose to^.Baro^, Of coutse we say thM merely
by why of ^iluetraihto. T^ MIhe ol.Inflaand Jeiwn tore more like
(hose of Boropf than the Ohiiiele^ «jud they would naturally he drawii
upon mote largely by EutoimM All these bnuotrlee
wouUUhBrefora oontUbnteihefir qtMatf yet, eve|i so, ItUttOtto be
expected that they would tm able td laniish afiyUdag Ihtd the loll
amount, The hatvast lit the Fat |t already oompleted, and is said
to bo abundant in quantity and exeeil^nt Id 4^^^* the ouUfva-
Uon was adjusted to meetam average d^a»d, > The Bnropean failure
wee not, and cbuld not have been loteaeen ; and ooneequently meane
do nol exist of efippl^g this year in full m^aeute the Knrbpean
deadenoy, supposing It to oeour. Assuming, thmefdrb, that there ie not
an extraordinary faUiog-off In the ooneumption, there muet he a very
great rise in the prkee of the raw material j unless, indeed, there is
^ hand a great cumulation of old stooka ,lt would be f ety (ntemet*
ing to asOertata the amount of the stocks on hlnd Vbht nntottunately
it is not possible 4o do so, except for this country. Heto we have
noourate statiftice, but abroad only estlmatet are found, and on
Bueb a point estimates are utterly untrustworthy, ApPm from queitioni
as to the compteoce, means ol information, and good faith of the
persons who frame the eslimi^tes, thoro is otlii^r ooae|4dr*tlen-««
that, If there is a desire to force up prioes, dealms wcnld tiwtarally
return their stocks very muoh below the tfttth,‘lor the'agbrdisparposa
of deepening the popular spfwebansioii of soafolty s while d» the other
hand, boyars auxiooe to keep down prioes, would equally add naturaliyi
state that they are already provided neatly to th«. extent of (heir
wants, ring estimates out ol aoeoaut, theu, we and« from Uesaret
n. W, Eaton Sc Sons' last olrcttlav, that the atoojke in this oountry
sold and onsokV on the 7th of the current month, amounted to 32,621
bates, against 86,342 bates at tbe oorfeiponding pefiotl lalb' year^
that is, a dt srease of 8.821 bslcs, or bver 10 per nent; If we, may
aasnme that the coudltlou of thingH hero is fairly representative, we
must conoli Je that there is no ex iieptional aocnmalaiioa of stocks.
But a smallu.' supply now goes further to satisfy the demand than a
larger one twelve months ago. because the consumption IS OonOlderably
less. Although lost year there was depresBioh in the trade, marked by
falling prices, and although prices at tbe end of the year were about
20 per cent, lower than in the previous December, tno consumption
was still not stimulated, If, then, unusttally low prloos failed to make
a market for the manufactured article, it is oertain that hlgW prloca
would (end to curtail the demand still more. We may skfely conclude,
therefore, that leea than the usual' supply cl manufaetured good#, even
at existing pricey is now needed j that oonseqaently tnafiumntfureera
have no motive to keep up their outturn to the ordinary level, and
that, even if there should be no failure, m smaller quantity of the raw
materia] will probably he used up in the approaohing seasoo. Of
coarse, should the failure occur, it will send up the price of tbe raw
material ; but as dealers will not be able to get an equivalent, rise on
tbe manufactuied article unless Some vagary of fai^lcn ndcxp^tedly
eomes to tbeir aid, they will reduce their purchases and Work their
looms and spindles short time, and thus prevent sueU an increase of
prices as was seen three years ago.—iteuisw.
IHE fiMFBESjS-DOWAGBB AND SILK CDLTITBB.
D elicate and cosUy, pleasa&t to wear and gratuful to the eye, it is
not surprisiQg that silk, deservedly oalted by its adndrars and those
who have made their fortunes or dorlvc their livelihood from it, ^*the noble
article,should from the earliest ages aud in all countries have been
specially protected, both in its production and maAnfsotare, by the 'most
loky poxsongges. in Japan, where it Is universally employed jn the
clothing of all classes, wooUou fabiics being still only In cmuparaitvely
moderate demand, it has always bcea regarded by members of ^e Imperial
family with a ihvouv worthy of its illastricus origin, Many are the pretty
legends which asenbe to it a supertiatural birth. One of these states that
a Japuneso virgin drew the first silk-wom from her eye-lashos. Tho other,
us rulaicd by Mr. Ernest de Bavier, iu hia valuable work ** On Eerioulturo
and the Btik Trade," Lolls that a daughter of an ludian King, exposed by a
cruel step-mother, who cast hot to the mercy of the waves iu a hollow mul"
berry tree, was thrown upon the shores of Japan, where, dying, she wss
transformed into a Upviopter, The little princess had first been given to th«
lions} then to the eagles; then was abandoned npon a barren and desolato
island, whence she was rescued by a fisherman In his coraotet and.
lastly, was iutcrrcd alive la the yard of a oastle, but came as safely out of
this as out of her previous trials. From these four adventures arc derived
the denominations of tho various matatiooB of the worm i’-tho periods oj
the Bon, the eagle, the boat and the court-yard.
Historians differ as to tho time when serieultato was introdaoed into
Japan, Tlie most genemliy received bplnion Is that (he industry originated
in tho year A.D. 2S9, with ibo arrival of some Chinese and Corean
Immigrants. It U pretty well established that, In the fiftb century of our
ora, with tho MBiMtaxea of Corean workmen, mauulactur^e of all kinds,
' sUk inolndcd, were largely extended. In 472, YuriyaUs, rite then Mikado,
decreed the plantatrari ol mtdhsrry treesi aad in cyely possible way
encouraged tho^euD^usd of Silk. He ordered HhotsSHlera from China and
Corea shonld pay MrabntribatiCns to \be vovanue in that article, Wnh
so fiihch in fifivoark It la act astoaiShiag to find that, by the second
iMUefihaaiAllld^y. tltoprbdacrioh had attained audi a devolopmeut
aa to he |l#ay oalr ^ the staple ifidnitrles of the ISmpiie. Indeed^ it is
fkc^ded derived from is caused i( to be followed to the
parts of the laad» rtss^gtowtog was «p
454 ;'
wwSi ate W10 iiaa tib* 0i
^ teteiiter laBbob^tMitetej
of bim 'te^t6«<f«d* waf prdbl^iliedi Wt __
Plbbten* tv«l» britemM tii« omployinaaitof «0ii(»im
m ioiritoirtia ptftwti teat^poaite
and w«afi0f ;ol (b bliab ^owiniooB* *04 di«pow4 kfha pktetei ikUt ^
lodsop to itetoiOt oarioh Ibdk cooitteti, or tnik# ^rotoia^
to fri«b%/|Ni^tato8^ hompovefl^ it tettlft appoat tbot tho
profpoflt^ of ilio iodottry deoUQed. K»npfer allodlea to tUe teportoOon
into J»p«n, to bio day, of oilkongoo4« liromCtou, Tonkiog« ind
Mr. do Jtovier, qttoUng Japaotoo flvthorittoa on the subjc^el;, atatoa^^ tbat
modora eetioaltoio pnl^ nppeam to bavo bmmf gonoral witbim too laet
fifty yem*
' 11)0 members of toe now reigning Itnpoiial famUy» and 6«|)eclanf too
illastiioui Udioe thO Smprota4owagec and too eooaort of too Mikodw>
bavo deno their atotoet to foeter the growth of ailk, and to place the manu •
faciaro opou a aoUd« pormanont and roiuunorative baaii. On a very recent
oeeaaion they tottjfiedf in a manoor wbiob ahoald certainly hare every
publicity given td4t» to the practical iutoreet they take m the nabjoct. On
Ibo 17to inrtautf Mr. Xwakura, and Piosidentof the Noblea'Clnb*
called the inombore of that institution togeUior in the great ball in Iwato
Machi. and ri|^ to tbom two doctunehte which had been forwarded to
him by too Miniatcr of the Imperial Household. The first was a letter
addressed to toe latter olfioialtby one of toe Empress-dowager’s chamborlaiust
the other a notification to Mr. Xwakura himself from Mr. Tokttda<ji| arumg
out of toe inteotioua expressed by her Majesty.
. No. 1.
To Mr. ToKuiiAur,
Minidw of the HousoftoUL
Agioeably to the wish of his Maji^sty toe Mikado* and the decree
published by his Exoollouey* Mr. Banjo. J>ayri> Daijint her' Majesty
too Empnwi Mother has decided to reduce her iiersoual expouses and those
of her establishmebt. She is also desirous to concur in the efforts now
making to give greater extension to aericaltaroi which oonstltiites one of
too most important productions of tho country, and one of its prlnolpal
sources of wealth. Her Majesty has for many years laterestod herself in
toe noble industry. Bbo desiros that too daughters of too nobility wiU
follow her eXAmple, nod orders me io make you aegoaiuted with her wishes,
in order that you may take tho nocossary stops to put her iutontionB into
execution.
Marob. 187D. MAuai Ko m 0]noFUsa.
No. XI.
TohisExoollency Mr. Iwakuha Bambui,
U’^a/^inf President oj toe WoMss* Clwb.
In aeoordance with the desire oxproaaud by bor M»iesiy. toe Empross
Mother, a imgmnsrU has been established in the Imperial palace of
Awoyama. Bkiiful eduoaton will bo engaged in too sillr-produciug
provinces to superintend tho oullivation. Individual members of noblo
housos who wish to learn t>ericnltare, can make application (o do so at toe
said establishment up to tho 25th instant.
TokudaIji SAFBWonr,
April lOto. Afinister of the Impevml Uouaehold. \
Having reed these doouments to iiis distinguished audience, Mr, ^wakuta ■
addressed Ihem to the effect that the silk industry is. beyond <lii?poto, tho
most important in the couutry. the product ranking first among the articles
of export. Dwelling upon toe example and desires of tlio Empr.'BS.dowager,
he said that the Imperial lady would not attempt to ooiistraui any one, but
wottjd be much pleaaed io boo that her lutentlous ware complied witu^
T> ' speaker, of hU own motion, euggestod tcan elderly peraonf*. who caiuiot
thinkof leurniDg toe scirfocOvS, would do wolJ to addict themselves to silk-
growiug, Ue roinarkod that, for too current year, iustruotioti would be
eonflued to practical lessons { but. oommeucing with next year, (he pupils
of bor Majesty's silk-Hchool mov agree to conduct the education ” of
toe worms in common m tlicii (iwn housos. lli» Excellency couoludnd
tlim {-,-*» I do not doubt that the innovauou will have, in the future, the
most excoUent results. Onct m possession of the miuirod knowledge,
our IkmUics will be able to create for toomsulves inuio indapoudeut meims
and larger comforts. As lor too capital nccossaiy to those who wish to
cater seriously upon the pursuit of eoricaUure, we will taka care to provido
the whero-with^, M sooa as WO are defiuitply informed of the imotbor ol
rarsons likely to require assitence.*’ The mensiue here bdioatod end
msUtutediia lilieral And ’i patrlotio one. It is hard (o oalciilato the
l>«nefits that may be hoped <o aecrnb from it. Apart from tho oreation of
“ ludopcndcnt means and larger oomforfcs,” the iiittodaotiou of a useful
odcupabion. requiring the exercise of great oafo, oleaaUiicss. and a cou*
mdctablc fiineuut of intelligent obsorvatiou, into the daily life of tho young,
will do much tow ardu rat Slug the tone of the rising g^eraUon, of girls*
cspaciallYt This cUss, the young ladies of da|iaui upon whom the future
woU*beiug oi the country eo largely dopeUds, load for the most part a
mottotouotts and usekbs oxlstoncc. The Empiro is not yet suMeiently
diaoriebtallaodi rt we may ho pcrmiLtod tho word, to have offooted
any V^Cty great leterm iu toe domostio and social life of the sex.
It is noti pfirhapi} prcbuuung loo much to opine that too early
lUe of too glDWOiBA&d imperially minded lady who has deVtfiO^ , employ-
motit iox toe pTOity fluffbfihe damsels other sob a (uHteteofffood
faoOUwiagyiiuit^ireeoWtuW^oi* ^*^^*‘* monown,. have been
Ei»rop»^A“^ M ,
•upplemebted ^ toe eaniJte*?
m Qur heartiest sympathyrU^^ V hefi U
already as leog sa toe artiele irW wi fm
MaiU
Iff i:e£<^ce to oiir incidehtof ^
ture lulmarwlir as it need to be oarrlte^te «
a correepemdonfc eendtrna the loQowllig^ 1 r
** The groat adUaUgee of Phtewar over otter putee ia
India are *Ist^ an admintblo mediom climate i4)i y^aar
round ; 2nd, a mediaui rain fall—so toat toe atmosj^here lifl never
too damp or very hot ; 3rd^ mulberry ahrobe grow admirably and
iiovor fail; and 4tbr b^ve toe monthly eilk-worm wMob toHves
well, throws off coooone ofght or nine months In the yeafi thus
giving steady work to the people engaged ; 6to> (he stik is eiMly
wound off and even {bongh roughly reeled by the hand, proteoes
Buoh beautiful dresses as you have seen. If itese advantages are
not sufificieut, 1 do not know where you get any thing tike them in
India. X thinli^ to those above points I might add a oantion,
viz.f that Avhon they hud the monthly worm doing well, don’t
breed it with any other, but be content; this indiBoriminate cromf^g
has caused the continual f ailuiss in serioulturo in Boutheru India.”
A WAiTEfi iu the Sulistlii Ue la SeeiStU d'4coliwatation d$ J^rig
records the results of a number of experiments with quiaiae salpbate
ou diseased silkworms. A commission wbioh reported on thla subject
in 1859 stated that silkworms treated with quinine or gentian never
exhibited tbe same symptoms of cure observed in others which had
taken cither mustard or valeriao; but M, Obrifitian le Doux, boiog
in Ignorance of this statement, has made further experiments, witli
BAtUfaotory results. Worms suffering from f-Mherie were powdered
with quinine, and nearly all recovered in a very short time after
the application, Borne very bad oases of p&lrins, with open putrid
wounds, were sucoessfully treated in the^ samemannerf«-^tfni*dsftr7'V
Ckreniok*
IH allading to tbe gloomy foroeasts of the European silk crop,
a home correspondent mentions that '* the rain and snow of tho never-
ending winter have seriously injured the prospect^ in Italy and
France, and now if the beat sets in, it will probably "be sudden, eo
that the mulberry leaves will be no sooner expanded than they
will be burned up. Prices are rising in Lyons, and stocks are
being withdrawn from sale in large quantities \ and the market
is rapidly assuming a ‘ bullish' aspeot. On the other hand, although
it is full early to sneak with more than hesitation^ reports from
China represent the silk ciop as liikely to be more than fair, Tbe
intlusnce uf these piovietons on the silver market will sooner or
later be oonslderablw The great demand which arose for China silk
three or tour years ago, when a similar misforinnS betel thf European
growers, caused a large export of silver to the East, and toe prlc®,
went up to a famine rale. Within my own personal knowledge
tortlines were made in a single season, and one of the beet known
Eastern banks, by a lucky coup, more tban retrieved its previous losses
by an iiidUcieet mauager, and has ever since malatained Us posltiOD,*’
ADYEliTISEIENl'S.
* __ _ I. .
THE BENGAL PURVEYING CO..
aSKMEAX;i PEALBES AEO COMMISSION AOENTS,
01-2, UVLnmpBl Market. ^
P nOVXSlONBr ly^lati eoudlmtels, orookety, gloM, hirdwaiiq and j
every descrliitlon ot household requisites supplied at too towsit ' ^
liasar and Market rates.
Terma Cask . .
In order to goto, confidence we undifftake to despatch goods, on
Vsoetoi of tte^ibt halves bf ourronoy notes or draft tor (bdriy'iiyf»te
ooMtitoenki wiU teve the opttoa of ^
isjtottogtteaftoM .’L
* f f
fHR
INBIM AGBICTJLTIMST.
* MOOTIlLy
JOURNAL OF INDIAN AOniCUlTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS,
VOL.* IV.]
n-B ta-sa- -s- * r . . ,,, ^
CALCUTTA : FRIDAY, Ibt AUGUST. 1879.
Ml OmAT cl m.. m
No. 8,
NOTICE.
Thi iKDiASt AaBXCUiiTUBiST 10 ;/^ bn svxi^lted to all iSdiooU and
MietmartM m India at half price.
R. KNIGHT,
Cftkuit&i Ut Feb. 1876.
CONTENTS:
Paob,
CORn«8PONPEKC«^
Agnciillure m Irdftni and
Xttdia u* .. ^55
Tea «■« t*. ••• *
Iho KAecls of Diought on
Grain ., ••* •*•
Inflnenoe ol Feieata on JlMufall
Tree# and Health .«* •« 2W
Tiift fultivation of Tobaeeu , 267
l«iniUs and Horeo Gram »# 257
The Tlse of baw*da#t a#
Manure .„ .. 2o7
'I ho Olive m India ... «• 9b7
Koteghur Note# . * • 2o8
LLADtMO ABTXCLSa—
A UnUeter of Agrioaltorc ..* 26J{
Improved CulUvation , • 200
Mineral Plant-food# . 261
belcetion and Croea-feriiliAa-
Uou of Farm Crop# . 2^»2
riiiioiiiAt Note# .. 263
CoMMUNK Atbp a bALROlSn—
Oa# Luno m a Manure .. 265
bolt as a Banare 265
Blanuro Analyae. end their
lotetpiotalion . iSJ
Will Cultivation .. ... 267
Irneationw tho NorUi-Wo#! 2o7
Maoia# bohool of AguOttUttro 268
Ibo Madiaa bchool of Agnonl*
tute.. .208
Pithcoolobium (Ing^ fiamau,
and F. (Inga) i>uleo ... 2fi0
Cattle Food# ... .2b0
A New Foddw-yieldwg Iroe
lor India »« ... . 260
lab^tion OolEite and Fodder
fbr Cattle 270
ITay .«« *. . ... 270
aiie Trade of Bombay 2^ 1
6ome facta about Taemania «.i 271
The Flan Supply ... . 272
Farminflm&eoUaad.272
latil^ieeMe mthe Punjab 274
The Vine .. .. .. 274
'iholVoattteVf the Crop# and
UieBniuaha ... 274
Meteorology m the N •W. P. 271
Agri-ttoritouUural Society of
India ... M 270
Meomng the Height# of
Tteee .* 270
ana GasDEN-w *
Koto . m
Home Frail Prospeoi# ... 276
A few beloct Toberoug
Hegomaa.276
Watering Newly Planted
Tree# , . 277
Fobihuiit-^
Indian Foregtry .277
The Tallegt tieo in tho World 27b
MlNEBAtOOV--
Coal in India 270
Iho Opening of Coal Mmoa ,. 270
Indian Mineral ludustries 270
Im PLiNirna' CrAEnTrE—
Tea— ..280
Iba in Uie Upper Piovmoes... 280
■'Faced* China Tea . .. 281
Corm—'
Nolea .. *. 281
Oollec UiseaflQ in Java 2bl
1 ho Pttbllo Bale# Of Cottee .. 281
Aootn CoFoo .. *«* < > J82
ClOAO—
Note ... ... ^ 2
ClNCBONA—
Note ... ... ... *'*
Copi icihg Cinchona *1 lee# 28i
Sikkim Cinchona Plantation# 284
Cinifhona in tho Tmneyelly
Ghats .288
Omchona in India • 283
ToBA<ro—
Notes ...
2 tl
gBiacULlUB®—
Note.
Bdk from China .. . 2Jt
Work at the Filature . ... 285
On the Tusiur Bdk ot India . * 267
Am marraiatBWTB .. «• 22Q
NOTICE TO OORKESFONDENTS.
0«f C6rrd8|)on<f«nf8 anti Contnbntore will greatlj/ oblige na
if they wtU toJke the trouble^ where the retumt of culUvaUon ate
elated by them in Xftdtan weighte and ntcaturee, to give their
Sngliih^eguivaknte^ eitkelin the teat, in parenthesis, or in a
/oof-ndfd# The bigdk m particular vanes so mieh in tM d\jl-
fersni JProeingee, that it te tf^uiely necessary to give the
ET^hsh nalm of U Ht all emse, U ivauld H gnat reform
ffihe (ipvbrmetd meff feUmked the in
offleied fepgfk by it»
COBBESPONDENCE.
AGRICULTURii; IN IRELAND AND INDIA,
TO Tan ADiroB.
8iu»-.Laat tuonBoou you noitood with saiiifaotion thu MtabllBhtteut
of an AgnooHural lupiovement Oonmiiittee at Naira, and the modest
pamphlet iggaed monthly by the committee. *
Both oommitlee nod pamphlel alill flourlih, and I encloie copy of
a little paper I am sending to the editor for tranalatioo.
The Irieh «y#tem of National AgrteuUural Bdooalion will repay
attentioDi and it this simple little paper is likely to enootirage interest
to the subjeot, pray make ass ot it.
WulBArHAJIPSTBAD, > F. 8HBPPARI).
bt. Athanst 18tli June 1879 { Oolleotor of Kaira.
NOlEfl,
1 have lately botn travelling iu Ireland and have been Interested
to observe many point# ot leeetublanoe betweeu that oountry and ludfa.
1 will now refer only to point, the state of agrioatture.
Now. while tiade and eommeice have so inGreassd in tho rieher
oountries of Kurope, that a oonsiderable proportion of the vast suiplus
profits have be<u oapouded on tha fuad, lieland has enjoyed no such
advantage^ tho petty fanners have, as a rule, Ivllle if any moru capital
than their Indian biethreii the average sue of the holdings is not
larger than thot in Ouseiat; whils the huts iu which the nial# ot the
agnooltural popniation lire, and the food whioh they eat. are by no
means soperior to thOBS of the Kaira cultivator.
Again, the soil le ceitamly not as productive a# your best land# to
Nuiiad, Doreud, and Aouad^ and tho, oultivalors tl omMlvos are not
more industrious than our own, the oonsoquenee pf all this is, that
lieland is xust as much depondenl on good seasons as India is. A
eingto bad soason prodnoes distreu . a suooession of two or throe resalts
m fauiuie.
The conditions of agnoulture tu Iretand being thus not unlike those
of soma parts of India, it will be interesting to you to know what is
being done towards Imptovement, and I will now tell you what I have
lately seen In iho course of a tour, ondertakeu In great measure with a
view of atudymg the subject, and of enquiring how far the measures
adopted in Iielaod are likely to be useful ni India, Ireland i# the
countty ul small farmeis who oonld not b« eipeotad to atfoid their son#
au eapansivp educalion ip soientifio agiioulture, such as is seppUed at
the National Agiioultural J raining Institution m Dublin For some
years past elementary iuslruotiou in agnoulture, natural aclenoa, Sco,
ban been addad to tha subjects of study in a limited number ol the
National Bohools, and a oettatn number of faims and againpia gardens
attached to those institutions.
1 here are Ihrsa olassaeof sueh schools, and the isachera who qualify
tbamaelvea tor Imparting laitraetiou in agrloulturo, reooive special
allowances and fees forreeults. I hope that out little farm at Nanad
will in time bo as usefnl as soma of those f have visited iu Irelaml.
Fott will see that the Irish system is not altogether unlike that lately
lotrodnced Into Bbmbsy by hu Bsoellenoy the Govoruor, It was
found, however, in Ireland, that some impetus was requited to
enoourage the fa mere to Imitate the Improved tyslem of Ullage
oartted on in the Sshool Farms, and U was also considered desirable to
create a spirit of oogipeUtlou and emulation among the small farmers.
A priae system waO aoeotdlogly futrodneed Certain oeutres were
sekoted iti each provmoe, and an annual snm for 5 jears given for the
best onlUvated farm of a certain stipu atod rental vviihin a radms of
6 or 6 imiei of the eatitre faim.
This lyltem wm not Uitcoduoad wltbonl a oertam amount of lilfllooUy
A popular Idoa sprang up that it waaa plan dovisodby Govtrumwir
and thA laadliprdia (qv asoartauiiiig the b si soils with tho view of the
euhanoemsnt of the rats of suoti.
THE INBIAK Ai&RICULTtTEIST.
Angasi
y<m, Iq Kitrt, o««d irottbled byuoflQobftpprfhtmloiif,
Amanment if ilx«d lor iiit ibirty yeftis ot furyey Iftieti ai»4
im|>roTemeiitfr«ia!ei«d4>yth«oecupiiitdo&p| mdtir Ui« lAttw tHMe
tpahigber '
Tb« difScnUy la tiptaad vai « graye ontf and «ai not OTercowo tot
«D!B« Umift Tbo Byttfin i« now working wall, liotroTer, anti 1 mb ffom
thn Uat Indian papari that it has altradod the attention of oor friend
, ^ Mr. Bofaftrleon.
bare already offiared certain priase at Naiiad wUieli wo hope wUI
heof^fWh nee to the diatriot. Why abould we not iufe one or tw6
priMi onNtetj^iame prteoiple a« the Irieh onee f ^
Think oot the echeme lor yoormWee. 1 wUl feU yon, in liTy neat,
more about the oondiUone of the prleoe.
hot theprodnetolriverplioodea Maiu^tl not a dlittoot tpMdit nor
if the Sgyptian wheat, Mia well known,
Quini^ sort JuM 18W.
INFLUBNOE OF POBBSTS ON BAIHPAIiL.
ijlll,«»Froi)il an artiole In the Jndian A^fricuUurUt of lait isine, it
wonid appear thdv a writer if of Opinion that tea on the Keilgherrioa
will nat pay. Bat on the other band it ia cbeetfng to find another
gitree this oeaertlon a positive denial, and ainoe the same Uae boon good
enough to acquaint ut with hts figaree .of rotnru of tea pet aore, we
have no need to he altogether despondent; rather it ought to be the
means of atimolfcUng thoie who may not be doing aa well as his
neighbour to uae all hia energy to compete with him. Doubtless
the faot of proper management being necessary and particalarly on a
tea garden, cannot he disputed, hence to ensure suooese t hie muet he
the first step our atientioa must be drawn to, a liberal outlay, and
locality are the next things to be observed. It may be observed, people
employed on Bs. 20 and SO per month on gardene many of whom perhaps
hate had no preTlous experience in cither ouUnre or niaoufacture
of tea, and ebould the employer’s knowledge not exceed that of the
person he employs, wbM reiuitecan possibly be expected 1 And X dare
say it is oMci of this kind which have led to people crying down this
district j I give an instance If an estate be capable of prcHiuoing
from 250 to 900 lbs. tea per acre, and the same brought so low as
to give only 25 to do Iba, per acre, what could the cause be "Utributed
to I Bad management of course I XXeneo it is beyoud’ argument' that
for tea to pay it must be managed by men ot practical experience,
AN INTBBESTfiD PAllXY.
THE EFFECTS OP DBOUGHT ON GBAIN.
—
Sir,—T he last wheat harvest in these districts has shown a fact
worth recording. The grain has been superior to any yield, in slee,
nutritive qualities, and superiority of its flour. It Is carious that
beyond a very slight sprinkling of rain at germinating tiruc, the crops
suffered from drought, the result was the plant was atunted. fit the
time of fioweriug or thro,wing ears there were two or three general
showers, all at ooce the vitality of the plant was aroused, and the
latenteuergies were thrown into fruition. The local dry measare or
topa, which is the usual medium of barter in tbeao parts, tu previous
years gavekat 26 ehittaeJa ; this year the grain of a topa weighed 82
thxt(>acki or over 28 (ter cent. more. The grain is also richer in gluten,
starch, and phosphates. The outturn ot chaff or h?woM was of courac
poor.
The aspect also of various lands was the more oonspieuous as regards
the crops during this drought, and ought to have taught a lesson to
the obaeivant. Those lande which were near any stream or nuU<t
Mt and had at poriods reoeived the allt from an overflow ot water,
brushed up famously attsr the seasonable tain ; but lands which were
poor from being over^werked, and receiving no strength, as was (o be
eipeoted, did not show at all so well.
As the Tanjab sub^mountaih or rather norihern disiriots are
reticulated with bill nnllas, wlfich carry off rich eotls after every
ehower, what seems eash thas^ to turn this richly charg^ water, and
make it flow gently over the landi and deposit Its silt This can be
done by throwing a dry weir over the stream at a sufficient height to
divert the waters in parte having fuveurahle levels.
It bae been remarked often enough, that Indian mtUu are dreary
enongh, with their uninviting aspects of sands, the feel is that they have
never been utilised, and they carry away their waters richly Ifiden wlUi
•oils to the sea, A part of the ** local rates ’’ ooaid be most profitably
employed in this way, Within any area of 8 square miles in this part
a ntdfA by a happy accident has jumped over at overy freshet owing
to a fall on its hai^, the result Is that the crops have always been
superior,and the gilt deposits can be observed in its lamina |n the sods ,
thrown up by the plough, Tbitlortuitonifiuibingof t
the sofM yield to this email area represent a Urge oy vaW, The !
leealvmtomt whggt whioh ii to 0Bp«flef fi&d cummandg a high price tg <
^ ^fif'^^Nvarslnoe the publication of filr Biebgrd Tgn^U*i’'gelfbiatgd
minute on forest conservancy in the JTaocan, fhe ipdign piw|pepef«
- have furnished the public with a vast number of ofttelM mul latUm
on a variety of topiw connected with forestry fn IndUi “Bit A'l
none of these commnnfoatlonf <at least, none (hat I bare seen) ■
pretond to offer a satisfactory expUnatipn oi the manner in which
the growth of forests tends to iafiacnoe rainfall—which to India is
the most important problem connected with the gubiect—I yenture
^ to ask for space to state very briefiy what 1 believe to be a correct
^ and sofentiflo way of explaining this most totetcstlog potni
The faot that the mean annual temperature of iho"'whole earth
is a well reooguised constant (l.s„ averages the game one year with
another), implies that the quantity of heal annually received from
the sun is balauc^by an equivalent loss of heat through radiation
Into space. This ocncluilon, however, natural it may seem, Is not
really correct, tor from recent calculations and experiments of Irish
and American tavmtgf it appears that the Ion ot heat from the
earth by radiation into space falls considerably short of the amount
of solar radiltiou she receives in the year. Thus It Is shown to a
paper by Dr. Haughton, Professoi of Geology in the (Juiverslty of
an abstract of which was read before the Britieh
Association Meeting last August, that the amount of sun heat annually’'
received by the earth is equal in amount to the heat required to melt
a coating of Ice 80 feet lu thickness all over the globe, and that the
mean annual radiation of heat from the whole earth Is eqnivsdsnt
to molt a coating of ice only 28j| fact in tblokoess. There is, thers*>
fore, a balance of beat received, equivalent to the melting of 51X
feet of ice, to be accounted for, as the mean temperature of the
earth's surface is not increased.
What, then, becomes of this balance of solar radiant energy
For a balance there is even, after making, due provision for the
geological work done by the oironlation of water, &c.
The only possible soientifio answer, « that will hold water," is that
tills balance of solar euorgy is converted into—another form of
energy—vegetable life, and ot oourso ultimately into animal life,
lu support of this oonoluaioD, and also to eonneot it with the
subject under consideration, it may be goneraily stated thUA the growth
of vegetation is accompanied by a disappearance of heat; for, os
every chemist knows, the resolution of a oompound (L a,, tbe separa¬
tion of its constituents) is invariably accompanied by a reduction
of temperature.
And what are the green leaves of the forest continnaltj doing,
while under the influenoe of the radiant energy—emitted by the cun,
but resolving, or separating the elements ot the carbonic acid gas
(storiog its carbon and liberating its oxygen) present in the^
aimoiphere, and this chemical decomposition is, like otbcfi of its
kind, accompanied by a fall of temperature^n absorption ot heat.
It, therefore, follows that, in addition to the generally ocknow*
ledged physical cooling that takes place at night over a forest (1^0
I surface, owing to tbe great radiating power of its green leavesi
thvre Is also a chemical action going on daring the day time toadiiig
to produqe a reduction of temperature over the forest eurfoee.
And now, as all meteorologists will admit that the most Important
condition tending to influence rainfall—to induce » more or leas
sail rated wind to part with its watsry vapour—a redaction ot
temperatare* over a large area, 1 think I may safeiy conclude that
thcfet^^wthof forests over large areas tends materially tq tofiaeoee
rainfall.
I do not, bowevM, believe that the planting of a patch of trees here
and there can materially tofluenfse the rainfall of the fstore; hqt I
shonld. in common with Sir B. Temple and many others, like to see the
tvoelesB bills of tbe Deccan covered with ample forests.
What might not the oUmate ot Poona be were its enrfonndfng hills
but clad with forest verdure t
SAMlTffl^ COOKS,
Professor of Geology, &c., Civil Bnginecrlng College.
Poona, June 21.
* Thus Mr, Prout says in his Bssay on Meteorology c«*«« It cannet be
doubted that tain is lu some way oonuected with chanaa ot temimratore t
the ptiolexiiiy ottoBiing the subject, air.fleB partly f . om^e Impossi^lty in
' iuppcsid chmw tcmperatnr%^ to tor m tofaiti oiOMncefiitS *
Angnei 1,
AjGEICPjLiuMST.
2S7
j6MW«<w 4 ot U 19 S8th fctoWftiajj
txom Mr* Ck^ oi Bagloe^ritia Ooll«|%tMlf m» Wilt>{ee^ anft
I ani wriiioik i» o*t«r « rtmatk? on the lheor| W id^w^w*
Ae mK <)ftB andewUwd the I^rofcenor’a thooiji^^ W U tbftt f ogetftlion
nbfofbi belt ittd gife* out cold, ind lienoe the iaAienoo «li\oh ifeee
eiart on tAtmi; M is tbie eo? Moife re^ideiitff io Indii heve
rewaarbea Ihife It ttigbt the fttmofpbere undet^i groteof Iroee Is muob
irarmer thin Ibe ilf la olh^t plioes, vblte ia the day it is ot worse
woler owing totbesbido lud the drmgbt tbit ftiways eiMta undor
trees, tbai» I iWnk, showing Ibit trees gl»e out boat dutl&g the a»gbt
at any ntOf wbelfaer Uiey do so dating iha day ought not to bo very
difflouIttododOnt* . ^ t M
Theohiotoaoao ol »ia la India 1 lake tp ho the seUlng la of a cold
wind Ittei 1 warm one-foe a cold wlad atrlvlcg at a warmer cUmato
would lower the temperature and diminish the power of ..tbe atmw*
pherotoreiaiamotstttre,and anything that tends to oUtroot the cold
wind wonld oertainly canso a more ooploos downfall than if it were to
' have free passage* Is not this the explanation of the action of trees
in India? q
Jcly 0tb, 187il» .iin-
IBBES AHI) HEALTH. ^
(Hi tM Mittr »f " Hu Snfliihmn:') -
glii,«-Iai cw twtlva ytMB »go then w«** b* ***** ®* badges in ot
itbont JlwstlpM# i tt WM then oas ol ih® Uenltbieit •‘•H®®* »“ ‘I*®
iHsinotlndls, Indeed, c**®® e* sloknaes wet® Mtrem»ly i*t® m »>l
nuanl. Jsmalpot* is non donaely ooeeted nilh t*®®*.
wd is on* olttoniost uiiUe»lthy sUtlone on tb* E. I. Bsilny.
Csn any ol yorn oU Indian wortbioa supply any imonuallou, at data,
wbMsby U» quantity ol tegelalion ot Ibis kind may bs ^uiated.
Tbo shlf^leoted wiseacres who manage this place seem to think that
the nearer wo approach the ptitnoral jungle the more we advance u
sanitary seourity. U ,
Jamalpoie, July 10, 1870.
THE CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO.
•--..-As—-
(T 0 the Miior of " Tfia j!!n^luhvtm»V
1 SCO by your late journals that the ouUare of tobacco is going
ahead ia India, but not with very good success, for want ol
knowing the proper seasou of aeod sowing and transplauiiag more
than anything else. 1 woaid advise them to do in future as 1 have
done, and if they do so they will find that the culture ot that article
will bttcoma good and very profitable, and prove 01 little ot no ttoable
to the cultivator, _ , t *
The proper time for seed sowing is in the mouths of May and Juuo
so as to have the plants ready for transplan ting by the setting iu of
the monsoons* In soma parts of the country the monsoon sets In in the
month of duhe, and iu other parts In July; iuthe ObutUNagporo
dtitriot generally iu July. I had seed sown in June, both tobacco and
cabbage^ and had my cabbage white by October, aad the tobacco full-
grown and ready lot cutUng. After BO doing, one has ouiy to look to
the attor-orop, which has been very good.
Owing to certain circumstances, I have not sown any this season.
A few years ago I olfered the jail department to put 1,000 acres under
tobacco lor them, the laud was then available, but no ooe took any
interest in the matter.
Believe me, tobacco is as simple to grow as ia cabbage, but you moat
know when and bow to do it. Two crops tn the year oau be got, one
agoodaftei-otop,soif that would uotpay well, I do not know what
THOMAS QALLAGHBR*
Hasaribagb, July 8,18 70.
LElNTILS AND HORSE GUAAi
fSh tU MHor of “ m Madrtts AtUmumr)
^ ia»,-AUow me fodlBibnse the mind Ot your English correspoudent
of the beliei In the Identity ot horse gram and lonills, The
lormey it tbo Mi 9 k 9 t mifiom and the latter, the Bmm knt of
botaidblti Ooionel Diory does not mention the lentil among the useful
plants of India. It does not appeor to bo indigenous t^j^ and It Is
certaiPly pot puUIvat^ In, this Presidency. Horse gram ie kidney-
shaped, HaYylx^ in ,colonr .front bnE to burnt steuna and black. Ibe
itnUl hiim,M»»kape of A bi*«cnm magnifying glase. It ia very muo^b
Wfger ih fiso thtn borse grati; andt when fresh \\ ia of a bright
magenta colour, If they tha^ W«>U.>ke;^’ »«**•»
otheisr Ihey are fjplh pnlies 1 bejtUd
very mnoh aiike-^av^y pleatant teste indeed—bnt they also have the
same appeitaooe. They a^ hot both ecjually sntted for human
consumpilop, A pleoUtel meal map be made oftt ol leniila hot no one,
not even a horse-keeper eocustesihediO tedalge in horse gram, coald
dine eaclttslvely da fhis sub«taiiei, withont suffering from severe
griping au'I indigestion, the ^otto^pers have lo reslrate Ibelr
childrefi from overeating the gram'hoUod for their charges. Ift sprawl
quantities, borse gram is used by the, nerves for, variona eulloory
purposes. It is one of the nine food substahciwji, Akaaiya, thqulred
for msuy Hindoo ooremonies. On tbs whole it dost net deserve the
couiempt or at least the neglect it meets at the heOili of Bnroposns,
Let those who can appfociate a strong curry, try gram mnlfegatairny
prepared with gram water and a nice piece of salt fisb. If they do, 1
am sura that many will think this eoup by no means lo be dei^ised.
1 humbly commend thiadUU lo the learned disciple ^ EnilthAl! SAVAIMK
who bos oonlnbuled bis jottings to your valuable paper* _ „ „
_ vl, H. V.
// THE USE OF 8AW-DU8T AS MAHUBB.
Sm,—In refereuoe to the use of saw-duet for ma^re, n little
addition to tbo Blatement of its application may bo tound fo Uw
following extract from “ The Hplo of a Day,” by an “English
Yeoman.” Rhyme is here made the medium for impwtwg
scientific facts and procesaea in agricaltnro*
“A chemist proves In langnagesolentifio* •
For land that’s cropped by sugar•draiuiog beet,
Bawdu«b saocbarlsed by amd sulpburto,
Restores the soil for barley crops or wbaal.
The process of using the sulphuric acid i« wmplo enough ; tUo
diy saw-duatis epread out thinly in leaden trays, or on hard
clayey ground, if there be no load to make up into shallow trays
for the purpose.
The strongest sulphuric acid is poured on the saw-dust from a
leaden watering-pot, lire acid in the asw-dnat ia docompoaed and
beoomea Baoohatiaed, the fibre of tlie wood ia oharred, and lha
whole forma a black pnlp, which ia ahoTOlIod offl ready for oae wllU
any dry manure, uah, &e., from lire drill or for broadcast sowing-
The simple system of clcnnaiug and ntilisfilng sewage streams
hy interoeplioii and delivery from partially wibniorged cyHiidew,
hu^ ample exposition m another verso.
The system ot interlining crops, for market garden produce, is
urged for general applioatioa tor suitable crops.
Other faiui topics are treated by the “Yeoman” iu the aomu for®«
and cpigrammatio way, wJiioh portrays au age of learning woven
inavorso. “The Epic of a Day,” being wamly a ppiuftuooof
chivalry, toreatal beauty ia amply delinoatod.
ANNIE LILDIAN KING.
Norton Cottage, Grant ham.
THE OUVE IN INDIA.
{B'om a Native Correspondent.)
It would be a gigantic though not an insurmountable task to
ascertain, identify, and arrange into their respeolive classes and sab-
divisions the fauna and fiora of such a vast country as India ; but It is
surprising nevertheless that, even after full two centuriw and a half ^
Briliab occupation, we should remain as It were on the threshold of the
enquiry, aud, in some oases, ignotan t of even the roost ordinary trees,
plants, and shrubs. It was only the other day, If I am cormctly
informed, that India and Barm ah awoke to the taafc of the oHvo befog
as common as the banian or the mango, though Without tba slightest
preteosioos to botanical knowledge, I would here venluta to ask if the
ordinary KalatU of South India is not the Syrian syoamore, if the
dforadfrisnot a variety of the oak, and if the KarnmtaJaeaoui
Arabka) is not closely allied to. if not ideniioal with, the Shittlm wood
of which Moses oonstruoted the “ Ark of the Oovenaut f"
eincetheiftf^ enlightened the Madras public a« to the Ideatity ol
the ihppei with the olive, I have becu at some trouble to examioe it
p.rBen.l)y,«iBl«<»teaoqaalntmr»H with «• dWta«ui.htag M<xtn
LpettlM, aed u«M, .0 far a. th., aw known to UWM pM^ O,eve.
ot ik eithwalon. ot tnUiMpetied wtth Uw tainaund nnd .«h like, aaj
ba awn awfywhafa ftom the meuntolua to tha w»-*ua I ha..
wilnaMad »Htti inegomwnt apeotowna ao f*t inland aa on Uttbank
of tha Tamfrapettnl neat 8t,ee»al««utem i bet Kleon the<Ia»atn
ragiona lying Immailetely nt tha foot ot th® gh®®** ih®* *>'• "*'
attainaUigraat®®* (Wight and ias«»u to tha beat adtantaga. Agah.
it ia only ihoto t^t tha « laboi ofiUe
that at yoft go tefonvi, the trees become fewer and ^ ^
it no «.C. Intiuuawily. 1*®*. Slraavlfilpattoo,
THE INDUN AGRICULttmBT.
Atiguit 1, 1879*
down )o Ooovlotoi in IftOt nlong itio wtioto tfdgo of , Wo^tio
ghonti, oa« mnr m girore niter grove eprendigg like « eilveiMn i M
% fltnUiMk beitr wrong II, ^onlag Iront nnoli^fi 1 k»ke llie wkoU
oltatn from Booibif to Coniorlo to betbe kaditut of tlie oiite in {ndin*
In order to iltow (lint the treeiare eodlalft&tl^ nnueroiia lo eonatUnte
n new bmneh of Indurtry or epeeulnfcios, let me mention, ibnt In the
two Ziwia iowtia of Veernnnm and Veemlcaralampathac nlonei tbero
oannot be lew lima 10,000 tre«e.
How lor a deieriptlon of the tree itself. There are two varieties, llappei
and hatilappei, known reepeetively to botanists as longW^
and Jbwto tofi/eto; bat the former Is mneb %ioro oommon, and forms
the sabjeot of tbe present paper. The first dlstlngnieblng featnreU
the warte or knobs etndding tbe Slemi which gives tbe tree the
appeatanee of one aSteted with elephantiasis or Madora foot/' though
trses to the einberanoo ol youthful vigour present few of them, oue
bore and one there, and they again neither so large nor so ugly as to
their eider brethren, llot only the knobs, bnt tbe cracked serrated
surface of tbe bark, is an iudloatlon of doorepitode and old age, With
respeet to height, lhave seen trees as tall as fifty or oven sisty feet—a
fact which at once shows ths congeniality of tbe soil as compared with
Kurope* seehg that (he Olivea is ssid to grow generally to the
height of thirty feet only. The branches are numerous and irregular,
though not thiek-set, and the leaves hardly differ from those of a
mangOi being oblong in the middle but tapering to cither catremlty.
When tenderer fresh-set, they arc yellow-green, or rather of the colour
of pdaoh legyea but they soon torn green as they become older; while
their italks (petioles) remain gray or almost white, whatever the ago of
the leaves, lo tbe matter of fiowers, there are few trees in India
which are as prodigal of them as the ; in fact, tbe tree at times
literally bends under tbe load of them. In March or April, when
the tree is in full blossom, may be seen parties of little folks busy
of a morning gatbering the fiowers to their laps, or swallowing
them with the keenest relish ; be it mentioned that the ground
underneath is thickly stvewn over with flowers which the tree oasis off.
Hanging as they do In graceful festoons, several on one peduncle, or
covering the ground as with a mantle of snow, they add gieally to the
beauty of the tseo—oot to mention the sweet sickening fragraoee they
exhale from a pecnliar honey-like substance they oontaUt. In colour
they resemble enamelled glass or dirly snow, in shgps miniature pine¬
apples or the globular shades of French lamps. The fruit is oval, but
enoloses an oblong nut (to some oases two) which in its turn contains
a white oleaginous kernel of the same shape. Tb o uses of the tree ato
manifold* In the first place, it yields timber of the best quality-
hard, yellow, olose-grained. Heat the eastern or mf*ln tower of the
BtreevUHputtur psgoda, there lies fist in a neighbouring street p
tremendons beam ol some thirty-five feet loug and nearly two
feet thick, used oooaiionslly, 1 am told, as a lever in propelling the
temple oar. The bark and leaves are used mediolually, while the
fiowemare eaten on tbe spot, or stored up for future use, to he roastsd
or made ;into ourry. Ido not know whether natives of these pacts |
distil a hind of arrack from tbe flowers oallod " smoky Jack’* (at
Odsbevbb says to tbe McM of the 12th March) ; but if iUey do not.
it must be from sheer ignorance, and not from soaroity of the tree,
Tbe most valuable part of the treo is its fruit, of oourse. Tbe berries
are shaken off the tree when nearly ripe, and then allowed to dry tor
a reasonable time, when they are peeled by means of a wooden mortar
pressed against them with the baud. The subsequent treatment of the
kernel is the same with that of other oil-seeds of (he country, except
that, in the case of the either etraw or bran is thrown into the
mill to order to facilitate the extraction of iho od. Then, to make the
matter worse, the oil is adulterated with an inferior sort called
Pameimei (tbe produoe of a different tree), and (he whole palmed off
on the public as genuine Uvppei oil. What with the fermentation the
berries undergo, the admixture of foreign sabstaaces, aud the subse¬
quent adulteration, it is no wonder that the oil should be in bad repute
and that it should yield more smoko than light. But it is not difficult
to proeure it genuine, even at fresh and pure as the imported salad
(olive) oil ( for most proprietcri have always on hand a slender stock
of nnadulterated oil fwr their own use, not to mention tbe fact
that if yon want the oil pare you have only to (hat it is pure.
Whore the oil is pore, it is and may bo osed for seasoning curry, tor
frying meat, for anointing wounds or burns, in short, for every purpose
loi which gtogeUj or ghee Is used. The Uajoos of Uajapalaim submit
the oil to a curious process before using it as a substitute for ghee*
Dry cow-dung of the roquislte quantity and quaUty is added to tbe oil,
wtdoh is then boiled aud strained. It is next boiled and strained
again, having this time Tccelvcd an addition of chiillea and tamarind.
The oU thus prepared readily freeaes like ghee or coooanut oil, and is
oircfiOiy stotod away to jars hermetically oloaed, a little being taken
now and m MMiden may ce^atre. Oae woni m>.ire;'i||d i have
dene, Vakiflgfi duailrtotia tlU[ti*ei|ktc ol the m 4?toaeve11y
peer, We may put down the price of a gulton ai end and sto
pence. 1 cannot toy for certolti at preitoit, hut, iay^^ JBifffnsh pHca
of a quart ol salad oil la one ibllltof and sin paace I the ^Iflerento pf
price then, Is as one to four, Idavdog thi^awlde matik lor profit
should Bufopean capitalists turn lo the Ittoiau olive as a source of
profitable investment. Only prepare ths oil as In 0pain otfi|rto,, and
there is no reason why the olive aitould net prove here as great a
source of weatih as to those OOUQtrlei*
Koxmnm notks .
___ , ^
SiB,—Duriog the first week we had rain, theu kutand dry till the
15th, on tbe 16th and 17th bard rain, theu clear aghiu^ fin the Sitk
the summer raius commenced, acd were toterabiy oonttououi until
the end of the mouth, ths ground has only been aoiitsUed to a
depth of seven inches. On the 6(h there was a fall of snow on (be
upper range, not descending below lfi,000 feet.
The following is a oomparative table of tbs past five esssens i—
1875*
1676.
1877*
1878.
1879.
*0
ta
Ilot uud
close; db-
p e cially
about OTCU*
tide,
•
0
✓ ^
Hot, close,
and dry, Bright
mornings, i
cloudy alter-
noons. j
0
10
Temperate.
Crops 2Q-26
days late in
npentog*
1
7
Perfect for
all sgricol-
tural opera-
tioos: the
growing
showers were
dehghttol.
0
13
The rain,
though spread
over a greater
number of
days than in
former yeare,
was lessjn
quanUtyiH
^ Haily days.
tlUiny do
Tbs wind has generally been from tbe South or West, thunder and
lightning moderate*
The thermometer hung in an open verandah W. aspect, has been
60^^ in the morning (about fi A. M„) and 70*^ in the evenings (sun-set)
lowest 55^, highest 80^.
Since (he advent of the summer rains tbe afternoon base has disappeared,
and with it has gone its accompanying depression of spirits : tbe days
are olear though moist and steanly, still suoU weather oan easily be borne
alter the proceeding dry boat. The hill-sides have now become beanti-
fuily green, though the grass is very short and scanty for the time ol
the year, due to the late drought. The cattle will now bo able to fatten
up, aud 80 be fit for their summer aud autumn ploughing work ; for
the lest few mouths they have presented a very miserat^ appearance.
After a long spell of dry weather, a considerable quantity of dust forms
on tbe surface of ground open and exposed to atmospheric changes,—
this—on sloping land—is washed downwards and in its progress buries
secdUngs of tea-plants, especially those sown in Jtitu, so deeply that in
many cases they never recover : this may account for some of the
numerous vacaucies iu tea-gardens, yet unaoeountod tor. Blank
patches in the grain fields, on excess land can be accounted for in the
same way.
The Jhow meld, a religio-sooial-meroantile gathering of the Hill men,
took place on the 24th and 25th (the usual time) : thia may becaUed tbe
“ opium fair," as large quantities are brought for disposal to HuttiaAs
from the piolns, many of whom come up tor (he purpose of mMring
investments m this drug. This opium is much inferior to quality to
that of Bengal, aud is obiofly oonsumed in tbe nelghbouihood of ihe
lower hills: the duty is very light in consequence of its Inferior quality,
preventing any competition with tbe Bengal kind. The quantity
ofleiedlor sale this year was less than usual, due to the late drought.
The blofsomsof the faorse-ebestnut tree have departed, and their place
h vs been taken by the young fruit now formiug. Tbe wild roses are
al gone, hut they have been replaced by hosts of other wild flowers,
anoiig which may be enumerated tbe anemonies with their bluish-white
[>etk’. , the pink cpd white sibbaldias; Hlao buttoreupa (an^mme
{White lilies of the valley ; pure ooloursd columbines (cguiley to
viUi/aru), The green berries of the berberry (vern. itmasAat) ate now
forming, next mouth they will turn to a pnrple hoe, Wild roe le
sprouting {likewise the Desmodlum tiliatoliom (vern. md#, batti) whose
bark makes a strong rope and paper. Tbe acorns of the spreading-
oak dUatata ; veto, iitofu) ara‘ now forming. Blackberries
are ripe, the fruit makes a,capital imltatiou of raepberry vtofgar.'*
by steeping it lot three or four days in vinegar, then strain off,
add sugar, and boil; the fruit must not be boiled or the.result
will be a jam I When drinking the blackberry vinegar" if a
pinch of oarbonatoof sotii Is added an effervesoiag drink will ba the
result: half « wine glass pf the “ blackberry vlnhgat’* to » tonOiler
of water ifi e(M>d propQf»|n. When to South Amerleato (872-8
1 m tofiolleol ffathirtoi btookUnlei onOktistmls m t Bmp fferfl.
Atigtjflt 1, W9.
TBE INDIAN AGRICULTUItlST.
259
thdfigi la wUdi itarooU bdUig alWil
fttfltywrfwt*
liftfft ftftotttrftil W to HffeJch it may l»e inmisf< Baiiatni »r«
for oooktog m W®to«. Ww *»
ftooa put fortV ItoftOtoftiUk* b«ftd- ,WUa tbxmft fa WoMom, »nd ftxlU
* the^ito^ft*t5irt Wft oow bftlDg hatched i while yoang '®;
kftlijt koklMi oli«ft*i &o.. ftre medUattog aerial flighte. though atlU
aoder matemai tatelaga J youog chlkore and parrote (green) are able
to forage tor themeelree. ' ^
t&ood gratoe itUl ftonUoM very highi 8 to 10 aeefi of door per rnp«a
and 10 to 1$ eeoriof a*ft»t»nud thiato eplte of the fact, that all the
barley hafweliandthrftft.foiirtbaoitho wheat harfeat haTft beengathwed
Id. Thodrat portion of my wheathai juit been threshed out and lUave
reoeiTed 9| told on my eeed eown; tbia is eatlsfaotory oonslderlug the
longdrdttghti The barley orop has turned out, rery ©early, at ray
estimate, vis., a thirteen anna crop. The wheat ii etiU to couwo of
barvQittogit the higher elevaltoae; the rain will epoil a portion of the
ofbpnowitandtogln thefleldi. and if it le not qnloUy threshed out after
being cut, it will eptout and thua become ipoilt. The rillagers hare been
busy weeding their potatoes-the hill kind (tern, fimn pahariah)i
and Bowing millets, Indian corn* and pulses on their wheat fields, as
they become cleared of their crop i the present seasonal^jo rain gives
promise of a bumper outturn of the present sowings of foodlralns.
The apricot harvest oommenoed about the middle ot the month aud
if now three-tourtbs over. This season has produced a small supply
due to the haiUstorm which occurred on the last day In Macob, when
the fruit trees wsre very much battered. Apples are scarce and dmall
Ihls yeM i as I have mentioned, to my earlier notes, would be the
ease, IBpdiy®** ® crop, Voung walnuts arc being
gatbertdfor pickling. Plums are in abundance and of good quality.
In the garden we have dahlias, heliotrope, white and magentaj-huea
petonise. lilies, corn-flowers, lupins, bolls, alnlas, double balmms,
mignonette, phlox, and portnlaocas, roses, myrtle, with its delicate
white blossoms, verbena, lllblsoua coming into ftower. acraulums m
fine condition. Convolvulus.
Of vegetables, we have cucumbers, knol khol, cabbages, peas, beaus,
lettuces, carrots, parsley, tomatoes, gourds, pumpkins-aud
Jerusalem artichokes, are progressing favourably. Potatoes in blosBona.
A neighbour ol mine is gfbwtog some mammoth pumkin-aeeds
obiaiued from OUill to South Amerioa, 1 have been promised a lew
slices whonrrsady, aud lam looking forward to this event, as a slice
I bear weighs about a hundred pounds, and will require al least a
ooDple'of coolies to bring it up to the bunffalmv: to enjoy it I shall
be obliged to erect special stage on which to place it, before cutting
it up for division amongst the members of my family. q p, P
Indian |ipii[ttlimii!it.
CALCUTTA, AUGUST 1««, 1879.
A MINISTER OP AGBIOULTORE.
T
iHH announcement that the House of Commons has given a
vote in fayonr of the addition to Uie Englieh Cabinet of a
Minister of Commerce aud Agriculture, may help the public in
this country to realise the retropcssivo nature of the step
which tdm Government of India has just taken in abolishing
our Eevenue, Agriculture, and Commerce Pepartment. The
fact is .beoomtog patofnlly apparent that what has been oallod
tile forward*' policy of the Foreign Department meads
a backward policy in all that concerns the intomal interests
of the country. We have been squandering our money o«t-of-
doora in haraamng OUT neighbours aud fighting for an imaginmy
prestige, while, as a necessary consequence, we are now ssiiping
and Marving the very sources of our revenue at homo, and
masses of our population are, with increasing difficulty, barely
able to Alfa means of subsistence. At the very moment when
we were preparing for a war, which, though it has prdVe I
comparatively trivial, might have attained to vast dimensions
and,involved an jfmiHratoda rarpendituto, the Govefiement of
India was prohibitfag Sir George Oouper, on grounds of
economy, from rMaxing the memm dentond on a pe^le dying
of hunger by hundreds of tUouiandfc. The same policy is sUU
in force. Semitfetarvatton having been recoguisod a« the normal
conditiou of the million, Ooverament refuses to iuterfaro with
their normal condition, leaving theto, we presume, to the fandef
mercy of “ natural causes.*' It ie now an understood prinolpia,
we believe, that Govorument will not inlerfero to alleviate
distress, until there is the most unmistakable evidence that
people are dying in crowds, and the mortality is becoming a
world-wide scandal. Then a stringent flystem of relief Is
established which has only the one merlt-*that it oots somewhat
like the principle of natural selection, keeping alive the able-
bodied, and allowing th# already enfeebled to die oif. Alt
this time the people are paying special faxes to provide a
surplus for famine relief, hut the national exchequer is like
the vessels of tbe Danaldes ; as fast as land-cesses and Ucense-
taxes are poured in, subsidies and war charges fiow out; and
the Government defend themselves against the charge of
misappropriating the famine surplus, by triumphantly demon-
stratiog that they have not got such a surplus to mis¬
appropriate. Fivo years ago tho principle was laid down, and
believed to be established lor over, that sufforers froi# famine
wore to bo rollovod at all costs. That principle is now repudiated
aud almost forgotteu. itot while the Government declared
itself uuable to relievo tho distresses of famine at any cost,
it almost redeemed its reputation, lor a time, by declaring its
adbesion to a policy ol prosecuting those classes ol* publio
works which it believed to bo oaloulatsd to prevent the recur¬
rence of famines, and make relief, when they should occur,
more easy, l^ow, however, another backward step is taken,
and the prosecution o£ public works is alnuist snspetided. This
is the direct result of the ruinous thing falsely called a foi-
wiird *' pol*cy. The countiy can now see clearly that tho
forward fojeign policy involves a dangeroosly retrogressive
policy in all that pertains to the well-being of the mass
of tho people. Aud nothing, it appears to us, could bo moro
significant of this retrogressive policy than tho destruction of
the Department of Bevenuo and Agriculture. It is true that
the Department was not so ofitectivo as such a Department
should be. But its cost was simply uotblng compared with (hat
of a ‘^scleniitic frontier,” which is worso than useless, and a
trifie compared with tho sum which has boon relinquiahod to
purchaHC Tory voles in Lancashire. India has no need of the
“scietKiUc fioutier," and no need of Tory votes ; but tho
Department of Bevenuo, Agriculture, and Oommerco was of
some use to tho country, while it constituted a germ which
only needed wise statesmanship to develop it into a real
Ministry of Agriculiure,—the one great want of this Empire.
Wo pointed out lately that 00 per cent, of our population aro
engaged directly in agriculture, while 20 per cent, more are
engaged in occupations dependent upon agriculture; yet it is
now decreed that we are not only not to have a Minister of
Agiiculture, bat not even a department which shall make It
its special core.
Tho action now taken by tho English House of Commons in
tho face of the agricultural distress and the depression of
trade, ought to make our Indian administrators stop and
consider whether their way of dealing with similar, and worso
distress in this country, is cUaraotoristio of wise statesmanship
or of the short-sighted folly of penny-wise and pound-foolish
economists. Would it not have been moro signldoaot of far¬
sighted statesmanship to have superseded the amateur Depart¬
ment by a real Ministry of Agriculture, than to have abolished
itfleavingpractically nothing in its place? Eugland, in moving
for the creation of such a Minister, is only following at a late
hour tbe example of almost every important State In Europe
and America. Franco has long had her Minister of Agrtoulture
and Commerce, spending nearly 1^0,000,000 francs per annum.
We have not before us at the moment moro recent statietica, but
\i may be iutoresUttg to roprbduoo from the Agvmiitwri$t some
that we published eome time ago. Austria has a Minister of
Agriculture, and expended for the needs of tho Bureau, to 1876,
11,657,470 florins.' Besidee this Huugary expended under her
Minister of AgriouUure 5,402,220 dollars to 1875. France
expended to this deportment, in 1876^7,19,347,100 Drones. The
revenue of the Fruiston Minieter of Agriculture for 1876 was
about 962,000 doHfi) and about 97,459*000 dollars wore
ASkioujDtti'iOEfef;:' ■ ■' ' " AttgWst». tm
0tp*ad04 by the Bareftu. Italy hw a lilai»try|^^
exj^anded oa the dapartmenif) lii ^ ^ S^dMiOiOa ^
dallm Bveti Botitnaoiai amall in It !^ f^d; Mtoe. m
nrt apt lo Idc^Hbanatf aaiawbarbiii^a^at ^elj^aaded ia lA%
1,000)0^ do^aVa ^by her JdWairy of PabKo Works, Tlr«d«i a»d
AipHcaUot^ Brasil hi^ A llwiatry of -PabUc Wottw^; A^IquI- ,
tore mi (teiu»ere«| the eBiimalof for whjclji in IWMt, ww
abottt d,^,000 dollari. The I^ooinlont of Oatiada has «jBlioiiter
of 4t|fHooltor«» ?^lie oxiwodltuta for 137446 on 4rts, Agri^
oitltaro, and Statistics was dollars. Belgium has a
X)h;Wtor<-QoasrAl of Agrioultnra arid Alktnufaoturoa. Japan has a
Btt^ait of Agrieultara and lodastry; Spaiu au Agricultural
Bepartiuont; Vlotoriai iu Australia, a Departmout of Lauda
aud AgriottUure. ludia till now had an d^rlouttural Depart*
mautjibougU it bad no AgriouUural Budget, and tho depart*
luent had to atnuso itself with much work of au amateur kind.
Great Britain and Bussia hare hitherto been eliigular among
progressive Powers in their want of a Department of Agrioul*
ture. And Jast at the moment when England Is awakening to
the neoe^ity for appointing a Minister of Agriculture aud Com-
mmOf India, having wasted her sabstaaco In oarrying on trans*
frontier depredatioDs, is abolishing even the somblanco ȣ
an AgricuUoral Department which she possessed.
Ihese facts appear to slow sufficiently how ruinously retro¬
gressive cUie present udiniuistratron of India has become. Quern,
Dsns vuU jperdere, prius dmentaU Given over to strong delusions
about a phantom advance of Bussis, we have rusliod about
wlldiy beating the sir, and soattoiiug our resources in the
Afghan valleys. And nuw we are reduced to so great sUiCte
to uutke oiids meet at home, that we are obliged to travel ou
the very opposite direction t? that which every progressive
4 *ouatry in the world is taking. The present Government
of India will be remeiubered as the G<>vernment which gave
ns the soientide frontier, stopped public works, aud abolishud
the Agricultural Department.
We have previously remarked on the stiddenuess wlib which
the work of destruction had been csrrioi out, without,
apparently, any deliberate discussion of ibo proposal, ^ and
certainly without allowing doe opportunity for public opinion
in this conntry and England to express itself on tUo
.subject. Wo have pointed out that lUe creation of a
Deportment of Agriculture and Oommerco not the more
freak of a Viceroy, or a member of the Government, os its
abolition oppears to be. The impulse came originally from
England. Parliament had taken some interest in the matter,
though Parliamentary interest in all Indian subjects was tiion
but languid. The Secretary of State had it for many months
under oonslderatiou. It was tho subject of a prolonged opy[es-
pondenco between tho two Governments. It was closely argued
in the Vloeroy's Council, and while the reasons against the
proposal were os forcibly put as they could have been by Bir
Bicliard Temple aud Sir Henry Durand, the overwhelming
widgbt of argument was on the side of Lord Mayo, Sir
John StraoUey, Sir James Stephen, and Lord Sandhurst, all of
whom strongly supported ibo proposal. There seems to be a
aingulor contrast between the long deliberation and full dis¬
cussion which preceded the inauguration of tho Department,
and the liaate and want of deliberation with which it has been
abolished. It is no doubt much easier to destroy than to create.
But it is not the work of wiso men to spend years in building
up an edihoe only to kick it down when their money is spent
and the whim ch^ges. We hope the matter will attract
Parliamentary eHentiop and criticism, end that wo may see
not only a Degartw^t Qt Agriculture reorganised, but a real
Minister put at its
IMPftdVBD CULTIVATION.
--.-
WO chataeteristioB must appertain to any improvmnents that
may be attempted in cnltivatmn of cereals iu India, and
these are (X) they muit not wander far from the old petriarohal
which have been in use from time immemorial, and (*J)
must he cheap,-*we do not mean cheap relatively to results,
httl relatively to existing systems. PaUiq|f these twp
^uali0eih4io sqhemc has a shadow nf «\clmoe of lulop'^.
tiooi and (Ui netailcgether on account of the er ;esslT4 cousef^a*
livnneee of the 'ryot, but largely oit aocchht ef his absolute
of several new ploughs
Uiathad been made hi the NlwIhi^’Westm Provincee, under the
ausploeeol the Department, ^ Agrienttum and Commerce, and
where tho whole question seemed,rea% to turn oh the weight and
cost of the ploughs tried^ After seyeml ^ials, m Amerieau plough
was altered in various ways, unlU the welghit was Mimed to eighteen
seers, aud the Cost to Bs. 8*3. .This plough did fair work, as
overy aliowanoe bad to bo .made for the dies iid^ cht^S whic^ wsm
to drag it. Wo think a much bettor way of Wpr^vlilg tlm native
plough would have been to take a oomtuou plough so alter it
as to effect improvement The ryot would not t&en he dealing with
a foreign article, and our attentlen boa lately beeh direoted to an
improvement of this very kind, which seems to us'a^ success. It
is called ** Jones' Improved Byot Plough.*' Qu wiiilhg
Jones for a description of this plough, he teiy oourteouaty sent
one for our inspection. It is sio^ly then a common UAtive plough,
the wood-work of which is made a shade atrenierand heavier ti^n
usual, in view of the .greater depth of work expected Lorn tho
iustromeut. To this native frame work are Sidded t he following im¬
provements. In the native plough, the mould-hoard is light, and
is tipped wij^ iron, so that no particular sort of farrow is tho
result, a soratoh is simply made, with the earth thrown up ou either
side. In the case of the new Instrument, this mould-hes^ is heavy
and is faced with an iron scoop, whioh makes a pxOpdr furrow and
tUrowp the soil all ou one side. The tip to the depth of 4{ indies
is of steel, tins to resist theeilorts of the plough In going: deep
into the soil } tlie plato is one-eighth of an inoh thick ; iim|Khola
workmanship is well within the range of a ^lage imith'b jlmers,
and this we consider a very great advantage. The coulter of the
native plough is a piece of square one-inch icon, with a sharp tip at
the bottom* This is fixed close iu front of the mould-board
point. In the new plough the coulter is more of a kulfe-like
shape, aud by a couple of nuts and bolts can bo placed at any dis-
taiico from tho mould-board, and at any angle.
Tho whole aifair weighs but 14^ seers, and costs at Cawnpore
Us. 6-8. Tho native plough of Bengal weighs not much less, so that
while it is certainly heavier Uiaa the plough of Upper India, at any
rate it is not loo heavy to prevent the ryot from carrying it ou his
shoulder to his fields.. In the *'Guide to the Saidapet Farm/' just to
hand,, wo iiud lire “ ordinary native plough of Madras” to be 321bs.
aud 86lbs., whereas tho several adaptations of light English and
American ploughs weighed from 341bs. to 92ibilt' This new plough
therefore, occupies a favourable place as to weight. Wo should be
glad to learn liow it works, as from a careful inspection of it wo
imagine it must do its work thoroughly. Doubtless a light English
or American plough would do better work, but we must bear iu
mind tlie weakness of the average bullock as compared with the
plough horse at homo.
Tho ryot wants more manure. This is one of the crying wants
of Indian agriculture, aud it is one that will not be mended, till
the Forest Department supplies the villager with wood for fuel.
These poor people are not prejudiced in favour of oopU as fuel,
and uso it simply because they cannot get anything else. Their
lipids may go without manure, but they must have their food
cooked, and wo know from what we have seen in vaHous parts of
the country, that where the villager can got wood for burning, ho
I utBizes all biacowdung os manure. A better and a cheaper system
' of Irrigation is wanted as well, the ryot in many oases cannot
allord to pay the canal rates for water-supply, and besides it
frequently happens that the oanal waterfalls at the vecy time
' wants it most. We think a system of ^mckat Wells for this
purpose would be the best, cuicfia wells are of lil^tle use, and
are more expensive in the long run than pueXta, ones. These latter
could be mado to the required depth at an average of Bs 350 each,
and as one well would Suffice for ten acres, the sum of Bs. 35 ;would
be invested per acre. The interest on (his amount at 4 per cent*
per annum would be say Bs; 1*6-6, and this is less than is ustiMly
paid for irrigation. Thu drawing of the water by bullocks does not
in reality cost muebi as while this work is iir progress, there is
no ploughing, and the bullockn are bomperetively idlA Fcom the
last report on the j^MifoperationeintheNorth Western FrUVinoes,
Sre find that the canal water was used on agms, ahd that
the ruuudqc was Bs. 13,53,440. This repr^ts a ohinge of
BSi 24241 put aecu fir the Uarlf^ mk, ,
, 'i • wi isDiAN
^ o£ 4 iit^«Hoi^ ibatO^ ttob be
For geirwAtioi&o tbO'iSiHik oeed bfif beeo use^
^ obtemi^t mode te oluttCga ^ ^9^ lyob goUiem io
}tig erop, and laya aside wbaC is )re^«4f»d (o k«^ bimiiU next
jbarvest tlmsi he also pats to one «^e the (ymn^aVs olaun, imda
miSoM quantify to soir next eei^oiif and the obanoes are that
this seed will be sown in the my same held on whkh it was
ralsedi
Ah^adSwl might be made to introdaoe a eyetemol interehangiog
eeed^ tn eom distriete the graht tumally grown is rery
ittpe^ri as we understand the Earnal wheat is. Why cannot seed
<rom diatriots be sent over the whole land*
^e cattle too must be Improved, and while this seems rather
dlQiQult cl aocompliidtme&t, it is really not sa Xtet the Qovern-
ment provide. half*brdd English bulls for each distdot, aud the
improvement of the cattle is only a question of time. It is of no
iisehowefer;£or the present system to be oouUnued. in one district
of the NorSh-West there are two—and only two—very fine hall-
bred English bolls, sent for the express puyppse of improving the
dess of cattle, but what is the use of this, when there are also
in this district several thousand bulls of the common scraggy
oeuntry breed roaming at large with the cattle. The proper way
is lor CHovemment to raise young half-bred cattle on a large
soale, and supply one distriot at a time with them. When a dis¬
trict is well furnished Js this way let all the common bulls be
eastrated as they grow np, and a change for the better will soon
be perceived.
All these changes will require funds, and we shall return to
that part of the subject in our next issue.
MINERAL PLANT-FOODS.
IT1HE special objects of agriculturo are the prodiictlou of
certain parts of plants, tubers, roots, leaves, stems, seeds,
and vegetable sub^ances generally, ttiat may be used as food
for man or animals, or that may be employed in arts and
manufactures, this at the least possible outlay of time, labour
and material, and with the greatest possible profit It follows
from this that the plants so cultivated must be raised from seed,
which esparienoe has proved to bo healthiest and most pro-
ductivo. The imrUif aud f&tUi^ of the seed (two very different
things) must be tested beforo sowing, as far as possible proper
soil must be ehoaon, that is, the soil must contain substanoee such
as phosphoric acid, potash, and ammonia or nitrogen in some
form, without which the plant would die or prove Ciiprodtahle.
Where these substances are wanting or deficient iu the soil, they
must be supplied by manure, either natural or artificial Due
attention must be had to the rotation of crops. The soil must be
mechanically tnanipalated to fit it for the reception of seed,
and to free it from weeds, and as far as possible from insects
injurions to the crop. In addition to this, tbo raising and feeding
of Stock is a most important part of agrioultare, and it should
be added that all these* objects are to be effected without
impairing the fertility of the soil.
The rational theory of agriculture which praotioe has clearly
confirmed, is, give to plants the substances mmM to their
growth and full nutrition ; and hold back as far as possible
these aubstanoes not necessary for one crop, in order that they
may be ready in the soil at the proper time, to feed a crop
that miost stands in need of them. No one would think of adding
oSrbOn to the spil, because this is supplied in abucdauce by
the carbon-dioxide of the air. Oxygen is also largely derived
from the ah^ hydrogen from the water absorbed, and nitrogen
-£rom the amnionia of the atmosphere, Fotash, soda, lime, pkos-
l^CrouX, alumiim, silica, and. tlie .other mineral constituents
of plants are fonnd In more or less abundance in idl fertile soils;
and ire ^ved ohledy from the disintegration of the rdkkp which
;ortf;lbfld]y f^e4 ^soU ;and|lrpmthe continual
isismr phrtieies of the soil by atmospberio end
other agSD^ltf'^'; ^ •
FAotjpkcrOfcii!»ilbe^ moai bf ell the minerals used by
plants .as Jb present jhi i^ variable
quantities, etrai^iitlinni|«im^ abundanoe,
but it is very abundeni in the lUfdda bl aU oaltlvated plants.
In oemls » oonstiiita . neatly the whole minurhl
nMltpcBto* The hon«| «iidm«St»>o mmipsiea of
' > . '' ''I
phbfpham^and oarbmiattOfJ.^Oi The animals bl^ on a farm
tbns carry off from Urn kP^fo quantises of this substance; not
only in Ihelr bonep, buiin ^s^piUk oonsumed off the farm; aud as
the richest soils do n^cC^in it greater qaentU^ than about
half per cent, Ihe limit fa sooner or Inter reiiched, which
deterioration ^ the land sets in. Itisfonnd kiposalhle iodo mubh
more than produce a barely paying crop, and even it is subject to
blight or disease of some sort, without returning to the land the
phosphorous carried sWay from it in such quantities. The
application Of phosphates to the soil baa been followed by the
most marked ei^cts. At tbebegluning of this century, the bones
applied to the pasture lands of Cheshire increeiied the renta by
about two-thirds.
Potash next to phosphorous ranks highest in importanoo as a
plant food* About fifty per oeut. of the i||h of plants, roots
and tubers, consists of potasli. The haulm Of the potato and
the loaves of many trees, the beech for instance, contain it
in large quantities, rarely falling below twenty pet cent. FotasU
is the most abundant ash constituent of wheat, beans, indeed all
leguminous plants, turnips and potatoes, after sljicait bulks largest
in hoy and straw. The importance of potash as Sn ash con¬
stituent of plants and consoquontly as an ^osseutlally nooessary
plant food has not probably boon as generally realizod as it
might have been. The fact that much of iho potash extracted
from the soil by plants is as a rule returned to it as in the case
of the hanlm of the potato, the straw used for litter, and Uie dsfeeta
of stock, either finding their way to the dung heap or being
scattered over the land, bos partly rendered the imperative necessity
for and value of potash less apparent. The true reason why no
wise farmer will sell his straw off his land is, that it contains
large qnantitios of potash and silica In an aotive oondluon,
that are again and again returned to the soil to bnitd
up Buoceediog crops of the various kinds indicated. If straw,
hay, turnips, beaus and leguminous plants generally are sold off
the land and no componfiating process arranged for, aud by
which potasli in an available form may bo supplied to the soil,
then disoaso and failure of crops must be the natural result.
Soda is a highly essential food for all cruciferous plants,
(tuniips, cabbage, rape, d;o.); In most other plants it can bo
replaced by potash.
Lhne The proportion of lime varies from one to forty {>or cent,
in the ash. The seeds of oeroals contain about one per cent.
It is present in the loaves of some plants, suoli as the attiohoke:
all leguminous plants contain it.
Magnesia is generally found in small quantities, It is largest
in grains, sometimes as high as from 12 to 13 per cent, in the
ash of plants, and falling somotimos as low as 2 to 4. No ash
constituent, however small, can be regarded as insignifioant.
Silica is a most important ooustitaeut of cdl soils, and is
notably present in the ash of cereals. Xu combination with
alumina it forms the greater bulk of all clog soils ; and in
nnion with the alkalies, potash, soda, and ammonia U forma a
highly valuable series of compounds known as double oUicake.
The value of the aotion of lime when applied to the soil, especially
in the case of clay lands consists in this, that a series of double
silicates are formed which are of the highest importanoe to the
agriculturist. By the applioation of lime to cUy lands double
silicates of almnina and lime are formed. In the prossnoe of
soda tbo lime is set free, aud double stlioaies of alumina and soda
are formed. If potash exists in the soil then silicates of alumina
and potash are produced, and those silioates are again broken up
in presence of atumonia; the potash being set free, and silicates
of alumina and ammonia are iormed. This series of changes
cannot however be supposed to take place iu the poil with the
same preoistou and entirety as it may probably be able to exhibit
it in the laborato^^ the prooeks is Sn ail likelihood a gradual ono;
but the foot thali^ese silicates brou^l, into oontact witli air have
the power o| Abeerblng ammonia f aniSl that their foraiatioa msy
be seiup in ike sell by the judicious applioation of lime are foots
of nq ordinlty importanee and have probably not yet been fully
reidiiM agrioaUurigt. The throe sabstancos which
me(ff Importance in agrionlture, and about which the
agrieuWrist dhould unoeasiogly interest himsolf are phosphorous,
petwdlimdnHrogea. The other constituents of plants are usually
present in abundance In all fertile soils, or are supplied in the
various mmnm with the mops} but soils Xrou which
m
THE INDIAN AHjIiCHLTUBIST.
ihecio Are Absent or In wbioh foint iracoA only are to bo loon^ a<^
iOTarUblj vtorili.
NUraf^$ of all kiadlt, and arntnooia in ovory oombioation are
TAlaable obly booaoae ol the nitrogen they oontain.
eiSLKOnON AND 0a0SS.Ffi;ilTILI2A«I0N OF
FARM CROPS.
1 R all oropa grown obiefljr for the market value oC their eeeda,
wo may »ay in every crop grown by the agpSottUurist it is a
luatter of couerderable importance commercially^ as well as aiford-
ing on excellent field lor observation and experimeot^ that he
should acquaint iiimse]| not only with the various methods ever
work in iiature moans of whioh flowers are lertiHaed, but
alfoihAtJ|l^f>?tfld realise the great results that may be attained
by careful aeleotion and cross-fertilixation. It is only recently
that the relation of insects to flowers ^has began to engage the
attention of natarallsts. As early as 1703 them appeared in
Qermany a notable work by G. R. Spreugeh *' TheBecret of Nature
Pleplnyed " in which the intimate relation that exists between
insects and flowers was for the first time pointed out. His
attention was first directed to this subject by observing a number
of delicate hairs in iUo corolla of '.the wood geranium {Qeranium
SylmHeu 7 n)f and believing that the wise author of nature could not
have created even a hair in vain, he endeavoured to discover their
use, and uUimaiely oatne to iUoooucUisioii that they were intended
to protect the honey from rain. Many other flowers were examined
by Sprengel and he concluded tliat several points in their structure
could only be explained by their relation to insects. Until the
publication of Darwin’s ** Origin of Species” in 1B59, the dominant
idea among naturalists was, that each species whether of plant or
aminal, came fresh from the hand of the Creator, the oni^ ome of a
distinct creative act; and that every departure fiTun vvhat was
postnlfttml as the type, was a malformation, a monstrosity, a
violence done to the perfect form originally created by the Author
of nature* It may be fresh in the memories of some of our readers
with what unmanly howling, what ■ unreason big declamaiioii
the doctrines of ^^Tbo Origiu of Species*’ were received iu
certain quarters, though now-a-days the origin of species by
natural selection is admitted to convey a tnach higher ideal of
creative power, and to be one of the most fruitful and far-reaching I
theories propounded since the systematic study and development
of the Physical ficiences begun. Sir John Lubbock believes that
it was this low idea of creative power, prevalent in Sprengel's,
day, and to the ora of ** Tiie Origin of Bpeoies ” that prevented
naturalists who followed Bprengol iu the same field, and even
Spreugel himself, from " perceiving the real significance of the
facts disoovored.” In 1857 Cbarlos Darwin published a short
pap. on the fertilisation of the kidney bean. Iu 1802 appeared
ids book “On tbeOontrivances by whioh British and Foreign
Orchids are Fertiii3sed|by Inseots and in 1876 “ The FfEeots of Gross
and 8elf-feriilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom.” Since the
appearance of Darwin's book on orchids many others have been
published ou the fertilisation of flowers, tiie most notable being
that of Herman MiiUer 1873. Darwin says that “ the value of H.
Mfiller's book can hardly be over-estimated, and it is much to be
desired that it should bo translated into EugUsii.” His work
diiters from that of all otbers in specifying wbat kinds of insects,
AS far as is known, vhlt the flowers of each specie^ In 1875
Bir John Lubbock gave r summaty of the subject in his “ British
Wild Flowers Considerod in Relation to Inseota."
In addition to the works already enumerated, the names of
HUdebraud, Delpino, Axell, and others may bo mentioned os
workers in the same field, besides shorter papers acatteired over
roagazines and “ transactions” ; so that the literature ol the
subject Is not altogether insignificant*
When flowers are spoken of, what is popnUrly msAnt l« a more
or less ocmsplcoous ooionred structure whioh ap poors before the
plant ruas to eeed or fruit. Tiie coloured portions of flowers, the
oalix and ooruUa, in mMif, hewever, are the mere envelopes of
the real flOwer which Uss Within them, and consists ese^idly of
one or more stamens and pistils. It Is the poUen grales, shed from
the anthers of the stamens, and fallmg on the adhesive aurfaco of
the stigma the end of the pistil that produce fertUisst^ this
til* ham, at iotrtw I iWW WB *.
Tliere are lour well known ways in wlMi flowUiseEre fertiUxed : ;
M The parts are soarrang^ that ea<^ flower IsetiMj^ itself
naturally. ,
In some cases the pollen is omM by the wMi fiilaWPi
and grasses. ^
3rd. In others^ birds carry the pollen, crowsi mluss andsq^lifils
may he seen at work on the red flowers of thee^on treetdoMh#*)
Ma In the great majority of instances, fsrtUisito is eftsot#!
by insects.
It is in one or other ol these ways that all plants are fertilised;
and the great fact enunciated by Darwin aud brought dearly into
notice by him, is, that the importanoo of insdets to, flowers does
not consist In their translorring the pollen from thagtaaietis to the
pistil of the same flower (self-fertiJisstion) but Ivom thostaiusiisoif
one flower to tne pistil of another on the same or a diflerput plant
(cross-feftiUzation).
Insects visit flower|Jor food, attracted by thS scent and oolors of
tUo flower, and guided to the spot in the flower where the neotsr
is secreted, by the smell of the honey, the' oonspicuous eolors,
and the lines aud markiogs ou the floral envelope. Ants, mothsi
bees, and batterflies of all kinds are oontinually at work seanshlng
for food in and about flowers. In this way various parts of thsif
bodies come in contact with the stamens and are dusted over with
the flue pollen gratae shed by the anthers, and so carried by tbs
iusecis from flower to flower, and in their efforts to reach the
nectar secreted at the bottom of the ooroUa tube or at the base of
tlie anthers, the pollen is deposited on the stigmas and so cross-
fertilization is aooompUshed.
This shortly stated, is the substance of the whole matter, so far
as insoclB are oonoerned in cross-fertilization. It is a matter of
no ordinary i mportanoe to the agricultarUt to acquaint himself
^ith the species of iuseots that frequent his fields and fertilize
his crops. It is a matter of no ordinary importance to
know some of the conditions of their existence, for on
tlieir life depends iu some measure tlm fertility and weight
of his crops. Wo believe that to this subject of the ferti¬
lizing of flowers, probably tpo little, indeed scarcely any atten¬
tion hoe, as yet, been paid by the agriculturist. A ^good deal
has boon written about the inseots injurious to crops, but a great deal
more requires yet to be observed aud recorded regarding tbe
Inseots which are beueficial to crops, Plagues of looosts do not
come by ohanoe, various kinds of insects do not appear or
disappear without leaving in their train couseqaeuoes of a more
or leas marked character. It is only when these consequences
assume the form of palpable disaster that the bulk of men take
any notice of them, Whatever at any time tends to produce a
disturbance of the relative balance of power among insect life
may be expected to produce disaster to the agriculturist in the long
run. If by any means, meteorological, climatio, or what for want
of a better name we may call biological, (that is, the introdnotion
I of Koioe plant, insect, or animal, which disturbs tbe relation of
the link of life iu any district), any one species of insect is
exU'i minfited or decreased in number,' or any speoies is tiadaly
iuGU vsed In strength or number, then it follows that disturbauoe
of a very grave oharaoter will make itself apparent iu the long
run. As an illustration of onr meaning take this from Darwin
There is ruiy one species of bee with a proboscis long enongh to
fertilize .ed clover; when this bee dies out red clover will go with
it; field mice rob the nest of this bee and destroy its yonpg, oats
kill field mice but as a rule do not eat them. Old maids are
suppoeed to be oousevvators of cats. From old maids to red
clover there is a long way; but they are linked together in a-
logioal sequence of irrsflistahle cause and effect*
Farm crops of all sortsi and for whatever purpose tailed,
will lolly repay inieUigent observation on the times of thsir
flowering and the conditions of their fertility. It is in this
direotioD that great progress may be made, in goring by
oross^fertUimUon a race of plants possessing trlmraoteristiei
which by fis^ and Judioious selection cd seeds may add
considera^y to the weight and paying qualities o{ crops.
It must be apparent to all who iiave gieeu togfee of fUis* natare
any tbooghti that whatever improvements may have been effected
in the fertility and vitility of seeds| and the bulk aq4 weight of
TCSB iNitfAN AGRIOUIiTUEIST..
S68
bfijbf Whotiv^ i9 » oIo^gt aib 4 taoro
yritht and a Wilt aya^matio study
mi oottditio^ itttpliad iih tl^ la^Uifitatlon of crops*
US k a mattof' lial iibfc ]rot roooired that
iHiitlibiit #hioh it migtit, aq 4 «liioh^ ha ooo|atiollon with an
loibllftent acquaiotasoo viththsttfcatmontof tU« ctopSf would add
vhkiirtMakty to tho proflk of tho lamer and to the wealth of
nattone. We beltevo that it is not sufSoienily realized that while
the geaerat oltMatio oondUions of a i^etrict are poaaesaod of
featum in oOmoaen that Justify their being olasaed together aud
s|K>keii of OS tinirereal within the district $ nevertheless there are
many plyaioatand oatutid conditions peeuliar tomuoh land in the
diidrfct'Whtdi in mitty oasee materially effoct tor better or worse
the prevaiUng dimatio oondittotw, tThere can wo think be no
dotibl that it is varying conditions of ibis sort, that help to give
ffeonliar advantages to certain plants and animals ever others in
the aame locality; and distinodre breeds of cattle and varieties
of plants by long aoolimadaing to the same few square milee or
even the same farm, will in the long run, with judioious and
eenttblf.traatment, develop qualides and capacities which will
dietanoe all other oompetitors.
Breeders of anhnalB of all sorts whether^for sport or pro lit aro
eareful in their selection of animals to breed from; and are
justly proud of the pedigree of their stock. The same vigilance
and sikill, exercised in the selection and cross-fertilizing of plants,
will nlttoately lead to the production of races of plants distio-
golifaed by those qualities which the selector may desire to
render permanent. The whole aubjeot, in its application to farm
crops, deserves the closest attention of agrioulturiste, and it will
amply repay intelligent observation and experiment.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
T HB Keport on IheBevenuo Adminstration of Che Punjab and its
dependencies of 1877-8, baa reached us, and is as a whole a
record of onwariUprogross. • ,
It is a pity that some system could not be adopted, whereby tho
ryot would change his oustom, of only using canal water when his
crops are on the verge of ruin.
He seems to hold on to see whether rain will ultimately come,
and when he has given up hope, and his crops ere scorched, he
reluctantly applies for canal water, is it the cost that makes them
so unwilliogto spend a little in this way ? The rate does not seem
high, as we find that the average charge for canal water was
Bs. 1-3-8 per aero, and that does not seem a large sum to spend
in order to secure a good crop. Only other two reasons remain,
want of enterprise and poverty, and wo suspect both are to be
debited with blame in tho matter.
Tbu deathi of omtli^ dmlng the year have been very heavy, and
the reji^Yt says ^has made il serious impression on the w^Uh and
comfort of the peoplo.'t i
Ov laud sales during the year, 83 per cent, passed to agrieul-
turiste, while 34 per cent, went lo the non-agrionltaral classes.
A WssTHRN conteiDpoirary saysWhat will H. B. Sir Blcbard
Temple, and our Indian Foresters say to the following extract
from the ^1hes ?—•'‘^Tho fact seems to be that no individual
e€orts of artidcial irrigation, oau at once oorreot the evil of
an atmosphere drained of all natural luoieinre by the ruthless
destruction of Us woods. Madrid was, oentnrlos ago, a royal
or imperial hunting box, in the midst of a vast growth of
primeval timber. The trees are gone, aud with them the vitality
of tho soil; and it would take no less than all the care now bestowed
on the Boon Betiro, tho Casa de Campo, and other royal park
to restore to the whole region that freshness and verdure, that
blissful teuiperatnre, which it received from tlfh Oreator^s hands.'*
This poihts to replanting on a very extensive scale, an idea we
hopo to see carried out soon.
SuKDRt Forest reports have reached us, through the courtesy of
tho Department of Bovenue, Agriculture and •Oommeroe, and we
have mnoh pleasure in observing that inoreased attention is now
given to the more praotioal portion of work, such as prevention of
fires. The damago done by these fires is itioalculable, young
saplings are utterly ruined, aud larger trees haVe their bark destroyed
to a certain extent, which frequenly ends in the tree dying, and
thereby the labour of years is lost Some of these fires are
accidental, but the great majority are intontioual. They ariso from
two causes :—First, villagers settiug fire to the hard, dry, and wiry
grass that grows to such luxuriance in the partial shade of these
forests, that thereby the young tender grass may bo encouraged,
and they get food for (heir cattle. The villagers cares iiotiiiug by
the damago done to tho forest, that is not hiS basiness. This
system of cattle grazing is a mistake wo think. For a few annas
a year, a ryot is at liberty to graze a oow in the forest, and while
the Department makes pence b;^ tho system, it loses pounds. Tho
second oanse of intentional fires is iho custom of jhoomng
resorted to by many of tho hill tribes. The oustom is to barn
down a portion of jungle, plough up tho land, take 2 or 3 crops
oB the virgin soil, and move oisewiiere to repeat the process, a
more suioidal process could hardly be found.
Wx BOO too that attention is being given to fuel. This is right,
so long as the departmental servants out and colieot it, but if the
purchaser gets a purmna^ and is allowed to coJieot for himself,
great destrnotion will follow. This is the almost universal oustom
io the North-Western Provinces.
EfEorts are being made in the Punjab to cultivate eeveral new
Judicious advances are being made to ryots for pressing purposes
such as making cuicAa wells during very dry weather,the amount so,
Advanced during the year under review being Bs. 100,218, a very
small snm, to tho Punjab Q-overnment, but it would doubtless be
of great eervtce to the poor ryot. These advances seem on tho
whole, to be recovered punotnally, a little more of this all over
the land might help to remove the ryot from the grasping clutches
of the humeah.
Tbi taklall In July and August 1877, averaged over ten divisions
4*06 inches, while the previous yeare averaged l7'8t; this accounts
for the failure in the autumn crops.
Tbb produce of (be load is oarefully gone into, and while it
seems low compared with English outturns, it is certainly good
from an Indian point of view. The quantity produced per aero is
as follows
Bailey ...
... m lbs.
Cotton . ...
...
... §5 M
I^tam
...
eae
W... 683 n
. Indian Com VH.
Mk
...
eve
m
Bice
.1.
...
so*
... 683 M
, 8^T<Tefl]ie4}
...
«t»
... 409 „
I^bscce «.
...
...
w
788 „
Wheat ... «77 „
At Sirsa tho yteld'Of Wbeab ioepD^F 187 lbs., while at Eurnal It is
I,eci0lbi. <
• l'' 7 ^ V
timbers such as :—
Aoaoia Dealbata
do Melanoxylou.
Eucalyptus llostrata
do Besinifera
do Dongifolia and tho Ootk tree
All of which are doing fairly weU. English trees are also being tried,
as the chesuut, oak, beech, mountain ash, elm, and some varieties
of the tarch from Scotland, and good reports come in from all
sides. _
Ig Assam, fires and visits from wild elephants are so prevalent,
that a brigade called the Protective Establishment" has been
found necessary. It consists of Forest Bangers and Qaards,aud has
been doing good service in the way Of preveutjon.
There they are experimenting very extensively with India rubber
Ficus ElasK'ift and we find that about 600 acres have been planted
out with tlus valuable tree.
1h British Burmah attention has been more given to planting
out young ^ak trees, aud this is being done no sooner than il
waa wttnted^ as the teak of British Burmah seems to be a thing of
the past. Tho whole subjeot of forest preservation and renewal,
requiresattention.
OOMlHim BiddOmb, Conservator of Forests, Madras, has r^rted to
hbs (Sakimmeot that the second batch of mahogany setd inppUed
m
I ’*''r’
* '"f \ ; ■' ■
tf#r
|i{m» li«i|i» U|fce tli»0r«tp titUily togenmttatv. tThfo fo'. H
regretudi tAom fo^Ui«4ii)^«ii4lfiit»oui* vg!ti^ 4i
iba aaad or Ita pr(»8^ti(ta prpduoa. DoubiYan it la lulvisatda to
inlroduca t'alwiVla Uinbaro liom varboa Ibeal^iiea^ iHit wb
qaastion iha baueftt'to be galoed trom tbe mabogfttiy tree. It la a
vary alow AAd vbib; for the purpoaaa of fdtnitora^ we
liave Ute (aboi (Mrda ioom)^ aiasoo, (V^lhetff^ia 0 i$iooj aed
tealr, (T0c^vm$fmiii$J all more or leas suited for tbis purpose^
and all oomperativsly fait growers, we bardly thbk it advia^le
to waste valuable time over tbo other oloas of tirobeira* ^till we
aae Uie OoTerumeut of Madras have asked the Secretary of Bihie
for a third supply,
Dr> Biiibi^boPi of the Forest Department, baa been dotiuned
in EngTand for a month beyond the time at which his leave expired,
In order to afford him an oppOrfunity of conferring with Mr,
Oil Bib ti ^ecfcat4h a,P3>w of pa^er from
bamboo ateme, a branch of Industry to which much importance is
now attached.
The actual proceeds of this year's pearl fishery in Ceylon have
been for In excess of what had beep anticipated. Instead of
about three millions of oysters tbere were seven millions fished,
and it was believed that but for the frequent interruption by
weather, two mllUouB more might havo been lifted. The amount
realised by sales of oysters was Be. 60,000, and it is believed
that tbe pearls in possession of Government are worth Hs. 40,000.
In well kept lawns, weods, sneU as dock, plantain, daisies,
dandelions, and others that will spring up eventuolly if let
alone, are not present. Whenever, therefore, they are found, they
should bo cut some distance below ground, with a thin chisel
made for the purpose, and the weeds carried oif the lawn. This
takes but little time, unless tbe lawn be large, and bore the owner
is supposed to be able to gratify bis taste for this most attractive
of tbe surroundings of the bomostead.
It has been recommended to salt patches of weeds. This, how¬
ever, is not advisable, since it first kills the grass near, with the
weeds, and afLorwards produces dark spots on the lawn from the
inoreased luxuriance of tbe grass about whero tbe salt has been
placed. For a lawn such as we have described, or one not to be
often and closely mown, the following grasses are sniiable: sweet-
scented vernal, one pound; meadow fescue, meadow foxtail, hard
and sheep's fescue, and rough-stalked meadow grass, each g lbs.,
4 lbs. of white clover, and 6 Iba of rod. This will give 31 lbs.
as mixed, a fair sowing per acre. To this you may add 1 lb.
of yellow oat grass, and 2 lbs. of perennial red clover, it you like.
It will not be too much. Forty pounds per aoro is often used and
with the best results, since a thick sward is the beauty of the
lawn, and thin sowing always leaves bare places which, If not
occupied by weeds, never fill perfectly.
In ^few of the impetus which the partial^almost total-^failure
of the Soropenu silk crop has given to tlio China and Japan trade,
and ought to ^ve to that of India, we have devoted more space than
usual to that branch, and we trust that the Indian villager will
be taught to take advantage of tbe favourable position he now
finds himself in, and that, this iemporary demand over, he will
ooDtinne to improve hie manufactures, and to increase the
quantity he tnrna out, eo that he may take the place, the climate
of India intended be should occupy with reference to this branch
of indnitty.
With reference to the latter of An iNraaxsran Fabty to be
found elsewhere, we think there <tfn be no donbt but that tea will
pay in the NeiJgberrIes. The oliuiate is temperate, and the rain¬
fall fair. At the same time we think it would be much better for
capitalists to invest their money on land at a lower level, if they
do invest in tea. It must bo remembered that the tea plant
luxuriates in a moist steamy atmosphere.
Mb* Bobibtbon, the head of the Agricultural Department has
prepared an Agrionlturai Frimer, which the Governor in Oouncil
has accepted as a suitable text-book for schools in this presidency,
and directed that 1,600 oopiea be etrock off at the Government
for sale. The iKH be trinelated into Tamil T^^tegu
and published Mmulhummsaly tfith Mm Siiglish edition.
m
MtiulP woond men^f ^
Ihilbbue, the common i^KfUe
limwnte Adam*e mdie, sa a ab^
seedling etage, and suj^stA ii dedied tb
phmttrees In waste Isn^, instead of mlieibg th
nurseries, and transplanting them aftert^dalw^^n^i thf ««bdli
should at once be sown ta ^ith tbt^ fobf ipda.
roiud each, the theory being that the csetue
and form an invnlnerable hedjp acound: the yiiUlisg
tsoting it from storms, and from cattle,whMi of
at theypnng shoote The idea dees not seem * bad 4t
seems to us, that a great cUMculty will subsequeuily bp, eudsHfitped
in getting rid of the caotus when its pioteating ears is Ao longer
needed, and when it would be a nuisance* It is an astouliddpg
plant for spreading, and in (bar or five would form. Sn
impenetrable jangle, offering the greatest posaib^ .c^MtaolSi fs i^s
eradication. r ^
It is said that ** analysis has discovered that dOSlbs^ of br|aiiic'
matter is removed hy a crop of oern from an aore of H^nd***
Now, will yoar writers on soienoe Inform ue praotical farmers
whether the analysis wtis of the crop or the soil; if of the latter,
how aro we to know that it was not abserbed from some other
source, say from water ( and If tbe stalks which are said to contaiti
dOOlbs. of inorganic matter, are out up and ploughed under,«how
are we to knowHhat this 4001ba le returned to the soil; and ,what
is the difference between cutting off the oom stalks la the fell and
allowing them to stand all winter. We know that there is a
difftttence and that by allowing them to stand until all moisture
disappears, the soil is less exhausted than when nut off whilo full
of sap^
If it be trne that fi081bs. of organic matter is, removed from an
sere of land annually in the production of a crop of oom, and in
ten years 50801bs. is removed with tbe crops, and folly as much
more is removed by the washings of tbe rain-falls, will our soientifio
farmers show us how it is that a crop of red clover wlU In three
years make the land more prodnctlve than it ever was. There Is
a field near us that was so much exhausted three years ago, that the
crops were very poor, since which it has been in clover which
during the present season has advanced so far as to begin to bloom
and now during the last few days has been ploughed less than 8
inches deep, and having known the said land ever since it prodnoed
its first crop, we do not hesitate to say that it can be made to
produce more oorn now than ever before and more than can be
produced on any land by ploughing 16inchee.-~By W. D. Smith,
Franklin Co., Mo.
Jn reading over W. B. Smith’s Some Questions abont Oom
Stalks *’ we were forcibly reminded of the opening of one of Bacon's
essays, that on Truth. Here it is, << What is truth I” said jesting
Pilate, and paused not for a reply. Tlte spirit of the qaestion,
it seems to us, implies, not a desire for truth, or informatioii. It
is more like the spirit of o conundrum-mooger who trumpe down a
puzsler, and pauses for a reply,** with this difference, that he is
propounding conundrums which he cannot solve himself, and which
indee 1 he thinks, and it may be, hopes, scientifio (armers will not
be able to give a very good account of. If the men who call them¬
selves practical farmers do not blend science with their practice
and mmgte both with brains, they have no more right to be called
farmer. I than the veriest savages that scratch the soil, and raise
a prMarious (gqp ; they are Simply empirics, in the' womtand
lo west that term* We think wo may safely leave Mr* W.
B. Smith to be dealt with by hisojiiriao<>^Ht^men, many of whom
are sornethibginm^thim^’jpfe^^ farmers; and in the interval,
till he gets a satisfactory reply to his questions, may, we suggest
that he should keep his feet warm, his bead nool, And subscribe for
some good agricuUnral paper.
Iv we, says a writer In A German contemporary, reckon that a
single grain of wheat produces fifty grains, and the fifty Wilt each
produce fifty grains mpre^ and so on, we find^
In the second year ... 2,600
If third f,, .«• 125,000 "’in'
. „ sixth „ 15,0516,000,000 ^ \ \
twMffk a
.244,140,626,000,000
' ' ' '''!>•
•m, A^^icuLmisT-
26 fi
Tht tiiM
labiMbwMDijK
I^U givo 300 flw, iJsiif -iwteif ^
your WQvilS att||<i 0 M««pyIy »U tho
i'wUii load daring iknAt jilo Umo.
9p
COMMUNICATED AND SBtECTED*
‘ ^ " [r’fr ■'
‘ $ti3 MUK AS A MAHtmiS.
' (p ejio MUt^ tifthe «C6iflon O^jter^r,**)
rV^ vMtag jroor iiOioiOitiiig arUolo on ^ Oyiwum os a Mftnure/ 1
" wiki Wi|li iho tfssiarki ootiimtf&ioatea by » woH'inibnaed
AitOiorifey *wka ku modoitly wUbheld kis some/ 1 conout with all ha
. ti^it AB^r bo^g pkoda the oxpoHmanta ha has recommanded« 1 can
von^loithe noOtts being inover^ way satlefactory. VouwUl
Ond the Bome given fully in Kawblgglng'a work* pages 84
to 80^ And you wft^ao see it quoted (with tha authorities given) by Mr.
Grinlintonia hie letter from the gae warke to the Cej/lon Observer of
lOUi .Augttit 1874» end in Ue udvariiiamants in tho *0)islon Bireetory*
of 1874* pagee Ivii aud Ivii. I take a great interest In o&anuros^ and have
made it a point to ent ont ell information worth keepingi eo that I reoog-
nlmd at cnee |he valnaHe information in your last night’s issue us
having appeared befbre in another form.”
We have referred td hCr. Oriulington’s letier to tho Observer ia*ADguai
1874, and we find he dealt with a point which corfoets tho rather low
eatimate of gas lime given in dofanaton and Cameron’s ** Elemonts of
Agrienltnral Chemiitry*” There is lime and lime, and we do not snpposo
there is lime in the world tiohet in eatbonate than that« the resnlt of
bunt con), which is used in purifying the Colombo gas. Its value
as a monupo is. of oonrae. In proportion. This superiority of tho Ceylon
coxal lime must bo hpme in mind when our readers look at Cn Voelckor’s
analysis quoted by Newbigging, Uini :-*•
QA$ LI&TEt
Its eoviposUion, and itse in AgieioaUvre,
in a valuable paper on gas lime published in the •/bunmf of Gets LvjhUttff,
ProfoBBor Voelckoi states thdt a copious supply of air is necessary to
transform the ihjurione sulphur compounds contained in the material into
fcriiliaing agents.
When exposed to the air (and the longer it is kept exposed the better),
gas lime is llu some respects superior to quicklime as a iiiauuro.
The oxygen of the atmosphere destroys the odensive smclh and chaugct^ the
Bulphuret of calcium in it-»iirst into sulphite, and fioally into sulphate of
lime or gypsnm, well-known as a valuable fertilising snbstaueo.
In addition to its chemical virtues, gas lime excroisos a beneficial
mechanical effect upon land, by rendering stiff, heavy, clayey laud more
porous and friable, and by oonsoUdatiug light sandy soils.
Tho crops which are particularly benefited by gas lime are'^oloveri
sainfoin, Income, peas, beans, vetches, and turnips. It is a useful fertilixer
for permauent pasture, destroying the coarser grasses, and favouring tho
growth of a sweeter emd more nutritious herbage.
It kills xnoss, lieath, feather grass, and other plants charaeleristiQ of
peaty land, its appUcatioti to which cannot bo too strongly recomineudod.
As a general tale, two tons per acre is the quantity of gas lime which
ought tq. be pot on land.
'Xhe proper time lor iU applioaUon is in autumn or winter,
During the period of storage, tho heap should be tamed over once or
twice to ensnre its complete enpoiure to the air.
Tho Irilowlng U an analysis by Fcofessor Voeloher of a sample of gas
lime, hept long enoWiA hsuisd vnih safely os o manure.
Cowposibion of Qas Xwne (drUd at 212^ FaJhr.J
Percent.
Water of oonkbinitiion and a little organio matter ... 7*24
Oxides of iron and aliuniua, with tracos of phoSp boric acid ... 2*18
Bulphataotlime (gypsum) »*t •»»
Bulnhite of lime
OarDOnstedlinie
Cainrtie lime .
I&agnesia and alkaUss
Insoluble sUieepoi <
4*64
.. 16'i8
49*40
.. i«-aa
. 2*68
. 0*28
100*00
In ikesh gas lime the propoi^on of water varies usually from 80 to
40 per cent;
TheValttaofiheUma flse^atthegis works here, is, of coarse; largely
inorew^, in oonsequw^ of sbs use aS an ingredient in a valuable manure
In which the gasiijsie and ammonlaoal liquor are intimately mixOdwKh
blood and other ntganie matter.
We add here aloitii with irhfih Jtr^ qochran has (avoared ns, tlieohisot
of whichperhaps.stmiam^withamoiwii^^ intelleet ttian we con
boMt of ma^ gncfs.. WM^idneia >i« mdifentTeusis thatidr, Citohraa, a
vdryeompetentOheniat^eyid«u^|S9l<uiii^4oiMlh^^ atoms.
We have evidently made him nnhappy by wha^its cahs << gwitie editorial
ttkhi»»to hii taadanar teipemiii Hgut of nsafad iutovmAtin«
in nneomplhnentary remarks on bfo^r ehemists. In a veoeut Utter
there was an e^snoe directed egato| Ourselves for being whim htv.
Ooehran chose to call a « believer in 4hp go»|Ha according to llngh^.*’
Wo are not aware that wo over said a wiord against Mr. Cochran, bnt quite
the reverse. BnVifhe IMnks it a movUl . Offence that wo should UUove
Mr, Hughes, Mr, Plton, and others to be quite Mn Cochran'i equals In
Bdence and principle, by all moans let him thiak so. As to the Orinlifiton
tnanui'e we have recently rsoolved testimony to its good and lasting
properties. Mr; Ftughea U' his testimony in lavonr of thU manage
specially noticed its moderate price.
lit July 1679,
Dsiu have been Uvonred with several of your gentle editorial
mbs* for having at one time scon it to be my duty to esU in qneiUou M
Enghes* prudence, in praising an prti&Qilal manure for the large pexoeutagc
of its cheapest manurial ingredients. Now that Mr, Hughes saw my
letters on the subject I have positive proof j but be could hardly have Been
my letters wUhpnt seeing your own edltorialIy*expre8Sed desire for a
reply. Question; why did he not reply? About tho feitilisingpowerof
the manure I say nothing. It is well understood that a public analyst of
manures must know sometbiug of comuerco, as well as soiAun^ and in
making a report upon a manure, must consider fhe effects of soch report on
commeroe as well as egricuHure, With two chemists in the island to
contradict me, 1 have not ilie sUgUtoit heeicaim in saying that it would
bo impossible to produce another ineiance of au analyst of rspotation
having praised a manuro manufacturer’s feriiUscx for its larg% pexoontago
of carbonate of lime. Had the matter been allowed to pass unohaHenged,
what conclusion was more natural Cora planter, unacquainted with chemistry
to draw than that he was gelting a valuable manure, both commeroUlty
and agriculturally, i£ only it contained plenty of carbonate of Ume, and
what conclusion was more natural for the merchant to draw than that he
could not go wrong in giving the planter plenty of carbonate of Ume in his
manures, and geitiug as good a prioe for it as he eould* If luMi views
gaimd currency, no planter would be safe in ordormg more than three tona
of manuro without an auatysis.
Oypsum in superphosphate is another case In point. No analyst of repute*
lion would praise a supoKphospbote for its large percontage of gypsum. It is
woli-known that superphosphate cannot bo mode without the production of
gypsum, and that the quantity of gypsum is very variable according to the
raw materials used. Thus, if coproUtes be tho raw material, tbero is often
a oonsiilorablc amount of carbonate of lime present, which, whila it
diminishes the value of the mineral and of tho resaitiog superphosphate,
inoreasos the percentage of gypsum, as all the carbonate of Ume has to bo
turned into gypsum. U is easy to see, then, since tho quantity of gypsum
does not bear a fixed protiortion to the pbosphone aoid present, the former
oliosp substance may bo easily added as an adulterant without detootion if
kept within certain limits. Hence in England there itre unscrupuloas
manure dealers, who buy u good superphosphate, add a lot of gypsum to it,
and soli tho mixture at the same, or a higher price than the'’ paid for tho
superphosphate, to farmers who think they are making money by saving
the analyst’s foe. M. COOIXRAN,
SALT AS A MANUHIfi.
M H. D. MITCHELL, formerly a coffee planter in Ksitwaua, writea to
U 0 (the Cephn Observer) thus fiom the tar south
Melbourne, 1st June 1878.
You will ICO by the slips 1 enclose that salt as a manure is again oooupylng
the attention of agficultarists in this part ot the world, and ooupled
with conibmod action is likely to lead to henefloial results, You will also
observe that the advocates of silt as a msuare also characterise it as
“ tho best known pwfifKivo of mt in wheat” Top^dreseings we are told
** harden tho straw," prevent disease fiom laying hold of the plant, and
at the same time increasing the yield. It is to the preponiive properties
in salt that I would draw attention in the hope that its use may be fouud
to act beneficially m hardening the e^ee kaf; against disease. I am told
it would most certaioly harden the leaves ot coffee as it does the straw
of wheat. The suggestion m well worthy of a trial, ^I have now oonsider-
able faith in the efiicacy of salt. An old friend ot mins, proprietor of an
estate in the ffabaragamnwa side was in the habit of using it extensively
for the destruction of grub. No matter what kind of manure it was; all
without exception were carefully salted down by him both before and after
application on tho trees, t have often visited aud inspected the coflEbe under
noUoo, and 1 most say X was often surprised at the results obtained by my
friend’s stUting process. The soil experimeuted ou Was a stubbora one,
there was nothing in it to lead to the belief that oelibe would grow so
laxunauUy or bear so wall as it did and is «tiU doing, and its comparative
Immunity from leaf disoasa is very remorkublek and speaks volumes in
favor of the iqdieiqiis aae cf salt. Tho careful investigation of Mr, Morns
show clearly enough Ut a progress of leaf disease where once the tree has
^en Atiaoked, and the siiggestcd sulphur cure nwy haro the desired effoot
in destroying ihd fungus 4 still the origin Ur emte ot tbo disca'is remalus
to be grappkd wttii, auff^ irimuld further inveSligattoa solve tbs problem,
plautem may and sound death knell of the plague spot
at once, Whrii'id Oeylmi^ £ iacliued t<) the belief that utmospbano lufiuet^ee
was rim causa. My Ideas have, since tben. besu greatly modui id. %al the
aaota M still ai gtaat a myateiy os aver* I beheve, howeirer, that whatever
m
TSE iltolAK MRICftJIttmteT.
i;
the eetiRe to bCf thetiitwofiplierio lofittonoee pUi3re4 n
putt In the deveie^ttteut of the aiMiuw in ttie ^ret inetiiooe t cooteglon^
Oidthereet*
T« return U friend the 4]f7*gAiler'i h]Jnd piAeUce in the use ttt
1 hiire often vieited end insp^ed the property in question, and M often
tuifflT expressed inrprise nt the resuite obtained by ste^y s^stemntle
manipnUtion of wb«t 1 considered n stubborn eolh At any rate» thOite
was notbinn in jt to lead to thsibelief tbateofTae wogld groirsO ItfXni
riantlyor bear so well as it has done, and is stift d^g, I beUevei and Its
oomperative immunity ftom ienf disease I now attribute to the judieioue
nse of $aU to manures of every description* In fact whenever plant life
conies to require artificial feeding, salt becomes a neoessary adjunct^
strengtbeuine ae it does the growth of the cofTee ond increasing the action
of the manurei applied, end what is better, powerfully assists in waring
f>& diseases of the fungoid type. Mr. liorris' investigations are valuable
making It plain how h^MUta developes and operates on tlie steih,
tmclies* and leaves of the ooffcotros. Tbs suggested cumtfve power of
sulphur may also bo good. Still, something more is needed. We may
care the dtese, but the origin of the disease Tcmains to be
grappled with. How are we to stamp mat the disease other than
by adopting preveutlve measDres? If, as is said, the develop¬
ment of hmUeiti springs from the appUoatiou of " bulky manures, ”
to stamp out ihediscuse we must abandon manuring and stamp out onr crops.
That would be a stamping out with a vengeauce. Manuring mnst go on
now, or death to tlie coffee enterprise roust ensue. Buoh being the case, it
follows that greater attention must be paid to the mode of manuiing, to
check a coutinuaace ot bresiking 'out anew of the great plogtie spot, leaf
disease. Nature of soil, quality and quantity of manure, mode of applica¬
tion and many other things reqmre careful attontion. What is required, in
fact, is sanitary reform, ^eau feeding, and ole>rn surroaudings for the coffee
plant. Plant food especially must be attended Co t it must bs well oooki^d,
if I may me tbe expression, and well before being brought in conUct
with the roots of the coffee tree. 1 am of opinion now that improper plant
fbod applied at random hns had a good deal to do with Uio origin of the
disease. It would be idle to point to eststos that have suffered severely by
the disease that have never had nn ounce of manure applied to them, when
it is a known fact that the disease is oontagious and can be carried about by
the wind t the first outbreak of leaf disease on properi^os with which I was
connected was on coffee manured with half-rotted pulp, Uie spread of th®
disease over the unmanured portion 1 can trace clearly to the influence of the
wind. One oomei of the estate (DO aores) escaped entirely, simply because
it was free from wind ; what wmd It did get, came from S.-W.
{Endomm referred (o.)
THU nUTV OH BALT,
f From the Melbourne LeaderJ
A question that will justify tbe beet oonsideratioa ot the various
agricultural rocieties and farmers' clubs throughout the Colony was
fiiibmittcd at tbo last mooting of the Kytteton Agrioultural Society by it*
piesident, Mr. dosiab Mitchell, in the shape of the following rasolutiun i'*** j
** That inasmuch as salt is eSBential to the health and wcU-doing of live
stock, and is also the best known preventive of fluke in alieep and rnstin
wheat, therefore it is desirable in the iuteresta of agriculture, that this
society should communioato with all kindred societies throughout the colony,
With a view to the pi-esentalion of a united petition to the Legislative
Assembly for the abolition of the duty on salt," Practical agriculturists and
Hrasicrs alike, who have used it, have ascertained by experionce the benefits
f »f sdlt os regards its efficiency in promotiuif tlu* healthy character of both their
crops and their stock, while Mr. Maclvm, in his lectures, has almost iuvartably
iftude a point of dwelling specially upon the agiicultural value of salt from
u scientific point of view, at the same time suggestiug some such unison of
action wiili regard to obtaining the abohlion of the duty, as has been put in
formal working shape by thi* president of what is known as one of the most
actively useful of our agrioaltural associations, la his address in support
of his reaolnUoD, Mr. Mutholl, with the usual ability that distiuguishes
him in doiding with an agricultural subject, pointed out the claims that
salt had to bo regarded as one of the most important agrioultural
commodities, inolnding its oso as not ouly a prevontlru to. but also a
curative of fluke in uhoep, while allusiou was mode to the probable good
effects of a top>u.' .*isiQg of salt as a prevontivv of rust io cereal crops
espeoially iu soils deb lent of ailica*
TBUmm OH SALT.
BiK,-»Permit me to refer briefly to your article under the above heading
la last weokV Leader, Viewed ftom the standpoint of “ party polities ” no
doubt the alluBion made by me to the ** bag business " and other duties
whiuh faimeis have to pay. must, as you pointed oat, be deemed ^111*
judged "—a mistake. Auy one versed in the uit of using laugflage to conceal
ihonghi would not have made such a blunder, Ilut farmersy^as you know,
are opt to say just what they think. Yet allow mo to assure ymi, nothing
could be further from my mUmticn than < he mixing up of ** party poll*
Hoi”l*ilh the eaU question ; or to give ** the cue ” toanynnfieiso to do
BO ; and Ur* Wm. Thompson, iu the course of lus remarks, wisely
counfelled avoiding polities. The free use of salt for aiRiottUttral and
pastoral pur^ifit, to <mabki ffirmors rwid bor^’ eVain the
greatest amount of gttduj Woid and flesh from the ^^imeby increasing
the wealth of the oosnnunit^lB such, an obsolate »eesss|^, that (he
question of removing UiQ ftoty from that artiele oiltily allowed
__ ..k TS ts •Hii-vtt otiiHdhf Lift «aAMI blniliA
I brought the imporUpcaot
wheat, under the nbtlelpf thq inem'M "4 ^
fastoiil fleotetar, and dehoapeqd thq^ pottpf o|f|^agu du|y,o^ >$0^* $, ten
oa an article so essential iucetisefni Ahdl roflMiimr
Q. Mortou^new president of fchat^inftuenlisl ho^
saved his orops frost nisi hy the uijte cl salk, el esmq thgtdil^r
that in consequeooe of the duty salt had hseenta «o dear it would net pay
to use it. Mr. OUohriat alee spoke, in favor cl ihlt IhS oeseale, ^
llegarding now as X did then, a flaggy over-luanufUM growth, and
eousequeut soft straw, as the pre-disposing omiie of imtl in wheat, and
knowing sclenoe and praetkal Usperienee to haUe deihehetIVited. the fact
that a top.dresBing of ealtehe^ over-lnzurlanot^heydiM^ etcaw tnd
prevents rust, I should deeply nsgret if any expression o^MUkse had the
effieet of deterring farmers ol all shades of poUtxoifrOiuntdting Us one
man to make ** a strong pull, and a pnll altogether to laumyn the didy
from tbjs'^as you fitly torsi it—^ important agrMbind eommodity-"
ForooasMog the future by tbe past, (he chancee are;wb toay have SJtolhex
season of rust to oontend with.. Should this unfortunately happen. Salt ought
to be avai'ahle ; therefore, as yon have retuarked, the 4;ittesi|ou Setibnuttod
by the B^jneton Bociety ** will justify the best ooiiaideni|pn o| the various
agricultural aooiotios, and farmers* etubs through Sie colony "*«mpart
altogether from party poUtios.—Yourr, Ac.,
.ar doUAB MlTOBtbn*
Bkelsmergh Ball, Kyneton, 17tli May.
It will be observed that it Is not as a topical " appUeation tiiat Hr,
Mitchell advises the use of salt for coffee, but as a condii^ikt mixed with
its root food. There ia no substance (periiaps) on the manurlal value of
which there has been «o much diversily of opinion os chloride of sodium.
Mr, dotiah Mitchell has mentioned its least eontrovertod quality when be
states that common salt checks over-luxuriance of siiraw and leaf. This is
when moderately applied, for in Isige quantities it anuihilatos vegetation.
As salt is subject to a heavier impost here than is the case iu Australitt,
wc submit that tbe best possible form to obtain it iaas it exists in tho
Uermau mineral kaimt. From Wrightsoo's handbook we quoted so favour*
able an account of this miueral that wo wonder no iiiport has token place,
lias any planler tried it ? If not, why not ?
The more impure salt is, the bettor fitted wo imagine it ie for use as a
manure j and although the Ceylon Government cannot afford to give up
the revenue derived from Uie Salt monopoly, yet we suspect there are largo
deposits on onr coasts of suit rand, from which salt never has been and never
cau be crystalizod. Could not this substaffee, contAiulng other salts iu
addition tooUloride of sodium, be rendered avmlable as manure <*
M4NU11E ANALYSES AND THEIU INTER-
PHEXAXION. ,
flUlhi following instructions for selecting manure samples for analysis,
and also fur the interpretation of analyses, have been prepared by
Ur, Aitken, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society, and were
distributed at the half-yearly general meeting of tbo soeiely last week.
Theso dircotioDS are likely to be of great service to farmers and others
iuteresbod m the analysis of manures
TUB SSLKCTIOH OF SAltPLBS FOR AHALYSlB.
d/anures.—About half-a-dozen bags should be oliosen for sampling*
Each bag should be emptied out separately on a clean floor, worked
tlirough with a spade, and one spadeful token ont. The five or six spade¬
fuls thus selected should be mixed together until a unifrom mixture
IS obtaiued. Of this mixture one spadeful should be token, spread ou
paper, and still mere thoroughly mued ; any lumps whioh it may oontout
being brokeu down with tho hand. About haU a pound of this mixturs
should be sent for analysis lu an aii-Ligbt box to prevent its g atni o g or
lostng moisture. Should there be largo hard lumps or stones present, five
orrix pouuds are required for analysis. (A half pound Sample is foot by
p ost for 4d.)
This should be done io the presence of a reliable wituesa. Two
samples should betaken and sealed, the one Sent ou end Uto other rstaiued
ior refeconoa iu ease of dispute.
/'jedinp tnirenrm.—Theae should bo sampled iu a similoriuattiiST,
/bsdinp ca7£tv.—A cake should be brokeu aoross tho mSiddle, and, from
the break, a piece should bo tokeu aoross the entire breadth 6t the eake»
and sent for analysis. The rest of the cake should bh kept foT retotonpO,
fioils.—Dig a UtUe treueb about twp feet dMl^ Joixi^tog thd soil sad
subsoil. Cut from the side of ^ treoeh » pmpeuilfienlitoseotiou bfthe
soil down to the top of tho subsoil, and abont four inebes wide* Birifsict
it carefully, and do not allow theiuhsoil to mix with it. A elmllir section
of subsoil immediately below tkie sample should bS token and pveserved
separately, XiTveor six similarly drawn ssmplea Should he token toom
different peris ot the field, end kept separate while being leMi to the
chemist, that he may eammiue them todiridually before ttixii^ iu ^the
toborutory* ; '
IF«^A--The bottles or Jars in which eamptos of nle ml Md
be thoroughly eleaaed, Thfo is done by first rittsing Ikm with witor^ Ihsn
wirii nlittle oil of vltroU* After pouri^ tide out the bqttto ehdlftd l» ihised
six times wlUi fraier, fiUed, corked with V netr wishsd eoip,kg stotodi and
sent ndikoiri dskg* (Ohemtoolty ntoim bogles' mil bo bid At the
Ubetttorl*)
tm J|JIW A&RICTTWtTEIST. Wf
■' I,,
Willi it N to van
$p^M Jba oolMed whe« li? 4ff^ ,
Itt 'ljl^ m irfttiv it.taay b« dotimW to
^tonnlvwi fHa attmt of goseg hold in oolnthkO. Mt «hieh eoto oevtaiu
iMFOedntioitdnitiiitHobsoryed whioti vdqalvo tiio.pvevonoo of ^o ohomUtat
$oairS cv vsaa*
UumiOf ... ... ' A, „■ JCl 0 0
loading itufi ... ... ... | o 0
Wotat^iiHiit^^aliiia ... ... ... i 0 o
^ W|kter» ftiUanafraio m. w »* *.• 5 o o
Boll« itnidjrttMil oaeamitiatlon and recommondatioa of
mooiiniff ... .» .N ... t la 0
amOyiia «it* ••* «• ... ft 0 0
I’avtial analyflOp oftbUtoOniHtaont ... ... ... 0 to 0
Toitifi^ for iproM udattoratfon ... ... 0 S 0
Ad?too «M .Y. ... *» ... 0 5 0
raXSIPltViTATIOM OF AKAtYSSS.
ThO followbig notei will be found luotulin eoabliug those unacquainted
with dhemlstiy to Interpret aualytloal reporfti j—
1, MAnoltWifO-^e items of greatest imporUmoo iu manures are
phosphorie aetd. nlfarogent and potasL (1) Photphoi'ia ^tid is present in
maniiriss ae sueht atad also as phosphates of lime. UiaKu^sia. iron, and
atumlnaf Phosphate of lime is most important, and esists in two states,
insoluble and soluble. lKBot.DBLK.«—Insoluble and soluble pliospbate of
lime, osdled also trioahuc phosphate, aud trlbasie phosphate of lime, eoutaiu
about 45 per:iient. phosphorie aeid. hoLUBi;,u,-*SoluhU pbusplmte fit lime,
ealled olio aeid phosphate of limci oontatus about 01 per cent* phospborio
aeid* Some aualyata prefertostate the soluble phosphate us—biphosphate
of linmi called also mouocaloio phosphate, contaius about 72 per cent,
phosphorie acid, ‘fhe soluble phosphates are usuuUy stated as equiralont
to BO mueh trloaloic phosphate. Soluble phosphate^ muitipliei by II
biphosphate, moltiplisd by 1|. gtves the equivalent of tricaloio phosphate
nearly. Phosphate of magnesia oocurs iu small quantity m bones, do.,
and is osnatly reckoned as trloaloio phosphate. Phosphates of iron and
aluoiiua vhou occurring in small quantity are osually reckoned as trlealoic
phosphate. Phosphates of irou and alnmiua may occur in such a
form as to be worthless as a mannre. It would sere ambiguity if all
phosphates were doseribodas containiug so mnoh anhydrous phosphoric acid
(P20s) in a soluble or in an iu^luble. This ameaut, mutUplied by 2*18,
would then give the equivalent of tticaloio phosphate. (2) ilitrogm occurs in
manures mostly In three forms. Ammonia s<ilts, nitrates, and albumenold
matter. Ammonia sulphate (pure), oontalas per c^nt. ammouia |
ammonia chloride (pure), oontains 3lif per oent. ammonia. Nitrate of soda
(pare), oontains 1Q*47 per cent* mttogen, equal to 2<J percent, ammonia.
Albuminoid maiter coutaius about 16 per cent, nitrogeu, equal to about
19 per cent, ammonia, which sooner or later becomes available as plant
food. (3) Foiitsh is found in small amount in most manures, aud should
be reckoned as anhydrous potash (KlO). Snlphato of potash eoutains
potassiumissftO per cent, anhydrous potash* Muriate of potash contaiug
potassluDisssfully 66 percent. anh>drous potash*
8. FJtBDtNO Stuffs*—T hese arc chiedy ooucentiated forms of food
whose value depends on the amounts they contain a{ albumsuoids* oil, a id
oarhohydratss. AlhuMsftotds are comp mads eonta'nmg nitrogen, ^and
moie or less resemble dry flash m their comnogition. They are suincUmos
calledjfl«rJb*/brMtars. Theyare the most valuable oonstituents of feeding
stuffs. The pereantage of nitrogen contmued in aoake laultipliol by tif
gives the pereentage of nlhumenoids, (iood lltiseel, cjtton, and rape-
oakea should oontiin from 4 per ceut. to ft per oaut. nitrogen about lO
per cent, oil and about 6 per cent. ash. Carbohy diates are compounds su h
as sugar, Btaroh, gum, aud woody flbre. (The d»yssti&dtiy of woody fibre
varies very rnneb. but ohemieal analysis cannot dotermine this with auy
certainty.)—Ifortft BritiiH dgt'kuUutifU
.mm.I ' i i i " i i"wni
WELL OUIiTIVATION.
W B are, not aware if tho system of well eultivaiioo, so common in the
Jaffna peninsula, is practised to anp extent in India, though it
woidA seem more than probable that it was originally introduced from
the Soutli of Xhdia by the early Malabar lovadere of the island. The
system Is ht any xatoipoken of in the C^utta ffssitsic as a novelty, possibly
inregardonly to ,tl^ looalUy where it was introduced; but tho Fiontet'
in noticing the aifkole in question, is equally wovm iu its praises as a system
likely" to benefit naUve cnltivators and therefore deserving of every
ep^ntpgeia<mt«
Ip, artuie itt ^e iWism, our AUahahad eontempOVary
mentions i|hf| 'ei|etim • ef well cat^patioji es having been quietly worlmd out
Inthedtidriet'ol! !ttarim InItpagal. The auOiov of thesehome is
nelM 1^. englfieto.nttt Ut a iisb-3)epnty Opipm Agent, who,
tuhtagedyttiiageafcMalni^ nl.hl^. department, has during the past
flveyewaeooetanMlI^ftft.^nu^^ and repgitad 309 old ones,
mreiage, »wt' hi; Jfis* fi and 4 a well.
The actuidanpendltaie 1*1(11 # di this amount has
faeimt veooiWftsd* I* Waa"^ lb. fto for each :wed,
and tlw lest oaloublmr at
^ piloffiW to amoioit
being recovered* to Ks. 34, Farther op ,We learn that during the present
year 430 new wells are being bade and 45 old ones repaired. The welts
ere constructed of dry mMonry* cost spsmingly from Us. 80 to 131 each,
and are expected to last a hundred yearA ,Mr»Tyttor states that he Is
usimlly able to indnoe the semiadar to supifly the w^d for brick burhli^g,
whilst tho ryot gives Hs. J5 or Es, 30 Mdee hie labour, Indeed
the most notable eircumstance of the system is that it works throngU this
eowbiued ae1£.iutareBt and independent aotloe of the landholder and tenant,
Iho tie uni ling Uicse two* ordinarily opposing forces being the percoual
influence of Mr. Tytler. The effect of those wells on general onltivatjioa
when poppy is not OU' t^ie ground is said Co he very greet. The BeFtatosr
seems (o seek apeolaliy to draw attention to what Ue regards os the auecessf u1
mutt of hou^ nupretending hardworlc. Mis claim to notice is not
rntjuilifled by the facts*
Unfortnoately t^a snminaiT of the Calcutta ilevUw artlifia sopplies no
particulars a« to the natare of the sail or the depth to which the wells were
snnk^ Iu the Jatfua peniusuia. where we know tU^t the system of well
cultivation is extensively and suooeisivoly carried on, the soli it light aud
easily worked, aud we beUeve the late Mr. Unssell, whou Govenimeut Agent
of the Northern Provinee, applied to tho Government for a vote of money
for this purpose at the rate of live pounds a woll. so convinced was he of
tho utility and eoonoray of this moans of irrigation that when the money
was refused by Oovermnent, ho commeiiood expendituro out of bis own
private meansi but nufm'tuuately for tho district be was promoted to the
Central Provinee, before he could cany out tnuoh of his plan, «
' One great advantage which well irrigation offers is, that it furnishes a
supply of water throughout the year ; but Vory rarely itutaed if the welts be
sunk to a proper depth, will tho water supply fail altogother. Now we have
seen In certain districts of this Island. V;low oxpendltnre on village Unks has
proved of no avail during svasotia of extromo dryness; and engifteonag
iugennity has been taxod, and exteusivo aud costly schomes have beoa
devised, for bringing a sui^ly of water to them Irom oonsiderable distmoos,
iu order to obviate the effects of tho absence of ramtall during the most
critical times of the year. We have an insUoee of this m the project of tshe
Yodo lillla irrigation works in the North Central Province, estimuted to cost
£40,000, but the oxpendilura is so large that Government hesitates to
sanotion a vote for this purpose, knowing welUhat once begun, the work
must be ceutlnued to the end, aud that it is possibln this amount may be
considerably incroased even after the moat careful estimates. The qneaUOu
naturally arises in thiii oase. whether instead of enteriug upon a large
outlay, an attempt might not be made, by Uio construction oi wells and lifting
apparatus, to obtain a suUicient supply of water to meet the occntrence
of dry seasons.
The same remarks will apply to certain dubtiota of the North*Westoru
Froyiuce, whero the cost of conslvncUng works for irrigation purposes on
the ordinary system, m often lound to be in excess of auy probable returns.
The oof>t of sinking a wol) will of oonrso depend on tbs uatnro of tJia
gronnd and the doptli to which it would here to be sunk, and it would of
coarse happen that in some looaiitiest Where large masses of cock was fuaud
that the sinking of wolls would be impracticable, but careful borings would
settle uU these questions, and we have bronght the subject fonvard, in the
hope that the success which lias attended irrigation by means of wells in
bcngal, equally with ihe system ;a tho NertUeru Fouiusdiui, may be the
means of inducing the authorities to turn their attention to the aubjecti
betoro any further large expenditare bo Incarrod lu the ooustmation oi
irrigation works upon the old systoin — Ceylmi Twasi.
lIliHaAXION IN THE NQllTH-WEST.
T he report on the inigatiou operalions in tUd North-
Western Fiovtuoes fur 1878 contaiim some valtiablo flgurds. The
area irrigated was only OObOiO aorcB against 7*fl,B83 acres iu 1877,
a falling off of 71,657 aqim The revenue, however, only, showed
a decrease o£ Re. 16,597, being given at Ev. 13,50,440 against
Bs. 18,73^037 in 1877, But this marks a vast increase in the telnnis,
as the figures given will show, luooine in 1809, Be. 12,24,232 ;
1876, Us, 13,66,576 ; 1877, lU. 18,73,037; 1878, Bs, 18,50,440.
That the revenue has nol; fallen oft is due to larger breadths of
lands having been devoted to tho rnoro valuable crops. Tho coarser
fcod-graius and cotton show a falling off, but rice lias increased by
12,573 acres, sjagar by 8,656 acres, and indigo by 13,998 acres. Tho
total area under indigo in tho three years prior to 1877 averaged
157,OOJ acres; iu 1S?8 it had risen to 227,220 acres. Bttgar baa
risen from 129,607 acres in 1876 to 147,661 in 1878 ; but rice has
not yet recoveied tho area it occupied in 1870. The laud under
this ctoj^ was In * that year 84,744 acres, whilst last year it
was 79,257 acres; hot then against this must be set off the
oatraordinary increase ih malse, whi ch has risen from 27,424 acres
in 1876 tO'aftres in 1878. Other food-grains, too, show a
iiidlar oxpatteloni having increased freju only 2,533 acres in 1876
to 19,326 ieres Iu %m it i« a Pity more attention is not given
to the oatevatUn o^Wslao iu the Bengal Prt>vwces.-/»c7»«»
4. M. .
XM OTijy? Aaiuroum^^x,
MADRAS BOHOOli OP AGMOULTUm
(f<? tha Mdit0> ef th9 Mi$im Mh6»0smO
glid to SM Uiftt iU Bohool of 4gVf«Bltor«
IftfoTAbty aikder ili 0 Ablfi UMOBiiBneBt of ftessr#* Adbvrtoon
41 lb 9 iigti tbo fornor goalleouin le eojoylog M«
tun 4^11 *m gliid to observe thet ibe iinfcitutloa oodef tba obavgo of
ICti Boom It beiog worked iao mo«( eeUvfaotor^ maouer, 4s X tm
mwit lAkr««ted ia ggrloultoral gariOltBi X don't tbiak it Would ba out
of i^laoQ to aek you to give iosartloii to the lolioWlng pgrUooters la yoQi
widol)^ otrookted joarnai* The lottUniloii as you arc aware Is^ dealgaed
to aSofd lioittaoiloii ia the eelenoe of agrloaltore, and dn the praetlosl
appUeatioa of sound prlnolple In oonduoilng the ordinary agiioultore
oi tiUMonttf,
fh faim is condnofed as an osperimental farm ; its area is about
iSOpotM, andUle well prosMed wltheuitable buildings.
in the ferae workshops all ktnde of agrloultural impiomonts and
(ooU anlteW for use (n India are mauafaet ured aad repaired,
Xhe edneaiional baildioga needed wilt be erected on the farm ; ol
tbeOB» a chemloal laboratory has already been boilt oa an adjacent site.
in tbe neigbbQuring village ol Sildapet itudente can readUy obtain
board and lodging during their oourie of teaoblng t and a limited
ttoniber of quiwters hate been provided on the farm for each students
as are willing (o rent tbees,
4a agrioultaral library aad a maaeum are in course of formation,
and a reading room for tbe use of students baa beou provided,
A veietlaary hospital will also be established when funds are forth-
coming.
The 'InstHfltion Is attsohed to the Edueatlonal Department under the
general control of the Direotor ol Publio Inatruotion, acting in
oommunloation with the Board of Eevenuo. The direct maoagement of
tbe loitittttiun it entrusted to the fSaperintendeut of Cloverameut
Barms, wbo conducte all oorrespoudenee regarding tbe institution ;
isioeo all noUOes, orders, &c., regarding tbe delivery of lootures and
nthcr matters connected with the routine of the Institution ; and
maiutalni dlseipline amougst the atudeuts, who are in all things sttb|ect
to the orders be issues.
The oonree of tustrnotiou estends over three years; there are two
eeaiioDS in each year, a summer eeenon and a winter seealon ; tbe
summer easslon begins eaoh year on the Ist of April and ends on the
bOtb of June; tbe winter aeseiou begins on the 1st of Ootober and ends
on tbe hist of March. Though, in the winter eessien, claBe>room and
)eoture<«room inetruotion doee not begin until the lat of Ootober,
studeuta are nevertheless oapeotod to attend at Baidepot eu the Ist of
September, In order that they may witness and take part iu tbe
Important held operations oouduoted at that season in oouneniou with
the sowing of the eold weather crops,
Tbe Jostruotloa given In the instltatiou embraces a thorough study of
Agrioulioro end of suolt portions of Chemistry, Geology, Zoology,
Botauy, and (he Veterinary art as boar on tbe theory end practice of
agriculture. In addition to these special subjects, the following also re*
oeivo attenllou:'«-Varm book-keeping, land-surveying, meusnvatlon,
and drawing. Tbe iustruotiou is given by means ol leoturos, olosa-room
disouasions, aud held olassee.
Xiutlog the portion of the day set apart for practical Instrnc^ion in
farming out of doors, every student is expected to take part in whatever
work may bo going forward on the farm ; oompUauoe wUh this
regulation will ba enforced, Buoh sludeut is expected to make himself i
itriotiy aoqigainted with all tbe opetaiioos dally performed on the
farm, and is required to keep a journal or diary of the same.
Instrootion is conveyed In the Kuglish language, but the masters will
afford as much asiiitanoe as pos^ibio in explulnlog the lectorej and
in 4 trao(ton generally to students whose limited acqualutanoe with
Bogllth may make it dil&ouU for them to follow suoh Instruotion
wltboot explantlon*
Europeans, Earosiaos, and Natives ol all olassei and from any part
of the country ora eligiblo for admission into the instltatiou when
vacanolos exist, on oonipTying with tbe following conditions
Oandidatas who desire to avail themselvee of etipeodiary etodentsblpB
or scholarships most be beiwaen sixteen and twenty-four years of age,
and must produoa with their application for admission the following
oerltfleates
(a,) Certificate of age.
(A) Do, ^ ofeharaotar.
(e.) Do, of pbysicai fltneas.
For the present no lef» will be ebargfed, except in tbe bass of studenls
wbo enter onl/ for in^irnotion in hpeolnl subjects i strict oonformUy
with all the ruiee of the ittS4;it9tioii irlll he enforced*
fitndcots psiut proyida tbanif,fives wjth all necessary tskhkooks,
•tationery, fee. ‘
Students wbo have pasaeil tbe ICatrlculaiion or General Test
Examiuatlons wlU be eligible for admleslon without nndsrfioing any
farther examination, provided they produoa the esrti^ates needed,
and Comply with the other oonditlons laid down, when fhera is a
greater number of these oaudidatei than theta arc vacancies to fill, a
seleotion will be made of the most promisittg at the dlsore^on of the
iunerintendent.
Of the etttdants who have at the otosa of tha first session been most
inoobsdfal, five wBl be ealeoted to fill silpoudtary stndentohipa
MWddisbea by Government, to which will be attaohed a monthly
salary of ifi 10 in tbe latter half ol the first veer* 124 per
snencem in jtlie ishond yeas, and Ut. 15 pec tneiie^4;. lorsnOntbs
jn tbethlrdym wndsr thefoUowlng oonduion t;
HdBtipeaa Wttt lMili^^ unleas the kg^der obtains Imll pt the
total miM glfmi ihd oiM«fih1rd of the mit)» eltott^lb^hdi^lubiact
in eaoh eosiion, The stipend vrlU be Jiabia to b« forfalM in part or
in whole for oontinued dfsobedieooe to orders or neglect of dniy, and
I«
ottntetwt. atliuBdiwmaoi.
J*»M, *Bd be Wt*lB*i «8lM» W PM*' «» RW
higher grade Within twelve months, ' ' j
Oaeeeboierthlp.pf the vely kU «w»ee%
for two years, will be given to the «tndm»t el e»w ft?**
year of training, eecnreethe largest aamW ew Who. in
other raspeota, baa given satlsfaetlon. Thia eehmarlihiip' tl to he ^Id
under the seme general conditions bs epplkehle |p ilJ^eMlaiiy
studcnteblpe. “'"
At tha eoDclttston of training, students whb are fig^ lo Mdsim the
necesiary knowledge, and whose eonduet has been satliffetb^i Win be
entitled to cerUfieates eertifyiag to ibeir qmdlfieitiona as egrknUnrlsts
under tha following rules . . .
FMocfais Cerfltele.—To flualify for this c^MfiCite the itfident
muBt xhroughoot the whole course of training have obtain^ 93 per
cent, of the total marks for eSob enbjeot of Ihs^noUobi om fiO*pet‘ cent,
of the sum total of each marks in eaoh session,
Afi/fand efats tbfft/tcafs.^To qualify for this oertifioaio the s^Sot
must throughout the whole eourea of training bava obtained 35 per^
oeuf. of the total marks for each subjeot pf inatrnction* ntid SO per cent,
of the sum total ol such marks, in eami eeseioo.
A student who falls to obtain 58 per sent, of tbe total mlRrim allotted
for a subjeot iu a eesefon and yet obtains 60 per oeivt. of the earn total
of tba marks in tbe sasstoa, will be allowed in the loUowtog aewdoo a
special examifiktion in tba subject in wblob hehasle|lid,aadl|be
passes satisfactorily, he will be deemed to have, MBfOp
standard in (bat session : and in tha same way a eindent who may have
obtained 40 per cent, of the sum total of the marks In the'sewfi^ and
yet bas failed In getting 25 per canh of total for each eubjSis, wlu also
ba entitled la tbe eueulog sasBloa to a specie} examlDatlon In the
subject in wblch be bos failed, on paeslng which eucccsslaliy be wUt be
Considered as having passed tbe eecpnd standard of thatsemipn*
Arrangements will be made under which young men wbo are studyIng
iu Madras to qualify themselves ea school-teachers will be permitted tu
atbeud one or more courses of lectures and to uudergo a perllal
traiolug iu praotical agrieultore at the initltutfon, with a view to
toaoblog this subject In middle class and elementary sohoole under
tboir charge.
liand.owoers end others may enter students at the Institotloa und^r
tha same rules and regulations as Government stipendiary studeuis,
provided the, stipends are paid regularly one month in advance to tbe
Superinteadent, Government Farms, by whom these etjpends will be
disbursed under tbe rules prescribed.
Persons of any age above sixteen who possess a fair knowledge of
EuglisU may enter the Institution, to study any epeoial subject or
aubjeots taught therein* They wUlbe retjaired to pay a fee of Es. 2
per meosem during tho time their names are euter^ in the register
of the inetitotiou,
_ A. 0.
im MADRAS SCHOOL OP AGRIOULTaUE.
W E are glad to learn that, after undergoing tbeir three yeara
oourso of training iq the above named instituGon,^ the
following students, who entered it ia 1675, when it was first
opened by Government, have qualified lor a first class oertifleato
N. H. Patuek
(4. Krishna X’vabbu
C. K.. Boobbaltow
M. Narayona Uow
11. D. Tau
N. M. KckO
V. S, Ottrnnatha Pillay
F. D. Moody
A, D. Oolah
E. B. Knshna Row
0* Anuamalay Moodelly
K. M. Nogojee Row
V. N. Kombatta
J. M. t^ichgor
B. Ramtah I^dy
B. H. fiatwol
V. Streoiuvssa Iyer
Besides tho above named, the following Uave obtained second
class oertifioatcB
T. Varatbiah
It. Damodara NaiJtt
M, Domodara MoodeUy
B. M, Badiana
T. fialasundiaebary
Thp searohing nature ol ihb tests which these students have
U-i'dergone is testified to by tbe fact that they have had to pads up¬
wards d, 100 examinations, held weekly during tbeir course bf
itmirT:atibn. This plan we oommeDd to oar eduoattonlists^ as being
one tbat^ in os great a measure os possible, prevents tbe ill e&oto
of orazn, as it obliges students to msintahi oontiniions study,
iflstesd of allowing them to work by fits and starts at long inter¬
vals. It is very mAisfaotory to note that of tbe stedents wbo
went tlurongh the whole course with this MshV, 89, per cent* have
obtained a 1st class certifinete, and Ifi pe« imBt* « find-daes
certificate; of the former, dxhave been engaged by the Governffieut
of Bombay as agidculturd Inmr^tors in the High ^hools of that
Presidency, under fiir Biohard Tsmple's spbeme; one like (ilitaiaed
fiituilar employment under tbe Jagldfedar of Araee op Ids ttotee:
afid another is a studeipdi Who was maintained ty the Xi^e fitate.
Several Of the remainder ore, we believe, going to engage Ih f amafeg
on their own account in vsxibtts partgof India; hnt^ we Gmit .Ihid
tbe Aladroi Government will not iose the advantam et mahi^ use
^ tbeservlees of these men, whom they have tm^ediln wtfianner
to the fitanbay Government, which hosolMiiM inMa^otO
educed at no m^nie to then^vei, these csffiinije-lmiders
ought to be to^otMy tits ’borfons of the
Beyenue Djpa(^ent connected with the admlnistraiion of the M-
—Madras Moaf.
TttB tow Amovvsvu^.
tifilttofc dC i^e' )i^ &C|>«dk]dteAtftl f^rm at ]^gilose« was
^gi^d ago, hy the M^edte Goirafw^t, to write
111 Sliatitfi o£ AgriottUttre^ lot « 0 O in eehoole hi the
proTiAw*atatee tt|t tho Govemiaent
hi^omrdtd'him one hundred rnpeee ae an lionomiam for the
}oh| ^hnt^'ltnmge to lay, a oopy of the Manned hai not been eenb
tl thet M review. We need har^ point out that
Improted jigricnrture la a matter which deeply aifiots this provinoe.
W&Ue on^ thli eubjoot may we ask wlint has beeome of Mr.
t Harmimw report on the agricultural tour he made through the
^oviAOa, as Iria opiuiou on the ooSee leaf diseaae ques^
lion^' t^jranafFiiaef.
TaoaXNTBk-^Tbla new fodder-grasa haa attracted oonayevablo
attention fo ]^raiDce and her o^onioe, daring the last feWeare
on aocounvof Ibt axoeUent qnaUtiea and enormous yield of foliage.
It is a ha^ve of GnatemaU, and was first introduced to the notice
of the AcoUmatieation Sd^iety of France In 1872, by Monsieur
. Darien de Maieounenve, and was tried in various parts of the
south of France with considerable suoceae, the plants growing to
a height of 10 feet, and each plant throwing up about 100 stems.
Tho Teosiiats is a remarkably handsome plant, having leaves three
to four feet long and two or three inches wide, and having an
appearance resembling maize, but on a much largen^cale {the cob,
as in that plant, is contained in a leafy sheath, from which the
stigmas protrude in a tasseldike manner. At Kew, whore it flowered
in December, in the water-lily houses, it attained a height of
15 feet, fiohweinfurtb, who has seen it growing and producing
seed at Cairo, confirms its valuable qualities, ^eds have^already
been distributed to Cyprus, the Fast and West Indies, Australia,
and tropical Africa. _
pitheoolobiumTii^cia) saman, and P.
(INGA) DUBOB.
(^CoHtritfUted),
F xeferenoe to a letter in our columns on the former, wc think it
well to afford the following information respecting those two Sooth
Amerioan trees, now very common fa Oejlou.
These and other trees now placed in the genus PltheooUbium, hero at
different times been described as Mimosaa or Ingas, The FUheooMiim
sama» was Introduced to\Seylon about fifteen years ago by Dr.
Thwaiies, and its pods, which contain a engar-llko pulp round the
seeds, a good deal like those of the osrob, and the young leaves and
twigs were supposed to be good fodder for cattle.,bat on this subject
we have not heard if they have been so used iu Ceylon. The tree is
one of the fastest growing one;} Introduced, forming a very large
spreading tree in about nine or ten years, with an umbrctla-shaped top.
It flowers freely in Colombo, but bears fruit better at bigUor elevations.
It Is now In great demand in Southern India as a shade tree, bat we
qaeittou U it Is not too dense for this purpose.
We are not aware that those planted in Colombo have been
particularly neglected. The flowers when looked at singly are rather
pretty, but for these the tree is not oouspicuous. as they are gsnorally
high upon the top of the tree, and so congealed by the leaves that they
are soareely seen unless purposely looked for. It ts well-known to
botanists that all plants of this order, Zsgfminostif, sleep at night, that
is, their leaves elose op and hang down or droop, and some, like the
present oos, are affeoted by sudden aba ages in the weather. The
leavesof this tree, and their pinnee, or larger divisions, have peouHar
swollen stalks of a soft fleaihle nature at their bases, and droop
down quite suddenly when evening comes on, and even when the
■an is suddenly obscured, and some people in Ooloinbo call it
sleeping tree'* in cobsequenoo of this extreme sensitiveuess.
We are not sure as to the quality of its timber, but as a fast growing
tree predooing large quantities of firewood, strongly teoommend it,
FUisoolobtum ditlee is now a well-known tree in Colombo,
and the avenue forming a perfect arch overhead growing along the
aides of Bkianer's*toad8 north and south from the Maradena-road to
Korteboom-stieet, planted about eleven years ago. is very much
admired, and strangers visiting Colombo are very much struck with it.
Br. Bennett, the Australian naturaliit, when lately in Colombo, said It
was one of the most pleasant sights he had seen about oat town.
This plint flowsfe and fraita very freely in Colombo, and the
yenug' i^nts from the dispersed seeds come up in thouiands under
the parent treesi The pulp saxrouudiog the seeds le ec eweet that
erows snd various other birds ate seen eonstautly feeding on
them, and even jour Colombo chUdren bave discovered that the
•peouie name of this tree. ** dales,is not meaningleie, la Colombo
this tree is oalled the Madras fenee, plant,** ** Madras thorn,'* and in
Mn^aibttieiiatlYeioaUit karkapul^t When on a visit to Madras in
1840, ime writer of thli was so strnok with the beautiful hawthorn.Uke
tenosslorined iiriitthathelntrodaceds^Bof it, and of the fadto s
of which ha had several large plants growing at
his reildsnee at Mirtlavral under the fmprossion tlmu, that the Madras
fenoe plant wee new to tha island, bat we bellete that Mr. Shand had
introdttoed tte and beautiful fences of thsm close to
Waoiirim Bme inwag snbsequsntly discovered
that aA old ^ or ^s pl^ waa fljU fiiowinai at Kew PoSid in
Opl 0 «nbo„>nd rngi Hktk intf^nM 6oiS ^mepart of India by Mr.
llooa,aiQeMraIHa|«»aiBMr|^ Tflin oflo, so that not
___been long before 1849 suppllwl
1 seeds or entriogs from the old solitary tree at Ksw Feint, This
also is one of tho fastest growlhfl trees introduced into Oeyloiii and
when properly cared (or and trhnmisdfi^ makes the most effbetive md
bandsoms fenoes in the Island. Some large flue trees grow in tlm
Hecket Court and (close to tbs Ooloasbo <mtehcri, but the tree i*
now so common and so useful that we quote the lottowUig notice of ft
and eome other spscies, from Mauudev^ Treasury of BoMby” t—^
F, dufee, a largeirec, native of the hot regions of Mealco, pvoduoea
cylindrical irregularly swollen pods curled at the top, ocntalmiiga
sweet odihle pulp, which the Meaioaus, who ooU the tree Onannchil,
boil and eat. The Speniards iolrodnc^ U into the Phllllpplna lUlai^,
from whenoe It has been carried to India ; and it it now planted along
the lines of railway in the Madras Preeideney, where the froit Is known
as Maottla Tamarluda Other speoies. su^ as F*. eainan iu Braap
and Vonesuela, also yield eatable pods, whi<m are given to oattlo like
the carob pods of Europe. Those of P, eyetoearpam poseiss saponaoeone
pTOpQTtiee and are used as soap lu Oaraooas, as also U the bark o('
JP. or an allied speoies, in Ooohin*Chiua \ while the bark
of P, unguis-oaii is astringent.
The P, bigminuvt referred to above was collected In Ceylon by
Fan! Hermann In 1600-67, and described In the Flora SSfOylanlca of
Linueus, No. 218, p. 97,1 as a Mimosa* Beiides this one* which Is
commoo enough near Colombo, tfis ** Euumcratio Plant, Esy).'*
oontains i*. yminatum, P. %mhcllaium, and P* rateeWaesww, the last
being a new epeoies described by Dr. Thwaltes. ^
Inferring to the gardens at Kew Point, we quote the foDewIng from
Colonel OampbeH's ‘‘EsoiirelonB, Seo.,** in Ceylon, written, we believe, in
duguat 1819, a short time after the Colonel’s arrival in Colombo
If we taka a morning’s walk, which is seldom, it ie usually iu the
botanical gardens, which Uavo been lately much improved by Mr..,
Moon, the superintendent, under the aosplces of Lady Brownrigg, and
now contain mauy rare and beautiful trees, ehrubs, and flowers,
collected throughout the interior, whore several new and splendid
speoimens have been toand. The different walks being also taetefully
laid out and neatly kept, these gardens did fair to surpass those at tbo
Cape of Good Hope ; and their situation, being all but an Island in
the lake, tenders them in this reapeet very superior on C^rsnw.
CATTLE FOODS.
W E tako tho following table from tho Comh'y QmtlmatCi
Mayasiitu. It will be of value to tho observant oattle-
breedor. Tho table is compiled by rtofessor J. P. SUeldou.
CmslUamU (f caltU’footU,
1
(
1878. 1
Albumi-
uoule.
Btarch,
BTigaj,
gttm, vzo.
Pftt.
Manuriid
value per
ton in
Bhiuinge.
hiafloed cake
28*8
41*8
10*0
70
Dceortioaied coltou oako ...
41*0
.57.0
1(]5
UadccoTUcatod „ .
2i*0
40 9
—
68
Bonn meal
25*5
45*5
20
«2
Foa „
22-4
62*il
• 2*5
62
Bye „
IFO
69-2
20
SO
ItiCO ,, M»
6-9
77-0
M.
25
Palm nut meal ...
34*0
78-0
mm
28
^Hieat bran .»•
14*0
5T)*0
88
65
120
60-9
6*0
28
Barley •••
9*5
66*6
25
26
Malt
1 9*0
76*0
26
Malt coombe
26*0
60*0
To
71
Alniko clover in bloBaoms ...
15*3
20*3
8.3
2
White ,f •••
14*9
84*3
3*6
2
lied „ •••
i 18.4
89‘9
3*2
2
liuoenic •••
14 4
22-5
2*5
2
Common Meadow Uay
82
41*8
20
16
Peavtraw
65
85*3
20
K
Oat It •••
2’.5
88*8
3*0
8
Barley „ ...
3*0
32*7
1*4
B
Wheat „ M.
2*0
80*2
1*6
8
Potatoes
2*0
fil-0
0*8
7
Carrotii ...
1.5
7*0
0*2
4
Turuipa •••
1*1
5*1
0*1
4
Mangels
20
8*0
6
Too UtUo attention is paid to this subject, and while we food
out cattle usually on gram or dhall, there are many artlcleB cheaper
and much better, we have found a horse thrive wonderfully on
one seer o£ cotton seed oako being Bubstituted for one-and-a*bal£
seers oCgram. _
A -NEW FODDER-YIELDING THEE FOB INDIA.
A t page 72 of the mrml of t^s Society of Arte Uv Deoember
20th, 1878, in the notice of the report ot the Calcutta Botauio
Garden, a reference Is made to the introduction into the garden of
a South Amerioan lieo, known as CaUcattdra tamn. Besides its
iniroduotion into the Calcutta Garden, the prospect ofits general
cultivation in India as a fodder-yielding tree has Boon brought
before the Agricultural and Uortioultural Society of India, ajid
seeds obt«lned| some' Of which have been tranaferrod lo the
Society’s gmden, and tho remainder dietribnted among tho
mwalim* A yejirii on the tree has also been obtained from tho
270
. XHi AGRIC 0 liT!TMST,
«u}>«^tttend^^ of tho Botanic Oardoai} Jamaicfti Irons tlio
IoQowiqi^ oarBimUri arc gi^tUared ;^Tlie tm. rn&m icc bo
pcj^uloily vnown In Jamaica aa the ** ^nanj^Oi^' and in cm oE tbo
inoatmo^dioeatloaturoa in tbo existing Jamaica Flora, It is
oaptmatu to bave been ongiufdly brought from the ^morioan
ififtiiiland Oftoeed by Bpauidh cattlo, and has now become thorotighly
nainraliasod tti all tlio dry rogiona. It ie doacHUed oa a lofty ttoe,
in general habit miicU roeetnbltng the EnglifiU oak, The trunk
la thick; gonoralJy eliort and branched a fow feet from (he ground,
Tiio pi'iirary branch divieione are often (ree-Hke in eit^ei meaenriog
nhm to twelve feet in oironmforenqe at the baec, Tiie lower
Uonchea apread hor*^.oatallyy and the upper are oroo^ epveadiog,
giving tho tree a flatHah dorae^ehaped appearmioe. IVeea are
unfreqaetiMy eeveuty feet high, the diameter of whoeo brauoh
expaneioii horiaoutally is over £10 feet.
The shade which this tree ailorde, ia of a light lifesome
oharaotor, with gleams of sunlight stealiog through and ilittiug
about ai» the brauobos wave with the broexo, This qiiaractorietic,
ooupled>iih the fact, which is of equal importaiico to healtiiy
vegetatioo, U^at the leaver and loaunts rigidly oloue together at
»lghf| thus Admitting the ft*eQ descent of the dew to the ground,
together w*th its equat*}ike brooding habit, foim its firat great
value as a p-Astiiro tree. It is without doubt tUo finest pasturo
Ireo on the isiaud. Grass grows freely within iho ovorshudowing
of its ample arms, close up to its truuk. On this account alone it
should be planted in pastures wherever it will thrive as a grateful
shade for cattle. Beyond ibis i« the important consideration of
its being a fodder-yielding plant itself, and this In an important
degree, wth for quantity ami quality of the yield. Tlie fruit,
when lipo, fa a bright dark brown pod, eix to ton inches long,
barely an inch wide, and a quarter of an inch thick, the subsiance
of tho pod consisting of a sugary amber-coloured pulp. Tbeso
pods are borne in groat profusion, and hang, before arriving at
maturity, dangling lu clusters from every brancUlol. As they
ripen, they drop to the ground, and are picked up and oaten with
much relish by all stock, even theep and goats. Cuttle may be
seen lingering About the trees, waiting for the passing broeae to
shako tho fruit down. Its oxoollent quality as a fodder is ovidout
by its fattening cfToot. Stock having access to it improve
markedly during the time it is in season. From the sugary nature
of the pod, it will keep good a long time, packed after maturity.
It is therefore often gathered, packed in barrels, and kept for use
till the dry early spring season has parched up tiie grass, and
mflwle liornage ecaim The tree thrives best lu d y, hot plains,
having a small or moderate annual rainfall. It is truo very largo
trees are occasionally found iu wet districts, but they lack tho
conspicuouHly healthful aud lualuriantbiauoh dev*)]opmeiit of trees
on the plain. They are also much less fruitful, and the fruit is
less plump and nmcilaginousin substance. Hot plains, haviuR nn
annual rainfallof from 30 to 60 iuchoH, appear best adapted for its
successful growth, biko many other plarus, too, there is |)o
doubt that a maiitime iuliuouco is poi'liculaily favourable to its
Aaguiit 1 ,
liasrl|iutgta«iaad the ¥r|il sf ^ tk*v Ibnttkf
fftreuiul bad Ahiw roots OiruitdiirsMlf ysits
soquiekiy tbatiu twoyems^ius tWSB^Ktf^ qf grpUlid
wi^i^ and suudlngihred to feat M high ;fli« wholu yoar Mud l
gst my SQpptf 'ol fodder lor etthJsd o^itle Iroia t|»k' pfoee
and they prefer U to the loqal r|gasg|Miw («t stfawif leliUigit &a,39
per 1,000 small bttudlea H fsa gtsvogviug]^ - fbOre b one very
drawback to its epreadiog^ lor thO wOihesi tela eff dafjly Ip In this
Rraca, had to pass throagb the eoiSse pt i|«isrsiOsitiotlMy did iti
In waking shert outs, to flaiah Ihsif aouiraots early, grift from eopldsob
small pieces or joints faUea oa ths gtosud have tglHWf SoO^ud
yearly there must be gaugsot oooiw employedfl
out of the ground, tebeDroughtuplo armsfulcm^tbi'iitfti^wksy^
heaps are mtwle and then bnrirb Oaitip are feud of this grant and
stray eatile belcnglug to the Coergs have Irequeutly ip b« poomleft
‘ ‘ Btt away, os thsy"%sattTae!»dtoitgi»a«yauhs»byaiaiattor
aovejopuieni.
The tree is a very rapid grower, and, if it were oxtonaivoly
oultiyotod, the pods would, no doubt, becoiuo largely used i'o''
feeding oattle. As a nhado tree, along loadaidos or opon places of
lesurt, it has special rocoinmendatious, and no doubt will be larg'dy
planted as it becomes more known.^jS’ocief;!/ vf ArU
LIBERIAN COFFEE ANO FOLDER FOR CATTLE.
(ifb </w AJtftfr " Madrai SC^ndard,*')
MisROAia, 4ih July.
A 8 much as the clnchoua is provio^ to be an undoubted sucofES in
Ooors, BO 18 the Liberian ooft^e as oowpletea failure,
Ithtts boeu tixpQiuneuteil on in many wa;s At elevatious from 3,500
dowu (0 3,200 feet from ItuporleU at:edUuge brought from other parts
of liidiBtauvl aUo dlm;l from iSuglaud ltd Mangalore; It has bceu
tried to rear the plants (Lctaiehes from berry and parchment seeds
brought direct fiom Africa, t'td Londou, and by parcel post to India.
Two speuLoien plants growings rich loamy soli. w«U protected from
wind and ralu. are only IS inches high, with two sets of primaric.) ;
whereas the common orori^^inal coffee, with similar advantages, would
now be ftaadtug ovei > feet in height, ready for topping and with a
sprinkling of blossom o berries oa them.
l!>oi» out of o quant^y of Ltberlaa ooifee seed tliat I pUuted in
duly 1877,only one secdtlug appeared which died during the last year's
monsoon.
Agutu hi July 18Td, 1 piauted out the Liberian jotTue ssod in berry, L*.,
with the outer husk cu. ^vbeu only 5 p^'T imul. came «hoVq ground,
They have now got two pairs of icavea. and nra more or Isbs five Inches
high. As se / Hum orange tti s wjU nover b<>;i{'fru<t in jUngland. having
firet to if' grafied to make them bear of some scIouh from a fruitful tree;
it seems pCAdibie that th^ iiiberiau coifee esfedliog aie In a degrso Aimilat
lu Coorg and will not rep^y culti vatHin.
Som,'foots of the Prickly Comfrey (brought fmm ICcgland) were
planted out in Msroara m the beginning of U78. Tb<>y grow'wuU and
quickly on very poof soil (au old lice field) but «tr«r!.. ios'oyi neither
horses nor cfst tie oould be mUdo to eat it, when bruu^ ,' ,> and placed
tu their stalls, fivoti httufiry, Istu oattlo, giftulng (.u lua exhuusted
siglPl have repeatedly asked sbaoLU of ihsee men to itSsM an armful
away, and plant it iu soma of their many ravines dr swampa, hat
I heir old coaservatiim Is still very strong; they say-^^Buffag the
rains there is plenty of gra>'i everywhere, and .10 the ftiy sSiMOlt we
hare our straw." Hares are partieularly fond of tftauriUiis frass, and*
1 think one oanso of Its spreading where no trolfto ft. is owjng to these
little animals nlbbUog at the roots of it, so that (he stalks will fail,
that they may get at the luooaleatdops, and theu dragging the items
little by little further aud further away, whero It again takes rout.
Wild aniinals, sambur and jungle Sheep, also ooms into tho estates
occasioually to feed on it.
Guinea grass oti the other hand thrives well on ridges and other
barren parts, aud it grows in hanohes or oluslori. These Oan bP sub. -
divldot like riee seedlings, and aeres of laud oau as quiokty be plonted
with It, as ouo man giving the ground one sharp blow with a fnamii*,
and followed by a woman oarfying the grass, plant portions of it as
they gb along, and Is sufiloient for the foots to take hold, Ou the
faue of steep cutting, (his grass is of great utility, in preventing the
soils from farther slipping or washing away. Oattle thrive equally
well upon this grass; and only require but half the quantity,
HAY.
fTIBK much that has beeu said and written about tho value of
early-cut hay has unquostiouably had its inllueoce upon the
practice of many, if not of all farmers. Tho oorrent of opinion
has been chaugod, and Ihoro are few who do not now hold, at
least in theory, that carly-out hay is host, though some yet doubt
its being, ou tho wholo, tho most profiUble.
But no groat stop iu advance can be taken in regard to a single
maltwr without its being revealed that many other things must bo
made to keep stop with it, in order that the expected benefit may
be fully realized. Tho mowing macUinos called for smooth fields.
, The importation of improved domestic animals uooessitated better
housing, feeding and care. The now methods of setting milk for
cream cannot yield their full advantage without more care in
mtlbltig and iu making butter. And so it is with regard to tho
©ally cutting of hay : before it can bo put iu practice with tho
suroty of roapiiig>U its advantages, we must abandon some old ideas,
aud take m somo new ones. We must cease to look upon
the grass crop as a free gift of nature, and begin to regard it as a
cultivated crop ;one not to be stolon from the ground after a
full yield of grain, but to bo made a primary object in our
culture tho same as ooru or potatoes.
The proper complement and oonclusion of tho theory of early
cutting m-o that we must have two, and sometimes three, fall
crops of grass from the same laud in one season. We can only
get them by manuring aud seeding for them. It is of no use
to talk of early cutting and two crops upon laud in such poor heart
that the ©ally tiuick-growing grasses, like Juno-grftss and
tuebara-grasH, cannot make a crop on it, whor© timothy, weak and
i cattewng, does not get strength to head out before the middle of
Mily. On such land we must wait for the grass to ** thicken ^
I o, 01 ^ we shall nob be able to see it after the machtoe has passed
c voi the field,
Therearefarmers who say that Juoo-grastf is worth nothing for
hny , and we have seen farmers cutting it at the rate of two tons
to the acre the first week in Juuo* It would be a good thing to
bri. -; these two kindsof farmers together in a farmers* oIub,^and
havo tlm latter tell the fotmsi? how it was done. Orchard-grass
and clover will usually be fit to out about June 12, and iH im i$
dry oh the ground may bo grown ou it, if one knows haw.
Directy ftdjmuiiig such a Crop, with only a board ^oe
between, ou laud equally good by nature, we have keen iSout
was of no use to talk to the owner of that field about earl/outiini^
for there was nothing there to cut early. ^ **
In the good old times, before mowing machiues, teddeis tod
horse rakes, It would have been cruelty to talk about two or tfireo
hayings dh one kumwer. But now .that the handling of grass is
redueedto to wnalitoitem, there is no dignity about ii? if we
can raise the grass. ^ Can we do it? Is it «aU huifibup* to talk
about carrying a . of 25 cows enthefeedof afiO-aorefarm ?
We kuoir a piaclifral dmrymaa who hoops that number on 20
1,1879.
TBCE JmW AGfltlCULTUlilST.
nt^ftslorinit ihom. lira
al Um$ t/a iialittaff hi^t yat wtU not.
;oigr iMt^ 1 ^^ to th^ io BUm «ft«na
T«|4 raptor anon^Jto.mi^ko
60 A(»«i4W^r;^ Aj^,£* W vom onl3^»ati}E0 a tfeudy
OK tbo ,1^ ifrtUKt^e tBonore to do it. iuji4 ndOwledjge atm
2^0 UttiSifiit thw araotoA all or halC tbo lioold xOAttoroofbis
atables^wS jlvanwkebayattlieratoof toot tono to the aero.
Nor will bo do ilby tbo tumal routioo of ooedltig tlibotby and
clotor gralji. An old colored brofcb($r was onoo oboorTed
fishing 6om tbo long bridge at Washington, and throwing over-
bbn'd OToiTl^inghetoOkoteo^t tbo bulbhoads, or what they
call eat Mi. On being asked why bo threw back tlio bass and
othor fijSb ho, ^fma t <* Well, you soo, boss, when 1 goesa^
oaUlng/l goes a^oatiSngL*’ Wo nonet be inspired with this old
inan^i molhod, a little tnbrointolligontly applied, if we want to
be eminently enooessfnl growers of grass, ulie Objootire poison
all dairy, and etookfannashonld be grass, and every prooesPof
the farm ahonidhave the grass crop in view above everything
else. When we have learned howto grow four tons of hay in two
or throe onttidgn, we shall all be *‘eariy cutters.’’ and late cuttem
loo. On moist meadows we shall still grow single crops of
timothy. rsd*top and fowhmeadow grass ; on all arable upland
we ehali loam the value of rye-hay, ost-hay and Hungarian, as
well as of clover and of fodder corn properly grown for forage;
while on our permanent mowings we shall learn what «T»ne-grass
natoratly or by art, where two heavy crops of timothy may be cut {
every season. It is just as true that we go over too mucu ground
for our grass, as that we do the same for other o.rops. Bui the
change in either case is not so easily made. We do not exactly
believe What we read about it; wo have too few visible uxatnples
foronr ciioouragementand instruolicfn. Yet wo ought to perse-
veringiy experiment in this direction. Those of us, ospeoially, who
are pemree ^ small fanners” with our ton to fifty oores a piece, must
try to learn how these things are done, and surprise our big
neighbours with our big barns filled with big crops ftoin small
areas of giound.—iJural Nm yother.
TEE TRADE OP BOMBAY.
I N Messrs. James Maokintesh and Co’s annual Freight Circular
for the year ending doth J^ne last, will be found mnoh interesting
information, of value both tomerohautt and to ship-owners ooncemod
in the export trade ot this port, X<ast year when notiolng a similar
etatsment made up to 30th June 1S7S. we hov^i to remark upon a
falling off In the prinoipal artioles of export. This year's return,
we are sorry to say, paints a still blacker picture. (Jetton ship¬
ments have dwindled down as follows
Great Britain. Oontinent. Totals.
Ifi75 ... B43J12 Bales. 404,111 Bales. 1,30d.S23 Bales.
1870 ...376,170 „ 420,078 „ U»«,2JiS „
1877 424,016 405.303 „ 010,413 „
1878 ...297,170 416.US „ 712,322 „
1870 ... 290,663 „ 866.096 „ 646,649 „
the total for this year it will thus bo obserred is less than that
of last year by 66,073 bales. In 1875 the shipments reached
1,306.823 bales, so that in fire years our oottou tralo ha^ decreased
50 per cent, that decrease is doubtless due In some measure to the
reduced prices ruling for the staple daring the past four years, but
the main oanie of the failing off is to Iro found in the adverse
seasons we have bad. Nor must the influence of exohsuge on
exports be lost sight of. In 1876 the silver scare depressed the rupee
to the lowest point ever reached, and as a ueoeesarr ooBsequeuco the
volume of o«r exports was largely inoreased. This prcsldeney for
the last three years has in many districts had to contend with
^ drought and famine, bat after making every aUowanee for tlisse
W misfoctimes, the falllng-off in the produoilott of cottou, and oonse-
auentiV.itttbe trade of the port, merits very aorious attentiou, It
may tw suggested that a larger Quantity of the staple is consumed
by the' toeai mills, but that will not apply to the present season,
seeing that so many of these undertakings are closed through
bankruptcy, and we doubt, therefore, ff lOore than 25,000 bales were
oonsum^ tobally during the year nnd^r notice than in 1875.
irwetnrntcthe other leading articles of export, we meet with'
similar nnsattsfaetcry tesalts. I<iAs«ed showa afatilneoff of 652,840
owli. as compared with lait fleasoo. For i» 1876 the exports of
linseed'were 2,537,228 ,owts„ and this year only 609,929 owta.
Uanaeeed Usa shows a decrease of 108,270 ewts., as egalust the same
nerfSd In 1878i In gloh^ly ihere is an iuereasa of UB,66fi owU.,
and also tn castor seeds of 70,310 owta The trade In wheat seems
to havemWppcf^ aitegetfaer, as will he eeeu from tire last five
years '
m®. -.
1676, .4.^ ... ... — ”
, . 1877 . ^
1876 - 4** *** - ' **• 20,924 „
The other item of. myr«!bolkh8s bUpb o de^m ot 98,545 cwli„
61 compared wlt^ the same peti^lnd678< HMe belpg the priaoipal
articles of hulk fn whloh .the ocQat|.i^rryUig trade |s fntemted, ate
the only ones dealt with in thd either sonder noiioe; but the figures
shown are snfileieiit to demonitikm, the sad decliue that has taken
8 lace ia the ex|mrt trade ot this f^ft fiiiwing the past year. BodbtleSS
m season was an exeepilonaify bad but the failing off vkthlo
if so serious as to merit the oareftil oCnjUdaration of both t^vernment
and the commercial eommunlty, to who^ notice we reoommend
Messrs. Mackintosh' and 0(>,'s compllktloh'^ In the msauitlme we
can only hope that we have seen the last Of Unfavourable monsoons
and unseasonable ^Sombajf 0aze$t0,
SOME PACTS ABOUT TASMA5IA.
• , -
T his Colonkl secretary ot Tnamauia has been good suougli to furaisli
us with the Statistical Hsport on that Colony for the year 1877. The
report, oompfied by Mr, K. C. Nowoll, (lovemmsat StoLlsticisn, haasomc
interest for Anglo-Indians, a number of whom are either already Settled la
the eolony, or < >ntompiate retiring thither hereafter with tUo modest
pension ^ aeivable from the Indian Government. The popnUtiou of tho
island on (he 31st Decsmiior 187? was 107,104, having inoreased during the
year by about Ij per cent. There are but few .6|laigtauts attfaotod to this
colony just now, the number iatroduced undw the ** Bounty'* system in
1&77 being only 7. Then many yonug Tasmanians who cannot got employ¬
ment in their own colony reck their fortunes in the other oolonAs. Those
oanses combined have tended to check that rapid growth of population in
’ Tasmania which may bo observed in some of the neighbouring colonlea. Tim
welfare of the present population, however, seems to be steadily improving,
and its consuming power, as exhibited in tbo import returns, has iuoreased
from i8-3-G4 per head in 1869, to 813.3*11 H in 1877, The artiol^ In whioU
the largest increase has oecurred were spirits, wine, tea, sugar, cocoa,
chocolate and tobacco, Ihe total value of imports was 431,808,871; and of
exports £1.416,975. Wool is the ohiof evport, over 8,1990,000 lbs,, valued at
some £623,000, having been sent from the eolony m 1877% Tm now rairks
second in the list of products, the value of the export in 1877 being nearly
£300,000. As the export trade in this article only began in 1873, it is
I onticipaied that Jhere w»ll bo n large trade m the future. It is tbOnght
ako that iron will probably l>eoomo one of the chief sources of wealth to
this Colony.” Fruit occupies the third position in (ho list of exports. The
trade in preserved fruits has doubled in the fast ten yearn, the exports now
1 caching 3^ millions oflbs., vaiued at £160,009, Bestdee preserved fruits,
the colony exported in 1877 some J50,(tl>a busliels of green fruits. The
devetopmeut of the fniit trade iu Tasmania is pmhnps the most prootieal
iilnatniUou we can have of the superiority of Us climate. It ia only sineo
1870 that gold appears among Uio exports. Thovo seems no doubt that
quurtxi'nuiuug will pay as well m Tasmania as it does on the Anatcalian
continent, and the fact that over £j|i0,000 worth oC gold was exported in
, JH7(t, ottd ab^)nt £27,000 worth in 1877, would show that goU«Tniaiag is
boiog Btoudiiy pursued as a colonial indastry. A rich alluvial go\d>field
was tliBCvivefod at Brandy Creek, on the liver Tamar, from wbicli some
£26,O0U wortli of gold was obtained, 'i'ho numbor of ** miners^ rights
issued In tho roar was rmw 1,500, and 1,000 men were engaged iu gold-
mining pursuits* The mining oommissiouer remarks; ** 8ince the opening
of tho year, the discovery of gold has been reported to me at tlie toUowing
places ; nojghboathood of Pieman’s river, Woae coostj Kivee Cam, North-
WoBi coast; viointiy of bhofiield, Blvor Mersey; Mount Oamaron in the
North-Kast district, and Port Cygnet in the Souih. Little has yet boeu
done at any of these places to test the value or the discoveries, but it is
woi'thy of notice that the existence of gold has been discovered almost
simultaneously at extreme ends of Ihe island, and in every dircetjou, 1
have every reason to boliove the ensning summer will witness more extensive
prospecting operations thmi wc have yet seen iu the colony.”
The infiuence of most of onr cbaritablo inatitations is, to my lutud,
calcnlalod to foster or eucouii.ge u paoporieing spirit to an extent which
even tends to the corrupting of the indnatrione and frugal partione of tlie
commnnity. fu .making this remark Ido hot for ft moment undervalue the
necessity for thcee Institutions, or tlic benevolence which has called them
£orth,—nor do 1 wish to see Uicm admmiuistered in a niggardly spiriti which
would he a discredit to the Qovornment,—nor do I forget that in ft new
conutry, where the populofloa is so nomadic, and where the risk of
nocidental incapacity is greater than m older and more setUed oonntrios,
there naturally falls to he a larger proportion of workers liable to become
helpless and thns burdonsomo to the 8tato: but iliesc inatitutioni should
not be regarded beforehand as secure and attractive havens fur the sensual
and amprovidont who have earned no right to such provision f nor should
they be made mooha by which persons who wish to avoid parental obligations,
or the claims of cDusangumity can shift their burdens on to tlio skouldera
of ihe public. As regards the former ahnie» some degree of work (however
light It may he in chatactei) should be apportioned to each inmate when
practicable, for the denhlep irposo of preventing idleneii and of Initilfiog a
feeling that ha ia ^otng eemeUdng towaids eolf-maintenanoe i whUe m
rege^ds the lalter, prompt leatoh after, and paolshment of all who desert
those legally dependent on them should ho miMlo the rule,,,,, To
intemperttoco, aelf-indelgiliioei and selI-aegleot| may in large measure b
traeeil the sonrees wheneO flow the Btrenlns ot our pauperism.”
Xu contrast to those veAutik* about panporlsm, it is interosting to note
that depositors in Bevin^ Miks are steedtly luerooslng, and numbored
over 12,0^0,' With oggwgating ove* £300,000, or averaging about
£20 pet head., with above ilOO awmbered 949 t irfth from £36
16*67
17*69
23*10
20*17
22*74
28-88
8*49
S'34
1*18
1*21
1014
131 a
on these figutes
''If tUorofore less
< ^,««« iBMMgta “ «W«‘ JMMWHti*.'' !«A i»**«f** .
** TMtiiHutfl* *84 oUMf ttoattttieAt** dov^lS tilMi foax* ^Ska Uii^ #r 0
MIU i^flf ««to»4eA» S7d mm <A fisgta wlr« llutt ttiviitg hm. Util In Wt7^
tJb* i4msf mM ore? 100 *fl 0 » pmaap^^ or »wim^ifoqtW to*h«
iir)ie9«|»^iUoaoft}i$coloii?. ^ «
^ MeJiniitfiiiettim ot BngtUb M in Tittmaniii hiie been oowoteUilf
mteeeeiftil,’ The Salmon and Tmi 39reeding SMUilmaeot^/ we nr^
to^ **iimir]y |ieid Ita oim azpeiuni^ £ 2 (^U hoTtn^ during
fiibi)igUoluieiajid 0 Ale<d!offtt'* Aretarn ollbe dletcibntioa
oTovnWfry fromUie breeding Fends on the ilver FUnty ehoirs that
£00 iilittotttiottt ora, aed 6460 I} brown trout ova, were sent to Victoria, and
S'^dOO brown tront ova to Kew South Walea, while over 8,000 brown trout
irf wera distributed in t|j?^^rarioBS rivers in Tasman iik By ail aooounts
very fUr fishing is now to be bad in some of the Tasmanian rivers*
The demand for Ciowa Lands is inoroasing# and iite ^rice of land near
towns is improving. The avotsgo price of oouutry land in 1877 was
£L6*4i per sere, end of town land g6*8-4i per acre. Up to the ond of 1877
there bad been a little over 4,000,000 acres of land alienated, leaving about
13| million aores as the property of the State. The islands adjacent and
belonging to Tasmania have been taken up a good deal of late years for
pastoml potposes, and three-quarters of a million acres in those islands were
rented from the Qovermnent in the year 1877. The totel rental of Crown
Lands is X877 amounted to only £7.0(is« being at the rale of ISi. per 100
acres. Luring the same year there wore granted to individuals under
'^immigration oertificatoi*' 814 acres, ogainst 440 acres in 1870. Thero seems
to be a tendency among the Tasmanian farmers to give up agrionltare proper
in favor of slook-keeplngt the area under wheat, barley and oats cuUiva
tiou showing a decieaso. The same tendency is observable in Great Britain,
where the aoreago under wheat was 19 per coat, less in 1870 than in 1809.
i-lcoroity of labour, and the high prioe of meat have brought about this
etato of things at home* "The scarcity or iudiiXercnt; quality of labour
is one of the principal diflicalties oxpetienoed by the Tasmanian farmer;
the second eauie operates here also, aHhongh not in so groat a degree as in
the United Kingdom.*' The following figures, showing the average yield per
acro» during the last ten years, of some of the principalorojie, are suggestive
of steady improvement in agrionlturo
First, Sneond,
Qutnqumn%um, Qiungusnmuni,
Wheat, bushelH
liarley, bnuhole
Oats, bushels
Potatoes, tons
Hay, tons
Hops, lbs.
The Statistical OiScei
ground baa boon oropped,U has at least been bettor ouUivated, and ih..
use of machinery in toming operations seems to be more nppreoiated«-tho
oereage of wheat reaped by machine in the past year having been roturnod
at 20,000 against 8,496in 1878-7, or more than three times us much.’' The
use of machinery for ihrming purposes is every where lurgely increasing.
Jn some districts a good deal of under-ground drainage is being carried on ;
In other parts open drains are out, 18 foot wide by 6 feet deep. ‘Mo every
instance where drainage to carried pn, tlia laud can carry double the comple¬
ment Ot stocks" The retams of live-stock in the island show about 2.0a0,0{10
iheepi 127,0!}0 horned cattle, 22,000 horses, 56,000 pigs, and 2,000 goats.
A general improvement to reported in the breed of stock.
The Statistical OlUcer oalls prominent attention to the increased mortality
otiate from diseases like tyrdiold and diphtheria, and declares that the
whole quesUon of public health in towns requites to be vigorously aitaoked*
The Health Offioere consider that these diseases have been produced by the
poUntionof water, and that stringent meaeuves are required for preserving
the original purity of the rivers. The Btattotical Odioer suggests that
jTf tft l trb Odicera should be appointed chruughottt the settled dtstricta, whose
duty it would be, whenever any epidemic or prevenuble disesso should
appeal^ to investigate the oguses, and call upon the local authorities to
apply the proper rei*f^dy. On their failing to do so, tho Goverament
would defray Uie eicpor^ditaie In tho first iustanos, recouping itself after¬
wards by dednoting t|ie ovpenditnre from any moneys payable to the district
from the Tmeadry, The death-rate in 1877 was 19‘19 par 100(h whoteas the
average rate between 1860 nod 1878 Was only ll'O? per. 1000, The birth-
into, on the other hand, was 80'21 pet lOQO, Tho marriage rate was 7*83
pet 1000 ,** the highest for many yeers}” while there were three petitions
for dissolution of marriage through the Livoree Ooutt.
In ooncluiiouthe Btatlstioat Oflloer remake «-*-
<* A review of these statistics as a whole, shows that during the past year
the prospering o£ the colony was iantossing. The valne of its mineral
productions was muoh greater; soatoo WM the quantity of wool. The imports
and erports, and the shipping employed, were larger in amonnt, the revenns
more hnoyant, wages and prices were iiigher« the number of i|uiperi and
orimiaatotoiheCtoveznmtoteatoldtolm^ wu smalWr^ tite||i|4tai inthe
habke tMs a6omhit4»gi the Grown landi tm atdd in nfid
eotossodi^, ww^, msy'W nr,
' , -' ■ Nm I ii i 'fj ' i ;j i C . .
W K haw y$oeiy«4l(h0 tw#^ ; 3ria«)
Sopp J j diBsoointion fof the l^pxsayemeh^ ftf
in Ireland Irom whloh ve eeirar^ A&f
othefe*eftmiiif|es, The nbroago wndet ftax ia Iifeiiisi4 Jift; jr^w, was
111,^ acres, being 11,572 sores, loss tbati ihl^tTp
in the area was caused by a deHelenoy In the of seed—-
more would boon sown hm seed been available, Thfi imports of
seed were 192,654 buehdis* The l^ga seed til imported in barrels,
of bushels, and sotd at 45s. per barrel $ tiie Dut^ ift hogsheads
of 7 bushels at 95s. per hogshead i the" Kagltoh was sold
at 85s. per quarter. All the prices were in advance of the previous
year. The average yield of Bax per acre In 1878 was 8M5
stones of 141 bs. per acre.
In tho fbhewiug summary the most recent acreage is given,
and the estimate of production In tho various European Bax-
produoidg countries is based, where praotioable, upon Overage
yields, and whore no data exists a moderate yield is assnmod
Austria
Belginm
Denmark
Kgjpt
France
Germany
Orecue
Great Brltaiii
Hnngaiy
Holland
Italy
Ireland
Statute
Acres.
Btonei.
Tons.
Bweden
161,200 JoehB,^or 383,204 at 21*48 per aero 81*802
67,U45 Heoter«,tor 140,901 „ 88-69
17,886 20’00
15,000 „ 30'00
78,774 HoolarC8.t or 104,571 84*04
214,885 „ 530.842 „ 28*50
067 20*00
7,261 81* 16
17,527 dooli8,« or 24.868 ,. 30*00
20.472 Hectares,t or 50,564 „ 81*77
61.866
Journal of Science,
301,028 16*14
111,808 „ 81*15
1,928,668 „ 20*00
87,500 „ 20*00
8,40^538
466,959
FABMIEG IN SCOTLAND.
F B weeks past the gossip ourrent at the weekly markets throughout the
Lothians and elsewhere haj, for the most part, had leterenoe to events
of very unpleasant significauco to fanners. While this to to be regrettedj
thete arc, however, not wanting signs to indioato that agHoaitaciati are
beginning to profit by the lesaons the lossoa of recent years have taught
them. Tho sequestration of a tenant after a few soasoos’ ocenpanoy is, no
doubt, an apparent misfortune ; but when it to found that the lease now
cut short was begun with capital ridiotdoasly insuffiolent—not one-half of
what ought to have bcea in bonds—little sympathy need be expressed for
ilm man who has thrown away hto own few hundreds, along with many
other hundreds belonging to other people. Then iu the land market the
former ioflation is disappearing ; offerers, instead of loshing into reckless'
competition, are rather vying with one another in caution.
In rent roducbion, two most notable arrangements have recently been
made—the one in i^t-Lothian and the other in Perthshire. In the former
disttict, the farm to one for whloh £1,400 was refnsed several yeare ago,
owing, it was understood, to tho keen desire of the proprietor for game
preservation $ and now it has been lot at £900, with tho further concession
of A year’s rent-free oooupanoy to start with. The Pertbihire report to
equally eigoifioant, as in that oise the rent has fallea £400 on one of the ||
’ ery belt farms in the Caise of Gowrie, and the in-going tenant has alio the >
irofflise that in four yean twenty aoree will be added to hto holding
vrithout any increase of rental—a condition which makes the fall equa) to
al'out40 percent. When terms of this kind have been secured, it to, of
ecu: h, not to be thought that the new leases can imply unreasonable risk
to the tenants. But, on the other band, there are many iqpientooriito whoi
in view, as they point out, of the unatable character of the oirenmitences
sarronading..theto profession, have declined to bind tihemeelvea' to nineteen
yean* tenure* Whether or not they are wrong to departitig fitom the
prevailing syetemi need not to the meentima be discussed. On a property
to Perthsbiie—oneoftbebest mwged to the ooontiy—two farms have
been let with no leases, but onfibe andeistaading that ntooj months* notice
to quit be given on either aide, with compensation (or nnextomsted improve¬
ments, at rente 164 and 164 par cent, below those pmioaalj paid^ Then
again, to Fifeihire, where a large number of holdings.are at preaentin the
market, sevend of them without attracting the sUgheit aqUos, a aiaiilar
practice baa been adopted. One farm, tor exam^e, near Tlmton,lMa
been retUteh by 5ha F^^^aent oecnpant at a wdnetioa of jgito tot (t.Hx ysam*
__
___ji^iii^'ii^'iii«Fi^'(l::'<^^ M «ataM%
«jj«i^.'')M8r’*n'«uta|UMt m m
^0 )i«)p witQ
m0m»^ ild|l|>iffioidtor«, it* mif (|«oU*
^«tiji<ii|tiM |l » w ko ittd irwclilikg ot «T«fiK«-
iMImUi in »v«Kiji* It i»u« to t|M ftar #l|Mt It is trortli-
i|Vkl Mi^lil«|ii s|nist<i^»Ui oMK«A ii» qseittoii^ diking His
oiat sf, s'$iP0M<i i!i|is sH^tsdii. i»7i ^ His mi4^ sC
^ psysble ia » leu’s Ume
HmiI^ W ftnf( W ^ fOiUiMISiit ^4t3t0 of ospttsli jipportloned thus f««
14 liotMs# ^th bsvnsfs* esrtSi plongluti 4io.
*J 1 iNfiltiaff tnasbiBSt iMmi implsmsats* Ao.
llsttiiits-«'|MSd to oatgstag tsnanfc ^.i
lliuiars> sesd, liboavi ttsdeiiaeQ*i scoounts, dc. ...
C4 ssttie hi Ootobsrr to put on tmuipo, st
Beapiug msoliinoB, tutaip sod lisj*cuttsrsi cake and
oofs-brulisrs .,• ,*« ...
Ks^nired foi edgoaciss
150
100
1.9Q0
7B0
100
SOO
i:4.S09 0 0
la m uaniosUy saiisAiotoTr y«ar, with all the oropa goodi tbe iacome and
oKpSaditare ia this fSrm, takhig tiie prioee as indiealed by the fiars for the
last eight y§9X9t eicluding 1872 and 1877| would bo t—
PhODUC*.
60 acres gross, at £7
••1
£350
0
0
50 acres oat 8-*6 qrs, at £t-9s..0({.
...
443 10
0
40 acres wheat*5t qrs. at £2*1 Is.
600 10
0
CO acres barley —64 qrs. at £l-19s. ...
...
760 10
0
50 acres potatoes, at £82 ...
1,100
0
0
50 acres tunups, at £8 ...
...
490
0
0
F<^gage
.k*
50
0
0
Total produce
...
£8,663 10 '
0
Exi'ENDITUIta.
800 aeiea rent, at £ 8 - 126 .
• 1 .
£780
0
0
Interest, 5 per oent. on capital
...
215
0
0
HemuneraUou for management (exclusive of value of
house)
...
200
0
0
60 tores gr«s seeds, at 16s. per aero ...
40
0
0
60 acres oats seeds, at 14s. ...
...
85
0
0
40 seres wheat seeds, at £l
...
40
0
0
60 seres barley seeds, at X5s. ...
48
0
0
50 acres potatoes, at £8
150
0
0
60 oores tuniips, at 85 . ...
M.
7 10
0
Keep of 10 horses, at 18s, per woel^
888
0
0
8 men, at £46 ... ^
•M
858
0
0
8 workers, at 9s, week, for 44 weeks
158
8
0
Extra l;Jaourers ...
...
60
0
0
^rveiting ... ...
...
70
0
0
Manure for hay, at 16s, per Acm
40
0
0
Manure for oats, at £ 1 -Ss* per acre
...
63 10
0
Manure fox wheat, at £1 ... ...
...
40
0
0
Manure for potatoes, al £8.10s, per acre
...
175
0
0
Manure for kurnipSi at £8«I0S« per acre
...
175
0
0
Tradesmen’s ooeoints ...
XUUways and maikcting expenses, and coal
for
45
9
0
engine „* *,■ ...
...
80
0
0
Depreoiation of horses and implements
«ia
30
0
0
Texes Mk
ess
80
0
0
Gig and boy ...
...
50
0
0
£3,984
3
0
Surplus flff profit •**
£430
0
0
^is ia oot nnudii but if our authoThy may be trnetadi it is too much. He
puts it that the profit tihua elated is on the beat yee 7 s» and he aaya that even
In a fSit average year the balanes oi aurfdua profit would bo almost
nowhere; for if* In plaoa of the white mope rechonel upon, there be
li-
50 laerae oati* 5 at fi8i« .«<
iO smes whsis* 5 q,ff > at 4is»
00 ooiii hiriey« 0> at 56i.
d035o
440
600
laaU ... £1,480 0 0
IteiaomnsiefediMOdiQllieqx^ o| £I4«« Of ooexae if the prieee be
am at^l 0« vneviU dtiiv^. OMling tith U72 ua u;7.
50 aorse>ptitoe«at4l
50 osisi Iwnhpe at fis ^
Foggage^ ,
lOipeuditato on farm, tnelodiug remufierotioa for
mansgewent ^ ... uk
P^uot produes t** Ml **• .••
Defioieney ... ...
Paonbtn oy 1877,
50 aerea grasi at JG7
50 scree oOta, 5| qra. at . 8 !»l 0 a. r*
40 Bcras wheat, 2| qra. at £2^/iiM .m '
60 acres barley, 8 qra. at £M5a-9(f ...
50 oerea potatooa at £L0
50 ooroB turnips at £C‘10r. ...
h'eggege
»k £5,384 0 0
... 5,184 0 0
... £1,070 0 0
£850 0
415 0
^ 288 1$
Sip 10
500 0
385 0
50 0
Totpl
Expenditure
Deduct crop
£3.185 18 4
£8,284 0 0
2,189 U 0
£l,045™li™0
Deficiency ...
Everybody must wonder when they sco figures like these how fanners
contrive to live. But tho peaiimiata have more to say. They jofertotho
results alleged to be obtained by farmers in LlnUtbgowahire, where ihe
ay stem of husbandry ia quito difibreht from that lu East->Dothian—the
rotation there being the five in place of the six ablfU On somo forma in
Ibis diatrict two years’ gross ia taken, on others ahoy crop is raised instead{
but OB there is almoit no monetary dilSerenco in tho returns, preftfrence may
be given to hay in order to simplify the figures. On a good SOO aom fhrin
in this county, then, employing only tho very moderate capital of £$,000,
the produce in a good year as estimated, like the other, by on agriculturist
of practical experience, is
75 acres hay at £8 j(; 80 o o
75 acres oats at £7 526 0'
75 oorea bwley (or wheal) at £il-8s, ... 835 0
50 acres turnips, £3 ... 40 O 0
25 acres potatoes, £25 „. ... C25 0
Foggago ... ... lop 0
’Total
ExranBiTUBie,
lleni, £2-8s.
futerest on capita), 5 per cent.,.
Bemunerotion for mauagemout (cxolndiug value of
house) ...
Seeds*white crops
Turnips ... ...
Potatoes H. ... ...
Horses, 4^ pairs ...
74 men ... ...
Outfrorkei'B ... ...
Outworkers, turnips
Harvesting
Biannres, top<drcssing
„ turnips and potatoes
Bmith, Wright, and saddler ...
Taxes ...
Oig ... ...
Depreoiation, ...
Marketing
£9,100 0 V
£730 0
150 0
£150 0
172 10
12 10
G6 10
257 8
m 10
100 4
25 0
75 0
822 10
800 0
50 0
25 0
50 0
80 0
25 0
. Total Frodaoo
Expenditure
Balance of Brofit ... ...
For 1872 and 1877 the figures are
Faoouca of 1872,
75 acres bay at.£6
75 acres oats at £4 ...
76 acrei barley at £5»8f. ...
50 acres tumips at £6
26'ame$potAtoetat£ll .i. M«
£2,030 8 0
£8,106 0 0
2,980 0 0
£176 0 0
£450 0 0
800 0 0
406 0 0
SCO 0 0
m 0 0
1)0 0 0
£1,656 0 i
!D6dfiet«r6)» ,m
Deflotimijy ^
75iu}r«ilfft7Ai£0 •4*
7fi atitw oats At ;07
7fi amn l»Arl«j At
00 A<ttAt taTnii»g At £6
26 Aor«« potatMl At £6
FoggAgA
CxpeodUnte
Dedaet orop
Peod«cb of tS77»
; m,m « ?,
, 0 «
411,17« ^ 0
. £400 0 «
070 0 0
10 $ 0 0
« 4A0 0 0
200 0 0
100 0 0
£2,080 0 0
£7>830 0 0
3.080 0 0
l)e0(dAnAy ,«• ... ... £850 0 0
^lieAA figiuroA ArA girin bAOAAAA tbi^ T$prmni the oacw whicli soma Umen
'danro to pat forwiuril; bat Hint ihey uAder*ra.tA the proflti of good yoargg
AU0 probably al«o ozaggerato the loseea of bad yeara, oasnot be doubted,
ttttleae iarmera on notbing. and talie pteoBare in throwing away their
oapitiU.
Eow tbo Aonditiona Attending agrionlture vary, neoeseitatiog the
freguent teecniideraUon by tha fanner of the clronmstancei aitoohing to
hie poeiUos* !• Sadioated very atrlhingly by the eUtulios ehowing the
growth of the in^ort trade in foreign cattle and grata within recent years.
Between the yean 1868 and 1B7B, the developmeul ol every branch of this
trade was very great, as those figures show
1888. 1878.
Live oatUo, sheep, and pigs, ... £3,698,196 £6.012,564
Corn, grain, and fiottr ^ 89,482,624 03,686,3.^2
Bead meat, bacon, cheese, provisions... 13,377,083 30,ill,Pl3
£66,408,803 £99,692,699
Then, again, the nnmher of live stock brought aotoss from the United
Btates and Canada into the X7nM Kitigdoji was as follows
1877.
1878.
locrcBse.
Cattle ...
.« 19,187
86,089
(^,492
'Sheep
.M 33,395
84,016
00*681
Tigs **» M*
810
17,936
17,130
Total
... 43,892
88,690
1354198
Th6ra.ii in these figures material for serious consideration by farmers
though there ui nothing to create disooutagoment* Mre»h adaptatiou of
means to end will no doubt be as nooessary lu fanning as iu other
businesses; but that agrioulture will recover from its temporary
depression, and be even more prosperous in the future than it has beoa m
the past, need not be doubted.—Fcotirman.
CATTLE DISEASE IN THE PUNJAB.
O WlliilQ to the outbreak of cattle diseaee In many parts of the Pai»jab,
a set of rules for its treatment, and a memo, of the symptoms
of the two kinds of oatlie disease, rinderpest, Uka or %amal, and
foot and mouth disease, drawn up by Veterinary Burgeon
Queripel. have been oixoulated In English and Vecnaoular, for general
Information. In order to ensure speedy notice of tho appearance of
catt • disease being given to the Deputy Commissioner, a reward of
Be. 6 is offered to the person who first brings the intelligence; and a
piece of gronud outside the village, where the case appears it to be
at once set apart and alt aSeoted animats sent there and one or more
men acoordiug to the number of diseased animals employed solely to
tend them. On the death of an animal lolloring from disease, the carcase
Is to be buried at a depth of four feet, the hide having been previously
so ont as to be' valueless. The treatment ot rinderpest reeom*
mended is a mixtare of gtuel, ohirettn and country wine, when the
animal is in a weak state, and swfico gruel, instrad of water, asmnoh
as Itoan begot to drink, la or foot and month diveara,
the mouth should be :ed with weak vinegar and water j or when
nioera have formed dresse<^ wiiii aluiki lotion; the f^et being kept
perfeotiy dry, and any p^eseut, dresesd with powdered alum. A
mixture of 8 oz Ifipsoin salt, 2 oa. nitre and a pint of grnal abonid be
given when the animal is first seen to be snlCerlug, In both diseases
•orupulous civaiiliuera Is requited.
The symptoms ot rindetpssl are described as follows i^^Horns and
extremities at times hot, at otbsr cold ; signs of wesaness and fatfgoo j
ears drooping, shivering, great tblrsi, suspension of ruminaMoh OosS
of appetite, discharge from the eyes and tiostriiu. This stage la followed
by diantiosa, the fccoes being much mixed with mucus, and times with
blood ; when the animal thus stfeeted soon dies, the time between
the ootbraidB of the disesse and the death of the auimai is about ilx
deyi. Tbs virae of this disease is ot the most subtle kind, and
may be oommuaioaied by actnal oontraot, or be oarried by the ab. so
that tilt grantest care la nsosisary to prevent contagion.
The stymntMs of foot and month disease vary from mMllo
plaiao (rlftdfrpMi), (tid«n m$jf rogognlaable. The teto
Sain tW«sqal,foh»i}o
firm notlcidf to be bdti aiHt
of ernptfon nppoira la vationkpormbf fbtfomi; ,/ ^ , i >
The loot of the eatilit of a village b^Mep^ fo.le tNehoNiM
to all iflrronndlog vlllageii, and 0vm ettMv^ov jinm[e fo pvdVeol urn.
epread of the disease t while anp pem^ tutlmnili;^ ^ yblehtia^
pteeantlons fa liable fo prosecnitfon foirAmitifo Tebhl
THE VINE. ^ ..
TT baa been eatimitted (bat the State of Oilifoiida
J-acree of land adA|ited to the grotrtb of the vliie,lmt tHat fomihan
60,000 of thin vaet area are ae yet ptabted. The (trerhge nn;inW
of vines set ont per acre ia aboot 900, wbiob gWoe ad at^a^
yield of 100 gallone of wine and 120 of brandy when (b i^U
bearing. The progreesivo adyanoe of the ipdoetry ie ebiown by
the foot that Ibe nnmber of gallone made in 1869 wag 100*000; in
1869, 600,000; in 1872, 3,000^0; ta 1876, 7,000,000; fo 1878,
io,ooo,ooa
THE WBATHEB, THE OBOPB AND THE BUNIAHS*
T^HATEVEB theorists mky have to «ay upon the infleende
V ? of forests npon rainfall, and the decrease in moistwre whioh
follows upon a country being denuded of its standing timber, the
steady downpour which Northern India has had for days back ai^d
continues to have, would eeem to indicate that other causes
opr late to produce yesi-s of sesnt rainfall in* tropiosl countries.
Be that AS it may, the rain ere are now having is almost as unpre-
cedenfod as the drought of a couple of yeare ago, and there seems
apoasibiUty of our yet having too mticb of a very good thing.
The cuUlvatohs, neverthelees, are not just yet particularly loud in
their complaints of a present surplas of moistnre for the land, as
they hope for a break in the course of a few days now* and if such
ehould be the case, all will be well with our agriculturists. In
the meanwhile grain continuea to rise in value, and the dtmfo/ij
explain the hardening of the market as dise to the fact that they
are unable, owing to the rainfall, to get their supplies in from the
country. Of averity, these harpies are never lacking an exonso
for playing docks and drakes with the sparse fnnds of the poorer
classes of the popnlation, and it is lUtlo wonder that the people
ehould look back with fond regret to the days when Luoknow
had such a city magistrate as Chamberlain to cheek the rapacity
of these wcre^wolves of the city, and who aUowed no patty
politioo-oooiiomlc ideas about Free Trade in grain to be put
forward as pleas for impoverishing the working classes. There
iH a neMssity for a well-ordered nerricb for the city quite ns touch
as for the cantonment * and if it is found requisite to fli the
prices of grain, &o., in the Suddor Basaar, assuredly it la eunallw
necessary to uiipose some limit upon the oxtortionsof the nrain
dealers who have their haunts in our crowded native town
commend the subject to the attention of our Municipal
authontiea.*—Tims*
METEOEOLOQY IN THE N.-W. P.
of the most marked oUaroctetUttos of Indian meteorology ia ebe
^ regularity with which the rain's commence and end. At Bombay In
j Ibrec roars'osit of font the monsoon rains begin on the 4tb or 6th of Xne.
Inland the legSlarity is less pronounoed, jot in the North-West the uolfonn
seqoen.4> of the eoasons is very striking. The winter taint begin about the
! 22 ud of Dooomber bi tha sorth-wsstarty districts and a day or two latar in
the soath.oa8lsni. The odds are exactly even^ that in any given year thesa
rains WiU h^gin betvceu the 39th December and the end of the month.
The mean of the eomwenoement of the monsoon raitie Is from the Uth to
the 16th of June ; the extreme range being from the 80th llw in
Eoruckpore, to the 9th ef July lafiareiily; the ntemi of tholr clam to in
digereni districts, from the 37tb of Beptember to the Aid of Oetober, *
The causes of these periodica) misagea am now pretty thoronehlv
undemiood. At the end Qeiober and throughout Novemhsiv the
pliers all over Northern India* » very nearly a oondltionof jHa tHtiti
eqailibrinm * calms or light v^nds prevail in November and^Z
are alight ^i|y fittotuaiions Of foe barometrio 4lde. InBicemberTa
wind-velooity and the bammetrio oscuiatioiis inereaee r fow^
end of foe month foe barometer falle for aevsxal eufokTwiS!
set iu over foe Oaogebc valleyi, oloudi W anr^Tuka
geneirBByinfoaPni^iib.nnd then m an eastward diroetion at as
th^moiiturahtenkhi op by foe sooth^igest concni^
4 lr«ctl«t t»
^ <iite piftoe, rl(a^t fpUoii^ l>y
^^ii4 filioWiaiit pp
t^tviOIfgr
of iqtieoiu «viq^,:,oviii|| to ihe pfVTAloQt tow
tf 4r«jpfov«d by Uii,£iot U^tlAlKw^attiM>*the gr^
^MtMWon^Mptibeiallbicli, odtlOBt «to&tb it JontiRty.
Mr; Hill eoniiders tlutt tito ouMy itlndl »(; tbit UtiiA pnvaleot in the
Otogttio yalley Mt 4tt« to tbt ittmh t pdr^oa of tbe upptr eqa otorial
onrrtnt^ ip n jrtgioii tocitli of ibo Oiu^ftt, fbe tnbeoqQent progxosa
vo^tbwnrA of ^ onnont it Mritted by ttie Himalayot, sn MoentoioiMl
AiiiioMiyorntttibtiintiitlf^ tad A|^l* hot notthwwetterly ^ndt
blow Wltb iporot^ vtlooity dotm tho tbtley of the Oltagtt, teaehins thtb^
ipitnlyonm a|««ngt|hin tbo honki of the nftemoooi end dytng away at
tontet* The barometer fallt generatly* moot of all la the ^Jab and
Bajpootamit till at M the nntttnal phenomenoo it pretented of wind
blowing firom a region lower to one of higher prettore. As tho period for i
the motttooBidrawtAeari 4 remarkable efaaage in the barometrio pretture
all over the eontinent takes place. During the winter the pretture ie
greatest in the Ponlab and deoreatoa uniformly eonthward towards the i
equator. Oaring the approach of the hot weather, the pressure deertasea
more rapidly on land than at sea. There is oonseqiiently in April a ridge
ofhigh ptesftire etmtebing across tho Bay of Bengal and the soathern
portione of the Peniniola. As the eeatoa adranees, this high ridge moves
rapidly southward f at but about the middle of May, the area of high
pretture retieata from the oontre of the Bay towards the equator, and there
it then an uniform klope of pressure, in other words, a bario gradient,
extending from the tropio of Paprieom to the Bimalayas, This sets in
motion towards southern Asia a broad deep enrrent of atmosphere, which,
blowing over a large area of warm tea, reacbei India, highly ehargod with
moisture, and becomes the sontb-west monsoon. One portiou strikes the
western ghats, and iForces its way up the valleys of the Taptee and
Kerbnddah; another strikes Barmab and streams up the Bay of Bengal,
and as it reaches the north is deflected partly by the valley of tho
Qangee and partly by the mountains, until, iutbo Funjab^ It sometimes
appears as a nonh.ea8t wind. All important as this current is to Upper
India, it is nevertheless a more minor oddy of the great south-westerly
carrenti and is, aocordingly, Mr. UUl observes, especially liable to be
disturbed by sm41, and apparently, quits insignificant variations of
barometrio pressure* A uf high pressure extendi ug (from Oooiorat to
Orissa was, it ie now behoved, the immediate cense of the disastrous
monsoon of 1677;
The rains begin in Oeylon, the extreme south of India and Burmah, in I
the last weeh of May. They advance rapidly along the coast, roaehing
Bombay the first, and Calcutta the second week in Jouo; inland their
commencement depends on the rate at which the dry atmosphere becomes
suiliclently saturated to allow of precipitation, Uaiu then continues at
fi-equeut intervals Ull the retreat of the sun southward, in the autumnal
equinox, produces a rapid lowering of tho temperature, and a weakening
of the monsoon current wliiob dies away gradually towards the end of
Bepbember. By the middle of Ootoher the rains have coased, the sky is
clear, and the season of calm winds and auiform pressure has again come
round.
As to the sud'Bipot and cyclical theory of monsoons. Mr. uilloonsidcrs
that as regards Upper India no distinct ridation between sau-spots and the
summer monsoon oan be traced; but that there is evidence of some counection
between sun-spot and the winter raius. these ruins being heaviest a year or
two before the sun*spot minimum. The natural explanation of this would
be, that in years of minimum sun.spots the heat ie greatest, the oonsequeut
evaporation oxeessive, and that the water thus evapo^-ated is carried
northward, and falls during the winter months. Why the some result is not
produoed on the Madras mousooo, our present knowledge does not enable ns
to say. It is evident at any rate, that tho roinlall of \ippor India is
governed by laws altogether independent of sun-spots ; if the four great
droughts^ two, those namely of 1808-4 and 1877-8 ooourred in years of
minimnm iun.fpotsi the other two, those of 1887-8 and W60-1 in
maximum years. Mr. Eliot has pointed out that the atmosphere and rain-
tall of the N.-W.P. are in all probability more dependent on the amount of
the Himalayan suow4epoait than on any other and remoter oaase,«*.-C'tct‘2
tmd MilHary ^ ^ j
AaBl-HOETIOULTUBAL SOCIETY OF INDIA. j
T he naoal Mootbly General Meeting was held on Friday, the 2nb !
of Jane 1870. -
lUjah Bnttyanntt4 Dahadoor, Vice Fmldent, in tbs C|mlr.
The prooeedlags of |ba laid meeting were xea4 and confirmed.
The f oBotf ing gegilemea were elected members
Oept^n ,A.^H7aQaGo^i^>B4P«Tiiiterideal Ooversment Hortlcbltnral
Girdea, ; Midiagef of t^e Awa Utate, Agra distrlet} Messrs.
A. B. tt. #ebki and Hi liyu \ B, Thomson, and Dr. A, B,
Daif(s4ntt. , .'I ^
The ahmeiol the |0llb#Bm goiiUimoft mtbmitied lor membe^
H. F. BoMiton, Big** ClilmitHa ,«*propomd hf We^ H. Deltob
soerntded byMr, H,Bieehy»d|g;
G.B* Ateigb-Mai^ay, 1^;, Bflnelpal Besldenoy GoRe^r Bioofe,*—
proposed by the Beorem^, seem^ by Hr. W. Waterfield.
Mr. Barabjt Dadabhoy Fatell, Miltow,-*-pfopo8ed by the Beeretaryt
seconded by Dr. S, Dynob.
Alfred 0, Brett, Bsq., as^ d'eS 8 Or 0 ,«*«*prbpooed by the FreSident,
seconded by Mr. B. H« Bobiosonj
•1. B. Wbotman, Esq^ Clnnamam Tea Garden, dorSbaat,"•proposed
by Mr. St. George A.^howtra, seconded by the Seoretary.
J. 0, GriefiE, Esq., lUiiikbet,"-prop osed by tha Seoretary. seoonded
by Mr. J. Caldwell,
i;ilent.>*Ool. A. B. Campbell, Deputy Oommlislonert
Sibsaugor, Assam, and W, G. Conroy. B^., Calcutta.
The following gentlemen were proposed, on the recommendation of
the Oonncil, as Honorary Members *>
Dleut,-General Sir A.P. Fbayraa.HM.o.f ilc.sj. ; o.B. ; and Baron
Ferdinand von MUeller, o.ir.G., HJ>.; ,rB,D.| y.ma.. Government
Botanist for Vlotoria. ^
GOHTfilBUlHOKSl.
Seed and seedlings of 641. of Oaioarina, and llavenali."-From
Superintendent, Boyal Botanlo Garden, Calcutta*
A farther supply of seeds of timber, and other troos from the
Andiinana-"From Mr. E. H. Man* •
Seed of aoclimatiaed Balsam and Beana 2ogurian8,<-"From Mr, W. G,
Amos,
COimUniOATXOIilB on VABIOUS fiUBJBCTS.
The following papers and letters were si^mitted
I. From 0. H. Brookes, Esq.,—Notes on Tea*plantlng In the
Andamans, aooompanlod by specimens of tea maoufactared (herefrom,
with report thereon by Messrs, W. Moran A Go.
2. From the Seoretary,—Further Notes on Bamta oottou, with
B]i>eoimeD from bis garden; and report thereon bp Messrs. W, Haworth
A Co, •
8, From J. E. O’Oonor. Esq,.—A Note regarding Manilla hemp,
with speoimeua raised on the Andamans and at Tytori i and report
thereon by Mr. John Stalkartt. '
4. From J. E. O'Oouor, Esq..—A Paper on the ouUlration of tho
Ground-nut in ludUi.
The above four paper', were translerred for publication in (he journal,
fi. From 0. F. Fiuney, Esq., submitting (or report and valuation
a rpeeixuen of an indigenous tea. Messrs. Moran report, ** that this
lea appears to have been made from a peouliar variety of the lea
plant, but from auy samples we have seen at present, wo should think
that it would not find favour in the Dondon markei, 1*116 liquor is
not only very pale in colour, but is without tho flavour and rich
etreugtb of tho usual article of eommeroo, As regards tho appearanoo
of tho leaf, the Up is entirely diEorent from auythiug yet produoed,
and speaking of this tea generally, we have no means of saying how it
is likely to be received by oouaumers**'
The Seoretary remarked that he had requested Mr, Finnoy to send
loavee of the plant from which this spooimeo has been manafactured
with the view of identifyiug It.
G. From G. F. Flouey, Esq., specimen of a blight Which Is new to
him.—(Beferrod to Mr. Moore of the ludiau Museum).
7. From G. F. Mewburu. Esq., details of the result of manure oo a
toa gatdeu.—(Trausfetrod for Journal with other papers on same
subjeol),
8. From Captaiu J. F. Pogsou, regarding a pumpkin of enormous
growth and weight.—» Tho information alluded to In my previous
letter,'* observes Captain Fogson," ie now given mote In detail. 1
white and largo, very like the Oaliforuian pumpkin seed you sent me in
1871 at Kassowlee, only they are larger. 1 hope my trial will be a
•uooeas, and if so, the very largest pumpkin wiU be reserved for yon.'*
The following is extraot of the Bov. Mr. Carleton's letter to the
Bev. Wi Hebseh, Eotegurh
** 1 send iqnasb seeda They come from Ohili, South Amerioa, and on
the Faoifio Coast { they are of 250 pounds weight, In a dry oUnmtQ
will go down 8 feet deep, and as big as a man's arm,’*
^3 D‘»e‘w.,PeB.rtmwt 01 AgtkmUaw, &o.,
H.-W. PfOTlBMi.iprtiUa to, owtaln ki^ ol AowricD nkiiaauitabla
(orooolerlatttudea
10, FromJ, B. O'd^r, Esq.tGoyenimentof India, Department of
Agrlpultnjet hpldylng Ihr Egyptian cotfton and aoclimatised Bussian
flax se^ lor iftat ta ^e Arakan HIU Traeta
^rotary itil^ fhat steps bad been taken to meet the above
(MmitoatloaSk *
lU Eram Bsetelary, Agrlcnltural and Hortleultural Sooiety. Madras,
and SuguThdMidenf, Botanlo Garden, Houg'Kongf liturning thanks for
idttmitfand prooeedtngs of the Society,
m
THE
'Anfetarti'jilltff.,
MBAStIBISG T^B HEIGHTS OF TUBBS,
T aiNKING it be iwefal to eowe oj yoqr i^ei^em I wod
^00 eeitOj^e i£etah for raewuring tali trwe or other bb|eote.
There ore eevend weye of measurfug trees, but the pku submitted
will enable any one to measure them without damage to the trees*
Take three laths, the same as bricklayers use for tiling, and oaU
them ill the shape of the frame; B b must be of equal length; p aud
a being placed on the ground,
Qroond.
the eye must follow up th%; longer lath (d, d, d) until it is in a
line with 0 , the top oC the tree or object you wish to measuro.
The frame must be placed an level wnh the bottom of the ^ tree ns
possible. Should the ground bo very uneven you must give ana
take aooordiogly. You will see that o to c is the same length as
c to e, and thus the bought of the tree is obtained,—E. Covbnby, m
Journal of Bofiiculture,
THE GARDEN.
TN 1877 there were 13,097 acres of fruit land in Kent,
A according to the Agrkullw'al itetumJ, while in the last year
the Bet urns show that there were only 11,569 acres, or a
onrstlvdi observed/
iton dltowat MiU Higtari, w ^
Wnc tiw iMgigmwM'.la U?# W
tto tfwwiog a a* TOBM
turn thefiw to iush na aHontM to. »Mrwit<P .Jto ywy**
the wnM 2 m»«, wMott l» piotaMr # loo ¥««?
:sa«r.fi!sss a'r'2s»?‘fi^3LS
bttda will Indues vital weakness, and
is oertain to end fn a thin crop | and wo Ajs }•
enee of the present yekr, notwUhiUndmg the iptoadW
appeared to be ooftain to follow sneh a Tale ^ow j*
blosiom. Oenlal weather, if It oomsi eoon. way do ‘^5*.***lSi
fruit that still rewaioi ontreea; but a prolOUiaUou ot the eoId weWM
and Buperabundeot wet whloh we have had'tM soiae timef Will oempiew
the effects of elagnation airsady too evident la toe weakiyi
dropping fruit,
A Fabacsb wanted to borrow a gun from a neighbour to kill eouM
yellow birds in his field of wheat, whieh were eating the gridua
llis neighbour declined to lend the gun for he thought the birds
useful. In order to satisfy hie curiosity he shot one of Diem
opened his oraw, ind found in it two hundmd weevils and four
grains of wheat and these four grains the weovll had burrowed*
This was a most instructive lesson, and worth the Hfe of the poor
bird, valuable as it wa8.-*Jmericaa Paper*
MAQHottA trees succeed well if planted at the same time with
evergreens.
—Water lilies have been known to give as many as aiateen
fiowers from a single root.
—•As the pinks begin to form buds, watch them to prevent their
bursting open at the sides, whioh completely spoils their form.
This is a habit of some of the very best varieties. A light wire
bound around the bundle in the proper place will prevent the
mischief,
—Western people are being fooled again by agents who pretend
to have succeeded iu producing a blue rose. Of course it is a
fraud. Mr. Vick, commenting on the credulity of tho people and
their avidity for, a blue rose, bemarks that ^le species of plants that
give yellow ilowers seldom give blue, a law which is strikiugiy
violate in the case ot the pansy .—American Paper*
f.A FEW BELECT TUBEBOU8 BEGONIAS.
decrease of 1,408 acres. This, says tho AgrieuUural Ornette,
is most remarkable, and it is belioved to bs iucorroot, as tho
tendency has been towards a steady increase in tho acreage
of fruit land in all parts of Kent during the past few years^
and there is not the slightest doubt that there is more land
planted with fruit trees at this present timo than there ever was
before in the county. There must be a groat mistake somewhere,
cither on the port of those who made the returns, or of those, who
compiled them, os every ono who knows what is going on, and
has been going on lately in the agrionltural world of! Kent must
> ' awaro that there has been a groat demand for fruit trees of all
kinds, and that planting has been done in all directions, espeolally
in West Kent, East Kenlf and Hid Kent. All tho other
important fruit-growing counties, viz., Devon, Gloucester,
Uereford, Somerset, and Wcr(‘6ster, have kept their fruit acreage
pretty much the same in 187B as in 1877, and the fiuit acreage of
England was rather largiir in 1878 than iu 1877, or 161,222 acres
in the former, against 159,095 acres in tho latbir year. There has
also been every iuducemont to plant fruit in Kent. Hop cnltiva-
Don has boon most unprofitable of late, and the price obtained for
fiuIt has been fah^ good andltemunerativo upon tlie whole.
HOME FBUIT FBOSPEOTS.
T he season is a late one,—so late that there Is no likelihood ot
frost occartitig to damage the hlossotn or the newly set fruits. The
bloesom has been most abundant, and everywhere ft appears to have
boon oaemptod from any of those sharp, sudden frosts which so
frequently aesail it at the most cruical time, Gohseberriesi it M
true, iu some pmte, particularly In Aytsblre, and iu some
of the northern coanlics^ sufferod complete or very contiderahle
destraction by the frost in May , but other fruits appeared at the time
to suffer DO check whatever, being still m the bud | ^ that there
appeared every greand £<»• hoping that the v r, unwihally rloh
blossoming whi^ followed on apples and peart be suooesded
by a pMhDfiil set of healthy fruit. Buv from have
T his class of begonia is atfractiog a great deal of attention at Um
present timo, and they merit all the attention they get, for they are
without doubt the most beautiful class of summer fiowerlng greenhouse
plants that has been introduced in recent years. They differ from the
older classes of fiowaring begonias in being tuberous rooted. The stems
being merely of annnal growth, end quite berbaoeoue, die down at the
end of the season ; and the tuberous roots He dormant, like these of
the dahlia or pototo, till spring, when growth recommences. They
differ also from the class of ornamental leaved begonias, In being
eeeentialty oroamontal flowered pUrnte; and from both these great
otasses they further differ, in being greenhonso plants—all bet hardy,
indeed—whereas the others require more or less of stove heat j so that
independently of their groat beanty, they are plants vreli adapted to
the wants of those who have only the facilities (hat. a greenhouse
affords for the ouiture of flowering plants. They are extrem^y
;{oriferons; and their flowering period extends from spring or
f^urly imnimer till late aulumu. But in order to have them' in
lerfectionforso long a period, they require most-liberal treatmeati
loctuoately this is easily atteloed, for their wants ore simple in the
oxtrome. A tioh, light soil, abundant in flbre or in partihliy decom*
piteod piannre, used while potUng In the roughest and openest ooaditUm,
anc ury, eo that when eompressed in the palm of the hand U wUl not
become hmd and soiled, but break up into fragments when dropped
upon the potting bench. The soil must not be rammed very hard into
the pote* The roots like an open, very porous soli to ramify in.
Thorough droiuage is essentU) to thsir weihbslng. Wheu growleg
freely, they want ample supplies of water at the roots ; but when they
beglu to deolioe, they must be gradually dried off, by withholdltw
water by degrees till ^e eteme fill away, whieh they nventiudly do,
when they oeaas to get on the footf.
The following are some ol the handsomest of the no w very namecoiii.
varieties in ouUivatioit i—
A Aom—One of the nohlhst and m<»t itriklng, the flowers being
enormously large. They ere salmon red, of a deep tint. The habit of
Ibipluittwlw .11 b* 1# Wgirdt# itud, otepMNiM.
Mil- •i^plUadi. o( (oll^ It ti AUogMbw oim ot tiM *01, twMM
iatmdhiied, < < ^ <
zr. is ot a totidly different type to the lash bOtnf iMore ^
end open fn hhhit, and fees ample and massiire in foHegeo It % howswey
tally inow^fred ia flowiijng, and fho flowers m more l^llHmily
eolotttedi behdt« bright oMmge Itolsh •
I
iBQlfc of tto ot^f
iti floWrUj
tr&feti tWwobEwg' ki tfco &iTOf]l«< Th«
i^ vlth'atfoibot ro«d iMioR; «o<l oomi^Moly obilio
. 1^,,
n
«4 In bAIt, with
Ulw ttia Uit in'tfylt.nd eoIpar,.wnd » moat
, A AilMi.*~A T«(y dMIsot fpestM from wny of lb* procedloK.
Vm bnWt Jp Mw (tiainnd itaMr; ond tto Aowon, wUioh «« prodocad
‘"l:^nWf«t^-tfe‘af.ri?s^o«.botdutto^^ i. bout
Miojt moif imleiia '
JB* *■ ttigOnU fdwwooloiirod wffotyi of orwit Jeaoty
It Ip o|«|tQptt$iti bftIHt) i&fi T«rjr pfofciM io flowwtog.—ifrltlM
(food quftUtios, and itdfar tfifdaW oWoaphona into coifipotitlok in tU®
English maHtet witli daraMly^tni^pktod oiti of
TUo Feninnalt h nearef tfca eiii^ ^ gaegraphiool hgbitot of
tho oliro tr«e tkafttoy pfirt of ^-ftaaoe ; iU growth in* ^palnand
PortogaLia ikereforo more Wtidly* lie prodiwo • uioro regolar* more
abua(Uot. of better quality, and the oil derfred tbewifrom of a
fuller atm richer Oavour. tJnforlunatoly ito vety exMlIenoe u«ui«
it for conisumptiori among people like oureelyea, whoeetaaleinw
boon educated to like the more vapid prepared ojl* of Fraanoo*—
Delhi QaztUe* *
WATERING NEWLY PLANTED TREES.
X>y A BOETXOUI/fUltlST.
(wfoumal of Agriaultuiee.)
A pQppu'ih moti northern flowering plant hitherto colleokil^
PapaVor nudioanle, the beautiful perettoial poppy »b widely die-
^reed in the higber mountaio raogee of Europe and Asia, was the
most northern dowering plant colleoted by the last Arotio
expedition, having been found beyond the eighty-third parallel
of latitude. The same plant ascends to between 17,000 and 18,(K)0
feet In the mountains of Northern India. It mty be added that
flowering plants ascend to a greater elevation in the mountaina of
Noiifliem India than in any other mountain ohain hitherto explored.
Thus many Orueiferaf Caryophyllaoeh^ some HanmcuUcm^ and
members of various other families ocour up to 18,000 feet, and
species of DraH have been found, according io Dr. Goppert, as
high as 19,810 foot. RhododenHron nioerni is the last woody plant
met with, occurring up to 18,000 feet.
iSClADcrtos, GuUivated largely in Idauilla and South^’India as a
h^ge plant and for its fruits, was introduced a few years ago by
Dr. Eooavia at the Lucknow uortioaUural Gardens, and has been
found to auoceed there admirably. Hedgerows have been reared to
the height of several ieofc, and the trees have fruited abundantly.
In the year of scarcity, the pods were eagerly collected by the
poorer classes. A circular letter has lately been issued by the Agri¬
cultural Department N.«W. P., advertising that seed con be obtained
free of cha^e,on applidhtiou to the Qiberiatendent of the Lucknow
Gardens. The seed may be sown In tne place where a hedgerow
or avenue is required. The plant grows very rapidly, and soon
forms a high and ornamental hedge or screen, uptfglit and narrow,
well calcalated for an avenue on a narrow read, or a lofty hedge
iu front of any ground or public building, which may need such
protection. The success of the Ingadulce at Lucknow seems to
justify its further ouUivation and extension in North India, where
any plant which provides food of any kind in a season when
cereals fail, is a great dmderaiim.
A GHOET notice has appeared in a St. PeUrshurg journal, of
my paper on tlie absorption of water by the green parts of
plants; and it appears to have suggested to Mr* G. Weideuborg a
method of striking cuttings. After inferring that the frequent fading
of cuttings before they have struck root may be aooounterl for by a
too great transpiration, he proposes making the cuttings longer
than usual, and burying some of the leaves as well as the stalk, so
that about a third remain above out of the earth. Those leaves iu
the ground may thus undertake the function of absorbtug moisture,
and so help to balance the loss of water from the exposed leaves.
The ground, he adds, in which cuttings stand should be, if possible,
porous, in order that the air may have acoeas, and that the rotting
ot the leaves may be prevented. This process enables the cutting
to make roots Imore the leaves decay. Weidenberg appears to liave
found that roses of all sorts, pinks, and other cuttings of plant
thus make very good roots, which are nsually hard to grow. In
my paper X only alluded to out flowers havin^ leaves attached to
the elalk ‘and ^uhg^ into water, but the principle is the same as
for striking cuttinge, and Jtj is to easy to try, that gardeners cau
rpadlly put it to the test and see II their results will accord with
^eidenneyg's experience,-^GsoBQK Hshslow, in Oard«ner*s
“ ChronMe* .
' SouA observations made by CooSnl Orawfurd In his Oommordal
Reiioit on ^orto with regard to Portogoese oUres are worth atteu-
tkm, ^:^Theee olives phdeed and pioktod when they are ripe (unlike
the elites uM in France, which are green, or those larger and
odereer ones exported from Spain), are a much used, cheap, and
most vslusble #rtiole of food tn Portugal, but are absclately
ihdmown in acooruiog to Mr. Orawfurd,
nnr^tioaftb^ fer mdredelioato In flavour and more digestible
thin the unripe tafle'tles used by us* The wholesale price of the
;Jed ciliy'nm that if^kuown and appreciated in
the olives of all other
ihgttsse olives takes place
,, iwy. While the olive of
oW«trr/u.
itich cere as tq enable the producer bf it to bring its own Inti insic
ipTIroimi npoa^maeh any oiImw jnmntry.
;fiftngal is oouepioneuste^eui^
A n article lately camo under my notice, ^ich I cannot now
And, and sm not sure whether in the Jour?ml ijfJgrieultaro
or not, that would lead the uninitiated astray.
The writer referred to trees not growing yet,'^although the
parties had watered them several times | he goes on to tell the
readers that the roots should have been wet before planting, and
says as much as if this had been doue, they would have lived and
grown, but that the watering since is of no avail.
Now this is horticultural heresy, 1 have planted Irees, dec., for
fifty years from a small number to tens of thensands, in a
siugle Boason. I have but very seldom wet the roots heforo
planting, and the deaths have been veiy few.
In the first place, the trees alluded to may have been handled too
often, and tUo roots been exj^oaod to tooiXluch air. As to watering
trees not doing any good is now to us, butipiere is tho gieatost
diilereuce in how it is done.
I have seen men water a newly set tree when dry weather
followed, that was simply a farce. He might have done ft daily
for a month, and not even dampened the roots. But when we
water, the ground is loosened up as far as the roots extoud 'and then
about five gallons pourod on slowly and allowed to soak In ; then
in half a day after mellow the Surface, and cover with three
inches of mulching. 1 havo not the least doubt but that a dose
like this would even now yet start some of tho trees first alloded
to, unless they carried thoir death warrant with them to the
orchard.
No tree can si art growing unless the ground in which the roots
are, has sufficient moiaiure in it to supply the evaporation that
goes on in tho tree that Is out of ground. One good watering is
worth more than half a dozen trifling ones. For the last two days
our strawberry bed has been in need of Water, and the ordem
given to the boys watering, was to put a can full to eVery equate
yard. Even this is not a full dose, but will revive them for a few
daja When the ground has beoomo very dry it wiH require
almost an equal bulk of water to the earth itself to saturate it
fully to any considerable depth, hence the uselessness of trifling
with this thing of watering.
Bourn writers say let the water stand in tlie sun half a day, and
water in the evening. This watering in the evening is all right,
as it has the night io penetrate the earth and is not subject to
evaporation, as in tliQ day ; but as to cold water hurting plants
that are out of doors, is all fudge. If taken from the well fresh, it
can ho applied to trees or plants at once, and by the time it reaches
the roots it is tempered so as to not chill them.
The strawberry plants delight to have cold water dashed by the
bucket full on them. When liail falls to the depth of an inch, we
have never noticed that plants were injured by the cold water it'
yielded in melting, which is many degrees colder than fresh
spring water.
FOEESTRY.
INDIAN FOnSSTBY.
fpHKlljil fs AO subject at the preMDt tiine more intareetlng lliaa ibis one
J- not oofy in India, bat in all the older countries of the world. Of eoane
in Aostralia and TesmaoU the forests are too Itixarlant, and the first daty
of a farmer is to dear the land, tmleM indeed he takes to grutng, and has
bis horses and oatlle rovmg aboqt amid the trees in the bush. But even in
these new countries some evstsmatto proierration of trees is hegtaning to be
found necessary. The Government of the Vnited States ie how waking up
to the necessity of patting some cheek upon the reckless destruction of
forest, which has been allowed to go on there all over the land Wherever a
settler plants his foot, la the snnaal report of the President, Mr* Schers,
the SecrstSifyofth^latorior, devolee consldefablo space to the necessity of
taking ftipa In tosuFO the preservation ol the forests. He expressee his
Ophto^ that the disastrous consequonoea which always follow the destrnc-
tieu of la, a Muntry will inevitably come upon the people of the
in a jOumpamtively short tlm^ on itcconut cf the rapidity wHh
wMeb the (imbar growth of the coi^ry is being swept away, unless
legislation steps in to arrest this indisorimiaate destraction, Ho strongly
. ■' '^1 \
TH^ INPM; AGBICULf
rmm hi# fi«Qmm«iidaUoo foB thopawiitgofa 8 iU*almajri«Wjtt 0 pa in
€wf«ifafchtafl|«««R<$o«, wM flwali tlMH; ftU timi»« landa. wW^h »r«
eblefl/ valuable for ik» Umber upon them, ebatl be ^UUrAm mk or
cm ether aiteuuUm under eniciing lam» »ndehaU aontinucic H h^ hg
Uc Ufitk « dm to prevent the injudieicuc dictvnfttcii nf iht
md to pmtcet the grou/th qf yomg ^ree#. In Franoo wo Bod (&»(;»
wiUi all ti)o praioe wlueh bai boeo gifOti to the forest iffr-agemmln ot that;
ootttttry, ohd the credit which oho has gob on aeooi|iat of tho ekitl of hor
fotnet oSeere* the supply of wood ii lirettniiit and is altogether
iufniBde&t for even ** the demands ot home ooaeampUon*'' The giving over
of the property to the Orleans family involved a sarronder of 4Se^dL4
heetaree of landi end the troneferenoe of Aleooe and LorraUie to Gormeuy
wee a lose of other 97,0S& heoUrM of forest laud. Btnoe then 10,000
hectares have been bOnghti bat even these do not balance the demmd. it is
a very difflodlt bnsinesi to balance the supply and demanc’ fur wood in those
days of bnUding and railway oonBtract}on« espooielly in a country like Indio,
where wood in, or ought to be, the only fael, unless coal can be discovered
in greater ^nantiilas than it has been ns yet Haugnry seems to be tho
onljf country whore the forests not only supply home couaumption, bat
other oountrios. The activity of tho ooxnmexuo in wood
in Hnngary has necessitated the mnltipUoaUon of the roads, canals, and
even railway traelES, in order to faoilita|o the removal of timber, both for
buildhig and domestic purposes. The forests of Hungary coiupnso twenty-
eight per cent* of the whole territorial area of the kingdom, and the (net)
sum realiand by Government for tlie sale oi the timber is 3,888,977 florins.
This shows Vfbat can be done in the way of developing forests, d.
correspondent ot the Mim dgn'ouZfunst, who seems to have much
experienoe in forestry, thinks that there is little use iu sending young men
to France to learn tho business. The best way is to send the forest offleor
to his work youngi and let him leant by experienoe, the groat general
rale being to keep out flroB and graelng, and Uto young sbulf will be sure
to come np. He Jiys,—At our piesent state of existeaoo, ptaubiag,
■owing, preserving, and sueh like cannot pay, If ilres are kept out os well
as gi'aidng, the forest offleev is a good one; if not, he is bad. Indian
fosbstry of wx time resolves itself iuto this ; of Oiiurse, the foro<it olfloer
has other duties, such as duding the best market for hie timber and
minor produce, collecting hU grazing duos strioily, aud preventing
stealing, but this is all the work of to-day. For posterity our forests are
kept up aud ahould bo managed in sac4 a way as to ensure no reduction in
vaine of the property, aud an increase in value where poselblc. The man
who makes two blades of gross grow where ono grew formerely, is a
benefactor. It the forest officer keeps out Arcs and grazing ho will have
twenty trees where he found only one* This is the act of forestry for this
generation. As to the act being taught in Franco, Scotland, Eaglaud or
elsewhere, 1 ehould eay it will be taught better by RoLtia^ tho mou to work
as youngsters in tlio forests of India. Of course the Forest X^epartment
has its plantations and imported treo gardens, hut if the truth must bo
told, they are only play-grounds of tho senior offloeryi. The woods pradaoed
in India are quite good enough for all purposes of buildiug, and as Slaeperb
for railways, as to malarias and trees that dispel their charms, they are for
the consideration of municipaUtiea ft is advised then that the forest
officer should got bis experienoe in India, that ho should gc to the
ptanthig of flew forests and ^e c<WM^ihjf,'W ijoid'hl®,
seems to'US that floonotakp«'St*hsitt^^tipe"«j(;iJ^^^
sway the nveleMundergrowth which itmflti m
space whore new trees might t»e pleated.
J^eccanllcM, . y ‘
Tag Qovernmeiit of Assam has, profited by
Indian provinces, end for fh« lest fike orflikpftflffl very^
efforts bare bsen made to ooflserve the forests in home ol the ^IstilotA.
and to eofoToe, as regards otberr of 0ie»,«-edi« Slbsigfl^
Bylhet, and the Oaro Hills"*sacb Yongb<^afld«ready ptesianttofli aa'ififly
prevent their wanton spoliation, pending flieAanrei for pMeiei^l
■npervislon. Unfortanatety the staff of Conservators is mttoii imaller,
Iu proportion to the requirements of the province, than is allowed in
the case of most local Governinents, Bnt even with the inadeqnata
means at their disposal, Mr. Mann and bis assistants have added
seventy-two square miles to the reserve area dating .ne year U77-78 t
BO that the total reiervetl enrface ineasnred, fifteen months ago, wav
1,982 square mllea Ffforts have beqn made to aecUmatiae foreign
trees ; two valuable JVaher forests were enotosed, and progress was
made with the onltiration of the li]dia*rabber, In the unreeerved
tracts the work of supervision has been entrusted to the dvU officer^
and the plan see&a to have suoeeeded well. The geherat aeoottftts,
too, show a total surplus revenue of more than thivty-fonr thousand
rupies, though in tho previous year there was a defleit to the eitaflt
of a quarter of that sum. The only apparent drawback to this reiuU
seems to he the fact that the profit has arisen solely from the non-
conserved area. Thie might appear to imply that more attention was
being paid to revenue then to the really ecieutifia work of oonaerva*
Hop; However, it is too soon yet to expect profits from the reserved
areae, A very noteworthy feature of the year’e history has been tha
su^ssful prevention of forest-fires,-^a visitation to which Assam is
Bpeoially liable during the dry weather. And wonderful to tell, the
villagers have iu many instances betrayed an intelligent appreciation
of tho uses of conservancy, and even a readinese to aid the officers in
their work. Imagine any ludian villagers capable of rising to the
height of such elementary principles of oommon prndenoe and common
sense I—4' M. ffaietto.
In Japan as well ns in lodia the forest question is forcing Itself
upon the attention of Government, la rdoent years the denudation
of woods In that country, has bared the bills in the vicinity ..I the
larger towns, with the usual results, The soil has been washed
down from the drainage slopes, aud droughts have become frequent.
We now learo that the Japanese Government have last niopted
tha advice which has been given them by the foreign irnals,
and have inetitated a Bureau of Woods and Forests, wblcb, It U to
be hoped, will take the necessary measures to preveu the wholesal'v
deatmotlon of limber which has previously been allowed to ccntlime
unchecked.
work young, be of a good sound constitution, with a reasonable
amount of the sporting instincts in him, active, aud as much of a gentle¬
man as can be had for the money* His having a taste for botany and
natural history will be an mdnooment to bis going into nooks and
corners, for Iffie same reason liking sport Is a good thing, as it takes
him out at all hours, combining business wUh pleasure, helping to ohrok
iuegnlanilea in lus subordinates, aud making his solitary hfo enjoyable,
1 know* '* he says, that many plooes aud many officers have Buuoeeied in
growing plantatlomi: 1 have tflyseU i but there is so muoh forest to be
proteoted, that they count as next to nothiog, except as experimBUts. aud
1 can Say for nearly certain that those oxpeiimeuts would have simcecded
as well, if some of our deportment bad not been trained on tUe Coutitisnt.
As to finding the best market for produoe,«-lhat the tramed men had to learu !
cut here j as to proteotlng from lire and graalng,—that is only to be done
by sheer hard work, and requires no training better than is got by finding
out lor yourself on the lice Unas what a difficult task it is. Tliero is no
donbt a great deal of common sense in all this, and muoU savh,; might bo
effected by cnrtailiog expense Af the education of fomet officers, wham
the Siati), after this specif' tralRtog in France, are bound to provide for, over
the heads of others who m «>' in reality be more offioiect. It is nob lO this
case, auy more than in the case of Cooper's Hill, that tbs expenses at Home
are so groat, but a certain number of men come out every year, who must
be piovidod with appolntmente: this is the difficulty. Of course the
number wUl require to be vegolatedhy tho demand ; but we hardly see the
use of plantations and gvounde being kept up as play-gl^unda ipf
Home of the officers of the Forest Deparcineut, white others Vrho^ have ndt
been trained in France do all the ml hard woik. What has been
written by an expenoncod forest offiocr ought to meet with attention, caia
being taken at Um same time to avoid taking a one-sided view of so
important a maiter, One writes m great euthusiasvi about the advan^gC
of training cur forest officers in France, that they may Imvs tborcvLifh
knowliBdge of heW to perform •the work of atteudm- ! plm-
tatu>tis afld of and filling up the gape in thu olfij otherSi
like ihe writer we have been notidog, thiulrs the prl^pl^ jyark in
India to be the e^serring pf forests nlfeefiy in Beth the
A oouHESPONDEMT ill ft San Fraiioisoo paper tUiie denoribes a
seotioQ of a big redwood tree iiowon exhibition in that oity. The
section ia 14 feet high and 80 feet iu circtinifereuoe ,* it was out from
a tree 243 feet in height, discovered in Tulare county about 76
miles oaal of Visalia, and wiiich was estimated to be 4,840 yearn
old. The section was sawed from the tree somo 12 feet from Its
base, and afterwards hollowed out, leaving au outer wall three feet
in thickuoss. Tho different parts were then hauled to the rmJroad,
horses being used in so doing. Ibis estimated that the eeCtlou
(’ontaliis 800 cords of wood. This sootion, as it now stauda, foruiahee
-ilaudtug room for 200 persons in the interior. On one aide ot 4i8
inner walls a balcony has been built, a piano and other inatramente
placed ' tberoon, and from which a musical eniertaiumflnt is
g'veu daily. __
TSE TALLEST THEE IK THE WORLD,
possession of tho biggest things intlie world, whflther
animal, vegetable, or mineral, has generally hefln otaftned
Amerioa, but in the matter of trees even tho giants of tlie fomt
to bo met with in California must bide their diminished heads
heCbre eome speciuiena of M^calgptuB recently discovered, in
Qipps)and, Victoria, where the State Hnrveyor of Ferea^ llde^
measured a fallen tree ou iho'^nks of the Watto dver, and foetid
it to be 435 feet from the roots th the top of Uie trunic* The eiest
of this tree was broken oiff, bnt the trank at the fracture was nipe
feet in oiredmfereuee, and the height of the tree wluffi growing
was estimated to ha^’c been more than $00 feet,
howevor, wau dead, though there is no doubt that {|Wfik. IhftiW
thah the taJieflt yayamco, the freht fJalifornfa; ^
Fsrnehaw, in the Dttdflttoug district. Victoria, thefe hai
been > discovered a specimen ox the. * Lw
iamt^wg08OiM^ gUbhhd to
rhehmt^anbn, and450 feet toiopmoatwiflg^ . ' ’ ^
: tHB'MAN'kGRIOtrimiSX; .■.. 279
’gg^>*'7’^l^;m;W|ir Vr-ffirr'i"’ 'WaiKae^^ -ariaaisifcsii^^
Baienlifi^ Atm^iem ft In tlio
Cirfft?flj!^>0ro<^#'«eftr Btookton, r ^'^tomh jVn foot, nnd
tbftre Ift; M otid^nco t. . nny of tUi9 jj^onus
exceed4)d *t|iiii lueight, m that tl^o ftbovo voferrod to
wofUd the talleat Uv'tncr S^^uo^a by I3v*» feet. Tbo girth
of the lenxterUgirou ftt only 60feet, whioh is loss than that of
but ua far as lieight la oencorned it inuat be
GOUflaerea the talleat living tree in the world.
MINEi^ALvaY.
COAL IN INDIA.
ihelfliiti ‘ '' .ttlio ‘ Kecoidf, of the Qeogrflpliioal Survey
of India, ia A paper by Mr. T. W, II. liugUos on the
atatistioa ol U importation, from wiiicU it appearw that the
annual eonaumption of fuel for eoa^goliig and wai* steamenj, rail*
ways, lAOtoiiee, and other piirpoaea baa willnu the laet vour or two
grown to »oraetbln§ between 000 and l,000,00?> lone, of which
About onediaU la foreign cofti. IVL*. nughearemaii^e that, howovor
inutih thia latter fact may be regretted by those interested in tbo
dmlopmeiit of Indian coal hold tl'nro la small cliaTtce of a
diminution in luo ordinary rate of importation until the native
product is iighLene,- to some extent of the heavy bun . of charges
imposed by land carriage and freights. The three principal coal¬
mining districts—Raneoguiijo, Karharbari,ai)d the "'ardha Valley—
are so situated (hat by the time it lenclies a poriHor Bhipment the
item of railway transport alone has trobltfU and quadrnpled tbo
priino cost of the coal ; and this utterly prohibits tbo'ftale of tbe
Wftrora (Wftrdha Valley) coal within two hundred miles of
llomhay. In 1853 the shipmouis of coal and coko to India were
43yi6:2 tons. A quarter of a century has ohipaed, aud now they
reach 000,735 tons. The rate of increase Iiah not been steady ;
aud wars, and rumours of wars, famines, and improved homo
fieighU have .always exorciHod. an inegnlar indnonco. Tbe main
Hupply ^ foreign coftUiAs idLhort... boe> derived from tbo TJaited
Kill I jie ccntiibuti&fn fninisbodt her conut-ies, witli tlie
tji>a I'’ mc ' a..ii Auslialia t‘"iig ’^^iMucant. Tbo
impoihst'' I *at.toi onntry ore, bowev»', aPTiHihly falKu^; olf,
'll! I dir 1 we have now soun tho .ast attempt to
l<i'c./r 'M i i* u inaiket. Of tlio five great pvoviu.ios of
ibn r la ai tbo largest consunior or foreign coal, ns
it .ceivcw i377) 3((S,y37 ions vjt of a total of 523,31-1 tons,
tho cotton rniia of tho Oity of Bombay aud Ibo roi'waya having
ihoir let mm* ibeio being heavy coaaumors of foreign coah In
lengal tbe ruihvays and nearly all tin* steam mills b*irn exclnsivcly
(be pri,duco of thoholtor seams of the Uancuguugt ol d those of
Karharbari field.—i#(>ra5ay Paper.
tup: opening op coal mines.
rilHIS Shen Pao publishes a report or some coal muios in tbo
^ neighbourhood of Ohing-mcii Chow, not fur from lehang.
Tho report is written by a mawdanu who was sent to make at*
inspection, and who was evidently accompanied by a foreign expert
Boring operations, says the leport, were commenced lalo Uat
aatnimu. The coal-producing country appears to cover an extent
of seventy-five square Bugliah miles, fifteen long by live broad.
There are ton layers of coal, one above tho othoi. Tbe bed at
Wotsu-kowis estimated to be five hnudred English acros, Uiat.at
Ban-li-kang to be one-fourth its size. It is supposed thui 1,2fi0,t500
tons of ooftl can bo raised from Wotzu-kow, ard MO0,rK)0 from Ban-
li-kang, at the rate of 40, OOO tons a yeai, Tho supply thus would
last at least forty years. It is highly probable iliafc further
explorations will bring (o light fresh beds, as these discoveries are
the reauHof merely tho first investigations. It Should be uj^Miiioiied
that A few small mines have been opened by the poople Jiving in
thS district, bu' y have not penetrated to the leva! o£ the boat
coal or largest seams. The bod at Wotzu-kow is one hundred feet
below the surface. Tbo coal is just tho same as tho Amorioan
anthracite that is brought to CUiua, best anthracite is a most
usefbl kind of coa), being free from oulpliur witi out any impurities.
It .gives oat gi'eat bea^ and can be used ecouomicaiJy and huocoss-
fnlly for smeltmg iron or other metal U ih also suitable for use
on board steamers, particularly when ed wiih soft coal. A
affording muchhsstt, with but little am ' .1 commands high price
for housoboM IpurposeSf A small prcpi rtion only of the coal
tbroughout the world is gopdeQOugh for swwltmg, and any foreign
country possessing coal of as good qu^ity •'«* at Wolzu-kow,
would be oonl^t to cai^ It buudrealB ofi oiileB its smelting
lumaoeA BpeoItneuS ol iSjs and oC all the native luul toreign coal
proOurable hi Dbini have boou imalysod together, aud Urn new coal
bovo shown itaett superior to ,ah for stbeUIng purposes. The
Profinoe of Httpol ooaeeiftss fevorat miois ooutalning iron of
mtoAtsnt tt these m worked in oonaeotioa with tbe
coal mines, large drafts should .oe ohiftlned, and if tbe example
iHi followed iu other province a sbarce b£ wealUi to tbo whole
country will be opened up,— pourUr.
PiioB \BLV the hottest mines in the world are Lhosb situated on
the Oumstook lodo in Nevada. Tbe highest mine temperaturo
leporlod to the British Coal Committee was lOG* Fahreuheit,
blit some of the Cofnmh miiiCK have shown an air temperature
rising to 11.3® Fahrenheit. The hottest water reported in a
Wolmi mine was at T25* Fahrenheit (J. A. Phillips). Iu the
Comstock mines, according to Professor Ohuroh, who has lately
described tlie conditions, the air is never hotter lUanthe rooi^ as it
is in CornibU mines, and tbo sock iu the lower levels (l,90Cfft. to
‘^OOOfu) appeal;! I have a pretty uniform temperature of 130*
Fahrenheit. The readings were ontained by placing a thermometer
in ordinary drill-holes, lOtti. to 3ft. in depths immediately these
wore finished, and keeping them there ton mUiutes to hail an hour.
'he mining in the Oomstook proceeds witli remarkable rapidity
tlio drifts being advanced 3ft., 5£t.,aud sometimes evei#8ft or 80ft.
a day, so lhat tbero could not be any sensible dinfiuution of heat at
Iho bottom of diill-hole. The temperature of tGe air is subject to
more fliiouuations than tiiat ofHbo rock, for the simple reason that
it is ariitioially supplied to tho mine. Iu freshly opened ground
it varied from 108® to 116® Fulironheit; but higher temperatures
are reported at various puints '£reaoUing 123® Fahrenheit in
one case). The water reaches much higher temperatures, 150®
Fahrenboit and upwards. One fimall stream that had flowed 150ft •
over tho bottom of a closed drift with little evaporation gave
157® Fahrenheit. Bolls of excessively hot ground are often
met with iu these mines, and also, though fewer in immbor, belts
of unusually cold rook.—Pioat-fl r, ^
Tub Ootacamnnd paper Bays “ Just within the limit of the
contract time, the company working in trust for the estate of
Messrs. Nicol, FJeniir**? Oo, of Bombay, have commenced
operations on the gold mines of this disliiot. The sinking of a
siiaffc, intended tu be 400 feet in deptli, has boeu heguji. This
prelitnuiary work is estimated to oosfc Us, 10,000. A good deal
of active interest i.s developing ilsel** connection with these
mine:'. Wo loam that Mr Wallace, ol aio Bangalore Victoria
Iro ''Yorks, bas boon placed on tlio stall of Mr. Brough Bmytbe,
ito Bhoiild prove a useful, if not n valuable, acquisiUon.
Ml. Wallace's iron touudry in Bangalore did some good work
but was closed when Led Lytton auspendod all public works in
Mysore. Tliere appears to be a piospeol of tho Qoverument of
India osiablisbiug a mining department, and tho contemplated
trip ot Mr, Saiythe to Bimla. of wJiich wo hear, is probably iu
connection with that project.’'
At tbe oonelaBion of (he pearl fishBry at Arlppo early in May, we
stated that Captain Donoaa bad been requested by Mr, Twyuank, the
Uoverumont Agent, Northern I’rovtucA, to examine certain portions
of the north coast of tho .Taflna Feninsala, with a view of asoertatning
if tbero wore any deposits of pearl oyster on that side of tbe island.
a number o£ shells, what were evidently pearl oysters, having beeu
washed ashore on the beach at various times during tbe last north¬
east moasoons. In oompliaaoe with Air. Twynain’s request a
thorough czammalmu of tho coast line indicated has been ntaida wifb
the assistance of divers amt boats, from a spot 2U miles to the south
of Mullatlvu, to about the same distance on tho north. No oysters
were however foaud ; indeed the ualnre of tiie ground along tira
entire distanoe—namely, mad aud sand—was such as to preolude all
probability of meeting with any deposit of oyster. As it» necessary
for the bivalve to have a rocky bottom to wbtoh to attach itself
when first H settles on tbe ground, no rock whatever was found.
An oxamioatioQ ol tbe shells found ou the beach shows them to be
of the true pearl oyster variety, at the same time tbi^ bad a very
dliferent appearance from tbe oysten at the Arippo bed, being larger
aud flatter, of a very pale oolour, and their outer sartace had a smooth
and polished appearanoe as though they hove been carried by eurrents
over tbe bed of the sea for many miles before being washed ashore. It
appears to be thought probable that they may have been washed up
from some deep deposit in tho Bay of Beugat ; at any rate Mr.
Twynam's expectation of the discovery of a new souroc of revenue has
not beau realised.— Ti»w,
INDIAN MINERAL iNDGSTniES.
T he coal industry in Bengal is eousplonoutiy prominent lor tbe vast
strides It has maile during the past quartet of a century towards
devolopmeut ou a well assured basis, affording steady ooeupatiou
for upwards of 60,000 souls, with nearly as many mote dependent
upon them. The mines in Central ludia have not progressed io the
man proportion, ihoogh not nnsatisfaelorUy^ which can only be
aitrihuted to their isolated positions, lar from tbe acO-board. The
auuuat ^output” of the Indian colilnrkjs, all told, cannot fail below
a mlltton tons per annum, and some have estimsieJ it at a much
higher flzum. The undei^timatas that h%ve appeared, are simply duo
to the fact that they are almost entirely donvod from the raieiugs ol
steam (lwrgei) m)| irrespeolive of the smaller rubbles and sereeuiogi
which, during the past few years, have been nlllwed for pamut fuel
iu ssIdiUOn to snpjplyiag the deroaftd from State railways, fonndries
mautt&mtttriei. lime aud brick burning. The oapabllitius for
yrodaetiun of the Besgat collieries are praotioftUy tmkiiowai«*tlmit
280
THE
oat4iiriiib0f^glMl|^lRi|.ia i»o«t Vy the requliilt^* th«r
riKwlfethr kakw eliewhere lh« deterbreihm of wt*
pohde j stoeh «tefrlottp to««> ^ ^
Iron tmeUiiif end r«dti«iioti faai, to neovd, pot opiy hooit o
foUare io Baogal, bak ba« mek wUh daolXfol tuooois wberovor triedi
thropghool the foil lonirtband brewitb pf lndtft. From FortpKbvo
lo thoflaoth/toKaiPooti ia tbeooctbjtom Wurdoh fo Borrakur^ the
00100 Qomilafootory reporto bote bwit reboirod with little ot no
▼orlOtfon; extook norbopi that in tbe northoea limit meniboed, charoool
hod to be oiod In lieo of cool* tUerebf iooonlog ^bo flak of fbo long
ifoiii of efil* depoodeot opon forest denodoiioo. Xbo rodo nniito
moibodi, hoorover, praotlflod ell ovot the ootliotrji ore still hi netivo
opofniion, oofnttonsiirfttotrUhiiaUvoliioatroqttiraaMitf (and in lonko
poru ot Indto it. to pot «a ttnmnl sight toratek (be iron^smeiter oerryf
tpi bto Iron for snietotbonelghbbOfiDg weekly or bbweehly market
godhorlogi eidt by tide with the colUfator and bit gfalb« This eoggeeto
wbak wiaaWteiimntly beard eipreased, that eertaln indastfres in
India, mgehlnety and pant; and Jo her enpensire appHanoes, cannot
QOmpke adrfmtekeoONy with manoal laboor, partioolariy with the
Utter, wbbsh le both plehtifol andeheap, Bengal pomestos tbe osoep.
tlonal conditions of coal. Hme. and ironstone all being found to oiosa
proximity to'the mine locality }and failoro oan only excite surprise
as well as create regret.
Tin mining bas b^ a laitore-«-8o far as regards European under-
taking—to Burma altboi^b narfied, oetlto a moderate scale with a fair
share of sneoees 1^ Ibo Qbtoese. This is another (act irrsooooilahle
with the eucoeistol operations of tbe Dntch to Banca and Billiton,
and ereh to ike Straits Settlements, where tbe same deposits bare
proved most remunerative irorkings.
Fehroleum in Bnrma to a suoOest, not so mnob from euterprlse. as a
plentiful supply. Assam has yet to be tapped, and North.Western
India more eaimully Inreitigated. in ibis respect, before we can
venture opon an expreeiion of optofon ooncernlng them.
Stream gold washings have been carried on from lime Immemorial in
both India and Burma ; but only in the Southern Presidency has
mining! the preotoui metal been resorted to, and that also dplng a
oomparativefy recent period. Further prnspeetlng. resulting in valu¬
able discoveries, backed by tbe opfioions of experts, bat of tote ofler^
a great impetni to extension and development, bidding fair to*riva1, in
course of time, similar nndertakiogs and workings to Australia and
Oaliforola. Bot it would be altogether premature to anticipate where
to ffloob Uesio the domain of speonlatloo.
Minor industries, worthy of note, in ibe Lower Pfovinocs, are those
connected with fire clays and talc, apparently exotosively coodned to
inditldaal firms. We have been long aoxions to ascertain whether
Indltn oorrnndnm would not be an acceptable article in request in tbe
Birmingham and Sheffield markets. In this onrsory notice, we have
Intentionally tofraiued from mentioning saline substaoeea tn general,
and salt to particular, and numerous other minerals, with which tbe
oonntry abonnda We have only referred to such ol those prodnotB as
are likely to occupy publlo attention, demaodlog capital and enterprise,
and in which the experiSnoe gained from the preseni and past is avail¬
able for gnidanoe In the future.
Tbe extcDSioo of mining Interests In India, obiefiy in coal, at llm
present aooetorating rate, points clearly to tbe necessity for a ** Hines
iiegnlation Act,*' and we Lave been informed by those qualified to
afford an opioion, that its introdoction will ere long bo a measen^
imperatively calling for loeal leglsIaiioa^HIoing to India Is not
attended with the same risks as are involved at home from depth,
dangerous and explosive gases, Ac., but this is counterbatanoed by
the natnral ignorance and oarelossness of the enottf.
It is satisfaetory to learn that the Loeal Government hat called for
returns, to be sobmitted regularly, from each colliery in Bengal, wbiob
are intended to supply slatlstics of labour, ont-pot, cost of prodnetion,
&Q., and other Information nooessary to afford data for o comprebonslve
view of their operations Individnally not cotleotively, but fiot, we
hope, ng la pretty generally believed by tbe native mtoe>owoerB, with
Ibe view of exaotlng royalty or imposing taxes—the rffeot ot which
would be to either orippte or destroy an indnstry which has assomed
itiprasent ctganllo dtoionilonBk with little or no encouragement from,
and is therefore under but few obligations to, the Government.
ANNIE O'B.
TEA.
TEA IN THE tTPPEB PPOVINOES,
T ea was introduced into tfipNortU-Weetorn Provinoos in 1844
Tn those days it waa iUoaglit that tbe climate there, was
more like that of those parte of China, whore teg waAcultivated^
than any other part of India, and doubtless^ with the light out
ruierg then had, they were justified iu supposing so. As a general
rale, tea is grown in China between the latiiudee of 30^ and 35^
nor^h. Altboagh it in fact extends much beyond these limits,
still the bulk of the China tea may be said to bo grown there ; and
as the Indian JSmklve of those times, did not inHiide
liiby oooldl not #«U go north than Delu.t 'ooeh. 'st wbioti
plM. the first g«4en--Ko.rJtghtt»—op«“®4 iu 18^ Olhor
gufiras Mowed in Enouoa, Md «• » oMee furth^iiMh could
m be Bdoaiedi tb» diUoutt/ «W tbe^ht he efeneiue, bjr
1 opening out at Enmaon, at an ^ hk m
level, and of 3,700 feet atwvi? Pekw
them to Imagine, that it Was, Jttof iMiesiiei^
fixed on the most suitable porlious of Mr Mdiof thfil
Given a suffident and well }n(Mti|(ike: iliil
tea would pay better In ph(na» tf feom | to
south. Prior to that time, the ef itffi
to Assam was a fact well known, indeed, ibe plant keen
oovored in 1820, bat to prevent the ptoelHUtp of WOil
decided by the Government to experiment, wlt^ tha^Ohtoa vartotp
only : oonseqaently large st^plies of ttotoed were toought rontul
from that oonntry, and it may safely be preeamed that the Ohfnese
with their proverbial ounnfng, would not eend os the seed from
tbe bsst varieties of their plants, hence the average run of plant in
the north-west is the common China epeoies. Thea flawtois,
Transport was very slow in those early |imes |, the Government
bullock train delivering goods at Meerut, eix montht after ihe{t
despatch from Oaloutto, Under these oircomstanoeB, amarkpt was
sought for close at band, and it was fonnd.
Tlie natives oL Thibet, Tarkistap^ and Oabul, are great toe-
drinkers—at least those of them sufiSiciently wealthy to be
able to altord the luxury,—and sundry Oabnlee merchants
commenced trading between ibo North-West of India, and these
countries. On the, return voyage, Uieir caravans brought wool
principally. But these peoples only consume, green tea, so
became the class of tea made there. This trade has continued
to tlie present iim interrupted now and again, when the restless¬
ness of the borcffil tribes, made the conveyanoe of goods unsafe.
Since iSTSikere has been almost no green tea made, lor this reason*
The Afghan passes have been so unsafe, toom the depredations of
these wild hordes, that almost no business has been done. Doubt¬
less, it will soon revive, nnder Urn fostering care of the sixth
and seventh articles of the Gundamkek treaty.
The closing of this trade has ensiled great losses on the tea
indnslry in tbe Upper Provinces, as the class of plant there, is
not adapted for making the strong rasping tea, so much wanted
in the Calcutta market, and planters are at their wits^ end, trying
experiments to develop the strength; as under present cironra-
stances, they are compelled to make black tea, and sell, in
Calcutta or Loudon. The Ohio a plant, while making a tea rather
wanting to strength, produces a veiy delicately flavored article,
which is much liked by real lovers of tea. It also makes a superior
class of jppreen.Biid henco the demand for it, where this tea is
consumed. This trade is one of great profit to the planter, as he
can make more green tea than he can of black, he has no expense
as to lead and boxes, no anxiety as to Iris market, and no worry
about charcoal, nono being required* During the first week of
tea-making, the Cabuloe merebants—Who have established their
head-quarters at Umritsur—visit the gardens to make thmr
bargains for the season. They ask the manager io make samples
of the several dasses of green tea, oto. Young Hysou, Hytoo,
No, 1 Gunpowder, and No. 2 Gunpowder. Tliese are the daises
they want to bay. There are however usually other two dasses,
which may be called the accidents of production, they fire, Hyson
Skin, and Dust. Hysou Skin corresponding to the Bohea of
black tea. Tiiesa two latter are also purchased, but at half price.
Tbe usual percentages made are 76 per cent, of the best four
dasses, and 26 per cent, of the others. We wilt suppose that^
After a couple of days* disoussioni fourteen aimas fs fixed upou
Lff the price, the samples are halved, the merchant Ikeeptog one
set, and the manager tbe other, they ate sealed by both parties,
and are kept to bottles to keep out tbe effects of damp* We have
now got fourteen annas as tbe price, with 76 per cent, of gooS
teas, and 25 per cent, at half price, this represents an average hf
twdve-aud^a-quarter annas per pound, to bulk. It Is estimated
that the garden will produce that season, say one Ukh Of
pounds ; the total price will therefore be about Be* 76,500. Tlie
merchant on signtog the agreement to take the entire eetoou^e
crop, deposits with manager 10 per cetiL of the above ambunti
as security, wbich asm lies ivItU the mattoger UU the otOSeof
the ooutoac^j when It to orbited to (he last peymeut
Wheh e iltiiuiily o{ tea is ready^—euoh quaui^ty Mug
Sated totheagreemenk-'the manager glvee the metidiM Mjlto
, that So many Ihouaand pounds are *ready^wheii he touet tekp
delivery of the Seme within seven d^s* The merchant oomoi,
bringing his owtroarto^ oanvacs bags Nd iheii* The tea to Mgheil
^fipf^d ill «wii ifpi jii|iai,>w^,
of ^hkk^ k ^ :
0I> Itio'JioHi
IliMe Ibjigtto ilio t|M Jo *
f^tod; wstlirooorry to ^o;jr,o#fi|y W '
ooiotirioig pit ^p^eir otl^ ^
ihoo biig9, pt^ii ooDt^ibg Sip pounds*
TiisoofttMp^.iffiOp^ ftQKOSt^e, ot 0
or goat^ fAfddou tiio too > oonvfjrod aoroaft tU«
Him^tt^tti {ipiNwa ^Ui hope tli«t tbeoomnioroUi treaty Utweau
Britiiili][n(^ft iU^4^gliatftotan wiilsoo^^ to deteH, to
admit ofOilatn^epponiiDg. M l^opt tlio qa^wtity made fo the
Upper Frovlom fa ahont t«ro jmifilmie ol pounded
Mm F, l^irim Ima reoeutly pubMahed a v^ry useful large
ioalo map ol the tea pr^ueiog traeU of India, compiled from
reuendo eurvey maps, from personal eurreye and f^om reports
from lea plantenr. Tho sheet oompriees maps of all the tea
dirtrioto, inoloding Chltt«geog aod Ohota Nagpore ^ is carefully
coloured, (each garden being clearly marked) ; and ie mounted on
oanvas and roUetm The etee ie about dft. by 8ft, •
^' t
Tbb eobieet of tea and ite proipeota ebouTd be the Tital bndget of the
district, and 1 therefore oannot oonolude without a few comments
tbei^oD, The tea trees are apparently reoorering the terrible ordeal*
through which they hare pawed this year. Owing to the nopreoedented
drought of the winter months, the planters am all, it may be said, of one
opinion on the prospect of bringing op their esUmatee to any near
approach to their prognostications. Bo far as July baa yielded, the
return is somewhat hopaful, and with a genial autumn much may he
recovered of what has been iost in the previous months. Oartaioly
one point on which the planters may be oongratulated is the nnusual
boaithincss of the oooiy populalion. Had it been otherwise, with all
the other drawbacks, the oonscguenees moil have been most disastrous.
The samples of tea that 1 have esen, appear to be of good quality; the
tips being plentiful and tbe outturn ot Bekoe large-^nd to bear me
out In thii^ I am aware that samptqf from the Terai have been sent to
Williamson Uegor k Oo. for transmission to the Bydney Bifaibitioii,
and much to their credit the camples have been most favorably reported
on; and It Is to be hoped that tbe Waleta will appreciate the teas as
much as we do ^ir horses^ and the result will doubtless be, that o trade
will spring up iu favor of us Uarjeelingites with ihm^^ZfatyMny I9ifm,
Whsn there are no sea*ierpeute nor gigantic gooseberries to be
heard of, the next thing soeme the discovery of fresh delds tor tea
euterprise* M One Ume It ie Booth America, at another South
Africa ; Just now it is the Asores, As the vines in some of these
iglaods have been a failure, thp inbabitants have turned their
attention to the outtlvation of tea. The. plantations' are stocked
with the best variety ot the tea plant, and great expectations are
formed as to a possible and extemlva crop of tea from St. Uichaol.
Those who have seen the Tortaguese in the sugarcane delde ot the
West Indies are aWare of the capaoity for work these labourers
possess, and also their ability to endnre hardships, bnt we donbt if
India and Ohlna have mooh to fear from oorapetition in this
direction. A good grape or oratige season would soon cause the
Portttgneie farmer to return to hie Bret love.
«PA€iD*» CHINA TEA.
TNDlGNAtlONlmebeenezpreased in tlin tea trade this week
A anent an fUbt^tetion oi arUBoially ooloured green tea. An
attempt was ma^t in pablio sale on Thursday (says'^the Grotpr) to
loistttponihehumeinarMa qaantiiy of this tea Imported from
China, bn^ oa wtU appear^ the attempt was not quite iuooessful*
The parcel fat qaestlon ooueieted of 712 bones, deecribed as ** Plug
Baey** QmpowdmfP^t 8, &, Okiueuft bnt in reality mqre tesem*
l^oommon tadof the old^faahtoiied Canton make, Borne of U
tM a good iqgipearanoe, and Ughly ** faced,^ but bhe bulk was
very loleriorb m all was ofEstedt^dor the saying olaose printed
in the oatal^e oln^ inapeoM.*’ This noti^oation on the
part of the ptm aufSoi^ to arooge fhe attention of the
dealers, who then es^ (herf pt^^4 emphatloally that the said
tea wag unfit ioi home nonsifaiQ^^, It ie a s^ular fact that,
although the olftf^linapebtmihhd rdi^oM of the
laaJkito H tire ? 4ii when the
mmur wim bteng^uhdm thefa for a^tfmrCtalive and
\<M^|e7iiion, aatualty We are, however,
glad,to say that, notwil^mndfng the lamty hart shf^Uj the lead
mbrnlmm of the trade #ere*^hfalnmWi<>^ ^ mtatly diftretil
Opl^n j andfln tabdryg toeohestldn puhlto grbobds, have
ao^ In an hmmnnddojmiiiner, WemMitad that samplee of
„ the said tea are to be forwarded to the, Goiwment amUyat for
his ennuination and report thereof, whibh/Will be awaited with
great Interest. So far as the eonsiunptlon of tea in this oOohtry
tseonoemed, however, them need be HttlO' fekr' of Its finding n
market here, as it hasheoh disposed of ohiefiy to^ erporlers^ and
will donbtless be consumed somewhere on the Oontlnenh Tim
prices at which the tea, Was roalJaed were from BJd. up to Is* gd*
per lb. in bond, according ue it was more otoiely fn imitation of
pure natural tea,«-<^ifom 0 emd Cohnial MaM*
A Lanou quantity of laced^' tea has been delivered in tiondon
from Ohlna. AU this should help Indian tea, as hone of the laoid
article goes from here to England. In f aot no planter save a native
or two in the upper provinOes wnuld think of facing tea. 'Wo
have seen it done, but think It a suicidal process. The gredn tda
is passed through very hot XWr/m£s as a finishing procOss^aud
when it is to be artificially forced, ft is gently sprinkled WtA a
mixture of sulphate of copper and gypsum, the result being a clear.
silvery gloss which comes oft on the hahds with a little handling.
The tea eon have this gloss given to it, almost as oompletelyy by
extra hard work in the hot kuriial, and it is to save this, that
the artificial facing is resorted to. Besides, the gloss from artificial
facing is more permanent In the other oase, the slightest damp
causes the tea to lose its silvery and glossy appearanoo. It is how¬
ever very bad policy, and will do more to hurt the name of China
teas, then even a badly made article would.
COFFEE*
R EOABDING the coEee orop in the Wynaad, the Madra$ Mail
writes
Crops generally are reported not promising os heavily as was
anticipated from the fine February and March blossoms; but on
all well cultivated properties sitaateil away from the ghdts, the
results generally are likely to be most satisfactory, and in some
cases bumpers will be reallaed. lioaf disease has as nsual
reappeared, but the general impression exists that the pest recurs
with abated virulence year by year, and that it will in time yanisb.
Canarese labourers are slow in coming in, and low country
coolies have been as yet the principal means of redneing weeds
and suckers. The progress of the Mysore Bailway is reported to be
a source of hindrance to the arrival of the former, and may be
a cause of tho existing pressure In the labonr market; but I feel
sure that the main reason why a deficiency of Canarese labour Is
likely to ho experienced, is attributable to the mortality during
the famine*
Thg rollowlog extract from the Prooeedinga ot the NUgirl Ptanteia*
Affsooiatiou, held at Ootaoamnod on the Otb instant. Is very
■aggestive:-*'* Bead letter from Mr. Henry, late of the Agrl<>HorticaI*
iurai OardeuB iu Madias protesting against the aetlon of Urn Madras
Government In the matter ot the disposal of waste lands Ou tfae
Neilgherrlee, In oonseqnonoe of wbieh he had been obliged alter three
years' resldenee on the NsDghertles, to leave this district for
Bengal, although he had instrnetions to open a large extent of land
here, if the laud had been available/' Mr. Henry, we believe,
sent In three applications for land ota the koondabs and In other
parts, but never heard aboat tbemalnce, If the policy ofOovem-
ment is to drive settlers off the bills, it la snooetding admirably.
COFFEE HIBEABE IK JAVA.
T he following extracts from uranslations in the BiraUi Timtt
shew thet our neighbours in Java must new look for the
spread of the leaf fungus ov^ the wltole of the ooffee oulturcf
^^mless they. at onoo adopt ihe sUlphnr and time euro. We are
surprised to seeho referouoefnade tolt, for,on reoelviug the first
definite oQcount of the appearance of Bemihm In the l>otch
Colony, tre sent ttoeus lull details of Mr. Morris'
experiments :«r
The Batavia ol Ihe Bid May pofilii^es an omdal
repM by the 01l«dter el Btato ^etsaicsl Garden at Bdtensorgou
t]|» ceffe«liimiiMkMln ^avAi adoordtog ^
wall almoil aVery^ 6(>inp«!Mkd Ia and^n
lavaA^ aaiiatMmtlie aAigltt^ tl>a |ai Mo«^a
ittiforlAg tba mmtif&m iU <^«r aal^vaUd 4eliai!|fU<ma «£
calBte# irare affeoUd by it, tboagfa leas aftraraly, ,tlia XiibrnrUu
oofaa being tba obly ona that lutberto did nat axMbU tba
aymptoma bnowo to aeonmpany the diaeue. UnebadAci oodfeo
appMred to aulbr moro than that oiider »bado» In tba report it
i« Imtber aUted _
** ^e finding ol meant to present tbe spread o£ the disewe
appeaxn to me to be impotable, principally owing to its present
wide diffntion and the misoreieppic minnteness of the germs.
1?lie atmosphere mueb now oontaiu a very great ntimber oC these
germs, and alto beoaute the diseate hat probably been existing
in another form in a Urge portion of Java, perhaps for several
^lnM« i» ^mia4 fnngna
IBE PUBLIO SALES OF COFFEE.
:i 04 CAO,
^ Mmlfi andfi^, tef^gped yttn^ dean ^iy
oaoao at a ga^eHtfg, %!• 1 ^ not^MS^^f^lhU, yield,
tinoePardfa ah avOf^ago of If ^ from tome
old and negUotod^bg^ retdmmid mid pi^toly oletee^^^
garden, and tuttan; lfil4-Hrdylhif''lwMh^ bn jfintos, t61V“
eayt the annual ihodnto in Jambioa^t eaoim' pof^ ia^’^t^thtiet
ago, was generally eiMmatod at 20 Ibji. i^tied,jm<ir dverag^ "gdoJ
and bad teatont together, 1,000 Iba per a«e* (Olbi h fr-''"* ‘ ag fee
apart—the otnal distanoe there at tto period' r"'™ I
toil, and under bad management, ,^totoe
81bt. a year. Cacao onltlvation f
_ _ , ____ , ^ qutnoe of the mioefslre duty thecf*'*®®
named Bmihsia mnairia^. All known paraeitio fungi havo’*Tt^ppii^^ oontomptUn o#
leait two forma wholly difEering from each other, which can both ' - ‘ ^ — *- “■’
propagate themaelvet. Of the cofEee leaf ditease only one form
It known. Begarding the other form or forms, nothing it yet
known, and htnoe U it very potsible that the diaeaae has been
imported hither, or hae been existing here for years under the
unknown form.**—Hemkf.
fisoat lm|5&wH%?»wand only now
strugglingtoregainapiaoeara^ ^ months aftw
far from being worthy at yet o£^ ooming1!nlbff^^*®®^ \
of the old colony*
CINCHONA.
A MOBGST the Mincing lisne dealers in coffee a little trouble
bat arisen which still remains at Issue, many suggestions for
its settlement having been refused by the disputants on one side or
the other. The facts are as followsthe regulations under ^blch
anotions of coffee are held wore made about thirty years Since,
when the importation of coffOe was barely one third of the
quantity now to be dealt with. Under the present system buyers
have to spend more time in valuing and attending at the sales than
is necessary, or they can well afford; whilst sellers are sometimes
not able to sell on the day of selection, if they draw a bad number.
With the object of altering this unsatisfactory state of things, the
selling brokers have proposed to extend the hours of the daily
auctions, hence the trouble. A great deal of time is lost in the
sales by the disposal of small lots of sweepings damages, triages
and overtakers of which the money value is not one-twentieth of
the coffee sold* And now the natural remedy for the dispute
suggests itself, viz. that the damages, sweepings, &o., should be
■old separately on one of the four days now avaiiabie for auction,
and a committee of the trade has been called to settle tho matter.—
Home and Colonial Mail,
ACORN COFFEE,
W HEN the Joint Stock Company mania was very acute, and
people swallowed the bait offered them by promoters much
as a young and hungry fish takes the fly, a gentleman, named
Tnlloch, was induced to invest £4,000 in a business, the objeot of
which was the making of coffee from acorns. A Joint Stock Com*
pany was launched, and, no doubt, all would have gone morclly
enough, bad not the Inland Uevenao interfered. It never, perhaps,
occurred to the enterprising gentleman who formed the Pelotas
Coffee Company, Limited, that was not legal to sell coffe«>^ made
from aoorna. In any case, they appear to have been st firmly
Impressed with the advantages of the prooess that, after receiving
an admouition from the Inland Revenue, they again tiled to
popularise coffee of this description, choosing, upon the fe^oo^d
oooanon, the title ** Sarrogat6 Coffee/’ Unaware of the previous
prohibitii U on the part of the excise, Mr. Tullooh invested his
mon<^ in the development of this latter sobemo, and was apparently
dissatiefled with the result, ^or. he has sued a Mr,
Bowerman, who had been eonueoted with the Company, and
recovered £3,000 damages, 'rtie plaintiff’e ease was that the
defendant knew perfectly well that the manufacture of the coffee
had been previously stopped, and that, therefore, there had been
misrepresentation. *^0 jury took this view. In the interests of
coffee planters, it is just as well that a paternal Government
interfered with the operations of the Peloias Coffee Company.
There may exist a fair field for the dsyelopment of the aoorn
coffee trade amongst those who provide pif^^d the inforior order
of mimale, sritb delicacies, but Uk ^diimiy oonsumer prefers
oof^of the realJ^lnd, even though iibc more expensi^^—
T hebe Uas boen some discussion in India lately as to the best
and most remunerative method of cultivating oinohoua, but
it seems still to be a matter for planters to decide as to when the
bark is to be considered ripe for harvesting, and whether this
should be effected by coppicing and uprooting^ or by the more
complicated method of mossing. We ibink that the trees should
certainly bo allowed to attain the age of nine years before
harvesting the bark, for at that period they undoubtedly contain
the largest proportion of alkaloids, fis regards the prooen of
harvesting, experience p^ts in favonr of coppicing and nprooUng,
though as yet we have no reliable information as to the yield
of bark under the mossing system. It appears, however, that
under this process the vigour of Uie older trees on the NUgiris
has been materially reduced. But the great question of importance
is whether a cheap febrifuge could not be manufactured locally ;
in short whether the quinine oottld not be extracted for exporta¬
tion toother countries where its oommercial value is high, retaining
for Indian oonsumptioh the cheaper crystallised fdkaloids—
cinchonine and cincbonfdine, the therapeutic properties of which
are almost as high as quinine, and which might Im sold at a fllbe
that would amply remunerate the planter. If private manufactories
were established the difSoulty would be solved, aud ibe future of
cinchona assured.—Home mA Colonial Maik
COPPICING CINCHONA TREES.
M b. BABLOW, Commissioner of Neilgherries» considers the
best time for ooppioiog to be from about the middle of May
till the 15th June. After the ISfcb of June the 8outh*west monsoon
may break and diminish the amount of alkaloids in the bark to be
stored. 'Ibe sites for the coppicing expertmants have been selected
and approved of by Colonel Beddome at the Neddivattum, Wood
aud Hooker Estates, as well as l>odabetta. Mr. NeWman of the
,..Forest Department will directly oonduot the wood m^eriment, and
I Mr. 3phaarre,« Overseer, Oinobona Department, inetruoted by
I Mr. Bowson, the one at the Hooker Estate; both ^eie experiments
being generally supervised by Major Jego* Mr. Bowson, Assistant
fluperintendent, will personaily carry out operation^ at Neddi-
vattum. Colo nel Beddome proposes to reetriot the area expert*
mented on at Neddivattum to 3 acres, beoause be sees among ^
trees “ f Siry evident signs of oonst^tutional it^hry/* He thus
firms the opinion expressed by the Olncbopa OommitUe and eon-
I ourred In by bis Grace the Governor in Oonncil, who obStoVea that
this is a reason for taking a suffloient area to avoid risk or allega¬
tion of spaoial eirpmnstanoea No redact^ in tbs slae of the
blocks (vis. fi aoreo each) to b« ooppioed will thdmfore be made,
qituwe methods of coppicing are euggmt^ by^ the, Oenservator"-^
(1) ** to nick the Htk Ml round at a' iWet yith thef ground and
saw the tree off about 2 or 3 Inches shoes thisif
Aogairtil,
THE mmm MRIOULTHRIST.
S83
, , ^8 6 or 6 fr^D& 1li« groii^d;
M « 8Uoot » p(iAwt0^ . by
remoivittg " of iUo burk of tUo traOk iM 4iioti or iWo
oboOo tUoffrwmd***, .
11)6 Il8^ t^Eoperly so. okllod, ond ol iho iOoond
tbire jfero otjreidy.iiHittdtm osiuoaplos iodioatiug tbo foiloro of this
mtem. 00|)yi<dog! i8 to oitfc with o oloOii^ oot oloto ahovs
tho oollftTf kod If tho drit method is adopted, it mbit be followed
by ad^^ifl^theltbiiip. The errengameots dataUod (n the'Oom*
mfMiouareiwoabd letter are approved, end hie attention ie drawn
lo tM neoeejlty ol keeping the eeUing and barking, e<jeally
adrat)oed.^lfa(fmf M^tU,
filKKlM CiSOHOHA PtAI^^TATIONB*
T he operationi in the plantation derlog (he year 1878*79 were
^ greatly retarded by the uuoeual droaghi; o£ the oold eeaion,
whiah oant^ ike death of a nemher of old tree*, and ptereated the
plaoling oat of young tree*. The oonseqaenoe wa» that the
plantation only admtttad of being extended by 120| acrea, against 250
aoret lu the previous year,-«*iiainely, 75 aorea la the new or Sittong
diVillon, Sand iS| aeres in the old plantation! at Blihap and Uungpoo*
The oontlnnoue ihoreaie In the awonnt of febrifuge manataotnced by
Df. Wood ia eery marked. The outturn of the last fiye yean 'has
been--
)b oz.
18T4*76 48 10 *
1876-76 1,940 6
1876-77 . ^ ... 3,760 13
1877-78 8,162 0
1878-79 7.007 0
Total ...17,908 12
but notwithitanding thii rapid development of the manafaoture the
increasing ooofldenoe in the effioaoy of the febrifuge has raised the
demand lor it so mnefa that the eoniumptJon of the pail year greatly
exceeded the quantity manutaotured. To meet this growing demand
theaeale of manufaetare at &lal^poo baa been extended. The coat
of the febrifuge mauufaetared, iuGludlng the coat of the bark, was
Ba,76,459-12-11, or at Ba. 10-14-7 per pound, wbiob ia nearly one
rupee per pound leas than it waa in the year 187748.
The ananelal reaulta of the year have been most satisfaotory. The
exoeea of inoome over expenditure therefore amouuls to Bs, 53,535-8-10
but from thia abould be dedaeted Bs. 11,123*1-3, being the reduotiou
Oii^df the larger trees to Us Hearty SO kf||h; U had throe large
si^ at about one foot f^om Ihs bass, tl^ leader having, it was
•aid, been broken by a monkey when y^nng, i requested Mr.
Hayno, the Deputy Conservator, to fell one of these stems and
dry the bark. Mr. EaynO reported that he felled one of^ the stems
at three feet from the gronud, and that the felled portion was 42
feet long aud 24 inches fu olrcamferonoe at the base ; from 30
feet of the stem^ the toi^ of wMoh mOasores 10| inclies in
oircumference, he obtatned 451bs. of green bark and dibs, from
Itte remaining 12 feet, making in all 49Ibs.; and he oaloulated
that he would havo obtained thOlbs. It the whole treat had been
felled. Mr. Eaddeld, who ia now in charge, forwards the dry bark;
but as it should have dried to not less than 201 be., it fa probable
that some was lost or abstracted. It is interesting to note the
height of this tree which is very much taller than anything to be
seen in the Government plantations on thoNoilgherHeSj^ andarsport
on the quality of the bark wili be ioleresting; the lat)tsr has
probably been dried in tim rndest manner, as notlimg was kisown
as to how it should bo treaied.**
' The Government state that the three cinchona gardens
were originally formed in the TinuevoUy district, vh,* on the
Peria and Ohinna Kuliraii hilis and “ on tiio hills above Papa-
uasam.” The former did nob succeed, but in 1869 seventeen trees
of (7. lucotru&ra were alive in the (Ihinna Kulirati garden and
thirty-two (/. meetruhfa and aeventy-dve G* in iliat
above Papanasani. At that time all these trees were in a thriving
and promising ooiidillou, bub no subtequeub report regarding them
appears to liave been liitherto received. In the letter recorded
above, theOonservator reports on certain C. auccirutfra trees grown
in the forests above Papanasam/' bub in the memoranaam of
August 1867, to which he makes reference he wrote regarding the
garden at Ohinna Kulirati. Both gardens appear tohave heoit
formed in August 1866, so that the tree now reported on was
between twelve and thirtuon years old when cue of its stems was
felled. lU height 45 to 50 feet is in excess of the ialfost tree, 37^
feet, of the same species found by Captain Walker at NeddivattUin,
wiiere the first planting was in 1862. No oumparison of girth is
possible ss the meastiremenis wore taken at different heights. The
bark forwarded by the Conservator, whioU is presumably all stem
bark, will ba seal home for analysis as suggested. The Govurn-
meut desire to bo furnished at an early date with information as
to the number, species and condition of the trees still remaining
in both the cinchona gardens in the Tiunevelly district, aud it
sUonld be made clear to wkloU the tree now reported on heloogs.—-
Madraa Mail. _
CINCHONA IN INDIA.
in the value of itook in baud due to the exoeis of sales over mauafaoturo.
This leaves a net profit, ot Bi, 42,41244.
ke The total amount ot capital, with lojlarest at 4 per cent, that has
been sank in the olnohona plantations and In the manufactory is
approximately ten lakhs of rupees; the receipts for the year under
review tberefore, after paying all expenses, yielded interest of about 4|
per cent, on the capital outlay, and even if subieqaent years show
no improvameDt, as It may be oooEdently assumed they will do, a
suifioient annual Income, on the system of aooouuts followed above,
would almost have bew realised.
But Ibis system of oomputing profits fall very far short of doiog
justice to the real benefit which the Government has delved from
the oinohODe plantatlone. The 8,6001bi, of alkaloid taken fay the
dltforent medical departmeota replaced an equal amoont of quinine
that would otherwise have been purchaied and supplied on ludent
to hospitals and dispensaries. At the very moderate rate of Bi, 80 per
pound, the eoib of this would have eome to Be, 4,40,000, and this
amount pfai ftbe actnal salsa to the public aud 8traite Settlements,
Be, 41,540, in ail ^4,81,540, is the true meaiura of the gain to Govern¬
ment from the cinchona manufacture, Xiooklog al the finaticlai ques¬
tion in this way as may most fairly be done, tbo ptantattous by (be end
ot the ounpent year will hate olearad off the entire capital that has
been inveitsd in them,
OISOHOHA XNTiaiBTINNEVBLLY GHATS.
/^OLONNt AE BUDDSIIIB, Qowsrvktor of fomW, has for-
\J wofdod to Odvermiiont Ifilbs. of dry bark tsken from a
portion ol a tree pf flWfcong grown in Uw Tinnevelly
Ghat forests above BapanaiMiii and enggests tliat the same
should be (|snt to Ailigland t^ elaewhhm to be tested
^ A lew ydanta wtie ssdt, froin Gie N^^tles fee ^al in this
distriet, and the eawambni i^knls wsrq pn^ dowa< ai an elevation
of about AOOO tat|ina^imaU^aringtn tkegkal forests $ they
kate been left entirely to natnrdj knt owing to the molster olimate,
iiv^jdilyiiitblM Kedidivatitamor
I T is with much latiifaotiou that I have to report encouraging pr..gress
in the great undertaking of which 1 am treatiog. A fear exists in some
qaarters that too much will bo attemptod in the multiplioatioa of cinchona
plantations, bat at pieicut there is no reason for inch an apprehensiem, as
it ii not probable that more than one-tenth part of the bark mod by the
mannfaeturers in all parte of the world comes firom all these new lonroes
put together. The comparative yield of young plantations and secular
forests M well ihown in a letter from Mr, ItodKor, October 7, 1877,
I see that 221b8. bark, as the yield of oight-yesr-old troei, is the average
in Ceylon. Of courae I could not toll the ago of trees X have seen ent down
by my oontraotors, but 1 well remember a particularly fine tree betog cat
down in 1841, that yielded more than 500lbs«dry bark—that ii, teSls from
tho trunk, charqnmlto from thick brioches, and canuto from Uuek
branches. The trunk and all the branches were covered with silvery and
bright pink moss.
1 have often said, and now repeat it, that in my opinion tho cultivaUcn of tho
best forms of emohona will permanently yield a profit, Tho present rtate
of the plantations of Java confirms me in this view. The Dutch Govevn-
meat have very wisely availed UiemielyeB of the services of an eminent
chemist (Mr. Moens,) and by means of his very numerous and careful
experiments, have ascertained which form of trees are worth preserving
for seed, whilst the otheri are being by degrees weeded out. In the
^ImnnaowliM Journal for Ja ly, 1873, 1 pohited out the great snperioiily
which these eipetimeotB indicated in the sort resnlting from seeds collected
by Ur. Ledger, and on this aeoonot called Oatuaya UdgeriaBcu lhavw
now before me mote than 120 snalyeis sent me from Bolivia, which are
the result of the above wise Mid benafionnt cvsraicM in the brnt quarter of
1876. I wish our own Indian Govemmeut would follow ills esamptev
without troubling yon with datalta (lese interestiug to your readeri), 1 may
my that these esperimenia make It Very evident that the ettoetes of the
mativation for the f&tore wBl be mueh connected wUh the propagation of
this f^m of Urn plant. Next to thia comes the C. aJfkinaUat and tho
feuewodbark of the (7. Which yields aboafc throe ti mes as much
quinine es the ordinary lMirk,aM Id worth more than Uirao times as mneb
tetheoiaiuifaotitrar, ^ '
Theio-oaUnd Cdliwira iawMa of the Impcitatioos of Hasskarl and
Bohuhkiafl are IHfln value* The «AageUca’’ is somewhat better.
The Dutch nuthoiitlcs are now quite alive to these points of wise
me&agsttsntb and not only give »• the
M ihtfwm b^ij^
f«^ifti»fty««ur* XDWft«»lf»i iili«plimtitttoftKi9
abtUl« Moa feedlittffs hASiy td be pUnUd lit tka' fttr ip ii«x|
laimiMip* !rb« j^pi)ptvM«iu«doiq|;^ivPlI and tbd pMlit4)rpftrt |>f«i«at
Atttltp 6bi»et«riitiospf (iheidplii^^irpi* Tbif m«j larptUe (3i^a wbo era
MOtftoqmaated with thpfftPittenamepiP«|ibrt to «U tim ptiPto lUra
li|to«B plputo of tfao MgnHmih >CroaL Jpvp ii4ed, ffro^ttg oadpr gtoH>
One of Umm h*d TOfic^Ud torros wh«lt yopap* pitd to n^w dotetoptog
it^lwtoii v»f^etyi/rutokecfM,p^oh wopld aevorrlM above ^ dignity
pf a amaU ahrnb^ otodm xaaanble tb« tormi Wbleh 1 have npxeaetitod
M A.B*a,lamp Qvimlayp of iha Batt Xitddatt ptoato^opa, and (with
pairhapa one eiaapthm) will, 1 hopa, gite »a due ptoota of thia itobia
epoaiaa, which la nothittg itoa tbad the traa Oi2to«ya / A (/aeito pr{no«/78 1)
Thla I oanctitde from cpeeimaika which the tote tomadted Dr. Waddell gave
Ilia after hit aaeoiid loania^ to Bolivia to 1891, and conaaqueatly after
the pabUcitieit ^ hia Siatak e^ Thaae dra, from the provlnoa of Timgae
‘ thtea, aad qpe ffom levracaja; and arc eallad xeapaoUvely CaUsapa eeteh^
harden Utd tnorada (from tho coloaf of the laavaa). The bark, alika in all
tha Amplasi pfaaeate the oharactoriatioa of the Lodffariana of Java, 1 have
bafore notlead that at drat light tha amall lead veisoli or oapittlai showod
laa that the ootitoato of the hag of seed which Mr. Tiodger leat over
raaambladlha vatlity microcarpo, whioh,fui given me by Dr. WeddaU, I
wad tha firit to ppbUih in my Quinologp, Thto is tho tho
* eaeoaHltotoSi' and diflTera Utt|o, It is to be preanmed. from tha aam&Ua
fa aoloar aomawhat leas dark). 1 may heva remark, to paaaiog, that to all
vaariatiaa of cinchona more to to be laaraad from the hark, whioh ia abadutely
eharacteriatic, than from the loataai are apt to vary oootiderahly (even on
the aame tree) aa to colour and other partleulara.
Dr* Weddell waa not ao fortanate aa tomaet, to htofirat jouroey, with
thole ap^ndid forma of CalUapa only found now in the lesa aeoemible paiil
of Bolivia. The heanty of the loavcaand thehrightneaiol oolonr, m^f ,
favourable clreumatanoea, are indeed aurpriaingt X have found l^vea of a
kindred foit exady toreaemble the colour of tha mulberry in tha uuripa, and
again in the ripe stage. Some ol my plaota will, I think, tend tc
colour nndara brighter auu, bnt otbera are of the verde tint (green leaves).
1 atteohno botanical importance to tbeae colours, whi<to have no reference
to tha prodnet of quinine, aa 1 have ahowa in the work lefarted to
above* Hr* Ledger writes me (Jan. 2, 1870) t ** Ton avk for my outdid
bpinioa of the plates [of the Sait Indian Quinolofftj], They are all beauti¬
fully done* Tho Angelica 1 like beat of all. The large red, or rather
purple leaf, la auob aa the rajo or tidfferiana iu plate IV. ehonld have.
Still, all the plates show the cinchona remarkably true. 1 must say tho
Angelica seems to me as tha Catiaapa hgitima of the Bolivian Yuugas.'*
1 have noUood *< one osoeptiou” amongst my LadgaHama^ and this
hriags one back to the question of hybrMity, reapeoling which much has been
written, but little lo aatiafaetory to my mind aa tho remarks of my corres-
imndont* A Oennan, Mr. Otto Kontee, has recently visited the plaatations,
sad has pobliahed hia views on this aubjeot. My friend eaya that he
obtained all hu information from an overseer, who, to addition io the
mialortaiie of being deaf, still more unfortunately did nol know German,
at all events he differa widely from Mr. Kuntsse'i deductions on thia subjt»Qt;
as lam also compelled to do, for 1 do not believe that hybridiaatiou has
anything to do with the excellenoe of the Mgenano, The impregnation
of the stigma of the etoofaona dowers ia not done by wind, but in Java,
by the mediation of a groat bombas (drone) which is always to be (bund on
the cinchona flowers flying from flower to flower, and having hia proboscis,
head, and taral full of poUea. My oorreapoodant ia not versed enough in
the elatme whtoh a flower preaeote to tha ayes of an insect before ha thinks
It beautifuK and BO admits that it la possible Mr. Kuntaa to to the right
when ha decides that insects will disdain otacliooa flowers baoauae they arc
not beautiful chough, but my informant tbinka them (os 3 also do) very fair.
The bombas sbould be called to to settle this controversy. Mr, ‘Ledg«*r
informs me that bees abonnd vary much to the Vnngaa in SouthAmerha.
and they are probobly the iuaUvmanta there. !
Tho only pscnliarity which Ladgtriana has to common with mieraniha ‘g
is tilt uull wliit.a«w.n whitb nuttne.. iu boUi. but <m nMn »>
ia MjrM-fona. “H i, w,n ■ hj-lmd it ought to bato more oJaebonuitf '
(ladMd tb. t odnetiiMtMofbm'iig *lmoat pUNqtitiiiu oiwht tab. about I
buUm^^} < lad tb* ibwiy «f Kuaiae, tbat quioiiie iiwnaaM with
mors hybridimtiou, diatgreaa wholly with the iaatet*’
All the trees of which iiceord% to Mr, Kontee were sterile
have flowered tost yctn and have given an abund^nos of good ripe seeds
My cortmpoDdsni does not deny that hybridiss^ou bappeoa, and that it to
tto tmtu^^bouMijaMM ol the madMon of tb* Whan th.j tl, trom
^ ootmaiwa to ba th, rniim that fbair that
JUiftriam aMdluga m Java (ported a great deal mora than they do no* t
be the eb^ «m tui gnntmr for impregurtloo with ^Iton <5 ^tbat
apeeloa, rten oat, ou. or tiro treee llowetad, tb.a now. wbra . trtml. i
M*^ ***“**“**^‘***• •id'irfwied fomi
that the above temotka an milta eoniit^'^ ti..
the same wiUk .the like ektxaoxdtogxy amounb'^nf iMfluiiie This to
about U i>ar Mat, w taon IbM tbn* Sm that _,rL”
hath mtBtMBid and Uwittbf ntMmbtnnd tu»t ihtiiM.i(.Mti|ra«
liratit .Wrtige /«*•; *!»*■' f a»f!itii»»,-
' "■■■■ '■■- ■' ^ r"'' 'l'- ■ ■■
W K are vei^ |»)u«8ed tb tte lulwiitedtbiat HbliiAi. Butlier-
lluudftQoVtoUoco«fimGbgsi{te)teh)ai^l^ ate gMvg
rupldly great etedit teitU smdbeibi jiti ibbeitoiitry* laotpyeMgea
saccew abroad m well as at bditie. At praeeot only smoking
mixtoros appeay to be issued {but ve undsnUnd tbst oberoots wiU
follow to time. The mixtures areprbitohno^ to be e^ual to auy
Amerioau tobaoeo that oemes to Che obiintry/ and M, it to sold at
ouly half the price, Cheto seems to be little douhl Ol ite extended
auooese. Oredit to due to the Agricultural«Itopartmeut of tiio
N.-W. P. for having founded an enterprtoe which bids fair to
produce such valuable resu Us.
Duamathe past offlcial year 10><)^,010iba. of menufeciured tobeooo
wefe exported from OalqaUe as ngatnst 9,270.028 lbs, exported iu
1877.78.
Tha inefseae iu tobacco la entirely absorbed by shipment to Holland,
l^to may no doubt be attributed to the alleged imprevement to. „ and
attention paid to, tbeonltivatlon of Indian tobacco. Xt li well-known
that a great part of common cigars are manutootored to Bremen and
Hamburg, and are cheap. The Improvement to quality of Xudiau
tobacco lately has made it possible to uae the Indian leaf, It to said, and
consequently there is a demand for it. On the other baud, the exporte
to Italy have decreased eerlously, Those to Spain are nUt and the
exports to France, though shewing a temporary Improvement, are far
below the demands in 1874-76, and aome allege that the onriog of
Indian tobacco to BO bad that it cannot compete, except nt very low
prices, lu support of this, the total oeisatlon of exports to Spain, over
five million lbs. in 1874-76, to quotsd as proving that strict measures to
prevent smuggling, resulting in a'cessation of the trade to five years,
shews Gonctusirely that Indian tobacco ^cannot rival other tobaooo
on e^iaal terms. The deduction to that the ebeapueas of the tobaooo bos
tempted the Holland market, it being proverbial that the Dutch cigars
are of the lowest quality, while the general verdict of other countries
ia unfavoarable to the olaae of tobacco os yet produced to India. Again
tho oonsiimption of Indian tobacco is known to have increased very
greatly in India in the shape of cigars. Thto diminishes the quantity
available for export, and farther supports those who am sanguine as to
the improvement in the Indian leaf for quality.— Ouatoma UaparU
SERICULTURE.
rpHE Outpm Uoil deprecates the export of eilk wormc* eggs
from Japan, pointing oat that the value «f Japanese silk in
BiiropewiU increase in exact proportion to the dimltmtioh of the
despatch of silk worioft* egg cards from the Biwf. An export of one
million cards will, if the seed be properly ^hatched, produce to Italy
u quantity of silk one«tiiird larger than tho total atnonol of the
largest crop ever grown in Japan in one year. The se^ of one
tnillioo Japanese carions to annually hatched in ]litbiy, and there*
lore the Italian silk crop raised frdm Japanese eggs is each year
oae^i^d larger Htao the total amount of any crop ever gjtown in
Japau'to the Course of twelve montliA It to evident that if the
obnoxious import were to be diecootinned, suolt. great speeulatien
upon the future of the Buropean silk crop wouild ensne as to
cause an immediate rise to the prices of Japanese silk.
biuXfboMohisa.
* '' . ' , ^
WH8N ibeXm.4^, wop ot tUk t*U« • itn^, ^ain,a<l *,iiag* m
lot CbioM* lltk. AMjotaiai to UMu.S«t<wA Cidiw' •ira.lil
4«ted pwvMibi, tai
lUtiw BMm, iwi*^ iMtnd in^bwrfoai M to tlwS«leMia M«n Md
m<M« vm^mm bidk, .took dk4iaMd tt wiiMdyttl, ^ mom
«r<^ m-iw »>•»■ ooitMMij,rti'fcrt*,'MM to'Moto*
« 9 UMmi»e)k«ri^Bfto' •ad ,ri«w Uaptotod U. ttU Uu'Ctfkdto.
MrUw* • atofkod dMo«iia*U«a to *,111, «n)«pt Id Mtdn twtoiltoi,
atto^itot**,tk*oar>Mit opii^ Map, dbto iritli* ctMtiiMiMtoa
«f.th«pi*«(MlaBto»aa«)iUwMito«t.tk.(W^ alMidji rtrp tot*. to«n
-.™_-.
Siettfal
.,, .. Mutr
I|. tli«ri» .wi)Qiai|Qt
jt}p0n tiiiibnb tbp p«|^ op« la 1ST«
iM fiiM onder v^f jl^to' i»ir^«|tiia^, and Ilia
Ohtna ibal. y«fir wemilotdiilp t^blvTilma In 1871$.
Oot «flaali innpli Mnditiop^ would be to iiM>l! 9 bie % 4«eiaiid for
iUverib tb^Udli In pi^eat for tbe nagteOated obWption of Oblueie
»Uk^£ltt^0|>e.
Baw ii^k inpofted from Obinft intoflie United Blogddw.
COOO'a oiaUtea» tbwi 46 e^a lO.OOaO
Quantity In
Hm.
VUllM.
Avorags prides
per lb.
, n ■ r'
fi't
^17
s.
d.
1887 ...
40
60
1
5
0
1868 •«* •«*
90
303
1
2
9
1868.
272
819
, 1
3
6
1870 .
578
681
• 1
3
9
1871.
1768
1,810
1
0
6
1872 ... ...
2003
2.146
1
0
6
1873 .
8138
3,173
X
0
.3
1874.
2667
1,900
0
16
0
1875 .
8463
2,476
0
xt
3
1876.
4993
} 4.760
, 0
10
0
1877 .
8211
3,172
1 0
19
9
1878 .
8320
2,866 •
1 0
17
3
WO»K AS $HB riLASOid*
I N the de;e of old J'ohb ** the eilk meaufacturea of
Betig«l| under the fosterlag «4re of^old Jehu became of great
iinportenoe, and em after the silk wee given up» there
was BO moch oepitah *hd t|fo thrown, Into it, that it
oontinuod to prosper, and if reference hd'made to the old records
available in the « ^,¥,2 " and other o^cea, it will he seen that
down to a eery recent period, the exports of raw silk from
Bengal were very larged : MaUers then W<iut from bad to worse,
imtilinlS79.the great firm of ». Watson dc Co, have been compelled
to olose their filatures for a portion of the active working seasou.
'Xhie firm took up ttrn plkoo that John Company ’’ onoe filled
witli regard to Bengal raw silk, and at times employed over twenty
thousand skillod workmen at theip numerous filatures, and when
one learns that they have been compelled, owing 4o falls la the
market and oilier onuses to stop work for a time, 11^is only just
to oonoludo that sericalture is doomed in Beiigaf. True, tho
natives do ap onormous business in raw sUk, independent of
what the mhibi turn out,-*<and will keep tho mannfaotuid
alive,-^bat ae they do not oare about quality, and work mostiy
for the Indian market, tlio indusiry may be taken as virtually
dying out as a source of Q'Overnmeat ruveuuo. And it strikes
ODO as vely singalar that the Covernment of Bengal who must
Thb reports fiom the silk distriots are worse than ever, la
Italy tho silkworm cultivators have never had so bad a soason in
prospect,<^Ue mulberry leaf has been developed very sparingly
and is deficient in nutritive material, the result being that the
silkworm-rearers have been oompellod to throw away half their
live-stock, while the rest are sickly. The Spanish and Trench
crops ore also seriously iujured, and the Barox)ean position is
beat shown by the following comparison of figures (the estimate
being in kilos.), taken from a Byons journal of authority in this
special branch of trade
••1878.
1879,
Beficlenoy.
France
600,000
160,000
410,000
Italy
... 3,700,000
1,000,000
1,700,000
Hpain
65,000
40,000
16,000
Total
... 3,315,000
1,190,000
2,126,000
which is equal to a decrease of 04*1 per cent. Tho new China silk
is said to be fiue in quality but somewhat deficient in colour.
In a reoent report on the oommerea of Cbilau, Mr. Churchill, the
British Consul at Besht, gives some information about tho si’k industry
in Persia. Cbllan ie one of the most fertile distriots In the Shah's king¬
dom; almost any plant or tree will grow there. The peasants are
prosperous and happy, a day's work, it is said, will give a man enough
to live on for a week. Few of them own any iand, but they hold it on
easy terms. They undertake to clear a pieoe of jungle. Mulberry trees
are planted, the landowner having furnished the seedlings. Some
speculator, the butiniah of the place, contributes the siik worm's eggs,
and In a few years’ time the peasant is rearing his worms and producing
silk. Ho keeps a third of the produce himself, a third goes to the
landowner, and a third to the man who provided the eggs, and tho
peasant makes the land pay in other ways--he keeps sheep and cows,
bttfns charcoal, and grows rice. When the silk crop fails, the landowner
1# the chief aufiever; he has to pay land-tax according to au old
assessment, whltfii allows of no remission or suspensions,—
Me«T. MaxwaUi jhiriB, of Jarrow Ohemical Works, Bonth Shields,
writes :—X see in the Journal of fAs iSomsiy qi'' 4rtt for May 9th,
laenliouis made by Mif. Francis Oobbof tho Freuob so-odllod “secret”
for dyeing iusser silk. I believeU to insist aimply in the application
of binoxide uf baritim to the bteaoMug^and “ decrensage” of this
Bilk« The invention is one of the emanations of the |ei1;ilo braiu
of Monsieur TeiiMid du tfotsy. X shewed the process to i few
Meiida sehai| Uma ifidoe, in the laboratory of King's Oollege, which
was kind^ Mt to me lor fimt porTOSe* After this treatment, the
tusa^ sdbifie to Wff ^ otilomhi With the same faoUity os the
t»rfiiiiaiy slS^.evwn TV F^ooess Is largely
mplpM M IfimiMi Bels^ aist Othmr places on the
OonOmt*^ , ^ 1 ^
bo aware of tho state of tho silk busiuoas, am doing nothing to
assist it, and are even permitting it to die away.
Having this state of affairs in view, X purpose to discuss some
of the points that appear to mo to be causing a groat deal
of harm to the silk industry, taken as a business from its origin,
tlio rearing of cocoons to its export in Us finished state of
skeins of raw silk,—and I will be glad if you will be able to
throw further light on what 1 touch upon, us also point out my
errors. '*
To begin then, I believe that the existence, so to say of the
raw silk busiuess of Bengal, depends on three or four gieut
causes:
1^1. Seasonable weather to rear ooooons in;
%kL a good market in Europe to export tho silk to for
profitable sale;
'drcl Good seed for obtaining healthy worms.
Tho first of these causes is of couree In tho hands of God; wo
are therefore entirely dependant on Providence as to jood or bud
seasons. The “ bunds" when there is seasonable weather are
good, and turn out good cocoons, and tho silk from thoia
reels well, is otherwise good, and pays iu prodiioo. When them
is a “ bund” coming in, and with it bad weather coming on too,
a great nuinbor of worms are lost, a great many cocooun turn
out bad, the yields aro small, and altogether it is a calaniHy for
“ silk-waW«As.”
Tho sBoond of these causes is dependant on the outturn of tim
cocoon Cl op ill Italy and Ohina. That is, if tho ooooon crops in
Italy and China, are extensive and good, the European market
IS glutted with raw silk from Iheso countries, and of oourso the
Bengal sUk cannot compete with ft. The fiuctuatlou of exohango
has also a groat efileot on the sales of Bengal silks.
The third cause is one, that cannot afiect the silk business as
carried on in Bengal, except to a very small extent, because the
cocoon-rearing population known as “ Bosulas," buy only small
quantities of ooooona for seed at a time, and every village does
not import seed cucoous from tho same place: thus if there is
bad seed bought, it can alfeot only a few viliages at a time.
Of oourso Uieso three principal causes give birth to othem, and
unless they are all looked into, only a very meagre idea of tho
evils under which the silk indostry Jabom will be obtained.
Thus taking the second as the great cause on which the activity
or othoiwise oftho^sUk business depends, it behoves us to find
out why the Italian and Ciiina silks take prpcedouoe of our Bengal
silks. I am not iu a position to discuss tho question in its
entirety ; but 1 certainly am in a position to poilii; out why our
Bengal law silks are not so much sought after as they ought
tube.
The reason is a very simple one, the Bengal silks, evou of the
best brands, are of Ovou quality, that is, althou^i the silks
sent out by the best fiwna Irom BengaL are sold geaoraJly
according tu trusters, they are not< up tothe maik.tbey profess
i;o carry, and unless there is a radical and thorough clmngo
worked in tbei^dU&e of sorting the silk, thero will always bo
a doubt as to lts,qnaU|)rT«mustera notwithstaudlog.
X do nqt miaja U to be understood from this that tho silk
mwaufftOtdricE Mm» deedlvo the public, still less that the
THE mmAiJ Ai&EICUiTtJEIST;^
genttiHiieii etoj^o^ed by, t)toif gmui nort tlitf Ulllc with b h
P9,ha off b&d, with goSod i m ^rojta it Tho fimct m
fargwt Eilk manufit^aTiira k Bo&gol m beyond doubt ot ojiyU^.
tbo foremost Meicbcmt .finoB of 'Cndie, end wotdd lOora to
send bh inferior Brtido kto tbe market with the good bwd«
they owD, M erbeuOTer any differoooe k qualffy k^'iawatlk
sola by them la proved by apurchaser^ and brought to their potioe,'
they kaiiiute the most searoldog enquiries as to how Suoh au
article came to be issued through their agency* and they never kse
Buoh opportunities to admouisli, rebuke, and puuish all hands who
iuve hod anytldng to do with the trausaotion. Ifere 1 must digress
a little to point out what most probably the public does not Iraow,
Pit.that the raw silk manufaotttte in Beffgal is oarTiod on
under the superktendenoe of a few gentlemen, who have become
•0 accustomed to ancient formulas and routke, that they have
kept back the silk industry from progressing as it, like everything
else in these atining tunes, ought to have done; and so long aa
them genUetnen are kept on, and their patriarchal routines are
adhered to, the quality of Bengal raw silk oannot improve, and tlie
working of raw Silk will never be contiDuously rsnumerative.
Here must do the genltomon whom 1 allude to, the justice to
say that they are not io oe surpassed in all the province for their
strict attention to business, their probity, and faithful discharge
of duty, (wiitran eye always to tbo interests of their employers) ;
tiiey slso possess all the qualities that are attributes of gentlemen.
But they are so wedded to the old, old modes o£ carrytog on the
silk busmes^ that they oannot bring themselves to see what the
timos call for, nay more they cannot bring themselves to believe
that the outsiders who attempt to pokt out to them the changes
in ke silk market, &o., are any better than ignorant creatures, or
that what is being done now under them, in the same way that
it was done a century ago, can be otherwise than the oorreot thing.
With this as an explanation it will be easy to understand how
it is that all the exertions of the Calcutta agents to improve the
quality of the raw silk must prove abortive. Because when a
purohascr who has bought a bale of silk finds that the contents
of it does not come up to the high class muster shewn to him,
and complains too of it to tho Calcutta agents, they, as 1 have said
before, promptly send the complaint to the heads of their manu¬
facturing department with a sharp letter, but there the matter
virtually ends. Ihe heads of the manuketuring department test
the silk complained of, write back that it is very nearly up to
mark, d;o., and the matter drops. The purchaser probably loses
money on his purchase, and swears against Bengal silk whioh he
never touches again, or ho is allowed a setoff out of the rate to
make up for the inferior quality of tho article he has purchased,
and ia disaatiafied all the same,
I will now proceed to state the routine according to which raw
silk is manufactured and sorted in Bengal.
The silk is reeled off in filatures by natives under tlie imme¬
diate supervision of other natives, overlooked by a . who has
generally two, three, four, or more filatures to look after under him.
Tho joooons after having been bought, dried, evened, &<s.^
when considered ready for being worked oif, are handed out iu
small (known quantities) oaoh morning to aman called a ^'kattauee'*
or his assislatit called a ** pakdar.** The kattanee ” attends to tho
ungmuming of tho fibre from the ooooons and manipulatos the
same into threads of silk, while the **pukdar ” turns tho reel that
draws off those threads so os to put the thread into skeins . where
the reels are turned by the aid of steam, no ** pakdars are em¬
ployed.
Kowon this man, the ** kattanee/’ depends the quality of the silk,
60 far as evenness, color, and softness are concerned, aud if he
is a ^ood aud attentive hand, and will insist on his assistant
\ lotting tho ends of the threads whenever they break iu their
oourse to the reel; Wiiy, on him will depend the goodness of
the silk altogether. Here 1 must however lay down one maxim
that oannot be set aside, and that cannot be got oyer, and that U,
with bad cocoons no good silk of fine quality oau be made, the
best of kattanoes ” with the beat of intentions, nolwUhsianding.
In the evening, or middle of the day, aa may happen to be.
the “ kattaneos” fintah wotk, and tho silk each man has tnrnea
out ia inspected aud sot aside. Tho next morning the silk made
on the previous day is tested by tho native headman and the
assistant if he knows his work, is put up into skeins, and packed
carefully into largo boxes for despatch to hsad-quarters. When
there is a sufiloient quantity of silk made, it is filled in cotton
bags and forwarded fo tho head ofiice, where it Is sorted, tested,
baled, aud of course tar that, sent down to Calcutta.
From the above it wiil be veiy simple to deduce that
Uili/. All the silk of fine quality made from bad cocoons must
be bad ; and all the silk turned out by inattentive or inex¬
perienced workmen must also be inferior. «
Now these are two items that Messieurs, the silk managers do
not admit of as poitiou of the creed they profess, and iu' place of
it they substitule two others. ^
Ui/y. ** We never buy bad ooooons, and therefore can make no
bad silk from our cocoons.”
** We have no inattentive or inexperienoed workmen, and
there&re all our silk is good.'*
These two items may be taken as the fomidatioii on which.a
mass of enroiw and fmuts are permitted to rest. < »f«><ih|i|neiaoUlaMa
mischief, and so long as the silk immagets wlli divest ihsnii^
elves kil ippimt m ittWtoty W ,
4haiHy of i^s sJlk they make, iksy: will never os s^s
, mk nt a re)iaifie quality in the hijws ^
t will now proceed tq explmh Ishgth ss^
follows*. , " . ^ ^ ^ ’
Buppbse for instance them Isa mitixlje Jtab wdiks a Intndr^'
basins, it would be oaly natural tompeokiha^ Ike hoiuired pm
of hands representing the ** kattanees caanol Jdl tura out tho
same quality of thread. In fact it. would be eJ^eotiog laom
exactitude than human nature poiaeeees to expeot thM
hundred pairs of hands will each day, and every day* turn out ike
same quality of thread; and that none of the owi^pnt pf those
hundred pairs of hands wiU bo bf inferior quality* Apart from
this, even admitting that one hundred pair of human banda under
the guidance of one hundred ** Bengalee heada can turn out
an mdentioal article, who is there that will guarimtse tho
identical quality of the ooooons that they have to obtain tho
thread from 9 Probably one or two days during the month they have
to work off portions of the same batch of cocoons, and on those
days very probably the weather is bad* Anyhow, it is only
natural to expect that each filature turns out a quantity of bad iuil&
One would imagine that knowing such to be me ease, and kOoW
it every one ulust, the safe and only way to get at the good stik
would be to separate the inferior silk from it at the very com*^
monoement. But this is not done. Starting with the axiom that
** we make no bad silk, and all the silk that we make Is good silk/'
•«-*tlie gentlemen at the head of affairs persist in accepting all the
silk sent into them Os good silk, and thereafter they sort away as
hard as they can to find Cut if there Is any bad silk in it I Not
satisfied with fuis, the good silk is paid for at a higher figure than
the bad, nay more, the assistants receive a bonus only on
the good silk passed at head-quarters, (known as oommission)
thus it is • the Interest of all hands to help to keep up
the illusion that only good silk has been made. And It
is painful to add that if one of tho young men in imme¬
diate charge of a filature has the honesty to mentiott that he has,
owing to unavoidable causes, made some inferior silk, ho would be
set down as a worthless individual, aud so this system of duplicity
is permitted to exist, thrive, aud govern, what goes on at the
various stages of the silk manufactory, and of a necessity most
mischievous results follow.
The silk from an out-filature when received at head-quarters is
weighed and piled up on tho floor of a long room, (iu which some¬
times there may be half a million of skeins of raw silk lying about,
it is a wilderness of silk skeins) to be sorted as to color aud au
approximatiou of size of threads Two, tliree, or more underpaid
(for the responsible task they have to cairy out) native sorters,
are directed to sort the silk. They squat themselves alongside
of the pile of silk, and picking up skein after skein, they look at
the threads and throw the skeins so looked at on to different spots,
according to the quality they decide it to be of. These
sorters are all powerful, when they are thus placed ; to sort
the silk, beoause there is no one ([ mean a aa/iid) to
supervise over them continuously, aud if they are only
well bribed they make “no bones" at all to give the
person who has bribed them credit for having made very
good silk. In fact they have the whole floor full of sUk to pick
and choose from, and they make no scrnples in substituting good
silk for bad, aud vice versa, according to the interest they nave
to fill in the matter. At times the assistant who looks after the
sorting, or the general manager conies in, aud directs a second
and third sorting, but as those gentlemen believe that their doty
ends with such order, and they do not, aud oannot, owing to press
of other work, to wait there from first to last, to sea how it is
carried out, ibe sorters have it their own way, and as I have said
before, if only well paid they can always deoeive the sahibs.
Now and then by chance the sorters are “ found tripping *' when
they are punished—then for a few days things go on strright. but
they again relapse to the old state of affairs, and will relam to
it BO long as the system of sorting is not checked, and a well paid
European who understands the natives aud silk is not kept to
attend to the sorting alone.
V^iiile the eijk ia being sorted a number of akeina undergo
t» sting; this is done by opening out two or more skOina
a id rnrming off 2,400 yards from each of them, taking care
t( note the number of breaks in the same; the silk w run
off h then weighed. If the breaks in the 2.400 yards do
not amount to more than 2 or 3, and the 2,400 (mado up of
6 skeins of 400 yards each) weiglied skein by skein, do not
weigh more than the limit given, as the titre " the silk ia passed
as good, and a receipt ia given for it as such; taking care to
specify m it the oUssps it consists of, aocerding to the returns of
the sorters. In this mattsr of testing the silk too, the supervision
kept up by the sahib who keeps an eye on the sorting is merely a
matter of form, the natives chalk up as many ends as they are
paid to chalk up, and have the opportunity to chalk up: andf the
awn who enters the weights of tbe testings, generally works for
his bril^« The eod of It aU is that at the end of the season, thanks
to the effects of briber and corruption, a great qnantitv of b«ri^S
is sent away as good, and the Bengal eilh falta in the tmokSt aa
an article not to be depended on. At the cloSe of the aeasdn
theheads of 4ne buiiseiM point with prifo to the small qmmtftv
of bad silk turned ofit as a per centage over theytitf^ trj iMsiy ti t i jffi
M IMAl? AGRIOTJtTtraiSi;. . , S8f
a8«(dt«ixto More tlieoiL. end tih0
foil kti<^lile4ge iMihere»r 0 plentv bud workmen, bed eocooeej
bad wdrbiDir dey^e, and a doaen other etU eaoeee that muat, when
ofcd <6^^*****^^*oentage
l^owof amanwhoaotaally liadtheaudAOitytotakeQreditfor
havfai^ turned out in one bund ” about I0(> maunde of eilk out of
whieh only a few eeava were of inferior qaality and none at all bad|
and that out of a diatnre where the *^kattanees ” were known to bo
only (for the most part) eeooud elaee hande. l*he chiefs moat have
^known that it was an utter impossibility to torn out such an
f enormous per oentage of good silk, and so little that was (in pro-
* portion to the good) inferiofi and their own .experience mast faaTe
told them that there was a gross Imposition practised somewhere
in oonneetion with the matter, but nevertheless, they closed their
eyes over it and bugging themselves into Uie happy belief that
tbia wonderfal per oentaM of good stik was cfe /koto made, they
K romoted the imposter wno brought it about, and proudly handed
Is name round to others as an example they were to emulate,
whereat if justice were done in the matter, every one who had
. brought about such an impossible per oentage of good silk
ought to have been punished most severely. More particularly
08 it was notorious that this same man always managed to obtain
good maiks for bis silk at hie head-quarters, and his silk was
most grievously oomplained against by the purohasors in the
European markets, *
It will be seen from the foregoing that much of the raw silk
of Bengal is sent to market as first olaes silk wiiicU is not at all
of that description, and as a result it does not give and must fail
to give eatisfaction, and Bengal raw silk is abused and turns out
unsaleable.
It must be admitted that so long as human beings are as at
present, they will never be infallible, and so long as filatures are
worked, good, inferior, and bad workmen will work in them.
Thus, to expect otherwise is absurd, and to close ouo*s eyes to the
existence of snch workmen, ond to attempt to sort silk with a view
of finding out what can be passed as good, out of a mass of good
and bad, is simply attempting to searou for a needle in a pottle of
hay and to chance one^s good name to ruin.
It will be said if such are the evils under which the raw silk is
dealt with. What is the cure for it ?
Tho cure is very simple; to begin with, striko off and never
make use of that item of the old silk manager's creed, *' wo have
only good men^ good cocoons and make nothing bnt good silk
and in lieu of it substitute^just the opposite. Kext if a cure is to
be wrought, take etock of the kattanees " or work peoplc—and
divide them into thsee grades “good,” “inferior" and “bad."
Then make them nnderstafid that they will be paid according to
the work they do. It is a strange fact and one that an outsider
will scarce believe in, yet such is the oouservatism of old silk
managers, that the salaries of the “kattanees" never change.
Tho rice may sell at a maimd for the rupeo, or five jeers for the
rupee, makes no dillerenca The rates for labor may bo rising all
round, does not matter. “ Kattanees" are paid Be* 5
per month from time immemorial, they are still so paid
in tho old conoeniB. It does not make any difi’erouco
bow able the man is* or how long he has served, Rb. 6
is all he can rise to, or obtain. This of itself is a monstrous
piece of injustice, and it works accordingly. The silk managers
have to look with alt the eyes and ears they have, to obtain
a fair quality of silk. The men have no incentive to woik,
and often they can earn more much nearer to their houses, so they
do not care whether the silk is good or bad. They take no interept
in what they turn out, and very men too when they have a eaktb
whose every argument and aid is a fine cauo and it is used
unrelentingly, the men purposely turn out bad silk. Thus, cue of
the measured likely to improve the slate of affairs is to olsssify
iho work people, and to the first class hands, instead of paying
■ Its, 6 per month, pay Re. 7. This will put some life into
the men, and if they are made to understand that a single
testing of silk, if found inferior, will result in their being cut a
porikm of their iuorease, and further that they will even stand a
chance of being reduced to a lower grade if they make bad silk,
they will soon conform to the arrangement and work well.
Having .^owu the number of workmen each filature has of
each class; nothing would be easier than to estimate t l|g
(juantity of good silk oach filature is likely to turn out. Tm
next tbing to be doue is to cause the head native to send in a
statement daily shewing the class of cocoons reeled ofi each day.
Tho Boihib in cliarge when at the filature, certifying how each
batch of cocoon reeled that day “turuM.’* This means in
i ordinary language, whether the oocoohs unreeled with ease or
otberw&e, because cocoons that are at all defective In quality
never unreel with osae, and the fine silk from such cocoons, ev||n
when worked Up by the best hands, is never of the best quality.
Lastly, the at each filature ought to sort all the silk reeled
in his onarge, and be oomp<dl«d to sand it in to head-qnarters with
an invoice uhder his hand i^d Mgnatum certifying “ on his honor,“
that “.to the best of bis knowledge and beliefthe qualities of
silk set forth ip the said Invoice had been oprreoUy entered, and
thai; he had seen.the iUk sorted himself pertonaJly.
Osided by*such an invoice, with the percentage of good
workmen known, it would be^veryeasylbrtlieofiloiala at hoad«
qttwtoii tfi M about theii aortlng with abma chance of sttcoMs,
and the Oaloutta agents eonid also find It possible to cbedc the
passage of inferior silks through their hands.
1 suppose ihe outcry when fids is eaen will be “why, weshall net
have near the quantity of gopd silk that we will require to make
the filatures pay." Also “what shall we do with the inferior
silks, they are unsaleable.” This Is all absurd, because if the
agents will only take the precautioh* to advertise what they
purpose doing, and placing a high figure on their first class silks,
they will guarantee it equal to test, which they will be able to do
Bafely. Ho loss wil& ever ensue. As to the inferior silks they
will All sell. The natives turn out silk far inferior to that tnrned
out by sukths and they can sell it; in fact are never at a loss
to sell it, why then wilt the rnhWa Inferior silk hot seU ?
At present a hundred work-peoplo would probably be paid
Ba. fiOO or say Bst 475, becamse a few of them obtain less than
Bs. 5 per month, well, it would not make much difiorenoe if the
rate were raised.
Ten men
Bb. 8-8 eaohBs. 65-0
Fifty men
ISO
,, 5,3 „ „ 875.0
Thirty men
■ e*
i« 6*0 ,1 ^ 150-0
Ten men
«ei
,, 8-18 ,, ,, 37*3
Total Bs. 6i74
This would cause a difierenoo of Be. 70 per month, which
on an out-put of 19 seers of silk would be an onhonoemont of
about au anna and three quarters per seer; and when one sees
the advantage that will come from it, the enhancement will be
a Bonree of gain.
Before concluding theBo remarks it is necessary to point out that
the assistants draw commission on all the good silK they make;
this ought to be put an cud to. They ought to rooeivo a per cen-
tago on tho silk made, oaloulatod on its cheapness, that is, a certain
figure onght to be fixed for eaoh filature, and the assistants ought
to bo paid a per centago out of iho money they oan save out of
that rate. The managers too depend on tho quantity of good silk
they can send oft for their profits, this also ought to be put a stop
to, Tho managers ought not to bo permitted to push work for
quantity. Eaoh filature ought to be taxed with a cettaiu out-put
per season, and so long as they can give a fair per centoge of first
class silk, taking tho class of werkmon they have into considera¬
tion, not as at present through “ sharp sorting," no fault ought to
be found with them.
I will now end, and if you think it of sufficient interest to bo
continued, I will let the;,^pubUo see how the old silk managers,
acting under their old modes of procedure, “ rush " the rates, and
make dear silk, when they can with patioaoo end a little new
orgamsation uiako cheap silk that would pay, and so save their
principals, whom they are now in a fair way of ruining.
ON THE TUSSUB SILK OP INDIA.
[BvTuomab WAiiPJiK, Esq., F.O.S., F.Q.fi]
nillE following, on the Tussur Silk Industiy of India, is taken
from nil exceedingly intorosting paper read before the
Society of Arts. We have seleotcd frem tho paper only what
referred to Tussor Silk,—Ed., /, A.
IwxBonuoTioN,
Tbid iutereslittR and important suojeot has received so loueb learned
attention during the last fifty years, from both entoiaologiistB and eoricut-
taiistg, that It I a inqiOBaiblo now to treat oC it in a lecture without saying
innch that is not absolutely new.
Whilst, therefore, abstract nascarch may have but a narrow field left,
1 Lope that what 1 have to say may be nseful in Btimuloling a greater
utilisation of those products, which ate aa beanliful as they are curiems,
and in calling tho attention of matmfooturors, printers, dyers, and uaers,
to some most important improvoments and developmonts in eo^ of their
several departments, the result of a lengthened study of the exaot naiuro
of the fibres, and of new and improved modes of manufacturing and
decorating thom.
Amongst the many names of persons in various countries interested in
the oulLivation of wild silk-worms, Uie utilisation of their produoto, and
in the entomology el the subject, 1 ventnre to give the following lut,
winch wili bo found interesting by many, and will servo to show more
forcibly to what a lorge extent this impottani subject has been made
a matter tor study and mveatigation i—
Tuessa AKu Mooxoa Urouv.
Anihotm.viyliita (Brnry); Anthtfim purAut of authors; the iusicrt
tassur, or tusmh silkworm.—Theso well-known and valuable Insects of
taridtts undetermined species, are widely distribnied over Indio, from cast
to west and north to south, on the coast, and in the Ccniml Provinces,
They feed in a wild state upon the her, f^isv»A«ir jvjubaj, the bbhu,
('I’erminalw ulufa), the seegtnl fBomOuiP hpgUphyllum), Ao.
dirfAercsa nisaantoovta, (Heurc) ] tbe vn&i^koofhi silkworm of tbo
Assomesev—The wenae wldoh produce the mr^xankoone mlk ere stated
to feed on the addakoety (? Tttranthevd fp.), which is abundant in Oiqiet
and bower Asiaiii. The lilk is nearly whHti its value being fifty per seat.
Stove ttot of the meonfta*
ofCal^Dgi IUiiliafSo«BadittSii}gbho<>miCho(^
Anth&rm JPim^U^i {OmAt* M($n4f«-0«iieribed «i bftia« loipft
disitSotfofPoodii^arm bidding tt|>oii a <ip9o^M JSUfiphutf ih.^ f>mWl
(SytpgUmfamMnmnJt Btato4 to piodo^ Ibm btoo^ to g 7«i£.
Attlittmi Andamm (HoofeWAn aUied »p 0 fite»' to tU it^c. la-
j^obito tbo AtidamatM.
AMhirm friihi (Sfoore)«—HlmaUyM. A coisiln(^n special, ioJtoVitiog
the hot luWti'oplcal tallflgfs below 9,aoO fee^ koowa ooly es « wU 4 speeds.
The oocooa is itated to ho sUoilar to that of the tosser to fosot^ hut of
hoer sito.
Anihirm (ICooTe)<^Sihklm BimoloyM. This li « commou
speeies found to tho hot TaUoys of 6ifckim«
AnUtertea As«tH|t<f tltolfei^^The dfoonpu or Mi^oga of the Aesatoeso*
The moongtt illkeroxto feeds upw the trees known to Asmui ps the okampe
(WioheZfa ip.), the soom, kontooTvn, digtottee ( Aigbitica), the
patteo eheonds itt%urui oUuif/tAici) att<l the SonheoUa (vit, msuiralphgllA).
h is extensively enttivatod by the natives, and can be reared in hottsesi bnt is
fed and Ihriit^s best to the open air and upon the trees. The silk forms an
avtiole Of ex;poTt from Assam, and leafU the country generally in the
tjhape of^rei^*
iintowwa £toyUi (Moore).«-Tlie oak^eedtog silkworm of the
Uimalayas. A common speeiOi, feeding on the hiil oak (Qaeroui incma) of
Ihe 2S.-W. Himalayas (Simla, Masuri, Almoia). The coooou is large and
very tough, the sltk being pronounced as promistogt and worth oultfrating.
They oan be reared easily in the house.
aisTOBY OP Silk.
A few words on the sUk of commerce and its history may form a flt
preface to iutroduolog to your notice those wUd silks which it is my objeot
to doseribo to.uight.
Tho name sUk is derived from the n<imo of the poople of Eastern Asb,
whom the anoient Greeks called Seres, mad who^ no doubt, were the
Chioeieaad who were then,as now oelebraied for silken fabrics or eerie etuft,
IPiom sores comes the Latin sericum, the Frenoh sob, tho Germaa sekleri,
the Anglo-Saxon seoic, the leolandio sti&i, and the English sii/c.
Wo are informed by Hawae-nan.txe, in a Ohinese work ealied tho Bilk
worm Claasio, ” that T-oling-sUe, the prinoipal queeu of Hwaug-te, B, C.
was the first to tear silkworms, and the Emper w Bwu'tg.to was
induced to iuvont robes and garments from this oircmustaucc.
The queen and wives of the nobles through successive generatioa?
personally attended to the rearing of ihe silkg^orms. Alas! that, la these days
(li expediency, hurry and greed, the faith iu machmery should have so
disastrously stifled the better faith in manipulation, both iu silk haudioraft
work and the old love for the splunicg wheel, to tho detriment alike of all
classes, from the noble to the low bora, who hare been robbed of much that
inby*gone dajs contributed to the comfort, oeoapation, ond enjoyment,
especially of the gentler sex. Surely here is a worthy eljeot of reform for
our national art schools. That this silk was oLibe luulbcrry-fed kind, is
evident from a tnither extraot from the same work, which says that aOor*
wards, '* when You regulated the waters B« 0. 2200, inf»ntiou is made iu his
work OB tho tribute of the land adapted for the mulberry tree having been
stippliod with siUcwerais, from which time tho advantage thereof gradually
iuoreased. ** Horsfield and Moore’s Oataioguu, p. ery.
It Id not known whether silk was utUisod in India also early a period as
thid, probably not, bat that India learned the art from China is generaUy
undsTstood, although at what period m not known.
For more precise luformation rospocltog tho westward spread of silk
cnltuie X would strongly recommend my hearers to read Dr. Birdwood’s
nocount in his handbook to the British India Section of the Paris Itohibi-
tion. This learned history of silk wtU be read with much pleasure by all
who oan see in silkeu stuffii aomethiug more than a mere eommeroiul
value. The account of its ntili&aliou aud spread from Host to West id
described with almost the charm of romance. Its developmeut is traced
from its earliest days iu the Hast to its introduction at last into our
own ocmntry in tho reign of Henry Vi., and again to those sad I'cench
times of the pcrj»ccatiou of the tchgious Huf^uenote by Jjuuis ICiV,,
which drove their silk workers by a happy tide to our shores. Hew that
ikic bus to our own times returned to Fmneo, and cacried with it not the
workers, but the mdnstry, 1 leave for 8 ti^e 0 mei:t*^ttd they have much
to anewerfer-snd in luofaetoreto to think otef and relieve.
Europe may be told to have got hold of the silk Industry by a fraud ;
two monks ore aaid to nave brought away the eggs from Ohiua concealod
lu iheir walktog canes. A Slmilav aeeouut to well related by Be. A.
Walh’jcc of the way the eggs of the prised Tatna^mai etlkworuu were
abslraoted from Japan by a yoaug Japanese, wbo obtained them at the
iustigaiiou of his EuropciUi tutor at the lisk o£ lito life, tor this was au
nifcoce there punishahla by death, it would be but a small return for
the beuefits we have ohtaiuod to ourbolves bv those frauds if we chuU
teach these weaker peoples the beuch.s of the better making, and above
alt the mors friendly interchanging of stulfs and commodities. It is
wUh this hope that X put ihe wild mik question bolore, the Bectoty of
Arti^ that, haviug Indili, mtU {ti extousive wild <^Uh^^tlaos,/izt' our
fiosseision, wh may, by gentle means, teaoli to Impireto the
culture and pvdUtoiiiafy atdgss of its mafitt&atui.j, so that it may be
brought from them to a stAU At to be wed by ud, ,the purposes of
which* to tt« improved lUdet U il tMf w «ee ihe wordi ot
filr LemU Ma^ to i^e fiviA lieHer, of feittoottod t ^ ^
Iudia.offlee, ibat'* a new ahd veiy'pri^h^ji U U
tndiaj? ' , , ' ' , /''‘V- ' - ; ^
The natural hlstyiy of
From a small egg told by thdmot^df
sou a eigall torva, or oaterpilltor, or ngim, aii4 «ir«*ual^,o^W ,ir»r«
after Ntovtog lived its day, feeding <«ly oa the toavia, of oertoto .|daiitko|ka»^
raotorutioofUs ipeotoi,fpmi,or raltear/toatot^ u Bee .thread ol eak ni^
Itself, for oevertog and proteetloa duri^the ttom Ititol ^maut ii the
next stage of its existano^ As soon ae H toui eeeretd^alltiito ai^* U teig^
tote a pupa or ohryealto, and nuttAtoi inside Ito adkea mdl .until tha itoit
comes for its appearance ob an imago, or FVtocthisving" four scaly
wings, legs, and antenm liVlieu its hyber^tiou is endM, to emit! a Auid
which softens the end of its oooooa os^, and by means of its wiitge, iplncs
aod legs, parts the fibres aside until the opening is large enough for' it to
oreep out. After a short Ume, Its wings dry and eatoaud, to hm
entered into Us perfect state. It lives only a few days to this phuie of its
Mtotoooe, It m to this stage only that the raos is perpetuated, the tomato
layiog a number of eggs, aud dytog eo<m afteewards.
Tub Moomqa, Hoooa, on Muoa Bilk.
I I have here a silk produced from , tho worm known Ss the Ifhertya, or
I Moopa, Aat/ierQ;oow«v»ft(IIeHef),imd4atttr^‘a a«»M»a (W'estwood). liis
i found in Assam, and also sparingly in the Debra Hooui had il the next in
! importonce to fcussflr. Mr. Googhegan’s deseripUon of this idtk ocoupios
three pages of the Blue^^book on the silk industry of India, from whtoh 1
aostroct the following partdoutors
% The worm that gives tho common lawn.coloured mdonga sUk, when
fed on the most common plants^ a whitish silk when tod on tho leaves
of other silk. The plants it feeds on are named and estimated as follows
No, 1. CAwnpa (MtoMto).—The silk prodaosd from tile worm tosding ^
I on this plant gives the finest and whitest silk, nkedonlj^ by,the rajah and
I great liooplc, and to oaltod ehampapafetea mooaga. The threadimtd at j
from Bi. If teia ase«r(lto.1loiasa«wtoO m
*^Ko. 2. MnfranhuttV toaltod also addakuny;.-*-Tbe old treasure oat
down aud the jnogto ehout bhi^ and the worms m tod npon th4 tender
leaves of the offshoots for ou FOar, when the toares bseome too old and
hard for the wovtos. tiiik to soldf at Bi, 6 to 7 per ssas (ds. to 7i. per lb«)
**Mo.8, ^oms^Thto to the eommon tie^ et thev|oLntoy$ from
! the worms fed on ibto givto the finest tort cl toWD^lom^ tiUk
i istoldatB;s. Bitnd pet9obM8s.6d. todAperlb*) '
I ^(No. 4. SmUlbo Tsfrontitorn intorap%lk«-«^TMatoi4toA^
I of Inferior quality. This plant to mott nommon in Dlmkniiitoiwhnd about
BuiiaChekey. * ,
It 1179 .
THE INDIAN ACtRICULTDEIST.
289
“H#. (. IMibatm *«fcw»flw* i« i)«o bum Wk »f
iaf«i»r qmlltjr, UiJiliwtooMatJwai
»o* 6 . JCfiirw
, **TfaA»«oii|Awmdt«»% 9 !oo^ flf0 times « futt tei® oocowi is
vmy IsrgA, Hik;, 1 sqq] 4 <mly oblAia sillr« U 19 ^soe <kl vormi feeding
mi Hes. 8 1mA 4 , ft&A mftttutMjtnred into ehenfi idot|il for «3ie lower
<* lo^ maitd fAWtt4}oloiirit tbmds wnsbioff mnoli Wtsr Omo bidinaY^
■pw koomnlr aIqsi mid o^oiir till the Inst** ’*
O^higmi, <m psge lU bis XndiiAtSsr ol l^dio/’ says
^ Tbi ^o of tbo inssot is thus given
From «maigene9 fiwb egg to eommenoement
of ooeoon m. ... 30 days.
Intlwcoeooii... m» ... 90 »
Asa]&ol)i ... ... «M 9 **
to the egg 0 « »• •*• ^3 It
“ Total ... 60 days/'
1870, O^onel Hoyhinaon, the Commisiioner ol Aasam, gave more
modem dgmee :—
** U theaee appears that the soom forests (on which the worm is cbieny
fed; Dover an area of about 84,080 tores, of which about 16,000 are asaeeaed»
yielding u revenue of neasly fU, *08,000 (488300). By far the greater
fwrtion of the aeeessed area liee in the district of Slbsagar. T)|e prodaotioa
of the aiUe is said to employ eome 48,000 persons, but it is not their solo
calling. The Ottttttnl of eilh is estimated at upwards of 100,000 lbs, But
as it is admitted that the greater part of the silk is lAjierved for home
manufacture, this estimate cannot be regarded as absolutely trustworthy.
The pries of the yam per seer (2 lbs. varies from Bsi 6, (lOs.) to ^s. 9
(18».) in the several districts. smaU portion eiported goes to Caleutta
and Dacca. From the former place it ie said to find its way, to some extent*
to Bhaugttlpnr and Bombay.'^
** The Silk Committee, of the Agri^Hortioultnral Society reported favour,
ably on eome muoga eilk sent down by Captain Jeokius la 1809, and
expressed their opinion that the article was oaioulated to become of exten-
sive and valnahle nae to our home inanafactares.'’t
One acre of laud yields 60,009'fnuga silk 00000 ns, which yield -upwards of
twelve soars (241bs). of silk, price Its. b per seer, or 5s. per lb.
From Hr, Hugon’s doscriptioa of the mode of reeling, it is evident It is
of the rudest kind, and points to a remedy in the improved oodtiaenUl
reeling appUanees.
The following particulars by Hugon in 1834 are interesting :«»The
Uuga silk industry is confined to Assam and some Teperrah villages. The
quantity of laud planted with food tor the Huga was 5,000 acres, capable
of yielding 1,500 mauuds (123,0 OOlbs.) of silk. The silk formed one of the
principal exports of Assam. The average quantity was 257 mauuds
(21,0701b8.) valued at Bs. 56,054 (£5,605,) leaviag the country principally
in the shape of thread* Ho advocates the use of the tnoonga silk in
coloured fabrics, it being easily dyed.
Having only a very small quantity of coarse reeled 51uga silk at my disposaj
my oxperiments with it have been limited. 1 find it bleaches well, is very
lustrous, and takes the dye freely, bettor than tusser. Here are specimeus
of it in the taw, boUed*off, bleached, and dyed etatos, and also some waste
from ooooone for spinning.
The diameter of the fibres of moga silk taken from the external pk.rt of
the coGoon averages 1/1430 inch, but the external fibres are very variable.
The diameter of the iimsr and less variable fibres ie 1/lOSO iuoh. The
outer fibres will break with a weight of 24 drams on the average, but the
inner will support three drams. The tonsion of the outer fibres averages
one inch to the foot, and pf the inner 1$ inches. All the fibres are like
tusser, flat and etriatod, and united in pairs by their edges.
The following Uble ia given by Ur. Hugon, showing the nature and
prices of the various kinds of ololh made from moonga silk ^
, Siaeof I
Kame<^€iothjTarde and
' inches.
I
l|
Totsl.
Bemarks.
GooviaS
Ditto
Hekla
Joon BOftil
Uappor I
Ibi, 02 . s. d. I s. d. s. d<
X 80 in
K 1.4 in
20 in|
«| X Ik
012
9 0
0 8
X 0
0 4
2 0
30
10 0
80
5 0
13
40
0 4|
1 0
08
0 6
0 u
0 0
4 U
II 0
8 0
0 6
I 44
4 0.
Dhokies.
Petticoats.
Boarfii.
( Worn as lur«
bans, or round
the waist
1 Hade of the
fiosi, and worn
in winter.
Tuiana 8itK.
inownoittDtoM^pHfi4pAlib^i8#<tttay paper* t^c tasar silk, called
alDo tttsiDri t<j«tih> tdisWf tnseore* It is the product of the larrm of the
. ■ p I - ' .-11,...’.I.,............. .- -
0 INMifi** H P.f$.
♦ 14(4. p»|5» ;
ifibtlt AnahercM papAfo, of, tdqpfens. Xt is known by the foUowieg
aynm^s *
Phalmna, Atibieus papliia (Uonstus)*
Bombyx paphla (Fabricigt).
Phalmuapaphia (Aoxbnrgli).
Saturnia paphia (Heifer).
Phriiena, Aitacus mylitto (Drnry).
Bombyx mylitta (Fabricius).
Anthenea mylitta (Htlbner).
Attsens mylitta (Blanchard),
Saturnia mylitta (Westwood).
Bughy Silkworm, moth qf tbs Searbhoom hiUs.
Kolisuna stlkwonn, moth of the Mahrattas.
There is but little doubt that this silk has been utilised for many
centuries, both in India and Cbiua, but have not been able to'find any
account of ita ancient history*
For the history and other parUcoIavs of iussev silk t am glad to
ackuowiedgo my indebtednese to the report of Hr. Geoghogan. He
attributes the derivaUon of the word tusser to tuswru, the Hlndostoni for
shuttle, and states this eatorpillar to be tlie most widely diitributedias well
as tho most important, ot the wild eilk prodnoers of India.
One of the earliest notices of this inieot, or of a species very neerly
related to it, is given by the venerable Bnmphius, who was bom a^Hanait
in 1657, in his ** Herbarium Amboinense ” (dedicated by him to the Xi!ast
India ^ Company), Vol, III,, p. 113, pi. 75, he disoovered the larvia in
Amboina feeding on the b/angium casoolari rvhrum (Bwoptora coseotorfs,
Lim,), a plaat of the order of tsrehintaai^, t He says
** l^en 1 had kept tho cocoons for throe weeks, a moth came out quite
perfect, which was the most beaaUful and largest 1 had ever seen, which
biting away (the rilk), showed its bead, and at tho same time drew out
with it a Utile flock of yellow silk ; this the moth performed at night, Us
body,like all other moths, is a dirty yellow colour, and In length two joints
of a finger ; it has two downy horns on its bead, of a golden hue, and four
large wings, of which the two largest are about an inch long and of a golden
colour, bnt a purple lino luus through them transversly, and every wing
has, as It were, iu its middle a window-like eye, wliich is surrounded by
a purple circle, and, as it were, of the transparency of glass.”
The larvm, when fully grown, are abont four inches in length ; they
have twelve joints or articulations, besides their extremities ; their colour
is green, resembling the leaves on which they feed 1 and they are marked
with reddish spots, and a reddish-yrilow band ruaaing lengthways. They
feed on several plants
Bhisophora caloeolaris (Linn).
Termioalfaalata glabra fAssam tree),
Terminalia tomentosa (the saj tree).
Termlnalia catappa (eouutry almond tree).
Tectona graudis (teak tree).
Zizyphue jujuba (bet tree).
ghuirsa robusta (sH tree).
Bombaxheptapbyllum (fiemul),
Cureya spbmrica.
Pentoptora tomentosa;
Pentaptcra glabra;
Bieinus oommuuis(castormil plant).
Cassia lanceolata.
In BIX weeks from the time they ore hatched Uiey begin to spm their
oocoopB, which they most curiously suspeud from the branches of the trees
by constructiog a thick, hard cord or pedicle uf silky matter, which is made
to grasp the branches, as seen iu these specinicns.
Tusser silk is found, aa you wiH see by the map, over nearly the whole of
India.
la the Central Provinces, Hr. Qeoghegan says, tusser is uiilised in
Baipoie, Bilaspore, Bambolporo, the Upper Godavery, Chanda, Bhandora*
Nagporc, Balaghab, Seonec, Cbindwara, Betool, and KursingfaporDa
Bambulpore is said to yield 0,600 seers (7,000 Ibs.) of silk $ Halport, 6,000
(I2,000lb8.); BUaspore 000 (l,8001bs.) s and Chanda, 22,500 (46,0001bs«
The slik is woven and used in the provinces in miked fabrics of cotton, wool,
and tusser weft. Boti at any rate, in eome districts, muktabs, garnumtu
worn by Brahmins after bathing, cholees, women*a bodloes, and dopattag
aaddoTwas, seem to be made of pure tusser silk.
Captain Brooke! says
<1 In Seonoe a regularly organised and thoroughly understood industry
from the roaring of the insects to the weaviog of silk into elotb, with all
its accompanying machinery of trade guilds, moDoyJenders, Ao. This
stato of things is, m my opinion, no disadvantage ; for, tn place of having
to contend witli the diffloulties which, in India, always surround tha
introduction of anything new or unknown, the demand is all that ia necemup
to stimulate production to any extent required. Nor is this a figutd of
speech, tor the natural food of the toasar worm ia the leavee of the aajt
lendeya, and dhowra trees, aU of which are found hi every pact of this
district, and are, I believe, common to the whole of aondwana. These
trtoBarc,bo8ides,propiigatedwHhfaciUty,and, aafor an the requirement
oi m eilk insect goes, are of rapid growth j hence, If the eilk became moro
knownand better vulnod, and the profito fufiieioDUy attrsetiva, we might
t Oatolcguiot LspHoptecotts limbh P* m.
■280 ’ AGRl#i^ 0 Rr$T.'' ''
wttmMii A 0fiVfii9pmni of Ui« ia io
late 3 raar« p]<^« jft cmt of oof,ton. » 4om«tid
»pHsg m } m of opinion that ^
a»»p*jr emi ifc» n^lous of no iiiito]u|i3«»eat^wf and
<mty AW^tf ih» iflmnTao of high p#I<ie«. ijbo pfiaad^ l^hatUor
tiw PN)difoti«, dr my booomo, of anol) valtie a« to otfdnjiioh a ifafga daznanv!,
if OM, i^itliapg, that nsoro nearly ccmeartni trAdara tUaii XndUn adoi^oiatrai.
iiootf; *mi, *0 convinced am I of the ralue And beanty of «&« ftihdo that
can be woven from well-reobd tusaer, that X would venture to etrongly
urge Government action in intfodnclng'H to tU« markete of Bnioj^e,”
The worme require protection from birdi and ante, which are their
greatest anomies. The flwt oocpone arc nfede in Angusti and are eold, after
the moth has escaped, to the silk dealers at 4 to fi pice (1^, to M*) the
bnndred. The Dupierced cocoons are only sold to rearers as Beed« at K*» l‘'8
to 2 (8i. to 4s.) pec hundred.
C«pt»in Brooke ii»y.,«Ju^iiaa ana BUi»pogt, 0 «ntiiU Ptovinoo., Uio
learteg Of the worms is att^ded hy many ceremon ml obsorvanees, which
begin when the insect loaves the egg, and ara not discontinned ualii the
oocoons are gathered and token to the mrcr*s hoiieo, Daring the feeding
of tho worn»i the Dheemnrsioad llro» of the strictest abstineece, Kono of
the sex are allowed within a considerable dtstonoc of the trees upon which the
worms are feeding, and »f by ohanco n woman or impure mau patses near
the fowtttg grounds, the treos and worms are spnnWod in the name of logoi
(im Inoautation of tlio god Mahadoe, whom tUo worms uro supposed to
represent) with water token, if procnrablo, from a running strenm, and in
which tulsi leaves have been Hteepod. During the same period the Diieomuis
carefully abstain from flesh, fish, or haUU .as their food, nor do they cut
their hair or shave, and carefully deny ^lemeolvoB ell ablution. When the
cocoone are formed, thoy collect into a heap, ami a goat, pig, or fowl m
. .....;. ,-Tv^T—^ ; .
note the seas*, rad to'mllM i& |S2N* ^male
away, the Bight m hpcoim a1^«r ’Mdsie
extehdMan^4^v;T{b^ hut ^ring .th« lift Otrle
days ql her osteteli^!
afterwai^i ' The heir life'S We rh^dPi^'^et towhty Wan'; idehhn
days. AS yen will sen fitom % 'Um eksh, We theiili $i g flue
and handsome insect, mekittiiB^ acroei tU yrhsgs ebon^ six iftehei in ^ the
male, and about five Ihehisa ih ^,lhe Wihiale^, Ten MU notiee lilih'^ limilar
vitreous and transpareiit irihg elf WS ^eW. ^ ^^Hese
spots are regained with ehpersritibhs revethnee »atiViS,Nw^ eel in
them n resemblance te We chhkto et 'iSiiteeci hfUtle Vilhim; nnd are
therefore ihdaced to ooniflder We tteWn sawed
(fa fts Mneiatterir)
Bates of Subsogiptibxi.
In Indte.^Oae year, tncluding postage Bs* 12 0
T«^Jrwr<»pe.<- 0 n 6 year „ „ *, 18 8
Advertisemefbt's.
* Krone or Book Page ... Ks, 64 per mbnth.
Ordinary Page o. ... n 53 n
SAorifleed to fiXahadee m his form logai. the blood is sprinkled over tho
coooima, and, after a bout of liquor, are taken home. On the iMrd day
following, the Bheomurs shave and roanme their normal condition.*' ^
The caterpillars moult five times, at intervals of from five to eight dpys.
'Wiicn .first hatched they weigh b‘:f ono-fiftb of agrain, and ace about \ inch
long ; hut at the end of Lheic larval e^istcuc^, which is from forty t i furty-
five days, they have attained u eiao of sovon inches long, on*) inch fu
diameter, and weigh about 370 grama. They then begin to spin Weir
cocoons, which arc, as you see, of an egg abapo, and silvery drab iu colour.
The Silk is aU regularly deposited in a compact manner, resembling lu
thickness and substonoe the shell of an egg.
The cocoons vary much in sieo, Tho largest ^ have seen are from
Sumbulpore, and are two inches long and U incites in diameter, whilst
smaller ones are not moro than Umcheelong and g inch in diameter. Thu
weight of the largo coooona is, without the pupa and supporting padiolo, 28
grains i the smaller ones 8 groins* 1 bavo here an unbroken doublo thread
reeled for me, from one cocoon, by Mr. II. Moyer, of Milan. It weighs U
grains, and moasures 1,832 yards, or a little more then thrOQ<quarters of a
mile.
Mr, Oottssmaker remarks f i—
** As a rule, there arc certainly two crops in the year ; tho moths of tho
first batch como out in about four or bix weeks after the first lot of worme
(which come out at the commencemout of theralas) harespim , te^aeoC
the second batch remain quiescent until the rains bog.n again, that i.>' to soy
Until May, As this outails the chrysalis remaining In the cooooa as long us
eight meutlis, exposed to the hottest sun and ocoasioual thnudersborms, iao
cocoon had need to bo mode of u hard impenetrable material ; s<i
judcstraetiblo is it, that Bheels and ojiet tribes, who live in the jirngles,
use the cocoon as an eztingulshdi* to the bamboo tuba in which they keep
tho ** polita ’* or cotton*rope tinder, used by thorn for lighting thoir tobacco,
and the slow matches of thoir matchlocks. Tho cocoon is also cat lulo a
long spiral band, and used for binding,the barrel of the matchlock to tho
stock, being, as the natives t.4ay, uualfected either by water or fire. The
cocoon consists of two kinds of silk { what it first spins is reddish, and '>f
this the pedicle nod ontside network is made. This silk comiists of threaus
of dificrent lengths, but the lesi is generally unbroken from begiaumg t'
end. . • . After tho caterpillar has spun a layer of silk thick enough tu
conceal itself, it discharges some kind of gam or cement,thick and white, like
plaatcr of I'aris, and then, with its muBonlar aeriou, it causes Uie gum to
thoroughly permeate the wUolo cocoon and solidify thovraii. Xu this mannar it
goes on, spinuiug layer after layer of loops, and cemenUng them aU t^gotber
until the wholp of its riUcis eithausted, and the wuU c£ the ^^occon becomes
so hard, that it r'^v'rires A sharp penknife to out through it. Tho ring at
Uie end of the pedi le| which has boon spuu.^ round tho twig, is a most
neoesaary provision o;' .^laturc, fcjv it often hap pens thatciUief the»cater|fiBlur
has been unable to attach Us cocoon to a leaf, or that, during tho long rinte
the cocoon remains unburst in tlio. tree, the leaf or leaves to wl^h the
cocoon was at first attached become t^ejKirAtod frqm it, and then the cocomi
hangs snapended to tho twig like a berry.'*
After eight or nine months in the pupa state, a moist spot is obMrved
at one end of the cocoon. Tho moth i» now about to emerge both from ite
pupa shall and from the cocoon. It sacrvtes an acid fluid,'which softens
tho cement of the cocoon, and cnabicH li lo separato the fibres suMciestly
to altew its oreepuig out, it being, no doubt, fuwieted in this by its short
pointed spines* Tho head of the moth first appearing with its antenntm
--- - V ^ „—..
• osptoia Bvcoim asquotedin qt-oghegoa,** Bilk imlu-t, t ‘v
^ i Page ... ... ... „ . 26 „
k Page ... ... ^ „ 14 „
10 pel* ceiiU reduction on 12 month* contract,
Agents in ^London*
a KOUQK STllEKT, Bsq., CorH/ati,
F, ALGAU, Bsq., ...8 , CUmnU JCane, Zifndost
NIOXIOLLS & OOe, ... 1, WhiU'>fflari*gin6t^Fle6Mrs4t^ IS,C
UAT15S HBNDy k 00., ...4, Old Jewry, Unden, S.C,
Hbap Offics*-«>8 , OflotVRiHaHnH, CaieOirTTA.
(Weehhj Edition.)
RATSS or SOBSCBXmOR*
Adcaim Rale, Tom. MofiisHL
For 12 months ... ... SO 0 22 0
„ 6 monthB ... ... 11 0 12 0
Bingle Copy, An. 8,
Agent* in Ijondon:
GKOTiail! STRK1 ST,ISSq., ... CornhilU
F. ALGAB, Esq., ...8, Clemntsdmfi Unden, B.(J,
RIOIIOLIib ic 00,, ... ], IKAito^iarf.ifr^ei, JFleet*street, £1,0*
BATEb HSMDy k 00., ... 4, Old Jewry, U»don,E.O,
ilB&n Ovriofl-^S, CnowaxsoEaSt Cabovita. ^
TUB
STATESIAU & FRIEND OF INDIA.
BaxBB ov svasoaic wiew..
' tnetnding Postage.
Advance, Advance*
yearly ... ... Be* B6 0 Rs. 42 0
Half.yaarly .. „ IB 0 « 34 0
Quarterly ... „ 10 0 ,i, 12 O
OmU dalas at 0|lc9, two aam por oppy*
Oat/i dales m ih tStrssts, two ijinneto per copy*
BACK HUMBEflS AVAIUBU AJ 4 OOPY.
ALL BUOBCfilFT^KB UAKIIO WITBIH Ifl, PAYS Of A tMMC WIbL
80 0*^000 ’ AT T&0 AJtRlOA*' RAT08,
AgsMfltos iia Ki On flOlli t
KOBGB BTBBlit, EbQm ... ^ UrnhUU > /
. ADGAB, .M A iPUpnsiUiAdiW^ Undsm <?* '
lOHODXiS 00,* ... 1,
Hhio Osfxo0*f4^OkowiiitanwiL OAfiOmAi. ^
'' H4AoOsf|0»7^»Oeio||riiait^
• ihiUt*
A UOHTIILY
JOVBNAl OJP MIAN AGBlCULTUm MINERALOGY AND STATISTICS.
VOL. IV .3
CALCUTTA: MONDAY, late SEPTEMBER, 1879.
[No. 9.
NOTICE.
K ffn ftw AfljBociiTOBisi wiR U applied (0 all Sc^ooU and
MMmrkf in Maai W P»*<-
B. KNIGHT.
0*lcvit*) lit 187®-
Ijmutoae
ItiformaUtm Waoted
Salt w Manuro
7ho Vaboffany
Oa Kealiag SHb <
Honey * ...
Hedge!..
The Uoange Tree
AttoaUni Welle-*
CONTENfS:
Fagu.
a
Thb Gaudiw—
Faob.
... 291
Note ..., »*. ...
... 812
... 291
Hints on Melon Growing
... 813
.,.291
Culture of Alocaaias ...
... 812
,« 291
Fouibtrt—
... 292
Notes ... .
... 812
... 292.
Forests and Bainfall ...
... 313
... y92
The ludian Forosls Depart-
... 293
ment .
... S13
, 292
MlMKBALh^Y—
Teoeinto..*
JCeteghur Nofcee
Lbadino Abticlbs—
293
292
Improved Cultivation... ».• 293
Manurea nod *their ClasBifica-
tion .
Monar. MontcUt*! Method o£
A^ionlture on Bteep Xiand! 296
EniToaiAi. Noxnn ... ... 226
COMMUNIOATBIl A S£L«OXID—
Well Cultivation .300
The FlanUprodncing Gator-
pillar of New Zealand ■*« 600
The Vintage 0^1379 ... m 800
Salt and Salt Factories m. 301
Oats .«• .♦* ... ••• 801
Indian Tea Hietriata’ Assooia-
* tion ... 892
ludian Corn and its Varieties 801
Wattle Farming ••• ... 806
# ToaCnUnre 807
A Plea for Tree! .308
Cootinenlal AgtioaUnie ... 808
The Faitoral Bees — 809
American Exports—1«76 ... 310
Froteotion of Wood from Hot 810
The Separation of Oewm from
Miik .810
Artesian Wells in FondlchorTy 810
Olive tn Buunah ... ... 810
The Quango ... Sll
AgriTHomonltural Beeiety of
India .8U
Note .. 3U
On Corundum from the Khaei
Hill! .. 314
Iron In India.811
The Alpha Gold Company ... 8U
Origin Of Coal ... ... 811
TeS FLAatTXftS’ Gassttb-^
Tba-
Notes ..315
The BrAWbaoks tosaooess in
Tea.815
Forsoual Supervision necessary 316
CoyrsK—
Note ... ... ... ... 817
Frosnects of Ceylon Coffee ... 817
The Wants of the Wynaad ... 3I7
TbePlanteri’ Memorial ... 318
Coffee and Toa.. ... 816
Distribution of our Coffee Crop 818
Coffee in Fiji ... ... ... 318
Liberian Coffee .8l9
Coffee iu Bnufiil .819
A New Coffee Adulterant ... 819
dSCHONA—
Notes .819
Tonacco—
Note ... ... ... 329
Uooing Tobacco .820
Cultlvutiou sad Curmg of
Tobacco .820
BauTCULTUftR—
Notes .32t
On tbeTussnr Billc of India .. 821
The Bilk Industry iii Assam .. 824
Imurovemcnta iu Ueehug Bilk 326
ChiucsoBdk . 826
AnVKSmiSHENTS .S26
NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS, m
Oup Corre$pondeni$ and Contributcr^ will gnathj ohUgQ us
(f they mil taX:e tke trmMe, where the returns cultivation are
•eialed hg them in Indian weights and measureSf to give the^
English eguivalentsp eithet* in the (eRH, in parenthesis, or in a
/ooi^niflea The bigali Cn particular varies sc mud in the d\f^
Jtrent Ih’oyinm, that it is absolutely nmuary to gm the
Bn0isH italUe qf it haU oas&s* It would he a great reform
^iha the sam mrse in all the
COEBBSPONDEHCE.
LIMESTONB.
W
TO THIS ISDltOA*
Bir,— 1 iwnd you UerowHh % sample of th« pnmt llmeatone*
found it being broken np by coolies ns metal for the mpaif of the roads
the largo pieces nndefground and pwUnlly expovdd to vlanr were to<
maoh to be removed by piokaxes alone*
It was found about 111 mllea east of Hasaroebaugh* and 60 froi:
Glrldi, the nearest railway station. The quantity Is great, and thee
will be little diSlottlty In quarrying it. The carting would be the moi
expensive part, and it might oost from Be. 80 to 90 per 100 oubio foe
delivered at Howrah terminas.
Would you please let me know its commeroial value through th
medlnm of your journal.
AMAIEUfi lllNEEALOaiBr.
Hasareebaugh, 17th August 1879.
INFORMATION WANTED.
Sia,—Kindly let me know by dropping a few lines in anawefi whic
arm in Calcutta imports flower and vegetable seSds ; from where X wi:
be able to get coffee, cinobona and vanilla bean seeds ; where M
Buck’s book on tobacoo culture, &e., is sold ; whioU la the best book o
ooflee and other culture, and where it is to he got,
Either yon or any of your readers will highly oblige me by glviii
a detiilod description of vanilla bean oniture and sweelen.n
process. Ac,
Kiudly let me know where 1 will be able to get Sorghum smharaU
(Ohiua sugar oaue) seeds—from its Stock juice is produced for makin
sugar, &o. I was told by a friend that a sort of millet iJowaroi
is Introduoed here, from which juice is taken out for making sugai
whether it is a fact, or not, and U so, kindly let me know from wher
1 will be able to get the seeds.
H. B.
Qwailor, 12to August 1879,
BALT AS MANURE,
Sitt,—Auent the employment of salt as a manure, and Mr. Mitchell
BOggesUon lu the last para, of his letter quoted at page 265 of yo\
paper for the current mouth, allow me to inform your readers tb
from the opportunities 1 have had of studying the lubjeet of lar
irrigated iu the Gods very Distriot near the seaHioaet, 1 can affirm tb
upon lauds but newly reclaimed from the sea, and salt water swami
the yield in paddy is very large and compares very favourably wi
the yield upon older and well manured land In (he upper parts of (i
Delta. Them therefore, oonsfderabie force iu Mr. Mitchell’s suggi^
tion.
B. B. E. BaOCKMAN.
Oaptaln, E,S.
Tatijore, I2th August 1B79.
THE MABOGAHY TREE.
Bin,—deferring to your note on page 263 of your issue for Augui:
fegardtng the tecood uusucoessf ul attempt to raise (be muhogauy fro
seed sdppKodtO the Madras GovernmetUby thu BBorutary of Btate, at
youindiouiMBy of aUenMou fasfhgpaid toother timber trees as valoab
292
THE INDIAN AGRH^OTBIST.
SqjiAber i. WW*;
und toatnf in growHi Ihoo miihogaoy, 1 miaf tueiiiioti that isi*
ployed In the IViehinopoly dUtrkrt In 1871-72,1 pnt down, wherew I
was abl«y on roed |ii4ea m well M.dii rim beroie, oatUnge of
efwep taken from treei ^originally Igtrodncea into thl* dUtrtok hy
Hejor-aenerel L&wford bt the UMm Sngloeere.
On retuTUlng to thia pMt of ike preeidency eftor an absence ot
nearly throe yowii 1 wat tnrprleed to Ond that theae email oettinga 1
had planted had developed into treea 25, BO, and even 40 foot In height, ’
with diamelara at 3 loot obove the gronnd varying from 0 fnobea to one
fopt. 1 have watched tbeir growth now aince my return for a farther
period of three years, and am asloniebed at the rapidity and vigoar of
tbeir growth, U the mahogany prppagable from onttf nge, and may not
the seeds cent out by the Secretary ot State have been taken from treea
propagated In tbiamanner ? U la, I believe, aaoerUlned that the
aeeda ot treea grown from ontllnga batenogerminative power,
Ih B. E. BBOOKEAN,
Captain* B.B.
Tenjore, 12th Angoat 1872<
ON KEELING, BILK.
BiR,—la an early number of your paper tbta year, I observed a
number of cpieatlona relatlse to Bericultore, espeoUlly with reference
to the '* Tnaior Silk Prodnclioo,” among them, an important one, vis.,
*’ The method of reeling from tbe cocoon, and wbat to nse to eoften
the cocoon to enable tbe recler to lake off one thread Inalead of two
or three together," ns I find the nail re reelers do. 1 should be much
obliged if you could refer me to ouy paper of yours which anawers
this question, or to any authority who 1 could apply to on this
important eubject, as I am much iatereaUd in this industry, and
much oblige,
PEROlVAL BUBY,
Banoheo, ChotaBagpore,
Misra, JstU Angnat 1870^__
HONEY.
l^ith refoTonco to the article beaded “ Sweets by the Ship¬
load in the AgricHltuM of the Ist July 1879, page 284, I would be
very much obliged if you could let me know where 1 could get a work
treating of honey in all its details, ie., from the Irainiog of the
beehive to the separation of the waa from the bouey,
1 have enquired from several sources, wheco snob a woi k ci jld be
bad, but to no purpose. My object m tbeao enqnities is tbe carrying out
of e project 1 hayo conceived of making the subject a source of study
for myselfi and perhaps a source of profit to a fnend of mine who owns
a small estatelu these parts, which doubtless Is most suilablo for my
purpose.
Nalui Tab 18th July 1879.
HEDGES.
yjB,—Will you kindly inform me which Is best plant for hedges,
I mean for Bower gaidous.
UoDing you will oacuse the trouble.
^ UALIANBIN DESAI.
Droacb, 7LU August 1879.
THE GUANGO TREE.
iXo m MUor ii the ‘ Pioneer')
giB—The ‘‘gnango” tree, to which you oUuded in your Issue of the
30th ultimo, must surely be the same as was iutroduced leal yew under
thenameof the"ralu-tro«» ' ftthecohliiium fmatt). Nur was this us
first introduotiou into thisoomity.es there are fine epommeas In the
Uutauioal aardens, Oaloutto, ui-waroa of sixteen years of age. This
tree ought most ocrtnmly to bo extensively planted In India, wherever
the climate la likely to be suitable lot it. In order to secure the double
benefit Of good ahado and excellent lodder, The result of trials at
Sabarunpore are not in favour of its beiug planted so far north as this;
the cold Is too great, and the air probably too dry during a eoMsIdetabl^^
portion of tbe year, i have already teoelved an application for some
seed of the “ guango” tree, and expect many more in consequence of
your recommendatory remarks. You may perhaps consider it advisable
to make kaowtk how iM it promieei to be useful in this country.
^ J.E.DUTHIE,
I^TEBIAN WEIfS.
f fh th0 0/ ty *
acontnbullon to the.disouwie* 0^ Ai^i« weJIii wbUh :
the long and severe drought of the tost ehiiulhee hie ilvea t\M6 M
iu yoqe columns, I am induced to give yon thelotlowlhw purBcolafl
of a well tuck in this neighbourhood soiae fourot Bfo ycarislflQ»i
which appears to tue to partake eomewbat of the Avtcifaii priuolpiCi
and may^ therefore afford soinC data to *b«w whdae nieiiMtiei foi
ineurihg a supply of pwa and wholesome watet lor their or other
puTposmi compel them to have reoourse to well-sloklng. The well
to to «» to. KooroBgrfi B.toto. .bMt Sw «»« <nm I^.
lh« ptoMrt, oJ Mow.. KDJght widI.jdtotd,«i»lwipI«au»UB»W
uaob d»ta«dtoto Md known to the MiUw iw
as the Tower-hill Marsh, It was intondeed to farnfsfa a supply tor
the use of the etock on the estate, and woe obtain^ under
the following olrcumetaooes.--A shaft was sunk about 40ft^ iu deptht
wilbottt succeeding in finding water, aod its abondpumeUt was con¬
templated. As a last resource. It was suggoeted tha4 a forlher trial
by means of the earth augur should be made, which accordingly wa
done to a depth ot about 12ft. The withdrawal of the augur was
immediately followed by a stream of water so strong, that the work-
men employed were glad to n^ake their way to the surface M speedily
a possible, leaving their working tools behind them. Ou l|M follow-
ing morning It was found that the water had risen to i^hlo 6ft*
of the surface, and up to tbe^present time bee retained that level
uDdlminiahea, though affording Ihroughout the year an acbnadanl
supply to a largo number of stock on the estate. I may also slate
that the site of the well is near the base of a considirable plateau,
having an elevation of at least 150ft.—Yours, dto.
M*
TBOSINTB.
Sib—O aa you tolotm mo Ibroagh yout pspsi wk.r« lUe Med
of tbs new fodder-grua died Too.tota (end mentioned to
you, nomber tor Augeat W), o»n be pioeut<4. I em at»ion. to
try it.
W. a ItOWLAND.
UendspuaUr, Sootb ladle,
I6tb AugMt 1879. ,
KOTE«HUB NOTES.
tJjB —The naalber dating the peek mouth bee been Beliefeotory. We
have’bed plenty ot tem. but it bM come to regular toWe. well .preed
over the month, with «unny dey. to between. There have bton no
■udden downpour, foebing away rood, and torteoe.W8ll. win former
voara and there hate been a snffloient number ot dry intervale to
allow tbo rnto.wntet to dtoio oB. and ao prevent the tooU ot pUnI,
beeoming watet^logged. Daring the latter third ot the month, heavy
miul. hang ahoot, e.peci«lly doting the morning., A lltUo more eon
would bavo been benettelal j but wo muet not graotble, as the weather
duiiug the monih he. been a. neat pertaoilon a. U could havo^,
been.
The following la a comparative table of the past 6 seasons
1875 .
lUuiydtvyi
n
Very wot.
ISTC.
1677 .
1873 .
18
Hot and oloso
at. tbo bogfu-
fling.
10
HKceptlonally
dry month.
ItAiTiy sdafion
(^ropia AUKured
from dronglit.
tjoino of ibe
corn not rflai>-
cd till mul of
month.
16
Growing
alioweri) at the
beginning of
tbo month,
llot find ohMo
towards the
end.
18 tS.
SU
, Eitio grow-
ttelther too
Ihoiivy nor too
lliglit. Tom-
Kephytt pleyin* lightly ehoat; .lUM thunder end lighting) the
eveuiugs tolerably clear.
The thermometer CPehr.) hung to aa oped voraudak, W. aipeet, la
about 67. to tbe morning, 70« to tbn evening ; lowml 6t», bigbert 7«“.
The pomegianat* (fern, omw) la ont with iu acarlat bloiaom.
LlUsa ot the vnilay br.tn great ptoluaien, they li»va hut a riiglit aeant
thoagb. XhaprattybtaetorgaM«d.»ota ate atao oat to giMt
m i,f , M well M a giak gniUKUotthU. FHu In gl«^i VM
IHDUN AC^RiqUI.TUBIS'r*
■ri-ij . - j y ^ _ __.
g^l^ti^i tn' TJi« pnrplo liefi'iM <»l Me Wb«rry (rem.
k0mM^ uri HpOf ludof ixaiag piok^d im# i»tfi| hf ihdTUlif^t obildr«Q :
twrry dMorlpti«p> fi a>ed to l|Krattrffplirf}g; the root
'{vitmji k awd «• a 4ya tod '«• » oloaSivotifo* Tbo toorlot po*
, ioilUUiij taake tke ttoontoio oiileg Idbk qatte brtlitapt. Deimodfoms
<vorii« kat/0 pot; barkmak«a paper ai^ aa(rang rope. The Virginia
oreeper le now fn groan laxarUnoe, t#e ononthe benoe it will begin
loeaeomeKaepleodidficarlet boea ol autoino. WUd'^oat'a tail out;
b^daa otbera (oofivnierotts io maatJoo. The aearlefe fruit ao tnuob
feaambtlDg a atrawberry of tbo wbite*petoll«i poientilla ia now
out. ' ^
The birds are fending tbeir yooOg and ** bringing them np ** lor eomo
aportanan ro ^ bring (bem down.*' A ooople of monibi or ao benoe,
pheaaanta promiae to be pleniiffll; froga are abont in great nnmberi,
and on ratnj daya slug lend longi of gladneM ; graiaboppere in plenty,
and treat ua to their abrlll tonga.
Food-gratOa are at the tame prieea f the late barreat haa not oauaed
'any reducUdn in prioea^wheat at 8*10 aeera per inpee. Daring (be
firat part of the month the riJlagera were bnay tranaptanting tbeir rice
down in the valley ; riuring (hlatime nearly every member of a family
poaseaatng rice groundr goes down to aialat in the operatioot which
oooupteB many daye. The family remain down until the fields are
QnliHed : the work ia nnhealtby, and many od (he (nhabitanta lay in a
stock vf feveij^rhioh laeta them for many weeks after tbeir return to
their upland umnee : the work baa to begone in *11 elds fioodcd with
water to a depth of els to nine inches, and so what with the wet under.
Death and a hot anti overhead, with miasma arielng from the decaying
weed! which are spread over the fields as manure, it cannot be wondered
at that the cnllivators should suffer from fever; and yet with this
great drawback, every aemiudar tries to obtain a little patch of rice-
ground. In the uplanda, the viltagera have been also busy weeding
their Indian corn (came into flower about the third week), amaranth,
miliets, bill'polatoes, upland rioo, audothet summer orops; alt of which
give promiae of a large yield. A portion of the villagers are away at
the up{)er pastitragea with their flocks : they went np last month and
will return in the brgiuuing of September.
Grapes are beginning to ripen, figs are ripe. Down in the valley,
pears, maugoea (small, us they are near the vertical limit of tbeir
growth) and quloosH are ripe.
pforomentg. Wl^ktofor mney is re^tiired ootild bo obtflinod ia
JSnrope itt four pdr aud tiie sum rofoirM mtild not be
muoli viewed b eoun^etlbii with tbe amouhti^flbef^efife it would
confer on Ibe ruyat* We would suggest tbe ostublisluuent oi
agricultural banks all over tlie country^ as a first step. It is
n<^''>bjection or answer lo thiSy^ ibat if it would pay, private
enterprise would have stepped in long ago. This is not so» for
the success of ibis scheme would altogether depend on ibe
principle of htlvances being repayable in grain. Ko private
banks could attend to this system, and to compel the rayat to
repay in cash would simply bo to drive him agtuu into the
arms of the bunla. This is one reason why the bunia has
naturally fallen into this class of business; he has money or
its equivalent, good credit, and lie has no difdcnlty in meet-
ing Uio demands of his constituents where he sees his way to
good securlty^that is to say, to the coming crop, whicli must
be free from other burdens. When the crof ia ripe, he has
his obuprassios in attendance to see that his principal and
interest are duly delivered over. The grain ho gets in this
way exactly tits him, as it is his principal article of busiaess ;
but it is vastly dilTctont with European banks. They could
not possibly have any chock on the expendituro or I'eturn of
their advances, and it would bo quito out of the question for
them to receive payment in grain, which they would ultimately
havo to hand over to the bunia at Ms own terns. It may bo
advanced that tlie same would apply lo the Collector who
would havo the oversight of this scheme; hut no, the Govern¬
ment could attend to it at oven a less cost then the bunia,
for the staff to see to it is already at hand. The whole busi¬
ness could bo attended to by the tehsildar, who has his put-
warecs and village ohuprassios already on the spot, and who
arc, as a rule, not overbnrdoncd with work. Wo would suggest
that small sums should be advanced at the commencement; of
In the kiloheu garden, Jerusalem artichokes are geltiug oa ; scarlet
rtiDuers io blossom. AtLicbokes and tomatosa ready. The vegetables,
already uentioued iu provioos months, are most of tbem still yielding
in more or loss abundance, Deana laxUrians transplanted. That big
pumpkin 1 wrote about last month ts still growing and iuoroasing
in size. Indigo from the plains sown as an experiment. Tho flowers
are bcouliful, oonvolvulus being in perfection.
G. p. r.
Kotogbur, 3lat July I87i).
Otiic dtttliait ^si[ri[tt!fm[i5jf.
Jt _____
CALCUTTA, SEPTEMBER Ut, 1879.
IMPROVED CULTIVATION.
th
T AST month wo promised to look into the important sub¬
ject of wheVe the funds for the suggested improvements
were to bo found. In those days economising, it is dii^cult
to find money for any purpose, oven tho meet iisofol, while it
seems impossible to do so for objects of doubtful or disputed
Utility, As this matter surely comes under the head of use¬
ful purposes, the money should be available, even if with di01-
etiUy* l^ononay ia a relative ter^; it is often considered true
economy to gave at^whatever cost, whereas it must be aomitted
that to SAVQ a shilling now, is not true economy if it will
result loss of a pouhd a fhw years hence ; inversely it ia
e(|uaUy ,^rus thath smm of ‘ money spent now is not extrava¬
gance if it Will Vesnltr in manifold profit tn future years. We
propose then that tho^iaie should find the funds for
the season, and during the time the crop was growing, such
sums to bo repaid, with interest at the rale of six per cent.
I per annum, by grain, the price of which shall be tho market
I value on the day of payment.
In the bunia’s case, when advancing the money, he fixes
tho price in one of two ways; ho either fixes an arbitrary rate
per maund, which rate ho has over moans of knowing will bo
immensely in his favour, or ho compels tbo rayat to agree to
pay him at so many soors per rupee more than the market
rate at tho time of payment. If the market price of rice be
16 seers per rupee, he makes tho rayat pay him say 21. This
excess is not to cover interest; oh no, that is added to the debt,
at tbe previously stipulated rate, which may be, and freq^uent-
ly is, between 37^ and 75 per cent, pet annum, the former re¬
presenting six pies per rupee per monrii, and tho latter one
anna.
The Government would in this way be collecting grain from
every district in Indio, and to save loss by a resale, should send
it direct to the nearest seaport, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay,
Kurrachoe or Rangoon, whence it would be shipped direct to
London, tho proceeds going to the Secretary of State. Some*
times a small loss would accrue, but this loss would never
amount to what is lost by remitting—that is, by the sale
pf the Secretary of State's bills, which is now about 17 per
cent.
In addition in this, tbe GoYcmment ought to t^e tlie
trouble of procuring good seed, and supplying the same to the
rayat at cost price. From Dr, Forbes Watson's report on
Indian wheat, we find that in every part of India there are
varieties of wheat growing which compare favorably with
wheat from any othj^r part of tho world, and it should be tbe
aim of Gcpreihnii^nl to obtain seed of those qualities and dis-
ti'ibute H't<> replace tbe vast quantities of rubbish that are
grown all over the country. Again, Ooverrimeni could at very
small cost introcliice superior hero and there for bieoding
m
THE IWOIAiW A^IctotTRlSI?.
pwpowB, En4 2ti otlier wnye impw»TO tlic oonditioui of
tJio impovflrieliod ^ re^tpre tlia fujictnaos
of ibo comiiryi reniiioro once and for all tUo stigma that is
boing f0^gh.t«fpmd noiimjmtly^to bo fixed on India of her
state of baifilsmptDy*
Therayat having nothing to repay to the lender but the
principal ^ fair and reasonable addition on Inlereet, and
not being compelled to soil hie grain to meet theMaini) wonld
very epeedily work bimeelf clear of tho bmiiai and soon be-*'
come the real backbone of tlio country*
prcteoM seseion afUr ses^tt against ^avegene^ corruptlaUj an^ ^
lncompelency,-*ceitaiidy now-a-dayB)#b)^ mittruggle lor exiatot^o
and ^te aorvlvAl of the fittest are f^ota brought home to most
men*! conecioosness^ every possible metms iliat may fairly be used
lo meet the exigencies of the presenfi ought to bo cat^efully '
studied and brojught into praotioo*
Manures may, be claswfiod io soyeral way/i, apj&ordlug to the
vtOMr'poini of the classifier. 'Phey inay.ho claseifi«d io ||Ue thfee,
following ways.wiili suHlcient exactitude to answer most pb^osesi-r
Ititf as to their origin; 2sd, as to iiteir ootnposilion;
as to their uses.
Tlio only real ObjccUou that might be raised by hypercrities
would be mterferenco with pvivalo snteTprise. Wo admit the
ploa»'but uesert that when the legitimato trader or banker has
. cdearly abuaod his all but absolute monopoly, ho must not
oljJtoMorts being jinraded by those who will work it honestly
and fairly to all concerned. It is of no use to say that the
bunia only exactshis bond”—only takes what ho is clearly
entitled to take hy tho agreement ho entered into with the
rayot, as we know when a man is in dire want of money ho is
not entirely a free agent, atid must agree to almost anything
the lender chooses to propose. Wo will reserve for a future
occasion what wo have to say on the duty of Government to
endeavour to introduce a better system of agriculture by
example and precept. This leads us to the use and abuse of
model farms, about which we will have something to say in an
early issue.
makuhes and theie classification.
T HEUE aro three methods adopted to maintain and improve
the fertility of soils j—
UU Fallowing ; %d. Rotation of Crops ; 3rd. Manuring.
Tlie soil contains on inoxboustible supply of luiecrsl food,
not of course oU avoiUble at onoe, bot only so much of it as the
natural procoBses of disintegration, mechanical and ohemicai, are
couBtftutly liboratiiig. It may, we think, be as safely aaopted that
lUo air, water, and tho soil conlain an equally juoxhausiiblo eioio
of organic food.
Ithos been hold that ammonia (nitrogen) exists in nature in
such quaulities that, with farmyard mamiro,it is quite unneces¬
sary to supply it (nitrogen) in artifioial manures.
Tho following oxpetiment, coiiduotod by Mr. Lawes, extending
over eighteen years, we think may bo held us conclusive lu the
msltor :
Tu'o plots of land, side by side, for eighteen yoors wore
manured alternately with ammonia saUs and phosphate of lime.
In 18/2, plot No. 1 was tieated with amuj-wia, plot No. 2 received
superphosphate. In 1853, No. 1 got superphosphate, and No. 2
ammonia ; and so on for eighteen years. Thus, each plot had been
nine times manured with airnnonia and nine times with mineral
phosphates. Over the whole lime the avernge produce of both
was exactly the same, 24g buBhele ; but the average of the eighteen
crops grown by mineral manuie alone, whether on plots No. 1 or
No. 2 WEB only 17| bushels ; whilst the average of the eighteen
cropagVown on eiUier plot by ammonia salts was 31| bushels,
being an increase of nearly 14 bushels por acre more each
year/' These results, t nfirmed ;|l»y Veelcker, aud tested by the
practioeofagriculturistsjh, a general way, may be safely accepted
as conclusive. *
Whatever may have been the practice in times gone by, when
land was cheap, aud held on favourable terms, with comparaUvely
little tnnehiuery in use for agricultural purpoatw, and when
competition had not assomed the proportions that render it
imperatively necessary for the agriculturist to avail himself of
every legitimate means of iuereasiug tlie weight and quality of
crops,—when agriculture had no existence as as science except in
ibe brain end praoiiee of a few men much in advance of their
lime, like plidmire, of Cuiiiberlaud, who sowed those idaaa^whicli
tho cleur-beaiwl Ciimborlimd oyi*3 iW 'llirth
have certaiiily not let di^ and who side by sidu a yth dolireph
UnuM in the daynlons befoN libenllem became (e^^c^s,
Fii% as 10 their ; they may be regarded as mther 1st,
Natural; or 2ud, Artificial. This division makes a clear distiacliou
between all substances used as manures which are produced wlUi«
out man's interventivu, and those which aie tho product of the ^
iugonuity of man. Under ilie former, natural manures, such widely
different Bubstauees as farm manurea, guano, nitrate of soda, lime,
and natural ptoducts such ns these are classed together, although in
another view, guano, nitrates, lime, &c., tliongh natural products, are
nevertheless artificial manures. More correctly speaking, however,
the term artificial might fie used to indicate those Bub^|moes mani¬
pulated by Ute aiL ef man to servo his purpoBes ; aud '^ley would
embraoo every manufactured substance introduced as a fertilmer,
such as dissolved bones, and mineral and bone anperphosphatea
of ail kinds, os well as those compounds prepaiod by manufacturers
to meet tlm wants of partionlar crops—lea, indigo, coffee, gross,
lM>tat<^*, turnips, &o., and sold mider various names. Manures might
also bo classified either a»lo their origin or composition, as— 1 st,
animal; 2nd> vegetable ; or 3i'd, mineral; a classification uC this kind,
however, is of so vague ami general a character, as to render it of
little practical use.
Samid, Manures may be classified as to their composition, as
either, 1 st, General; or 2nd, Special. A general manure is one which
will supply to the 'soil and consequently to tho crops grown on
tho soil, suifioient plaui-food of all kinds, to keep up tlie
continual fertility of the land. Roof, mutton, woo), wheat,
iiuhgo, tobacco, ion, coffee, &c., cannot bo taken year by
5 ear from Lho soil ; cannot be sold oil the land, and loavo it in
the samo position it was before this proceKS began. The speed
with whicli crops and products of various kinds are piopaiikl
for ihu market is much in aclvauco of tho slow natural agencies
which are continually acting on the dormant coustiluonts of tho
son, and changing them into soluble plant-food. A general
mamire prevents, or at least retards, the consumption of the plant-
food in tho 8oi),4nd makes it possible to go on producing crop
after crop, with as much speed ns the natural laws which govern
its produotion will admit of. If added in sufficieui abundance, it
may enrich an otherwise barren or profitless soil, and so enable it
to bear a crop that will more than pay the coal of production.
General manures, then, must always bo the most important, upd
no others would he used were it possible to obtain manures
the exact composition of the crops to be raised ; this, however,
cannot be accomplished, and so it comes to pass, that ihei*e are
always accumulating ill tho soil vast stores of plant-food, put in
year I'y year in general manures and not removed by successive
crops, hence the use of some special manure which, while contain¬
ing on 7 one important food, deficient in tho soil, will enable the
crop l > take up the abundance of the others which Urn soil has
aocumulated or the general manure supplied. Farm manure stauds
at tho .mad of all general manures. It thoiougiily restomt tok soil
the powu of reproducing the same crops. U’ supplied in Bufflcieiit
quantities it oompletely arrests exhaustion, and rastores feHfiUty.
It oonsiats of the straw used for fitter, aud the solid and jiuid exr
oreinenta of lho animals bred and used on the farm. Theexore-
meuts are the waste proJuots of digestion, absoiption, and assimUa-
tiou; and if the food of stock be jich in iniueral matter, tfie
bulk of the mineral ooustiiutenta wifi reappear in the excrements,
OidyasniaU fraoUon of the xoiiieral substances oontained in the
food of men and ahiinala is reUiued (n their bmUea after they
have attained their full growth. Whcu Iheir bodies have been
bnilt up tq their full gixe, the miueral subatanoes ^Uained in‘
the excrements are almost idontioal with those ecnSited iff lho
fpoO. W Btliie W« fed «i B<»Uloe», tWir dang ^entafaw. iha
m dung of kwawi; 04>«4»iM
Bm 1Uii«nl flC Uio buy, o«a, «o., du wbicit th.,' u^'M >
S^pteB^#,l879. Xp im>IAN AGpCULTUmT. 895
iMiil Ifrtt itfteiMp* with cattle. Tbf mauarlftt vilee ofUieir dungf
trirt ^wldi tbair food, ami W.UU' tW Itt wUicK Uiey
liateai'riwd ta lUeii' progt««a to lAAnirUy, tW diiug ot loan
nhd jrouiitj animals beinj^ least VWuAble, because they retain
in Uicic sytprp Uie Bubstances neCeetary to bulM Ibeni up. When
the liulldfuj^ process Is cotnplated, that is wanted in food
is^o repair the waste tisanes of tb^ir bodies. Farm manure is
valuable, not only for its mtnerai constitutenta, but also for the
Jar^e quantities of organic 'mattari nitropii obieily, thrown ofT
by anim^#1u the action of tlrnir vital funotions. ft has been
calqolatiyl that ^ tons of farm manure contain ^Zjjf cwt of uitroj^on,
and If a four^years* rotation is assnmed, this quantity is probably
amply sufficient to supply the whole oourso. In addition tp this
it should not be forgotten that there are vast quantities ot
ammonia, N.H. ,3 and nitric acid absorbed by the soil and
parried down Into it by rain and dews; with tlie application of
farm manure, then, there may fairly be snpi>osed to be a gradual
inoroasO of valuable plant-food to the soil, and all other things
being equal, a ooBtioord improvement of its productive
powers.
2 n(l 4 —Spocud manures aretlioso which oontain cidofly one plant-
food, though* others may be present. They are only fitted to
supply plant-fbod of a special kind, such as petaHh. qitrogeu or
phosphorous, lb uuiat not, however, be supposed that they do
nothing more; In ovory special manuio thero are always other
ingredients, which, while they add nothing, or vefy little, to their
market value, .'ire of great ueo to the soil in helping to Lning
about its disintegration ; and which play important pails in the
decomposition and formation of compounds in the soil. It should,
liowever, be Imrne in mind that they are valuable chiefly, if not
solely, from aeoinraorcial point of view, for llieir potash, nitrogoii
or phosphorous, and that they should be supplied to soils whero
thoro is good reason to boliovo that those substance'<i are doficieiit,
or whore their application would hi ing into usefulness other plant-
foods in whicji the laud abounds.
X^arm-inauure may be used year after year in a porfeolly
mechanical fashion, and as a matter of course ; but Rpocial inaniiroa
demand thought aikd skill lu watching rosuits and arriving at
conclusions. The agriculturist who observes and exporiinonts
with IntelligiTuce ou the otfeots of special manures, is in a fair
way of making the most out of his laud iu the shortest lime
and with the greatest profit, it js in the use of speoial niaunros,
however, nitratoa, kaiuites and phoaiihatoh, ospcci.ally the two
former, that most unfortuuato miMtakes have boon luado by vveU-
meaniug men attempting to follow the praclic**, the sucoesHful
practice, of some one who has made them hU"^ study, and ho
acquainted himself with ..all the conditions of euoooss in their
application. Theso conditions arc so many and varied, and have
reference to the character of soils, subsoils and indigenous
vegetation, which sometimes vary over ooinpaiuitivclj am ill areas,
ih|||the iadiacriininato application of special manures liasfreqiionlly
been followed by disappointment and loss, sufficiently heav’y
to raise up a feeling of antagonism to what is called high faimiug
and aolentific farmers,—a feeling which the conservative tendouoics
alone of such a profession as that of agriculture weiesufficiont
to rouse, without any additional element of distrust being
brought into play, iu the failure of imperfectly performed practical
exiieriments. Ko physiciau either in Ifinglatid or elsowhoro, over
the age of forty, ever believed in Uarvey and his theory of the
oirculatioa of the blood. Younger men aooeptod the great discovery,
and their elders lived and died iu the old faith. Muoii the
same thingbapjitqMS with most great truths: they hare to fight
their way upward to practical recognition. In this respect, special
and arlifioial manures are no exception.
iHie following are the chief special manures in the market. It
ehoilld be borne in mind that Special is here used in opposition
to Oeiiera), and that the designation Artificial is muoh more
commonly applied to them, ^
/km^mcuh OE, SPECIAL MANUUES,
Amm$mneal or> /^%tfosfm£Ous*Ma»um
PeruvianJIaaao.
OffidndoffBoaao-
A]|imoma*nx»d Guano.
IcliftboeGttatiio* ^
Alaavre cakes <IUpe),
Weal manure (Shoddy).
GierBe.cakee (Uefuse).
0 fied Idkiodu
VEeCnke of theMesof ti^ and
JPOTABU MAKUEES,
Kainito or crude pota&h. | Martate,of pi^oalu ' ^
Calcined Kaiuitc. | Sulphate of jtmUMh.
PlIOSf^ATIC MANURES,
MiusrAl Sttporphoaphuto.
Dhaotved b(>ncf«. liooo SuperphospUake. a mixture
Griumd boues. of bOue and mliMral super-
Ash of bones. phosphate.
Apatite. FbotphaUe Guoao*
There remains to be shortly noticed the olasaificaiioti of manures
as to their usesi With regard to the ofiEect produced on tlie soil
and crop, manures may be olasslfiod as—Ist, Stlmulatiog; find,
Nutritive ; and 3rd, Oorrective. All ammonittcal mantires may be
classed as stlinnlatiug (see table above) ; and in its genorat dotlon
on the soli, Itmo may also fall under this head; KutvUlvo manures
ai-e those whose special function it Is to supply a variety of plant-
food, so that farm manures, general manures, would be classed
under this head. There Is, of oourso, no manure which does not
supply plant-food of some frhul, In more or less ahundau^; but
the term nutritive could not be applied with ^orreotuoss tci the
aitifioiai or speoial manures enumerated! above, whose spdclalt
functions are, by supplying one kind of plant-food to enable the cfop
to take up largo quantities of oihors storod iu'tUe aoil. Bfipiu-
latiug manures, instead of retarding or prevetiting the exhaitsttoa
of tho soil, quicken it by enabling the crop to take up greaW
quantities of plant-food in a shorter period than without tlieir use
could be ofi'ected.
3rd.—manureu are those whose application to land acts
beneficially on some injariona suhBtauoe, siion as an acid, present
in undue quantities in the hiiiuus ; and it may be by liberating tho
double sHIcales already refeirod to iu a formor article, thus provide
abundant food for a higher and mme nutritious class of ludtge*
nous plants, which ultimately drive out less desirable ones. Tho
judicious aud combined applioation of salt and lime to properly-
drained marsh and low-lyingpasture lauds is somulhing marvellous,
and t'equiies to bo seen before it can bo realiaod in its entirety,
Tlie uses of lime and salt as corrective manures are of the very
Uighost value ; and the application of artifiolal manures of ilia
coslliesli kind would probably be utturly uselesH, a waste of money
and labour, until a change had beun eilieutcd ou the indigenous
vegobatiou of tho laud. In salt tlio agriculturiut posHOssce a sub¬
stance by moans of which ho can regulate, to a great oxiont, the
growth of tho stem in all cereals.
Manures manufactured and sold to suit th^ requiromouts of
special crop<) are probably increasing in deiuaud. There are, liow-
ovor, so many conditions necessary lo success in producing an
at tide of this kind, that there need be no wonder if they sometinies
do not uoino up to the expectations of the pmchaaer.
Agrioultarists ihomselvos aro probably the best parties to
observe and experiment ou tho value of manures prepared to
meet the requiretnentH of special crops. It is only just to
manufacturers to say, that exoeUouce iu the preparation of apocial
manures lias been arrived at by very careful xeaearchee, and by
tho uiirigling together of fertilising matter iu those proportions
and combinations which experience has proved likely to produce
boueliciul efiocts. It is not the interest of the manufacturer to
supply wurihlesa stufE. It is his interest to prepare the purest,
cheapest, and best special manure that a careful watching of tho
markets, aud a wide experience of the requiremeate of a special
crop, can command. The conditions of snooess are, however, as
we have said, so numerous and varied, that we may hppefully look
for a greater dovelopmeut of this olass of manure based on a
wi lor uuJ louger experience.
SPECIAL MANQBBS.
(I)*—iPAflot, fiar/(jy or (1).—A/snuiv/or 7'oa Cqffoe and
cwc. Mineral Saperpliosphate. fruU-io.
t „ 8ttlpUatv of Aminoaift* 30 % of Soluble alkalies, chloride of
(1^). Potato Monurim pctesStuni stia sediuai, and
4 cwh Hiticrfd Supsfphotphaie. ealpiiate of potash.
2 M Potash SaiUi. 20 ,, „ Xaioe end wagassla,
2 „ Sulphate of Ammoma or 7 i> h Phospticrlc acid, eqael to
Nitrate cl Sqda. ^ lA per eeoh of phosphstc
(3).—For Lofuli d^^nt of line.
«i» Petal A. The remainder beingr sat phurio oeid,
2 ewt. Minettl 4aperphosphato« iron oorbou dioxioe, orgaitio uitro*
1 i, Salpbste cl AmaoDia, ffoaous mutter and sijics.
2 H GatoMkhiaiie.
The O(m;L|^iii0n of these speoial manures, is varied aooordiog
as the re^ttEkemants of the crop and the nature of the sell are
believed to stand ie imed of particular substances. Theqmtities
* THE
gfveu (1)> (^, Wd (3)iire W(l'Onfore<wh acm; , Sp. (4pi»
«ppUo4 fX ^9 rl(;« ^ 10 peir iicfo.
In thei^lMsifioAtbi) io 0 ^qhhAii ii8e» iUe term Artiflcial ie
to that daAs pf marmros whfoh hav^e come Into ueodtiring tb9
iMi forfcjr jrearf,. Bortto of these ere in reality natural prodnetUt
such an guano, nitrate of node, and kainitoi and are minoamed
when called Artificial; the phosphateo of Ituto oud the amiaouta
Bulphalei are manafaotured produota and are oorrootly named
when called ArtifiolaK Limen, ohalkn and maria, whieU have been
in uaa for agen, are eorreotty called natural. Farm^mauurea are
oUaned alone. Green mantirea have heeu in tiae in varloaa parte
of Europe firom very early times. A crop is grown on the soil
which is not taken off, hut ploughed in. In northern Germany
farmere plough in apurrey or lupin to ohUiu a good crop of
rye from a "light Sandy aoU. In America, clover and Indian corn
ai;e need for this purpoae. The plants heat suited for green
mamiring am those which in a given time will produce the
greatest amoant valuable available plaut^lood with least labour
and coat* In England, apurrey mustard and turnips are used.
Green manuring adds ho new mineral matter to the soil, it simply
brings to the surface from greater or less depth material already
existing and spreads it out to meet the reciuirementa of the
succeeding crop. In addition to this the crop used as a green
manure, extracts from the air valuable organic substances which
aie given up to the soil when the decomposition of the ploughed in
crop seta in. In green manuring there Is an aocumalatlng of
mineral food, and a clear gain in orgauio matters.
Manures have not oxhauated their nsefulness when they have
supplied, directly, plant-food. They exercise important^chemical
and physical infiuencoa on the soil, some of which have been
already noticed, and although, as yet, they ore but imperfectly
understood, the value of their action is becoming day by day more
clearly realised. Farm manure and green manures, which oonsiat
largely of decaying vegetation, are, during tlie process of deooin-
poaition, giving off Urge quantities of carbon-dioxide und other
gOHOS which act on the minerals contained in the soil, at a depth,
and in poaitioua where the carbon-dioxide of the air does not find
a ready outraneo. In this way they materially aid the disintegra¬
tion of the particles of the soil and the liborniion of soluble plant-
foods. They effect the physical properties of soils. Heavy
days are rendered lighter and easier to work; eacii straw is un
underground drain convoying moisture and air where they would
not otherwise easily find their way.
MONSB, MONTOLAB*S METHOD OF AGniCGLTUBB
ON STEEP LANDS.
(Commumcakd.)
W rm th.Burop..u oofl«. enterpti.ala OayloQ, and in Southern onewpiUK
IndU. 1. in Utal. I« a moal ..itioa! cindillon, il i. neo....r, “>^‘7 “»f . “ “*
to .onrid« «„luilj. and >o a dt.p.nional« m.an,r, .bat ar. th, T/hfi.*„ i /I .
cut. ol meb general deolino, and whnt nr. ibe poeaible prnoUeni ““ ’"*1"* I’T" ^ Tn V “f
nnd eonnomlcat rem«U.), to preyont the rniu d men, ooSee enter. »?'*'•>“"*
, opinion regarding it.
I remain, «to.,
The direct application of satphor, or eulphar and lime, in powder EXHAM SWVNEV.
or Su eolation, over the leavee of the coffee trees ot an estate, has ^
been recommended, as a trial, to the oCflee planters bj Mr. H. Morris, DlekapUlya Estate, 2Slh December 1878,
the Awiilent Botanist at PeradlpDyU, Oeylon. At Mos^TOiiia, EgQ*
The use of solpharand lime over the leavee has lor iti object the My lIkap Si^—1 have the pleasure of replying to your letter of
deetruotlon of the on the Uavei (ff$mileio vatUtrUt}, Bat as {!,« 27tli iostaot, wherein you request ms to preoouDoa upon the
observed by Moner, |lontc<ar, each destraotion of the even if . of agrionltdre which you propoee to carry out ou coffee estates
. for oiir pairt* we, Idlly agree 1*®*^^**’! i
;ee^i the Ewdpean andeitakiuga (Ou ^ t.
^ oonotfies cetmot be a lull saooess. pf i eheceea
** ^ofAtlon, if the washing away of tbo sothfey thf tiMm ol ;
*fm<Ki«pons ie not prevented ssfMy 1 the rich soflaee^
soil of the laud (the humus) It the * nhtofal ^rothetof aud lertfiiser
** of the tree under oaltivaiioa,* and under a tropical climate parff-
when the land has lost ' its nstuiral ,aover,» which Vrotecis
** it against the hdfit of the sun during the day, and agAinit M difrlbg
•* the night, the titalliy of the cultivation made On soil
** doayer, and the plant then struggles tot iU life; And henea, ihotv aN*®
** of the o/i^inal disease which have engendered the eeeeral ditMOt*
*'Qf the coffee tree, with which the coffee planters Of Ceylon and
Southern India have to oontend,
Amongst the diseases of the coffee tree, the most apparent is^ of
course, the sickly leaf, beeause it strikes oov eye, when the deficiency
^ ol the ^ soil* and the dieeasvs of the * roots,' ore not eo apparene
«os the Meal disease. Hcooe the general oomplaiut of^ * leaC
* dleeaae ' for the mere superdolat observer, hu^ for the sotentiae agvt*
•* ouliuflsh who sees deeper and farther, who regards the matter iu all
its various aspeofs, it is ibe outward evidence of internal And sys*
** temallc miseblafe”
U it possible to have aay thing more clear than (he opinion expressed
by Monar. MontclarT He Is so much impressed with the ultimate
loss whieh will result in censeqaence of ** the wash of the aoil, ** that
he goee on as follows •
** But no oure is possible, if before etnjfthing e2rs, the coffee plentere
«< do not succeed* iu making some mechauioal egricdlUiral works, so as
•' to protect their soil against wash."
Hence, terracing with stones; but a great many estates hava no
stones all their disposal, aud it is precisely on that particular polti t
that Monsr. Montolar's method of proieotiou is valuable, in uwng
the poor iubeeil of the land instead of stmeg, because pliinlers are
fnlly satisfied that the terracing with the sub-soil is far stronger and
much safer than terraolog with stones, as proved In Ceylon by Monsr.
Moutetar,
Here are the opinion ol some of the leading planters of Oeyluu
about Mouir. Moutolar'a agricultural now works *
Laymustota Estate, 18th December 1878.
A. MomtciiAb, Esq.,
Leymastota.
Duau tjiBi—As requested, 1 have the pleasure of making a few
remarks on your system of work.
You oommenoed operations on thia cslato about two months ogo,
and 1 have found during that time both the ariuares and banks have
withstood the rain admirably. ^ think the coffee would have suffered
heforo this if too much moisture had been retained in the squares, as
1 find after the heaviest' rain that it la all absorbed hj the soil,
vrhbin an hour,* and 1 particularly noticed the good colour of the
four acres of coffee that were operated ou.^y you.
Your method, es far as 1 can see, comfilfues, three works,-^-namely,
ierraoiog, foiking, and draining, at a far better and cheaper rate
than is our present system ; at the same time a few drains might be
advisable for fear of accident. As regards your method, I consider
. your personal supervision and advice necessary to any one w^Bng
to adopt your system, bocanse you faavo suggested to me many
different ways of operating on the land according to cirenmstanoes
and various slopes of the land. I may add that several planters of
experieuob who have seen your work here, have expressed their good
opinion regarding it,
I remain, Ac.,
EXHAM flWYNEV,
Dickapitlyn Estate, 28lh December 1878,
At MOSJTOliAa, E«Qt
My lIb&s 1 have the pleasure of replying to your letter of
the 27th iostaot, wherein you request me to prooouuoa upon the
succsssful, will be very cKimtlfOt beoauso ft will require several
auooessivo applications of the process.
As weeding operations are reqaiiied mntk/y on the sttates,
Monsr. Montolar .recommends stiougly the buriel' of thi teax'ee, as
much more soonomtoal, more effectual, and mnoh more lefqntifio
than the topstfioSal application of any ingredient over ffie Waves.
Mr* D* Morris doss not consider it necessary to enquire about the
disegSi ol coffee leaves, “where it came fromwhen,
on the contfiryi the practical Monsr. Montolar considers it
ot the iMIMiititnee to know ** where the leaf disease oame
from ” PMmi Inteieetod in these quesUoas will reed wl^'.^mnoh
fntereat the new iff Monsr. A, Montolar. 'mikaiei
are the prbicfpfil the, tree dlseams in iMylon and
fa Ceylon.
From the small preotical experiment which you mada here, and
from my Superintendent's report of one acre which you iuperitoed
the planting of on my estate near Balangode, 1 cannot but gather
most fsvourebis Impressloiia, and 1 particularly in Igvoar of the
forking sad loosening the soil, which can only be dona upon stoop
Ifind, when precautions have bean adopted to prevent its being
carried into the ravines by heavy rain.
The banking and terra^ng proesss, no doubt, costs a Utile at first,
but with the new tools wbfeh you propose taking out l^ateiit for,
fftls mayr to n oertato extant, be reduced.
/ ■ t%u VM Ilf h0, w"
ilwfet dm ttpoii
likely to ^of«0 iftk^
to«ybe*dftii|feW‘tkii*p«liBflW. : ‘
' ■^ /T'' IfeamlttiiAd,,
\ - BSBJ^K AflAB.
Eelbiim Btfiti^t ^k DvedttkM 1878.
A. BCOirvcLi&i Sbq. ,
t)ssA» JSs»i^U to youT letfir pf ibe^ 8ril iniNnl^ I beg to
pj^kd tbe Itdlowiug yeibirke on yogf now mtUtod of tdt«olii| 0 ott $9
m tiopiog gTdtknd** t orosely wetobed j^onv opofntioiie bete pn tli«
Mre Off «o of ooBw wklob I geve you to experltnent npon.—ooEee
Tailing from very ibiep to rnodemteiy iteep.
Ifttn of oploioii tbdt It yoar terming reiUUkesTy rolnfoll, «ed
II too mnob mofalbre i« notTotnloed fa the aqnarei, yon have originated
a method iMili ehonld bo of imtnonee taIuo to the ooBee planters
of OeyloiiJ J( is too toon to giro a daal opinion on the strength
bfthe work; bat from the way in which your work has already
stood in Mue tremendoas downpours, 1 have every oonfldenoe that
tho work Is permanent. Am to the retaining too muoh molituTei,
t cannot see any probability of it,
tTwo very etroog poigts in fatoar of yont method sfem to me to be
the great limpliolty Of the work, and the moderate cost pt which
it may be carried out. Given that your work etandebeavy ralai, and
too much molatuTO is not retained; you put us in a position to apply
to every tree In Its square, moanre which oatmot be lost. an(\ in a
much more effeotnal manoer than it is now possiblo to apply it.
Another Important point gained by yonr method is that, in ease
of the ovop 'falling before it oan be picked oS the trees, it most
remafu in the sqaarps, instead of being washed down, as so often
happens, to the nearest ravine.
In coDcInston. I may remark that 1 do not think any one oan
form a just idea of your method who has not seen it praotioatly
illustrated. The opinion 1 have expressed on yonr work is shared,
as you know, by some planters oC large experience, who have seen
it here and elsewhere.
1 am, ko,t .
JOHK H. OAMP3ELL.
•
Since operating on Nine Estates in Ceylon, Monsr* Montclar hat found
tho nffcestiti/ of using some oombined tools, so as to be suooessful in
making strong aud cheap works. He is just now m consultation with
a few meohaaioal engineers of taleut tor improving theso tools, and
then to secure the British Patent in London*
Monsr, Slontolar’s great object ie to prevent entirety tbe wash of the
soil, and thus to be In a position for '* forking and loosening the soil
well.*' BO as to obtain the maximum benefit of *' the atmospheric
electricity In the soil, and hence to the roots**'
On that most scientific point. Monsr. Montolar's method is perfectly
right, because, when the eoll of eeta^ (on steep lands) la kept
irntootene^, and often harA like a atoue. how is It possible for tbe roots
to have free extension ?
How then Is it possible for the atmospheric eleotrioity ’* to penetrate
tbe soil for lia benefit in oxidation, and the great benefit of the roots
in their work mdasmm (aseoneiou of sap) 7 Some men, ignorant
of modern solentific agricolture* have attempted to turn into ridicule
the plan of lecuring for tbe plant under oultiration the maximum of
the “ eleetrio fluid " contained in the atmosphere aud m the rain,
without knowing the immnte infiaence atmospheric electricity " has
DU the growth and untrition of plants, and that partloularly under a
tropical climate.
Most decidedly AO fall saodcss, no durable sucoess, is possible on tbe
steeb lands of the hilly oountries of India and Oey lou. without securing
to the plant under ouUivetion the total amount of tbe " atmospheric
eleotrlcWy**^
Perhaps those ignorant *bo oppose this plan will be induced to
modify ihfir readiog tbo following i—
** An aooonut of experiments oommunicated to tbe academy of
'*solenQsS|, Paris, conuiae iianlculara inesrestlng to stndents of the
^physiology of plants.'and to agrlottUnriSts* Mff4 Qrandeau deeiriog
^0 aeoertain Whether atmospborlcelaotvleity had any lufluenoe on the
growth and oulrltion of plants, insiitntad a aeries ol experimeaU
« on plants of the smne kind nndet different oircumetauoea 0^
let (tebaeop^ malie, aud t^beat) 1^ placed in a case open to the
**alr, tho other set okpoeed iio air, U|ht». and moisture, but shat oft
irota the olectriai^ ol the ataibspWe, result wap uaoquivpoai
*• kiiid MUmtOfh twie ,»»««'».*“ *»««»' »•
plants left fraa dn the ah?« 1 % inay tbe^j^e bd hikoo as settled that
** the aiseirieity .nt^dha j^#osi|mr« |dayf iu the
u omimiiaiian itwts^sten ni ptants* conolueiiouA
kyaiB^ mm i| > •ataeqneitt
meeting, pointed nut to tho HAm alinificauee of the
the free plantsoonUlned a A’l^MaqaiUrtlfy of aactiesd dLattw.**
Monsr* Montolar's offinloa ie, ;tkat the etoetrlofty of 'the
Atmosphoro dees ^ not hehsflt the soil, or the roots of ' the
plaotunder the pieaent mode of working eoftee or tea estatea on the
steep lands of the hilly oountries ol Oeylon and India* On flat lands
of tbe plain, where there ie m wash of the soil, the maintenance of
fertility, independent of expensive manaffSi oan only be insured by
tboroogb agrienltnralopeyitiouS'
Amongst these agricuUurai operatioua the most important one is a
tborongh exposure of the soil to the air. that operation ie not only
neoeimry, but beoomee an imperious neoessUy when all available
matteti of tbe eoll are exhaueted. Ibis Is done, in Ibo plains, by deep
ploughing and tbe turning up of the soli, but on steep lands, deep
ploughing or digging of tbe eofl eo as to expose it to tbe air, ie an
impossibility, and hence the immense disadvantage of cultivation on
such lands,
By hie new combination of agricultural works, Monsr, Montolar
has succeeded in converting that imposiibiUty into a thoroogkvpoisibill*
ty, and with hie method, a new era of eucoose is open to thoee who wilt
follow bis advice* Advice, particnlarly proper aud good advice, is
necessary to many who have engaged themseUae lu planting operations,
without having made special agriouUnial studiee. For newcomers to
India, to Oeylon, or elsewhere, willing to etart iu cuftee or tea or cocao,
we recommend them to read , and to follow carefully, the fC 0 rh 4 as
explained in the •<8pecifioatiou’' of his method.
On that important point, we shall quote the ** Speoifleation" itself
“ The most importaut question In opening an estate on steep lands,
** and particnlarly on eery steep landa, is to protect coMipUtdy the
** few Inches of rich vegetable soil which compose tho upper stratam
** of the ploB of land on whfoh it ie intended to oondnet operations.
«* Without thorough protection, the rich sdrfoce soil which is tbe
" result of tbe remaining dooompositlon produced during thouiande of
*' years, will be washed away enUntp by tbe heavy rains of one or two
*' monsoons. Is it not a calamity to lose by maghf iu a few years, tbe
" valuable richness provided by a bouuliful Providence for the soil,
" by tbe decompoutUtM of tbousande of yeata 7 In such a caiK}. expensivo
manures are immediately required, whoo, tor several years to come, it
" would have been possible for planters to gather good crops without
<• using expensive aud often exhaustive manures."
But for tfjjwftny estates, where large capital has been In tested, the
method of Monsr, Montclar, properly aud carefully oatcled out, will
be of immense value*
When with ail sorts of obitruotlons put In the way of Monsr.
Montclar by a few infiaeutial meu, when wilbout any spec'*! tools,
whiob are indispensable—as admitted by Moosr, Montolar himself—he
has been successful in giving latisfaetion to soveral praotioal leadiug
proprietors In Ceylon, we have no Uesiiation in siatiug, that ere long
*'Montolar’s method'* will be followed by all iutelligeut planters on
the steep lauds of India aud Coy lou.
Above we have reported the series ol experiments made by Mr*
Grandeau, proving that the ** oleetrloity of the atmosphere" plays a
" very Important part in the aMlmillatiou and nutrition of plants" ;
and we have also reported that " Mr. Oraudoau's coucluslous are
" accepted by the eminent oheiuist Oerthetot, who. at a subsequent
»' meeting, pointed out to the academy ibc Bignifioauce of the fact, that
** the free plauts contained a double quautity ol aeotised matter."
Besides the " electricity of the atmosphere** as above state^l,
Monsr. Montclar points out “ the electric condition ol the soil," which
is entirely distinct from that ol the atmosphere.
On that new subjeot ol immense importatiee, we feel assured that
the plaotlug oommunity of India and Geylou will be grateful to
Monsr. Montolar for the following valuable mformatioa i—
" every place, where tbe ooffoo trees are poor, I always
"found out that the 'eleoirJo oouditJoa* of (he soil was
** whan in every place where the ooftee (roes were very good, the
**6ieotrio condition of the soil was Buch are positive
" facts which can be ascertained by otiemical analysis; but as
" very few plauters, iu tbe Interior of India or Ceyiou, have
"the chance of having a chonust at band to perform such
" analysis, I consider an Weoire'meler far better for planters, so that
" they may asoertaia easily whether the condition of each or such
" lands or such spots of laud afc jp&tfUm or nepatioe^ X have been
" busily engaged in Rising thu best and simplest * electTo*iboter,'
" and when the phe ii |uun4.uut, tbe next question bu cheap*
"nrsr,aad bern« agktii. it ;ls 'n matter of nnUaf amongst planters,
** because $.000 be made far obee;wr profiortiouatety
"thanone 1 t^ehi India and in Ceylou
«* is tho waul ^ trob splits.kmongst themselves so as (o secure not one
«tttflfif 0 t fijl3k0tbMM«fbttfBef»«aentiy,asiaft of praotleal scieutifio
298
THB
^ mn of ibo hlgtiail lor siotijrlog ood loU^iig «U
** tailtori oooiMiOted with ooffoe^ tot Ae« For (mtooe#^' tho
ploatem ot OerJoa boro oogogod the florrlooi at llf< Uvi$im ii
** obemlool for their eolle. Mr. Hogh^t h«i doDO Mf
*'v«f 3 r eorreotly, bofc wbet prootloel profit bia reinltod lor tho
pteoter^ t MoOifixg t Wby bo f-^We Bh*U «ee dirsoUf, Ur, D. Uoiithi,
** b«e beoo eogegeii, eleo oo beboH ol the pUtttere of OertoO* fo m«kf ft
•« w^Met^pioemiiiiafttioo of tbe/uAgi on the coffee loom He bee
** recommended » remedy for the cure of the leiAree, bal whlobi If etiepmi*
** ful even, it imprtetioftble Iron ite ooet t And beeidei Uf, D, UbrrJe
** did noti^ mention bow to enre the dhvr diaenNt of the ooffee treee, ftt
*Mt li more tnportani to oare thpts dieeuei tbio the Meal diieaiei*
**From Mr, Uortle^e mlcvo^e^ic exemtnetlon ot the leoTee, whet
benefit wUl reealt for Uie ptentera t Hone! And that for eeveral
** reaconty the prioofpel beicg» that by enanlnatiooi It tnine
Otttthat generally Any» are on the learccoKbe treof, exeolly
** M aftimMip MFB to be foond In water and other Hqeidii, And
** another |^aaou of finportance ie, (bat the planlere eboeld bare
made arraugementt lo ae to have lererat compatent men of talented
** speeialUiff» to work tngeither^ Inetead ol allowlog one after one (iO
*^frork i^aretefy. Had they done bo, ae proposed by me In
'*1877, ptantere woOld bare gained eery mnob to their intereet.
*' If Armani (o be fnily dreired, requires the tailor, the shirt maker,
*' the bat maker, ifae shoe maker, &o., It isabierd to think that one man
*' almd can redreii the most mieoblefoos agrlealtarat deiangementfl,
** when it requires not less than fire speoialiets ot the highest talent,
'* all working together. The eaute* of the nc(fativ$ or pnitiee oondi-
*' tloni of the aoii are now to be etudied, and that study alone, is a
** gigantic one,"
(T 0 he aentimed,)
EDITOBIAL NOTES.
F UOU the Annual Ueport of the Mysore Plaato) «* Assooiaiiou lor
1878-79, wo find Uiat various important inattors wmo discussed
during tho year^ and that tho Association gives ovidence of a con¬
siderable amount of vitality. This is exactly as it should be, and
it ie n matter ot anrpiise lo us lhat tho largo number of gentlemen
iutoresled in tea have not formed Ihemselvws into an Association
for the dissemination of new and improved methods of working,
and generally for the purpose of making their impcrtauoe as an
iiidnslry felt, when subjects affecting their intorests come before
the public. _
they taiTe po i!m« to tiy imd,
cropg and ooregla, as lorm;^ I^Ab^ wl4ok Jbo ,ai
iha people are led. The prUic»rtU4i$e^^ to tliia li thd ;
Fano, on which are iiied many Vsloehla. eaperimeiitg at ft
thoroughly praotieil fcindi and whiidi cannot fail to lesolt In
improvemeht in the oultivatiim ot am common crops, and la the
qaaUty of steak Qgnnily kept by ryofg^
laniOATiOH in the ^Yorth-West seemi td lib on the liiorsaltt»
From 1874-75 to 1877-78 the average extent d.lafid iiiider irrigt*
ilon (rabi crops), woe 754,836 acres, while Jn the aeason ttniler
notice it amounted tq 1,075,952 acres, being an increase ot^
821,514 acres, or fully 42^ per cent, In thoformer keries of year%
the average charge per' acre was Bi. 145*8. In the latter year it
was Hs. 2-0*4, an increase of d| per cent. It msy he noting here
that the total cultivated area in the Mortis-Weet |or that Maaon
was 14,317,790 acres, conseqneotly the quantity irrigated was '
only 7} per cant, of the whole. May not thk htmvy ohargehe the
reason for this? If the charge for the kharH oTOh he added to
that for the rabi^^ we find the total to amount to Be, 4-12*2 per
acre. This sum capitalised at 10 ysars^ pnvohese, la eqtiai to
Be. 47-15-6. Mow a good well.will cost ahoht Be. 350, and as this
would soffice for ten acres, the charge per acre would be Be. 35,
and besides the above sum of Bs. 442-9 is what the ryot paid
hont fidb to the oaual department; no note i8-«*er can well be-**
taken of the many small sums lie was oompelled to pay to tho
subordinate staff of the Irrigation Department, to the amla, the
Inspectors, tho chaprassies. Any one having a knowledge of theso
dcpariments and of their modes of working, knows that this Is net
exaggerated. __
. Wb have pleasure in acknowledging receipt of the Sydapet
Farm Manual and Guide, which we will notice more folly
next month. The Government of Madras have acceded to
Mr. BobertsoD*s proposal that a considerable number should bs
circulated in the province, amongst that class likely to benefit
by its perusal, uis., the Bnglish-spokkiag tahsildars, revenue
inspectors, &o. __
ExPBBiBiiraTs arc being made by Mr. Benson, under the orders
and at the suggestion of the Collector of Tricbinopoly, having In
view the demonstrating of the truth, that deep ploughing not only
produces better crops, but enables the earth to resist drought*
Doubtless they will be successful if properly conducted.
As we write, we learn that an infiueutial meeting was held in,
Loudon on 22ud July, at which this subject was discusaea,
Wb learn that Messrs. Collins A Co, arc makiftg some short
ploughs, wiU» a view to their being used in India. They are
of sufficient length to enable the ploughman to twist tlie bullocks
tail in the orthodox manner, will weigh thirty-three pounds, and
will make a furrow 6 to 7 inches wide and 5 iuoUes deep. Wo
trust the price will not he beyond the reach of the Indian
husbaudmau. _
Bunoai* seems lo bo Ihe only presidency whore agriculture is
neglected. Madras stands at tho head of ail in this way. The
North-Western l^rovinoes are well looked after by Mr. Buck
We receive many leports from Mysore and the Central Froviuoe^
and Bombay is taking rapid strides towards establishing agri¬
cultural schools. At Uio present writing we learn lhat an agrl-
crtiUuml class J is been opened at Massick, through the exertffins
of the Oollectcr, ai d that a graduate of tho Sydapet Institution is
iu charge. The' lijetM-uoUaB is both theoretical aud practical, two
hours a day being spent in oral instruction, aud on three days
each week tho student* ars taken to the field to see the ideas
oarrioi out; but what is Bsngal doing t
. .. 5 ,
From Uio annual report for 1878*9 of the Agifi*Hortioult«rel
fiooiety, Central Prorinoes, wo loam that (diero is not much
vitality in the oporatiens of the Model Farm, and when one comes
to look” into tlie record of their pioceedtngs, this result
doennot fissm altogetlier out of the way. The great drawback,
solar as we e^ make oivl, which chiwacierkes {dllkieae ao<d4tie8,^,
Is lhat they devote so UUIe attention to itflpiwvlkg. the staple
crops of thecoftiitiy* They are more taken up wlih^ Intrcdwelng
new hykidacf fruit trees, kud the ittttod«ct|ii cf «»otios, ihfti
Wo have reoeived from Mr. Tuppor, Under-Socretary to the
Government of India, a oopy of, the report on the KandMh Farm
for half-year ending 15th July 1679. 8o far as this season is con¬
cerned, it tells us little further than that the crops which were pot
down are doing well. There seems to be great variety In the
operations carried on at this farm, and the crops experimented with
are, ss a rule, those cultivated by the ryots. This Is gs it should
be. We shall be pleased to hear further as to progress when the
next report is issued. _
From the report on the administration of the Madras Fresldenoy
for the year 1877-78, we find that a large amount of useful expert*
meutal work has been done. Speaking gooerally at MadraSi we
have no hesitation In saying that the experiments made under the
auspices or authority of that Government are eharaoterised by
being thoroughly practical. They have their school of A^lcul-
tare and several Government farms, In all of whioh valuable
rperimeots ate being steadily carried on.
In the Ootaoamund Botanical Glides, many medicinal pUUts
are grown, as peppermint, digitalis, rhubarb, taraxioum, lavender,
rosemary, ipecacuanha, aud jalap* The dnebona plantotions
have been imrried on In a scientific manner, and we find ihat ^
samples of the various suria have been sent hcxne for analyiea tc^-^
ascertain which is the bestiipeelei to grow, A fortl^ notice of
this Will be leutid diewIM
Th8 ffam cued Maii wondens why eoffet^ ni na
industry, is Icdnggiouad, as compared with tea, and menUotm
the foot thet iheoonsumption ef both is onlhi
iattSr remark is trne in one senses but far from being SQ| Ikom the
point of view pxaSBi whtdi it ought to be eximtned* UM%a
doubHyto;of beto»that lltf|ey^^totitbe«to bede^
Immo eetiihfiiFMoii ftery yeafi m It ie tmi tm« IM taiiief
•m ^BiocLTimaT.
m
W Wa pw . po{k<4«ttoii
liM with
ifcwS/ p^asamptiott Jw 4^4 .bargr^gata «aa
h 0 v 3 ., tftl^d ^lU «li«v ih0 ^tiKaUtTiM raiiOaod for
bdaa^ ib 0roat Britain
.....
tea CoMumpyon*
OioffM CoBsumptioit,
.Tctal,
Per bead.
Total.
Per bead*
....
lb
lbs*
'
lb.
tlM7 ...
1857 ...
1857
W7
ssMbas
m
1*65
2'44
8*09
4‘5C
87,441,873
84,858,m
81,889,106
isjito.oid
183
l'2l
1*05
•95
land atiil availably la Vary favourable eHoalionfl lor the ealfciyablon
of ordinary itaplee, and iO la Ii|»pe44to tbe projooted raKlTay wiH
giro a oonildQrable liapetaa lii^ tbia reapeot to Uie deveiopiaeut
of the distriot, aihloU Itaa uudmibMly a great futaro before it*
Taa young olive trooa imported from Italy by the Biabop ©|
Agra, and piloted at Mcureoorie^ bave, wo are to]d» thriven
admirably and borne an abandanoe of fruit.
From fbia it will be seen that coffee le losing ground in th^
^ United Kingdom at laaat.
Faom tbo iMumal report of > tbO AgHoulbnral Department of
Uadiaalor year ending diet Haroh 1878, we make (be following,
extrnat :•«*
Beeideatba wel]*iuttabll8bed facto regarding the effeote of trees
n ptk olimate, U must be borne in mind that abandanoe of fuel
<< means more manure for our arable lands, as ihl oow-dung now
** bOrnt would be set free, and the ashes of the wood oonsamod
** wohld also swell the maunre heap.** How is this affeoted'by the
remark made by Mr. Oaird that the oattle of India are so poorly
fed that cow*doDg is practically UBeless os manure.
Cotton has been dethroned from its kingship in the United
States, and now stands fourth in value in the list of primary
articles produced from the soil, while the value of dairy products,
and of pork when manufactured, are each nearly, if not quite, as
large* Cotton of course etill leads the list in foreign exports, and
is likely to hold the first position in that regard for some years to
come. Acoording to the oEoial report of the Agrioultural bureau,
the maize crop ef 1878 was valued at 480,613,400, dole., wheat
at 894,695,775 dole., hay*sit 271,934,950 dole., and ootton at
220,446,288 dole. _
Tun iV»ns<eea^4 Omtmry for July oontaine a storUlog acoount
of our new wheat*fields in the great North* V^est, in which the
writer, Mr. T. 1\ Veruoti Bmlth, deoiarea that the feitiie belt
between Oanadu and the United Sjtates, along the course of tho
two Saakatohewan rivers, contains 20^),000,000 acres of **fine
wheat land,'* and that farmers are finding that wUeat-tormiug pays
splendidly A Mr. Dalrymplo is quoted in tho St Paul Piopeet*
aa haviug had in 1877, 8,000 acres under wheat, which
yielded him all round 25 bashele to the acre, or over 200,000
bushels. His total outlay for seed, oultlvation, harvdfting, gad
threshing was under £2 per acre, leaving him a margin of 43 or
424,000 on his 8,000 acres." Men have been kuoWu to a single
year to clear tho cost of buyiog, feuemg, and cultivating a farm,
and there is a porfeot rush of farmers, the land office’* in
Dahkota, for instanco, having sold 350,000 acres in the three
dullest months of the year ; while in Manitoba, on the Canadian
side, the addition to the population in fine weather was oaloulated
at 400 a day. So rapidly is population setUiug, that the Winni¬
peg watershed," which is Canadian, will, it is oaloulated, within
a few years produce 100,000,000 bushels of wheat-^eqoal to the
pmsent import into Qroat Britain, and rendoriug her indcpondent,
of any foreigu supply.
An interesting report on jute and imlaehra fibres, by Mr. B, A.
Oopte, Dr, McDonald's assistaut at the Victoria and Albert
Museum, has boon published in Bnglish and Marathi lor free
distribution. Mr. Uapte sketches the local history of these plants,
and explains in some detail the system of culblvaUoa. The experi¬
ments which he enumeratos seems to justify his assertion that jute
and maiacitm could be grown in tho Bombay Presidency in
abundant quantities
Tub Fareeoa of Gundavi are exUibitiug, says g correspondent of
a native paper, great passion for agrioaUurc. Many have given
up their old callings and have taken up lauds near Qm^davl for
carrying agricultural pursuit on an extensive scale. This passion
seems to have increased since the visit to Nowaaroe of Sir Richard
Temple and his advice to follow this profession.
Thb Bombay Chamber of Commerce, have issued a Cir¬
cular with reference to the advisability of representlug Indian
produce and manufactures at the International Exhibition to bo
held in Melbourne In October 1880. The circular refers to the
15,000,000 lbs. of China tea annually consumed in the colonies, and
points out that there is no reason why Indian tea should not also
find a market there. Heither tea nor coffee—which are both
largely consumed iu Australis—are articles of export from
Bombay; and as there appears to be a better prospoob of opening
up trade hi them than in anything else, the Bombaa QmHta urgee
the proposed Bombay Committee to place itoelf in oommanication
with, the meroantile oemmunitiei of Calcutta and Madras, so that
all might work together,
BOgsi native gentlemen have issued a prospectus of the
“Oriental Agrioultural Assooiation," oapital Rs. 10,^0, in 200
shares, of Rs, 50 each. The projectors have made ariimgements
to cultivate paddy, potatoes, sugaroano, Ac., with a view of
supplying the Indian marketo with cheap produce. Bands
where fertile eoll and oheap labour can be proonred ab rea*
^ipnsdile rates, haye been secured. Only Rs. 10 a share will be
called up ab present, and anbsequent ecdla will be made as
will hereafter be found necessary, but no instalment is to exceed
Rs. to A share. Reports of the operations wiU be submitted at ^
the quarterl:^ meeting of the ehaieboldeiB% and printed for olreula*
tiou amongst them.
The wpiks UrHT, told, be oaniBd on (m hmUniifio prinolpksi.
am(»toa plautem in Asms culUyiddug rice loir
mm% of
** Beropean o1Boer4, who have been taking peine to Improve the
agricuttcre of fhle land, have placed before »• the disoovery tliat these
ptanls can be sncoesafally cuUivatod here, and have afsoexplained to ns
the mode of extracting fibres from the piaots they recomweed. After
Imparting to ue snob valuable information, it is but natural that they
ehcnld expect us to try, practically, the ocnoluftioni they have arrived
at, and tboe confirm their anticipations of Bombay indlgeaens jnto^
producing bale cloth for the use of the numerous mills in this city, and
thereby outbid the Bengal product, on which oar milbowners and
others have at present to depend for fti supply. Ocmplete apathy
towards this usefulindustry will most certainly merit censure from all
oivtlisod nations. We msy. then, be safely compored to the two
garde who starved themselves to death under a (ral(<«tree wUh its
branches bent under the weight of the ripe frnitf they bad on, because
they tried to excel each other in their idle habits."
Ma. Dysit, Assistant Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew,
ill a letter to the India Offco acknowledging receipt of the collec¬
tion of forest produce presented to tho Museum of Economic
Botany by the Government of India, says ; “ During tbopaat wintoT
the offioera in charge of the Museum have been occupied under my
supervision in unpacking, examining, and incorporating the
speofmens with our permanent collections. This work Is now
finished, and Sir Joseph Hooker is able to speak with the highest
satisfaction of the efficient manner lu which the energy and know¬
ledge of tho Indian Foreat Deportment, sopported In this
matter by the liberality of the Indian Gevernmeut, has enabled
the woody vegetation oi, India to be iUostratod iu our museums
in a way which is not paraUeled lu the ease of any other BuiUah
Possession."
A COUMITTBB has btou fqnaed, of Mr. B. 0, Buck as President*
and Messrs* W. Duff Btue«,O.E., and Angus Campbell, members,
to conduct the oon^tlittoli for 4 prize, whiob was offered in 1871,
“ for the best tosnhUto or jroqssa for the 86par4iou of the bark
and fibreb from ^the’sisi mid the ffbte/fom tho bark, of the
Rhea or Raihl4>lpuV’ Only 24 applications for leave to compete
have bwA toc^itad^ Thu trial becpns on the 13th of Boptemhor
itnd iakoi ptftde ti Hhm I* m ntilta 0il
tlie eomniltl^ Tha oi^iidoQt of tlio !wil}
Mthaaettleoian^ of ^toils oooooeM^ With
Ui« worklpi^ of tbo wachiw^® viH bo la^b to the 4l»ofetloti ol^iliT*
Bttclc^ tirboeB decfeloo In nil mattei^e will be bold to bo float. A too
of the fibre itirned out by each of the mabhinee that hre oooeidered
by the jodgoa to be desorvmg of Uie prizes ofterodf will ho
trapemltted to Bnglaud for valuation^
IJOMMtJNICATED AKD SELECTED.
WELL CULTIVATION.
"bfjliXB are not avare if the eyntem of well cuHlvation ao oomipon
▼ T ijB the « 1 atfua I’Oninaala, fe practised to any extent in Indie,
iUough would eeom more than probable that it wae originally
introduced from IheSonth of India by the early Malabar invadora of
theteland. Tlteeyaiem in at any rate Hpoketi of in i\i<i Calcutta
Review an a novelty, poesibly iu regard only to the locality where it
'was introduced: but the Pioneer in noticing the articlo in question, is
equally warm in its praises as a system likely to benefit native
cultivators, and therefore deserving of every enoourogemont.
In noticing the article in the H$9kwt our Allahabad contemporary
mentions this system of well cultivation as having been quietly
worked out in the district of Sarun in Lower Bongah The author
of the scheme is ueilher an engineer nor a civilian, but asub-Depnty
Opium Agent, who, taking advantage of certain rules cf hin
department, has during the past five years constructed 1^,500 new
masonry wells and repaired BOO old ones, at an average cost to the
State of between three and four rupees a well. The actual
expenditure was Its. 77,000, but the whole of,this amount bos been
recovered. It was advanced in sums of about Bs. 00 for eacli well,
and the loss to Government is the interest, which the reviewer
oaleulates at percent, to amount, during the two years and u
quarter in which it is being recovered, to Be. dj. Further on wo
learn that during the present year 420 new wells are being made
and 45 old ones repaired. The wells are constructed of dry masonry,
cost seemingly from Bs. 80 to Bal20 each, and are expected to
last a hundred years. Mr. Tytlar states that he is usually able to
Induce the zemindar to supply the wooil for brick burning, whilst
the ryot gives fifteen or twenty rupees besides his labour. Indeed
the most notable ciroometanoe of the system is that it works
through this combined self interest and independent action of tlie
landholder and tenant ; the tie uuiling these two ordinarily
opposing forces being the personal influence of Mi^. Tytior. The
effect of these wells on general cultivation whoa poppy is not on
the ground is said to be very groat. Tite reviewer seeL.is to seek
apeoiaily to draw attention to wliat he regards os the snocossful
result of honest unpretending hard work, Hia claim to notice is
not unjustified by the facts.
Unfortunately, the summary of the Cakuita Pevim articlo
supplies no particulars as to the nature of Uie soil or the depth to
vihmi the wells were sunk. In the Jaffna Peninsula, where wo
know that the system of well ouUivaitou is exteueiveiy aiul
successively carried on, the soil is light and easily worked, and wo
believe the late Mr. Bussell, when Government Agent of the
Hortheru Proviuce, applied to the Government for a vote of money
for this purpose at the rate ol: five pounds a well, atkd so convinced
was he pf the utility and eocnottiy of this means of irrigatipn,
that when the money was refused by Government, he commenced
expenditure cut of Ui» own private meaus ; but unfortunatly for
the district he was promoted to the Central Province before he
could carry out much of his plan.
One great advantage which well irrigation offers is, that it
lormshes a supply cf water throughout the year; but very rarely
indeed if the wCils bes#k to a proper doptb, will the water supnly
fail altogether, f’^ow. We have seen io certain districts of this
Island, bow e^^idiidVe on village tanks has proved of no avail
during seasons of extreme dryness : and engmaeriog ingenuity
bos been taxed, and exten^ve ana coSUy schemes have been
devised, for bringing a supply of water to them from considerable
distances iu order to obviate the effects of the absence of rainfall
during the most critical times of the year. V7e have an instance
of this iu the project of the toda Ella irrigation works in the
Morth Oeutral Province, estimated to cost i&40,000, but the
oxpendituro is so large that Goverument hesitates to sanction a vote
fox th^ purpose, knowing well that once begun the work must be
ooutinned tp fhs end, and that it is possible this amount may be
consider'ably ii^reased even after the most careful estimates, The
qaestion wrises in this case, whether instead of
onteriugupofi a iafge:ottlIay, au attempt might tiy
tbe<K>nstraction bf wettiilDd bftmg apparatus, hi Mm aauSfielcnt
supply of water th meet HiC occurrouce of dry seasons.
The same remarka ivllf U
fion i)«irpotw w
ftf HayprAtebtoMtHrna. ft'i.'nt
4«p«ul«ii thiiwtara «!!!►»* deM to
would have to be sunk, and It pf cofirse liappi^' tthpi in
some localities, wher4 large masses of rook was found* ttmt fhe
sinking ol wells wopM baimpraotloabtai kuK Careful horihiga ^euld
settle all these qusations: and we have brought Mte sabje^ forward
in the hope tliat the suooesfi "udiloh has atiemded by
means of welfsfn Bengal, squalljfr with il|s>a|«|tm in; 1 ^ttMoi^rit
Peninsula, may be the meche' libUtCinir t% .antbar^^ to IfitJi
their atteuUon to the subject, before any|spi^ liWiei^nm^
be iooorred in the eonstrodioti of itrig«tlli|%<»rks np^ ^e;?bR
system.*--CI^Icft Thnss. ,
TUB PLANT-PBODUCINO OATBBPILLAE OlP NEW
ZEALAND,
(Faotf TUB CoLomas AN 0 laiw)
A mong the many ourloas forme of gii)mal and vegetable life at
the antipodes, perhaps bone is more^ feinanakdo iltati
Aweto, or vege^caterpillar, which is found In oonaidferable numbeis
in certain pasts of New Zealand, and less frequently, in a somewhat
different t^aps, in New BooMi Walea. lU'lshe Dddy of this cater¬
pillar literallyigrowB the root of a species of rush qr rOed, whose
eiem, growing upwards in the ordinary manner above ground, is
the perfect stem of a leafless vegetable with a head somewhat
resembling tho head of a bulrush. The heads, or seed vessels of
the plants, are oaten by the Maoris, and, when burnt, are employed
as a colouring matter; the plant when roasted emits a strong
auhuat smell. The natural history of this curioos organism is
briefly as follows :«-Th 6 caterpillar known ss the ** Aweto,” oi
mpiahit vireeoens, when burrowing uuder^ound previous to its
metamorphosis to the chrysaUs state, collects one or more of the
seeds of a parasitio fungus {SpTueria Roherkii) iu the joints of its
nock, whore, nurtured by tho warmth,of tho body, they quickly
germinate, the roots pressing downwards and completely filling tho
skin of the oaterpillaris body, and tho stem springing upwards ,
through the light rich soil till ft attains a height of Some eight or ton
inches. The caterpillars seldom or ver exceed three or four inches
in leuglh, and the root of the plant appears invariably to con Quo
itself to the shell of the insect, which preserves Us outward form
intact, the feet, eyes, and scales appearing perfect, Wiierever tho
olubshaped heads of the plant are seen, its caterpillar-root may easily
bo fotnid hy digging carefully downwards to a distance of several
inchea This remarkable instance of a cater|nllar, uaturaHy destined
to develops into a gaudy butterfly, transforming itself into an
integral and radical portion of au insiguificaut plant, sSems like a
protest against the ravages which those iarvee joanally commit on
the produce of the vegetable klugftom.
THE VINTAGE OF 1879,
A FEW weeks ago, according to our usual oastom, wo sent out
uirculari to the various viuegrowers in the eoloay asking them
to furniBb us with aa much in format! ou as tbsy could rsspsotiqg the
vintage which has just olossd, The bulk of the rspllss having comC to
hand, wo ars in a pomltiou to give an approximate idea of the results of
the season, lu some tespects the figures and stiteateots are satlsfaotory,
although they do not indioato ttny increass in the produotlOn of wine
this year as compared with laat, The oiroolars returned give a total yield
of 340,400 gallons, but as two or throe large mauafabthrerS have not
fdriiisbed ua with auy Infomatlou ibis season, we sheU not be far out
ifweeaiimato the gross prodaotloii at something like 88 O 1 OOO gallons,
this la nearly 26,000 gatloos {ess than tbs rsthtns for 1678, but about
84,000 gallons In oxoMS of Ibe returns for lOTf. We are unable to tell
to what axtsDt the acreage under vines baa Inoreaaed, as we have no
iscurdof last year's figures {but our returos show that from 20 to 30
aoreC wbieb ptcduead nothing itst year' are now hearing, the total area
planted being 1,230 acres, this represents only the vineyards about
which information has been euppUsdns; thets aronnnmberol small
plots of ground planted with vines not lupladodlfi ouccnMietts*i# 0 ) 4lMt
the total aoreage uodsr vines throughoat the oniony woglA.ha
ably in excess of mentionad above. , ,r ,
It ie satiefaoioty to find no allusion in any of the olyonlafi to iba
appearanoo of Pkjflk0erM pmatriw* Thera was a ffitho
season that this ittUeb-firiHMflid scourge bad shown itself ip opt d the
fouihern vloayafds^but wc arc glad to find thfit, solaSitofit oortes-
pondsnts are aware, no traces of the dissfisehnwe baen. isciik .Of tho
Oidium Which played such havpc with Vue ylntags pi. 1877. we
do uwt hear so. ntooh this aeasoo. Most of thp. vinsyar4i bavC escaped
this ,lfc afipaaif^, howCv% among tho Vlnec Jn jific North,
North*Na«twand^th,hut where e|«cHvssQlphuir%gwiig cm ployed, IHUo
demifio fiiawed* Wsisihh^omid esitlmony) mlthqugh'wks'iflr two
rfWsfl. Tbs
nf grCpti hut
' fp'iskiil AaRICULTURIST.
301
,'.'yittjMjilliS** %fl(li<0li nson*tni)Klo(tM0ih)wro(>nWmi tb»t
li«iw|n faywwt|a«yt not teat U th«r tefs m mna aotay tban tba
' '!•'“» »" ‘hv to»PMo«il»«* aod
*“ •aaitfoii *<• iha avirioynaat rf tha piraaBoa
*f ateayartijliw doairaatdaai(«t& («Mbaaa olftatt (from
f‘^S.1*^!®*.!'*'*'. *•>'•>• •aadlB* »»BJ fanttwitatoro Ihalrattantioa
SiJi* - “* ••"•g'BW »oil W iwa* tbat MaaNlpaiwma lo (ha
ajw gjaljigf ap tba peodoAfoa at whaat alth a alaw of arawtoff
i».-.y!®** •** aMMa JwrtotoMd as muoh al (i^ to AsTlOs. par
I ' ^'Mpaid (otfisitM; and it wtitlw atooaa SOSO that a«oa otgiapM
lo tbs aanat say 44 pat tan la far Mttar than aasan « sight insbali ol
•bast nt «iv parbi^i;>>A ^MtraHan
»ALT ASD SAM FACTOttlES.
fpEBESS wrt Unf onoe «o ootamon and *o iateresUng iu oua
a •*-' way ov Anotiier as salt, to wmob, aecording to a reply to a dspata»
tloo adreii hp Mr* Selit^i>Be 0 tli a few days ago, publio aUettfiott is Uksly
to be once nore specially directeda ^he salt-niakera of Oheshire have for
many a long day bad thiogs pretty muoh thdr own way, and are said l-o
^ve ^en makiog tbemtalvsi aomewbat of a uoisance to^keir oeighboavs
in two or three respects, one of the most sovtotts oemplaiuts being that
they ba^ been pumping away the very feundatiotui ofjihingB in that part
of the World. While they have pumped up their brine and enciohed them¬
selves, they have h^en ruining theiy neighbours by drawing off tens of
thonsande of tons of solid matter every month from boneath adjacent
pxoperty» which has oonseciaently sunk down and wrecked bnildlngs and
entailod other ruinous res nils.
What is the yield of salt from Oheshire at the present momeut we oannot
say premsely, but a return before ns for 1.874 shows that from tbo 1st of
January to the end of Ootober in that year the quantity that passed down
the river Weaver to Ifiterpool from the salt district was 717,878 tons; and
wlien it is remembered that the mines here are said to have been of great
importance in the times of the Baxon UeptMohy* it w^ll hardly be thought
a matter for surprise that if there aye any objeolionablo Wares lit eonnoabion
wirii this produoe, they are by this time calling pretty loudly for remedy a
The salt works of Cheshire appear to be carried on by a doable system.
By one the solid rock salt is (luatriod out just as coal may bo- In
this form it has to bo leisolred in water from which it is
afterwards separated by evaporation. In Polish Gallicia, where
there are the most celebrated aslt mines in Europe, tins rcttning process is
dispensed with, partly because the salt is really purer, and partly, perhaps,
because the eonsumers of It are somewhat loss fostidious than some of tba
rest of us. In these mines the rook is quarried out and pounded into
powder, and is then ready for nso. The refining process of Oheshire and
Woroeatenhivo renders English salt a subject of very general admiration
to foreignersi who prise It very highly and use it in enormoos quantities,
uolwithftttUding that taa»tion is in many coses very heavy, and notwith.
standing ^j^kor foot that few regions of the earth are dsstUote of suit
of their oiro' in some form or otiici'. There are, however, many parts in
whidh, although salt is within easy teach, it is scarcely abundant enough to
pay for its collection. There arc saline springs in oertain parts of Germany,
for instance, the salt of which is so small in quantity, that it was long
thought to be better to import it at a high rate than to attempt to make
any use of the home supply. The cost of the fuel employed in the prooeas
of evaporation was greater than tho value of the salt when obtained. At
length a very ingeUions artifice was hit npon. The proprietors built up
huge pilen of faggots, on to the top of which they pumped their brine,
allowiiig It to peieolate down under the infiuenoa of sun aud wind. Only
the water, of eourse, passed off by evaporation, leaving every particle of
theialine matter behind. By this meana it was found that when itircaohed
the reocpfeaolfis underneath the faggot staoks, the proportion of salt to
water had been fo largely fnereased. tbat it p^ very well to complete the
prpeeiB bT arUfioial heat, A similar expedient has, we believe, been
adopted at oertain salt springs in Bardinia.
Besides the exoavatioa of the solid rooks, the gopd people of Northwich
and pthey plaosa in OheiAlre get an enormous'.quantity of their salt from
the earth by pumping.oR is usually found at a deptti of about
fifi yards. It is loxmed, no doubt, simPIy by mcdhiary springs ^ froah water
passing over the rocks of salt in which the neighbourhood abounds, aud
thusbeooming saturated, every pint of good brine eontainlng, it ia computed,
about eix mineos of salt. It ii easy to peteeivo that by this proeess long con-
.-^^ijrined, a man may very ef^otnally run away with the rocks on which bis
n^hbonria property la based. In the prooess of excavation he knows, or
may know, preclji^y where ho la obtaining his' supplies from; but where
. hii brine Is drawn trm U a mOxie diBloutt matter to de^e. Whoso
' iowiMoiirookt hommy gradually be sapp^g oai^ be dotermsued only
whan somabodi'e honee begtue to tott«r ahd oritOk^ and even then the r
ttnldoky owner would find |t somewhat diEtoult to prove that any one
pnmp in ^ the mlsi^f, The damsge aeems, na a
matter bf taet,toluivalhng been submit altegafher uaevkable, and
serneeftheplmma lhlhh^^^bftlim’Wei^ scene of
giWdajhiottt Korthwidh lik parMar hat a ^eat sufferer i and
,ttlsapprhhesdad*thatlfp^tBQ^a^^th^ wM .wtth tholv preseat
vigour, the whole town, w a great it, must before long sink , 4 o
a level below that Of the rivet Weaver*' Already many of tho homes
appear as though they tiavo suffered front an Oerthquake, nnd are only
prevented from tailing by an elaborate System of butts aud screws. The
brine as it comes fmm the earth is pnmped into a reservoir from which
pipes ia various dlrectious convey It to shallow iron vessels, from 40 to
100 feet loDg and from 10 to 85 feet wide, or thereabouts. TIadar thoso
pan# great fires are earried through flues Urmiuatiug in lofty chimneys,
which, we presume, are to be the spemol objeota of Mr. Sdlater*Booth^s
interest ia connection with the Noxious Vapours* Bill. As the brine is
heated a alight film of salt conUnttslly forms at ths top of tfem liquor and
sinks to the bottom, where. ulUmately, all the saliiio matter is deposited in
a thick cake, with more or leas of imparity euomsted with it at the bottom,
Various kinds of salt are produced from one and the aame liquor by apply”
ing different degrees of heat % or, rather, it will 1 » more oorreot to say that
^ salt in the brine may be otystallised into various commercial quaUrisV
of salt Dy Mscji variations of the heat employe]. Coarfe*gra{oed salt is
produced by 180 (tegt»*ii oiJheat, »* fishing salt ” by 100 degrees, and so o»*
The taxation of salt would form a outUM ^^hapter in the irorl#e history.
It is computed, from prison and uulon workahouse statisrios, that the annnal
salt consumption for each person is about 16 pounds, and It has been asserted
tliat this is probably very near the oonsumptlou necessary toe people gener¬
ally in this country. When Mr. Crawford was belore a Britet Committee
of the House of Commons in IfiBS, he put twelve pounds pot head as the
rate of salt consumption in India. Even allowing tUta quanUty, which is
probably a good deal leas than the rioe^ing Hindoo would tako if ho
could get it, it was shown that from 1765 to the titqn when Ur. Crawford
gave hiB evidence, a native of India could get twelve pounds of sa.lt in the
ooursc of the year only by saorlfioing one-aixth of his average income.
Not a great while ago it was calenUted that the Empire of Austria derived
no less than one-seveubh of Its total vovenuo from its salt mines. Tbat
oxeeasive import duties on salt must be attended with very pernicious
resnlts is a fact ih«* has been very practically recognised by our own
Government, but perhaps the moic illustration of the fact that it
would be possible to adduce is to be found in the oiu law of
lloUand, by whieh it was decreod that eriminalB eonviotod of murder under
certain circumitances should bo imprisoned in a damp oMl, have only water
to drink, aud should be fed with bread made without salt* Accordlog to
woltAuthenticated testimony, the criminal always died within a very short
time, and that by a death so loathsouio and horrible thst its symptoms
cannot very well bo deacribed.«-Gfeds.
OATS.
(Bv 8a Bowick.)
T he ibliowing, from a forthoomiuR ** Agricultural Handkook for Bchools **
(published in the AffricuUural Qmetie ). will sowc to illiutmh the
stops being ta&eu at home to diffuse agrioulturol knowledge
1 . Aveba,—This important grain is peouliariy sdaptsd for tempSiAta
olimaiOI. ami, being a bardj plaut, ii is bCttoi sttilgd fof poor Soils and cold
ohmates than either wheat or barley, and is consequently more easily
cultivated. The late Mr. Patrick Shirieff, whosoaameisweU known.in
eounexiun with cmale, was of opinion that by their improvement the corn-
growing area of Great Britain might be greatly enlarged. HedouUless
expressed himself too songuinely when he said that with earlier vaxietiee of
oats, the home of the grouse and deer might yet be invaded; but the
reverse process of laying down to pasture instead of adding to the arable
surisoo is now more the order of the day. Friable soils are well adapted
for oats, but they arogrown on stiff clays, as well as messy and gravelly
soils, and. in fact, npon all descriptions of ground. Oats axe a gross feeding
plant, and m this characteristio they exceed wheat and barleyi and they
require a larger amonnt of moUtnre thau' either; but a wet and cold
summer, unless with the earlier varieties, leads to an untimely reaping time
and a deficient harvest. They thrive best where » large quantity uf
vegetable matter is present in a elate of decompoittion, and they arc very
geoerally taken as a first crop on newly-reclaimed land. Oats mre Mao a
oommou crop on grass lands—i.c., rye-grass mixture—altar pasture, aud on
that the bvst crops arc grown, both iu respect to quantity and quality .—the
older tbo pasture the better the crop. In Scotland oats oeeupy three times
the area of wheat and barley together, and ia Ireland the ratio is fonr to
one I but though oats prosper In a cool and moist atmosphere, ft is
noteworthy that Irish oats are rarely the quality of those grpwu Ju Soetland.
In the north of England the proportion of oats is also large,
g. Seddsmea enumerate 80 of 40 vgiietiet of oats, but many of them
have little of a distmotive oUaracter, and others of them have become all
but extinct. The kinds that maintain the best repute are the Poland
(formerly the Georgian) Potato, Bopotonn, Angus, the Bbdaslie, Tartaflan,
Sandy, Tam Finlay, the Red gnd Dun oat, and several kinds brought out
by Mr. Bhirreff. The Potato oat takes a high place«rit has a plump mealy
kemelt nnd is cultWated'Oti the beet land; bat the atraw is rather short
compared with other kUtds, The Xfopetona oat hea a longer grain whh awo,
it riKiens about the tame tottg ito the Potato oat| and is nop so liable to shed.
The straw Is loiig^ add not apt to lodge, but on indifferent soils the yield
is sometimes dlsgppo^m^i The Poland and Canadian oats are husky, aud
allhough crops of a heavy weight by the bushel, theU
cttltivaUMi to m, iatehdtog, except in oeftain
diftslots* A ffhmd in
m
'thb'
fj' '-ii
■f :
»»'■
fill ^ tii6 OiEiAdiia t^fow lS<»ik
b 64« tlin* fally d01b« jftX litiibtl* i..
oM^jjiAd Uiiit in &« n^itb, boi in
^tmti:fyy» nnd ibo neoeMity ok ItoquflftUy c«i«^iitg teb«
W|s nbnbdott^.
8« Ifh# ibn Bltdngtie, and (he Tain Flajay are all nsafal ',pata ,lo|
th« tnn ct «oilc» Ibe Utfcai, )i iha be«( e«tAhU»b«d la th«
«oa(h-W4iit of Sootland, It yield* fina fodder, and a good retnca of a<im $
but tiia re<Wiiitl 3 r.iiitrodoo#d Swiw oai| whiobbiu^aUko ohAtaOtor,iaVgblj
•pohenofi *fho white aud blaoh Tartarian oata we good jicl^ng kiada^
althoogb iomewbat light in the biuhol. Ukay both oarry feho ear on ana
«idi, are long is iha^atrawi and w«U adapted tor aoita ot a biaok monld» and
of a pieaiy and marahy deacrlpUon. there ar^ leveral hhide ot winter oate,
wldok aia onttivated in the sohth of BogUnd, that have more or leaa merits
and baVd the advautege dl being hanreated eaiiy.
4. 1*he tarlie^ verietlas are best aoited for the higher elau aoila* and
indeduUoly nailed cotmnou oats are adapted tor indi0Eeifl»^ tanda
and «tUatea, ’beiBg hardier and better able to rofiit ^j^^f^paerie ohaoge*
endlee&liaUe to ebed their seeda In bin>- otind*. A change of aeel >•
praferted frbtn iaod of a idayey deaoriplion, andTrom an Wly diatrlot*
Gala do not degeoeitete ao rapidly on that kmd of land* but for light land
a change of aeed la adraiitageoua erery three or four yoara.
&» dwno varietieaofoata areof lungetandiug, and may be truoed to a
amgle ear or|dant, whloh waa propagated by (bo diaeoverer Ull enongb waa
gained for extended field ealtivtUion. The Btainelie oat ia among the oldeaU
and it was originated on a farm of (hat nathe In (he high ground* of
TWeeddsde, nWtt (ho middle of the la^t ceotary. It oonsigted of a few
atalka, and waa pioked from a mooriah field of oommon oate on acoount of
ita eaiUneea and abnndanoe of.etraw. It eoon came into great demand on
both eldea of the Tweedy and it baa kept up it* repute to Urn present day.
The fieeatfaiu was kept np on that farm by always aeleetlog the best ears
to nropagite from without ohange from other pta^iea. Again, the Potato
oat waa dlaoorerod amongst a field of potutoea on. the farm ^ Afkteoyi
Cumberland, in 1768* and it soon naf^iy •uppiantod the Polands and
TarUrians. The Sandp mi was found by ahoy named Alexander (^c$Uce,
** Sandy Thompaon, on a recently ^formed bank of soil on the farm of
Noth, parish of Khynie, Banifdhlre. in 1824. It is a hardy, well-established
kihdt it resembles a rod oat which was introdnood tniu the u >r(h from
Peeblca In the end of the last century, and may claim to ho a dosoeifdaab
but in the ooume of 30 years it haa lost a good deal of its rad o dour.
6. The oats cttlUfated a centnry ago in most of iU-elrcumstaoced
parts of Oritalu were lank-taUed, grey-awned, and of a vciy thin and poor
description. Dr. Keith writes, in the beglnniag of the preaout oentnry, that
before the great frost of Augtist in 1732, the native oat did not weigh over
201 b. or 30ib« per bushel, and did not yield moro than a U<tU of tlm moal now
obtained from the same measured quantity^ quarter of ouU would only
produce 3010. or fiOlb. of moaU instead ot the 180tb, or tPOib. of (ho present
day. The damage sustained by the frost of 1782, htid idle calaedSoue harvoaO
of 17811, nearly oxtUlgaishcd the anoiout naiive oat iu the north, and led to
the introducUon of suporior kinds, much tu the adrautago of the has-’
bondman.
Some yeare ago we bad a sample of cats from Kovih Veil, a native lotan l
of the Shetland group, which, we believe, was Idoatioal with the native oat
referred tow Some of them were sown in the south midlands of hagiaud,
and produced large pla^ t nnd some were transmitted to Protoar Buomsn»
of Bradford AbbSa. T^ere they also expanded into fine plants without
showing muoh improvemeut in the kernel, They were tho Avooa strigosa,
which Dc. Lindley supposed may have been the parent of our oat crop*
The Avtoa fataa was also exporimeuted with by the professor, and he
v>Ae led to the opinion tjbat to it mui>i be ascribed the origin ot the
cultivated oat.
7. As previously mentioned, oats arc sown thiokor than either wheat oe
barley, and four to five bushels an acre are tUn oummoa quAnstdCs employed*
There is a medlatn quantity tor farms and district*, &am wnioh it ts nob
profitable to deviate materially, and the very thin feeding praoUaed by the
few will never be adopted by the many. In eombaiing the thin seeding,
Mr. Almack justly remarked 30 years ago that the saving of a bnsUel per
acre wOf a great saving} but few could fail to see ho w much greater the loss
would be if all the land were sowu vri^th a bushel letic per acre than the
aeawn foUpwIng proved to hnvebeeu necessary. The average yield of the
best oom counties ranges from 4^ to 62 bushels an uere^ end oecsasloually
90 to loo bnsheli mi acre is roeiM ^nm wealthy iicldsw The mooths of
AUreb end AprB MU the ^•omt|atoa seed time.
8. Oats are better to k ent before they are fully ripe, say about
two*Uilrda ripe* The straw of oats i« better fodder ih^u wheat o r barley,
the earlier out (he better, and somo kinds fCiitraw ere Httle worse than hey.
Oats ore almost universally onl with the aheafieiproapeff ood pat up into
stooks to vm, Under leaky ekies in late distriots there ie hd better way of
aavli^ the crops, after being a few days in the ktook, jtlMa baUdl^ them ip
smuU ftaeks in the field, the builder standing aUthe t4ma dh the ^ufid* ,
9. The finest sigaius d <mti weigh,4dib. and ifilk p6r biiviiel„ imd the.
oonunoa mmUties ru» from dOlk to 421b., and e^rts fifiib,
Ooteveig&eg Ft)* bushel are. estimated to yield abOii| Idfilb, of
meallrosn the queiter on the average. Oats weigbihg buslml
prodaecMibimt 2^ of meel^er quarter, Ifpm.whlph it wl#|i&efh, '
the extra atteoavptHMI 1 /^
and iftw OQOlieg for so me dayit'
< keinelsamiqiain^l^eiied
clOMmttq grind them into M
meat* have been xakdboa the pflmitiee^lWiaiwedeor^ydMiH^
which very much^ otanojil kbmn ie Mid» h, ^1, ilikb' ibd ivlpeoM
aLrofhtag.maobiB«e* the meM fpr we^iagwp^
' Oats are still
used as fiirmerly,
Uiirfia of the fvod ^
more aubstantial the apd,fioiw*|gM^A^^ hiMt
in use. A eo»*PkHson ot beef with odMekI ffisk Iht^mad
of the neovtpepers, in which ftwaa etatedtluitlmh:' ^
70tb*of urater, while iu the same wMght Of OfitincaY llier|‘itikl,thVhf
s<4<# malter. The 3(Hb* of solid matter in keef consisted cl fillb. of fL^
formers and 8lb of hcat-giversj and the eifiid matter of Meal yieldM 191b*
of fiesh-foftnora and 77 lb* of heat.fivers. So tb*it the latter Wai -deemed
very benefi'dat in a cold oUmate. . ^ »
An agreeable, liglit, and whotesome dish. oaM aoWaaa; a« '^ef^bd 'from,
the husks of oats, Or rather the fine Hear j^herio'^ to w^ ve^
much used in the Wt nud preDedfiog geuerati^# Uni Is dot jmt enticelyr
dieCtintinued in the north. The eidSi as they are cdlffd# ifiee^d in
water till they beooma a nltk acid, and the water on the' top Is titan
pouiod off. The Itmaiping thick liquor MHfmi Separated frofU the hfitla by a
Steve, andjs elihef naif boUed and drtak nUdst the name df fcnoUiog
sowans, or oomplot^y boUed into a pudding, and eaten tith swqet
An exceiloqt drink is also prepared from oatmeal by bellli^ water
over two or three apooutuls, and then sUrrsd. After; Me ^cktatuie settles,
the wntet^is poured olf, aud then drunk as tea. It is the beat of drinks;
m fev’^rish sickness it is uneqitaUed, end it alike qnettehes the thirst and
uourishes the system. The greater piirt of the oats, however, are used
f tj: home food, and they mako very good food lor fowls.
INDIAN I'SA DlSIfilOXS ASSdllilATION.
I N a recent nuusber of the Blantors' fiopplanteiili we foreebadowed
the probable ffirmnUon in London of an Assoeiatlqn hiving fop
its ,object the guardianship of the lutereiti of Indian tea*plaiita»er
We now have before us the proepeotuint the Indian Diitiiota Ton
Aisoolatloo, which wo reprodnoe below. The enterprise le one whloh
at once commends itself to thbse intereitled In the cultlvatioii of tea
in India. At the preaent time, when piantsre are heset with dtfitoultiM
whiou the unreuiunorative prices,of tea serve to aggravate, U specially
behoves them (o take united action In reepeot of their many grievances,
There is vast scope for the operations Of the propo^ Association,
ttud alfhongh it may not Venice to immediately aocompUeb all that it
uims at, abonld it succeed in placing the laws which, rcgnlate the
labour question on a bettor footing, U wiU not have laboured in
vein. A glance at the names of the gentlemen forming the ptovlitonal
ftouxmitiaa wUi eatlsfy planters In India that their liMweet^ home
are m good hands.
Tils following is the proipeotoa with referenoo to Which nmeeting
will be held on the 22nd instant,nt the Gaildhali Tavern, Tea plfNitere
in India desirous of joining the proposed Association ehnnld oommnni*
oete in the first instance with the honorary secrebsiy of the HesoolaMoii,
at 14, St, Mary Axo, B,0.
The great and continuous development of the growth of ISa In India,
the magnitude of the Interests Involved, and the numeronidlfiteultles-^
some natural, other* the effeot ot weH*nieaat but mlitalrai leglilaithM!i
which stand in the way of the fature txpansteiiotitogindaeery^ and
to seme extent even imperil its egifting itobMlty* lidi^ the
expediency, not to say urgency, ot those' satetofted^ M «itoeii
ot thq enterprise, forming some ktndot Msoclatiqii to* the 'wH^**
proteotUn of their oommon iutoreiti. ' * '
The targe field covered by the Industry, embraotng os U dee*, several
lUstrid^ widely separated, and the ooMparatlve lacTiMbfi i^lnd^sldttil
p.antori, would render it difficult to organise and efi^|ii|!ely,*Q*ti^
soch an Aesooietion to ludia* The tondedey, toS^Hh' fmgf etmtoi
and others oonnecUd with the entorptise to gravUgtoA |o to epeak
towards Lendou, points to tbatcity^i the fittest and gtosb/ocmi^etttent
location for the bead-qeartoifi of (he Asto^toticn, At lhfi'eambtltoe,
the '.i^opecation of planters and otheni resident In India haring tondtofi <
Intoreste, would not only be MaMhglnahto, bnt,eliieoitindh^aa«hl 0
to the support of the Assoeiattoii, andf the tenHigtiQja nllf its obItotA
The mere Important of these nb|eofl may be eammaiM ae
1st.—To serve es a oeatoe, or medtom >ef tetereomiiinntoattcn to
those directly or indjlreo|ly tntorektod to the onfMvetiOtt cH to* to ^
BflMsh India, and to noitoot and 4lii«(ttln*te Inforinattott' o*toUil*tod ^
to be of service to thal^ifktertol* ,
2ad,«^To endenvont to bftfig * oeftein dogree *1 connert and
unity of aeUon gntongto manngers of toiipropji«ton^tt
all iM^rtant ^itottl^me hevtog fto their abltot to ciieapdn the #Mi
o^rodttotion, iiaj|toto'the ^nelity, and todtoato^^he dtoMutottoeblto.
eiatoh ^ toa^tobfieghda^at&^^toitod lS)
£rsffl»ss^!a!r#»® ■
!lo I
Mikt ^ li^ |w ‘ ^ ^ tlie,
^ liAiAStMEattii? 'iftti irftoipoi^'ca4 IdT^^e''* tultsir ’
«lft!K|fM|[#«tl^^ <U MiMff
' ‘iDbii^SSn^ el w*il«
fttid «mwibt
l?Si#aS%i'irdlS^ l^iNMHMifflitt itteK n nm 4«d te»l ifOltibltt dtfld tor
M^4(lt*woei^#vbd«odv«irN»lir«gr^ 09|tra«ieC^i^ W0r}d.
ijl^ in thie T^elto Ibdte* «nd a
In WMdtng fM«Nier»ild^l%a#ifflb0i)^etfa0t«. th«
tio»i«kFtt«0 of tb« UfOvIuM f aU U» Mbit of qttttntU 7 voaniretl
to fbtl the !diP|« 01 lAbowow iOd INrli^l^ Idootod 0 ^ »bo too
pliOlAtfotki, Ibot iioSMftHiig 1 ^ p^tmibl dtidu firom other i^fts of
Oto SSiDpirOf ind Ko^ago boAejr&iOtf tite eta^loierg oftobbof*
, ooltittf |;blild«o li lopporled oei^ and
<mly t«^xif «li(ldbldAO(||wih9iewi ooooUrAttetbeBt to twobfkif the
MOM ^idikOhloltLittlttar ol tliooooiitfft glfiag eteatTf ond femuiiier«ti«e
omolofltteifi mlfiky (hooiaodi of lebotirelo, ood oUltag lOotArittll^ io
W«mii»i ih 9 fertile of^tJbe Qotfrtittenfi, 11 there hnt« be«a euf
letlOfo ote o< ehO'Ooeemttefit eae^uAfeiy to eppieoiete the
viloo^ofittihr iMibu tolhdUi iud iho dtffioilUlee tboee ou^egOd ia the
eotorgrtoe hAVo to odoteod with, ft»d whtefi kero beou toeome extent
iutiAdiM ^7 legtelotioo neediewly itrtogeat end oostly ia tte
laoideAeot it mey fAirly be tmtMUed to ike waot of loldoleot laforme*
tiooi Jiad tke kbeeoke^ of do^kloed reiirdeettiatton oa tke pert of tkoee
^^^^i^tedtfAtiotttd tke eorreotueseof tkte vie«r» end of the prok'&le
viUttfOfM AeaooiAttoo of theoetnro of that proffomd,, it may ha
sti^tkAl liet of Afeeire. Lister and
OaTdi dtidfeid* eooght tke ocwiperAlloO of g^tlemeo,
iatemted o^meroiAily aodotkefwiaeiii tke fMioepeHty or^eeehii ia
formiag O deputniioa to weit on Lord Otoohraok, her Slejesty’e
fledretMy Of ditto for ladis^ to represent, monget other wettore
^otWtbeto^er^iot tke proetooe, tke (HmouUiee eoiineotod rl^it.h
tlw ImpoTtWton ol l»b 0 B»w wd m«»n» oj oararauim^lon and
treneDOft. The depaUHon wee totrodeoed by ibo Kigkfc Hoti. W, K.
Forster, M,T,» end Sir H. W* peek, M.P,» acid woe most oonrieonsly
reoelved by hie Lordskipi wko proqaleed thnt their roproeeptailotia
would wcelteUU beet Attentloa, and bb cammuiuofttea to tiie Qovern.
meat of IndiA. This promiee has been duly fhlfi'M, wiUj tike result
that the sauotion ol^tke Oovernment ka* been obtafnod for tbo oon.
sudotlonof 70 Bilies of rail way lathe Debrooghae dieinct, wnk the
naafantoe of an annual subtentioa to the amount re(|tiireii to assttre iv
nlDlatonlol«„t of 6«««.on'“f*P"‘^,®'
and etlsbes of the plantlag oommatiUy whea properly represented.
^Tbe loUowtng gentlemen hare Already consented to oot on the
profisienAl oommlttee. Aodjiereral other geutlemeu ate being asked
to ipSutoi order to make the dbmmiktee as reprjsentatlre as yo»«kle
5udrfa,\.<oftheMangledyeC^^^ Lyell, Uobert (aeo. WiUtamaoa
Sai.KllJSli: iSiS B. o. (-
Braddoo, W. 0. (of lUeLuckim* _Assam). ^ ^
Fortythi wr T, iroagtesi oiwmvui -
o3i. (late Oommlssiouoc of and Oo.)
aw* J*j/<OooJa*iat, Assam.) Oo*) ,
Holl F W. Col the J>«joo Oo). Thowpsoni Dr, (Mpraijs and C
HSldayrA, J, (of Idster 46 Oo,^ Thompson, W. J. (of W. J. at
BradlMd.) Thompson.)
H^ktosoo. Colonel (late Oommls- Thompson, A. (of W, J. <
■ittnar Assam.) Thompson,)
a?d,oa. T*. A.«.
elation,)
W*„W.«m(D»o«Do««,Oo.)
co.r .. J. («f N.U» a.bi.
Burklnroung. H. (of the Jotebaut Assam.) , ,,
Tai Oo ) * Maitland, Wm, (of the Assam Oo,)
BuJkInioM*. Mn A. (ot the Mettip, J. A. N. (Borolli Oo.)
jSehBnt t 1» Oa) f»“». O' O' (lihokiiBpore Tea Oo.)
Boff MlSot-Seaetal H. P. (o« tUe Potle, U. 0. (ot Upper Aeiam Oo.)
®T-{J«2fckS) HMdea J. (or Badallper, Amam).
> Botettl, J. Vr. (ol Tlphook Oo.)
SSwiaeU a. («l tfce'^Swkw*®'* RoJ^rte, W. ftl due Joreheot aol
fMOiV - Daijeellog Oompaulee.)
OowM. Jw»ee.M.P. (BiUubergb.) Saugtter, W. (ol Darjeeliu* Oo.)
sSJSth.^T. UoaglMi K;.0.8.t, Bimpeon, H. J. (Balmer, Lawrie
hX». - Tboapwn, Dr.*5^ 0^'>g[
H^lbav.. A. J, lb* *^W fc Og, Thompeon, W. J. (ol W. J. aud H.
BradlMd.) Thompson.) i . «
H«>Wdsoo» Colonel (lato Oommis- Thompson, A. (of W, d. 45 U,
moner. Assam.) ^^kompson.) „ s.
Ob^T WU&on. Oeo, (aeorge William-
ok^ei <®fl» *»*••« ®**" A ®») -
' 4 J«.Ii»«rie, Sony. Seep.. |w«»
and **«U.
•A.* a mjHiaaiffllMf itt«i4oda«BtofiaeotUI meeting ol the proprietor,
oi eaUtu, awwhante, and rapreientatl*,, ot t|ie Oalen«a Agene,
firm,, tiidoHrewtolieMrtba lA *>» •»o»'Ao< '*» I* 1“'“*'
•t (be QkiMMf
w^, U ,0^ |9».t!»to« ^ Mwtatt®® *«*'*^ pwlecaen ol th*
>BbgwiS^Btft t|» pWbMfflniMhwggh,
!T ^^4»JS, A -aWama* m bbteCt* lot wtaM
Amongst tkoM pteinaf trefb ftopklnson, ^ 0r, F, Maeito-
masa, Dr. Wai. Tkomsnn, l<bSi^\Eerbert Khdwies, ai#WBlliim*
son, Wm. Bubartit T^mlo^' Alex. tiAwrie, B. B. Uiigoft
Bg a PottT Harold B. Eipg, £/%ili|ny<mug. FrknkEolf; iMr
Wkbeler, BoWt LyaO, Alfred £ Williamseii, Wm*
Bangster, E arlndrod, Kalgkt Sv Baade, W, Sblnk,
Bamnel Bird, Paul Blrtl, W. Tg Oaraegy^^ P-rke Piitot, f, T.
Aohrrk>, BdwaH Wahah. B. A. Lasrrto# d'dkk Hudson, J, Oarpmaei,
O. &. wnuamsod. Vt. Tyoi John Arthur Thompson, F,
Father, 0. Lepper, 0, Bergman, Dr, Uaniplbaaeli; Aa, Ae,
Oil the motion of Mr, Qeorge WHllahisoa, seconded by Mr. Wm.
Boberts-.-
Sir T* Dotiglai Foriytli, K.O,ai., O.B,, was uhantmotiMy ybtod to
tke obair,
the circular, on tkekasia of kddok it was proposed to form the
Association, was prodwoijd by Mr* Alex, Xiuwrie, tbo koti. teoretory,
Xt stated that the great adA^atinuoue dovetopmaut of the gsowtU of
lea In [ndla, the magnltoire of the inteiesU inyolred, and tke
numerous dliUouUlei^^eoma matarkd^^otkers tkeefteetof w«ll*meant
but mlstoken legislation—wklcb atood in tke way of the. future
expansioo of the industry, aud to some extoot even imperilled Its
existing stobiUty. ittdioatod the expediency of those intorsered in tke
Bueoees ot the enterprises formieg some kind of assoolatfoo for fbe
better proteotian of their oomiuoo iutereste. large jMd oovored
by tke industry, embracing as U did several distvtots widely impAtotfl*
and Ike comparative isolation of individual ptantors, ^oald render
ft difdcult to oiganise and effscilvety sustaiu suck an assoelattou
in India, The teudeucy, too, on the part of owners and others
oonuootod with the enterprise to gravitate^ eu to apeak, towards
Londuu, poiuted to that city as the most oonvenlsnt and fittest
location for the head-ouarters of the association. At tke lame time
the oo-operatton of planters and others resident |ii India kavlug
kindred ititetoils would oot only be most valuable, but almost
indispeniahla to tke support ot the assoeiatiou And tke reauiation
01 uw Abiaoie, tke more Important ot Wkidb were, first, to serve as a
ocotre or moiftqm wi «»tnniaaipaUoa to" those directly or itidlrecUy
Interested lu the ouUlvatlon of tea to Briti«fa Xudto, and to oolk'oi
and disseminate information oaloulated to be ol ter vise to that
iodoetry ; secondly, to endeavour to bring about a degree of concert
and unity ot action amouget owoere and managers of tea property,
upon all Important questions having for Ikeir objeofi to mieapeu
tke cost of pioduotion, improve ike quality, and Increase' the demand
for iUe product j tblrdly, to watek the course of legislation in India
aud filDglatid, in so far as it aSeoted the tea Industry and the general
ifiteresis of the districts into vihloh that industry was prosecuted,
and to secure such amendmsutc and modiftuattaus of existing laws,
us nggbt be found necessary for the reaHaatiou of tke objects in
view i fourthly, to take tuck aofefoh as might be found needful to
improve tbo means ol oommunleation and transport, and to proinote
a fuller and freer stream of immigration, both of labourere aud
settlers into such ol the tea distilcte as most required it. Thu
pros luce ot Assam, tor instance, with its mlliiou ot acres of waste
land of the most fertile okaraeter, and a climate which might be
said neeer lo fall iu its talntoll, presented in itself a vast atid most
suitable fisld tor the immigrants, being in feet markel o«l by nature
AS one of the most prodoefivcgralu-growiiig countries iu the world.
While fitted to ttos respect to be a feeder to the rest of India, and
a poteutial factor io warUiog off famines, aud mitigating toelr «ffecto.
The aotual rice crops of the province fell Igr tliort of I)he quantity
required to feed the large body of iabourera and iheiv vamkles
looaied on the tea plantaaons, thus neoessitatiiig a pereuntal dvain
from other parti of the empire, and imposing a heavy tax on' the
employers of labour. TcacuUuig of India was supported e^ntlally
by UrUisb capital, and only required a fair field and judioloas
eiiooufagfiment, to become tkc^ most valuable industry of the ooan.
try. giving eteady aud remunerative employment to many tboueaiuie
of Inbourors, aud aiding meterm^ iu sustaluiug the revenue of ike
aovemment adequately to appredleto the value of this boon to India,
and the difficulty those sUgagel In the e«terprlse had t^o ead
with aud which bed beeu to some extent intensified by legislation,
neodicstly ettiugont aud ocstly iu its inoidcuoe, it ro^|kt fairly
bo imputed to the want of suffimeut information and the abeence ot
oombiued represeutation on the pan of those interesisd.
The Okairman said that bo did. not intend to detain ike meet lug
with any lengfcheued observattous, because witkeut doubt those
present bad already acquainted themselves by the, help Of the very-
nilmirabty drafted paper whloh had l>een eireulated, wttk the
objf^cts of the proposed Assooiatlon. When bis adbeston to the
present scheme had been requested, he bad assented with the utmost
alacrity, because tke promoters of this movement w«re aimnly
carrying out, to a very proper and efficient manner, the idea that
some tea*p!aaters in the north of India had attempted to a rhtker
crude way to put into praetloe some little whHo since. (Hear, khar.)
During hiS rMideuoe in the Punjab—-extending over a nertod of
neeriy 80 ycars-he had taken officially a very great deal of totcrest,
and lavvr, as the owner of aome tea-gardens tbsre, a far tnora
nabstoiitjal am! also a more pleasant iocerest, in the great tea
luduetry of those districts. Hence he bad lent alt tke assUtanoe (n
ki« *power to the ^establiakmeot of ike asioolsttoa whick had been
attempted locally, and which kfid been started lu veoognttlon ot the
very material benefit oiket tqdustrtss In India had derived from the
formation of assoolattoiie, and the anion of. numbers. That
movement bad, however, latlid owing to Mk.i(nkefebt weekofiii and
the ubseuoe ot baokbooe«^a defect which was happy to say did
not appear to exist in the present fioksme. genttemeo whom he
bed the bonour of iMrMiig were welt awAto ' ct tke work that
tke eery powerful lu^o ;Fteiiters^ Assoffiatton bad performed, and
abtoof the InfiiiWwd wklok^rlm cotton growers were able to exercieo
with 111 * iMtiW.* W*|t (UfortOB li«4 tohro ,!»*♦ lBl«*»gu the
flueltioa At the Une when the mtUtt wu
flint wiortlitffiJifiiirStSffiwf’tt* *l>* lAtieletin Ooaaetl, kofl In tli«
istlia St.'S^S'. ■MS
<J 5 S^r
tiM tain m m to w^piMtiag. w i»| ?«»'»!i.t’ **‘*L%*^ 1*^5
AfKiiflWBt WM tewlilv a*p»l»t« ot ««t«pid9a Ii9j»ttd»il4iv am )i« M
wiM UrttU WraMW,thM iftjji Mfcaobwt^ ff?
ta|oHjtUrip«iloUl»eooitoii<iottei* ito frovreft might bMhigh^
th«y h«l, mA might hlmid Id*, tiut fxtmptiott hf
dttl^ ot ^ »th, now Itviid on %\\ lAdloa tea* hrooght Into (togbndo
rtiMW* hoor.) Now, while bo woi not ot oil ptepor«4 to «4Hdg» o*
ovgn fgggoith my ogitotiotitnilinil dhroollon ot tho prgmnt moiheiit,
hoikaofirotciioy fpeoiol threii on thle pointi a» o£Eording ooo.of
tho heft poiethli mifw lor m giowore toroMM
ornoohMim. (Eoof, heof,) Howwor, **L^r®®^l*** aodoo'>^*y
In^imhlemf in thesuelvfR, worn to^^mUote themielvm, to o
pot^l oentrotfifti owmiotloii, enoh ni It wm propoied to
loim, nuwiheihig omoog lie MUmrihete md eapportera, pombly eome
memm ot PtfrUoment «aa men ot high positton ond polttiool
JngttiiiiM.thorowoeore^y omninooe that they would be obteto moho
tbihP wMiOO hnowa to the Beeretory of Bmte for Xodio* It thle
oonld ho done* P worh would hovf been oehiored, onttgood
0 ^ wliS^Uol e&toe would hero been rondered to mon^
hondri^i of theft Wlow oountrymen engoged in one ot the moet
eitfmohle indcMtrfoe in thg world* (Oeor, hear* end opplouim.) The
Oheirman eonoluded hy mofing the flret roeotution oe toHowe
*tThgtmoi»oof«tloa be formed on the hasia put forward in the printed
olroulnr, doted Utb July 1679, and that tbte asioolation be oalled
the ’^XodlM ten BUttriole^ iUeoolotlon."
Mr* 0, WilUomaou seconded the resolution, nbtoh was put and
carried nnanlmoaely.
The Ohalrmaii next mored, *' that all propriotore ami planters,
and all those Intereated in the India tea dlatrlotg, be iufited ^
join the aatooiatlon as annual subset ibers/*
Colonel Hopklaeon aemM i^he fesolatioo, wbiob was then put
and duty oarrled.
The Obafrniau then moved, ** that the minimum annual subeorip.
lion ahull be one guinea for indirldoals, and that oompanles and
owuen of eetates be sottoited to eubseribe on a larger eoaie,**
Mr* Wt Eoberta, in seconding the reeolution, eaplelaed that the
aubserlption bad been fixed la the first ptaoe as low aa one guineii,
In order that the aseoeiation might at onoe find itself in fan<ls
to defray the ordinary expenses ineldont to lie luoeptloo. Then It
bad been deemed advisable to allord the committee an opportunity
of eollctting large eompanlee and the owners of esfeatee to cogirlbnte
to the funda of the association on a larger eoate, fm* it was obvious
that if tbe usaootation wbre to deal with the lubieot ot the interoste
of tea groweri In an effective and aaUsfactory manner, I lie support
extended to It ibonld be of a liberal obaracter. (Hear, hear.)
The reaolulioa was then put, and carded nnanitnoosly.
The Chairman next proposed *' ibat the nndermentloned genllemen
be solicited to become members of the exeeulive oommlttao, with
power to add to their somber " :«*Sir T. X>ouglas Forsyth, K.C.B.{.,
C.B.i late Commissioner of Dude; Colonel Hopktnsun, late Commis-
doner ot Assam} Alfred J* Holiday (of Mesirp* Lystcr ft Oo*«
Bradford)} Herbert Kooi^es, Ksq. (Bifector, National Bank of
India); Ales, I«wrie, I9sq*<Atex. X^wrie ft Co., London) ; Eobert
Lyall. Nag* (of Beorge Williamson ft Co., London); Wm. Malu
land,Bin. (a Director ot the Assam Tea Company}} General f, W.
Meroev (retired Bengal Btaff Corps); J. A. K. Warten, B«q.‘ (a
Dlreotor of the BorelU Tea Company) j Wm, Koberis, Esq. (Jorebaut
and DarjoeUng Tea Companies): Dr, Wm* Xhomusou (M*irnu Tea
Company); Arthur Thompson, Bs4* (Messrs. W. J. and U. Xhomp^
eon); James Warren. Bsq. (Doopia Dooma Tea Oompgny) ; Qeo.
WtUtamaon ft Oo., London ; J. H, Wiliiamson, Baq. (of Messrs,
Williamson, Magor ft Oo.)
The resolution having been aeoouded. and pjirried unanimously,
•omt illiouiwion ensued, in the oourse of wbieh th% following geuile-
men were duly nominated as additional members ot the O^niitree,
eie*, A, B. Fisher, Biql (a Direotov of the Assam Tea Oom^ 5 ) *
Herbert Batnbtidge, Baq. (a Director of the Laud Mortgage Bank
of ludia); Henry Berners, Bsq, (Messrs. Berners. Sanderson, and
Upton) ; Samuel Bird, Bsq. (Messrs. Bird ft Oo.. Oaloctta).
Mr. Sangsterdeidtad to know itit were Intended that the association
should protect the Interests of any other prodnot than tee, suoh, tax
Instance, aa olncbong, wheat, hemp, flax, fto. He was iuclinod to
think these produets should be included within the programme of
the assooiation. The present movement was, in his opinion, only
the germ of a very large and powerful assooietiou.
Mr* Gtiudrod oalled attention to the fact that coffsa possessed an
eeioeiatlon ot its own; tlmtprodnot, therefore, ^as indepstideut of
any further asslstaoee* Ee oppoeed any extension of ibp objects of
the aeioeiatioti bey^d tbostmlieady prescribed,
Oeneial AXeroer bssiged fa, eeoCnd Mr* Baugsterlg smestion* Ha
hbped fo eee ffmeilocsatldu grow Into a great guild, and he or^ tha
dembtlity of ekeogthebiug Ibefr posttfop by the notniof^ion of
a greater nnmber of genMemen as membere of Ike oommittce^;aifd
by the admission of as many Xa<m prodnots as was prectieabie.
Hedeslredtoputbefora the ipeeting the advlse^Ully of Increashxg
Ihe committee op to 60, aud ot fncludiug amonif tba^jMbiengiiglag
the attention of the asaoetation other ludien prodei^ than |hat of
1|^ & Ward wm ^opinion thal thw aesoolatiou ifikould he kept
ml&lii the lines laid down in the prlAted „^caiar. amii well to
that the assooiation was o^led'the Indian T&Distrlots'
About the time olnolmna; vim grewn ioe tea plantstlons,
u C;iSS.. 1 % 9 tVS|lKf s
t .^posMbia |e,
on^ThS^pnntSim
bslnff admfttadio a e^
Mf^ Geurga Wltttojmt ^
fo r^n theeoopa Af mm9iM
on hpportunttj t»rt6ifctog j
rega^ to the o^eot OleW, ,
nud^btedty of ipramoaot^MiySSn^^^thaf^pt^^ hieiiBil*
bad no doubt that tea asfOcMoa hHl e^ etta It ' cohld'^
do, no objection would be ihM bF anWiooe vioterasted In ksave^
msntiotbe exteoMoa ol the,, aeiic^foi^ an k might a^uallf jl
embrace, olber Xndfan prodMa Jm the pihiMt ^ ha c
coosideied any such i^tfmpf ^
ftMigitafh^pmiitlott'^** That the wpa-Mds assoeiatlan
enlarged to iMludoniiru^^ ladiao pro4nuti>" wae .lhfiMrbb ^ the
meeting and lost by aa oveeiriieimlag majority, two of fbfeo bauds
almrn being held up in its favour. * - . ' ^ ‘ k
Mr. Holiday said the pleasing duly, devolved dpon Bjm of
proposing a vote of tbanks to tbeir rmpeeted ehaiXMtk lor bis i^le
ana conrteons oondnot In tbo ebair day* hser.) In
moring tbit resolution, be desired to nrgomt neesssfty of welt*
oonoerted and wetl-euslalfied eo^pefatten With, the afamepo on
thepartof those intereifed in thelesLfadibStry* . '
Mr. Bobert Lawrie bad pleasure Id aeeondlng the rem^uthm* The
mivemenf initiated that day marked a imilf utariml pmni for
If^ien merohanta In the coarse of the next esii^ a aimcial
Minister of Commerce would be probably minted, imd IV would
prove a matter ef extremeJmiWANM-^w tbg trade, that tbrongh the
medium ot they ehonld have direct oommauication
withsH^hmniothorityt (Heat,hear.)
The resolution Was then carried Unanimously.
The^Dhal'scan briefly acknowledged the compliment, and before
me proceedings closed* 6fl members were enrolled*
K
INDIAN COBN AND ITS VAMBTIES.
A mong the indigenous grains of the Amertcau |(f^ne&fe, Indian corn
(SSsa mays) stands pre-omiaefnUy high, as regards its volne to ihe
faumoa family as an article of food. There ate many varieties of wild riop»
wild oats, wild rye, and other native cereals that would go ht to snstain
life, but DODO of thwn can take rank with oom or malm in Its now almost,
numberless varieties*^ It is this great variety that has caused a doubt with
some us to their having otiguiated from anything like a single species*
Doubtless, the mere dh^enoe c^Witode or length of the growing season
or mode of Culture* or quality of Boil» bam «n influence in modifylog a
single species and the prodacUon of variatilins Irom the origina)i type* Be
this aa it may, wo now have varleUeu that Seem adapted to any phasaot
climito, from the torrid through the entire ot the temperate xones of tiie
earth, m any laud and oouutiy, tboogh unknown to the rest ot the foM
until the discovery of tite American Continent by BuropoaoS.
There have been numerous disputes as to, ihe native oouabry of the maiae,
some writers wiahiug to prove that it has au Boatecn origiu t but it has
not beea found on any antique sculpture, neither is it mentioned by auy o
tho ancient writers aa a^Wreal of Bastero dimes* Olitnate, combined
with cultivation, has produced the varieties we now flud, and a very singular
form of maize is found growing spontaneously in the moist forests of
Taraguay. Kaoh seed of ibis partioidar com it wrapped in a chaffy kind ot
husk, which hnsk, after two years* cultivation, disappears, 'and the kernels
become bare like ordinary maize.
If any proof was wanting that the ancient inhabitanli of the new
continent were ihe growers of oorn, we have the evidence both from Korttr
and South America. Tho Smithsonian Institution has an oar of com, found
deposited in an earthern vessel eleven feet under gronnd, inx grave with a
mummy, near Ariqnipo, in Tern. The grains ozo rotUor oharp^pointed,
smMl. and slightly indented at the apex, lapping one ovoi iho otitef, iu
thS|tia«u rows, A small portion of this specimen is broken o#, beoce it is
hut four asi^a half inobea long. ITben stationed at .Gtgxp Xftm^u, Arteoim,
a sai|[eon, explored aowo aneienii rook caves neat by, which werp , pUnrtcred
in tho interior, and obtaieed oeverM com*cebi, two cit which were preserved,
and m now in ^e mnseum oi the SmithsoAiaa ln»titnticn^ .
One is slender and nwivow), beiurttve' ifua lii«4u»der ihifiiM long; the
other iM thioker, but its length is only four aud one*half inehsk The former
had ten and the latter eight rows of grains, with uo more differmica discern^
ihlc t>*XB e^ttp asMitg the corn raised by oU thcTueblo Indians of to<day,
mid whlhh oerifunly is the kind grown by them at the Spanish conquest of
Meiioo^ 'The ruins in which Ihecohs wens foond have pef been iitiiabited
hy the present Indians of the eountiy, who are Apachee, 'Oi, they believe
Ib&t evil spirits hover about them, and therefore will not enter titem
Indian corn may be mid to be the most UuiverssAarti(^ ot feed caU&vate^*,
ky the Indians of New Mexloo, Arizona, OaUfoznia, Nevidk and Utah, v^|j^
the tribes of the Xn^ Texritocy oonsider thiagraki tbeir ^ of life*
, Th*cttltiti!rtftmoftMtb(^im^ aol^beeu acquired by them ttm Others,
Itiiamhi^«fltifk»rMr^ Uving in the IM&efn Sta^
long before rim man hod get” foot in the co^y, it ^ cnltivated,
and by nearly iairiMlndUiie4the present United en » greater or
less extent. t/.
TheWdiA^ whngmwit in the pxks0^mmtf a
com cl AriWiried* .*» the I*«eblci ^
gtolkie driioiif thfcegh ihadcic
' -
J''
I# jpjwfli^. ina
^'/i^ 'jrt^.iwiftwi tm n
^ Iff M tod (hff ito« ill ton Inndiul
1^ ^ FffAliftrff atodi niFtoaalh mwitia
/ W«yi|v^ *» a to vffto^ln, thff Into tto iOl tt for tMit
f to ^*^A**^ A V to ««i*^ \iv(fiiigkt
! fo ^awto^ totoittfftyJWgWj to wto to,
%9ltoCMd«omto^Q«flidto tor watoiin ^
few ira^ff^ tlto l*to. ^ to to axotton of to to mott
irvabi in to w<nld x fe exfeada from
. tottt.,i|to ^vn .aoto to wandAcfelty to«d Wd
ItttoMiNt iwitov iM naW^lmto aamiHiy ol mankind m weU «a «oast.
/Iffaff ]jQ/«irii|to^, wiHx anfett imnartta^ nnd covatod artMe al feod^
/ * !to kaidtond ol nudaffi toltot/ wHiffb ii is pro|iagafed« and to
eifenb ol ^ tba affogcap^i^ ^9 !in wbieb it thrto bava probably
obM^^ bifltory of its introduoU|pii into to
mltoiw in wtob U bas been natoraliaed. Xu to flfet volume of
3toito^f^tobi^9d in lasb/ them iaa varr jmnzato wootot ol an ear of
of in toideamibaa ir^* wondertulte feinaiRff feed oalled
mito nl WefffemXndia» on whiob one^half to w»rld ia |«dU 7hd Fottn*
gnffse mliit *bU#fe iStortOk ’ and eomo of it hu already ooma into Italy*
both red and wbitff. Above Poloiene do Drigo and VUlabooa, «h(de, dolds of
both oc^rff, red and whltO} are oaUivated*’* Prom tide, it would appear that
within little mofo than half a oentary alter the dieoovery of Ametov
mto wan already an obieot of exteaalve ooltivation in eome parti of Italy.
There are a couple of million fatmori in to tloited States cdiiii^i^' in
to raifliog of maiise or Judion eorn^^poken of over nil Euglieh^apealdiig
AmeKioa» simply aa Some lauds produce but 3d bushels to to aore»
others Iddf awelliug to aggregate orop of tho country to, vast dimeuiloni, <
The Indian oom^lop there amouute to nearly Hvo buodred milliou dollars
in vatoo, and would eudlce to feed not only to popalati^ of to 0niM
Statesi but half that of Iflurope in addition, for a ymr. JSiiglaud now
fe^m 19 to 24d miUioaowts. yearlyi oomparatively little of it tor
human ueot though to corn-Sours prepar^ from it are in iaeroasing pse
It is ofaieily used hero ai a oattlCFioad and for staroh'making. Its use teas
almost unknown in to Uniledf Suborn up to the date of the potato^famiue
in Irslaod (1846). Thent Vn d^b^ma preporutioua of it for to toblfti m
Am«ri^ Ultle known in XSdtoPk^' '
Bo|r rare it is to see maise onKugUsh tablosasa vojretable,uiidhOw
generally one meets with it in America. Beverol atiempts have been made
to introduce it into this country, but the boiled eani*have never found
much favour in English e yes^ still it really ia one di the mosib untdtive of
vegetables, and the ** wrinkled kernelled sweet corn/’ as this especial table
kiud is oalled in New England, forms a delicious green veg^^toble. The
care ebbuld be cut when to grains are as large as a big marrowfat pea, and
to time fev boiling is thirty minates. There ia a libtlo amount of practice
required before yon can pick out the grain with your fork in to orthodox
way, but our oousfes acrose (he water ate not particular on this polub % they
eat tom OJK to ebbe. T'his maiae is somawhat like asparagus in flavunr.
Green corn should be cooked on to same day It U gatoiedr lu a few
hours it loses its eweetnesa which mast be arttoiully supphed. Strip
oft the httsiu, pick ou^ eU the silk, and put Uie corn in boiling water j
if not mititoly lleto^dd a table^spoonfal of sugar to the water, bnt no salt;
servo on an Open meat dish covered with a napkini or you may cut it from
the cob. put to plenty oC batter and a lUUe salt, and serve in a eovorod
vegetable dleh, Maine to^gtendtould not be sown iu to open betotc
May, na our late frosts are apt to Ininre the orOp, how in rows to ilrst^
vireek'!ii May, allouddg fiftesa inehes from plant to plant. Thaeoil should
properties, |aj^o% few ♦f elWitqfecswt^llkt'
f toise^tt to r&iv\amm9Xf m wdnnliAaW^ |
M. li^em wHh but n a%!ii di%^
bamc effeok The ad^cy ol to toosi wtoW nee cl mnlae naifftohi
food has reeently been twonght b«fexntotmihfe>ol<t^ A^Bneott»a(to»to
in a learned paper by U* Fife of Maa^ to wMok he entem feNy %m
to liygditoio and eooimtofe advantages el fet^fot feed, an J weeanMiidi
its totended cnltare to to Kotth of Ftotto. !Bto paOMSondwtoltWA
Song list ol antors 6f to Idth hud dcatorfeff, who to
important part tUc grain 1>lays to to food eufftanahtfe «f to^iOillly
inhabltanU of the new eonttoent,Htotov Xtobat, the mlffsleiiim fi
Hamaadeu, surgeon to FhUip H. king of Spain ; CtoreSaMKi deto tol
and ton do lUaet, histoi^ol to llito WorUL 1Ietoatia«lff li4oWii^
to to emtoent men who ehloghi|i,t Into mh eeoitn]ty,atto.heaft ^tofe
stands revmeatler# Ho gives eitraeU feom tlie nekbrsto fetoto* OH
maiso of to iUnsfeloim agrkiiltuto of Mefimidir, whSffh^astofixM
by the Aoademy of Bonrdeaus. "
F. ^0 Keufobateau wfete a Bupplement to to ntobitod' memblf^ of
Pameatier, on (he onitnre of maiae. litoiv Bnmferd, Dudhtos^ toutoli
Cobbet, and many ether , wsitgre on mMie
writer disputes the argamOitts of M« Best Fciioti ^eto leoesuneeidi. In
grinding maifo to removal oi ceilaiii perttous, eneh as to cUF' and
resiuotts matters whicli give an unpiea*aat tsafe to to Sohiw to to
eontfarf, ho, advoeatfii the use of to whole meal wkhbut any
Stm he oonaiders anfektoreof half midse and half wheat flour
making bread, sacib as is purtosed in mauF towns of XtiSy^ espoMsIly
Turin and MUan, ifhiefi fendsthee a healthy and eoonomie feed to to
working elaiees* ' ‘
Aeoording to It telleur. director of fefnm gad royal pato, Iffmil
was very foodof maiae bread* Washiogten to ate eenstoUr.
1C. Fxia ezpiesseahff asto&iahsnmitot maiae lanetmofa ntUiwd into
hospitals and other public establishments snpptfrted by the tote* II to
PubUo Assistanoe estabUShments wore mom enlightened on to antrlflee
qualities of maise, they coifld fetrodgqe this etooinio feed with great
udvantige, A report on to subject was veiy recently sabmitted tO to
Aeademy of Medfciene by Professor IBublez.
The muiue plant is affected in a igmarkable degree by climate and aoit %
bnt it soon adapts itself to aloeatliy,asdby contlniionBenltlvatioa from
the sasm^aoed, year after year, a local variety or strain bseomes established*
ThonglTfUi the kinds of maiss in sultivatioft,' at feast hi to Uhitadt totes,
ate regarded as of one speelei, to vsrietfes am almost CndleiA ?toe to
produced not only by local inaaenees but by aeleoflon. life one of to
speoies in whirii any pectdiarity may be resdily flxed In a few yearn by
carefully selecting and sowing seeds Irbfh torn ffents whldi have to
desirable features most stronf^ly marked*
In respect to siae, tore axe varieties f tom two or toes feet high np fe fifteen
and eighteen feet, wife the stnlfea and leaves largo in pfeportion. ^e ears
vary very greatly in siae and number Of rows of kernefe, which iometiinea
roach twcto|y*four, tliifty.two,*or mew. Thegrifn presents agrMt vKvfety
in colouri from white through various /shades of yel|pw or Quango, md
brown, violet^ parple, and black. By the crossing of varieties, kernels of
two or more colours in stripes and blotches are produced. In to Tnaoawra
and some others to grain is dull and opaqus, while in to so^saUed ^ fliai '*
varieties, to mass of to grnk, to albumen ia traoslnemti to opaqna
kinds are very starchy, while to otoreconW large propot^feiis nl fit^
matter. In tlpyarieties known he ** sweet oorn'Hhe grain is very mndh,
wriuklod end shrivelled t in these to oouvemfen of sugar into sfiatffh fe
arrested, aod to kernel dees not fill out.
^ Indian eorn msy beasgardod os a universal crop in to Statss, tailed (o a
groator or leas eiateut on every farm. It la extensively Used eg A bread
material, and os each it is nntritious, healthful and qntjbe pafedabla
when the habit of its use fe acquired. In to form of hominy U .has to
ngreat extent displaced rfee, being more nutritioos and pslatabfe* ton is
easentially to feed grain of stock in to fltates, Catto horaee and hogi
be rfeb. and do not fexget to wafer well daring to period of growth, duly
and Ai^k Mdise eotmsted will produce green earn foi^ table use
all thtoflh OstOber, long ..alter yeu have departed. A fnll-gtown maiae
plant fe waiiy a mofeiOfnatontal object, It partakes of the style of twpiwl
vegetation/ to feUsge fe large and dark green, to internodes of to stems
bright, and to joints prominent and well defined, A number of atirial
voedtets, tinfed wHh various colenrs, project from the fewer pestioos of to
stem, and find their way into to surface soU ; these serve mt Cables' to
support to growing stato, so it is nest not to **hifi*' Indian cow, tot
Is, draw to effrth up iulo conical mo*mda-*-M eome Euglfeh amSfeitr
j^weil advfee. round to stems. The whiie«goard seed coni Is to ona^
‘nbC'^k^ 'fer, «*hott&»y and ephes. Com eakee are a stundfeg dfeh
Afeerisa. and vfey good they ate,/The sort of ihuiee known ae thA,,
**Tnscarora*' is ofWa pfenfed to fatnisi' t^a tship with cobs, bat
it 4a; hot 10 :fin« jm to wtoW kewtlfed, though tofaj| cottridetably
nmro itafeb Iftllt ton iii to fetter, therios,or** pepccSW' aboondy
sfereh i red cbw Is. d tito^y ol the Igfefl ^
sO ''"V '
i)mM bdili^,PtoKyes:' «* ewden^d in
its ecto^W fftodf fe to first
rifeia ^^ of
ia sMfy r^oaife tot'4 pleaato and edible
QUwtobfeeenfetoMtiijtwmai^firto*^^ ntof aitoafe^
are led on it. either in to grala or ground, :aad mised in verions fotmm
Indian corn furnishes a large amount of forage, equal^ln nutritive qnalUto
to ordinary hay, and reliehed fully as weU. m^felly by eattln. Thfe gnitil
requites a deep sich loam, well pulverised add reUeved of eusplns ^matey
Alter to fivannd is thus prepared, to grsio is planted ia**hilfe,*'ffOat
to tofm sdaight lines in two diteoUons, Irons thTee*and-a4ialf to tor feat
apart, aud tom) or four stalks are cultivated in each htU* This planting fe
niDahy done by horse power, with an ingenfens impfemoot which drops
to seed and oovem it at the same opeiatioa. gomstimes the seed is
, planted in drilla from lour to foniMmd-a^half feet ^dpart, pfeatieg a grain
at iniijipEvafe of ten ortwclve inehes into row,' flrisfe also pmfermsd by
appropriate machiney worked by hosils,
Theeow crop is plaated in tomexrih el $ tn the ibhtom emtntfep
a lito earlier t but as^ com tobfeM a t<to«nittare of aboot
produce germinarioo. very oar^ itofeg fe hsatoto ^9 afeimg
cerh has appsaSil^ to
femr^orfivo we^Si'tototo>^to'^to*9WS tototogbfe stfered 'iritb
to cnltivaferf ;Altef to^.fll9|vfefevAryfepid,aad
by to tst of tuH ifefefet; and to sais
are loimeth rstp nfelirn sffnin a
ftum ian tfi i^ifi Aa expected to yield feom
ihirly fe' (fifty^ei^ pounds per baehet) pesiltemi,
Com
In JfarlAiltet UtiiNidie in Bnj>t0ittUr;batif ,
IiixtuM lolltge itora pUni wlU xHl)« V&iln
^tiite linvdl* ItttUano&dition Ui« crop miip U put and ast up ia il^mi to
Owe, giaiii iriU aatCer liiitie or ]ioi^i:pg H the cottinp f>a Poi doao too
iatiyi Mtda Uryeamoaot oi eiocUcitl lotpgo be tbun soonvod^ 9ai iatOMiei
MMem avail tbemaclvca of ibia i«9ottroo»exQept when tU bay Cfop |fpi.
UinaUy tbe crop xomaUiB in tbo field till I^ovcjnber* when tbo oaia alone are
fttfaewdi and pat into open bina oc criba to dry. After a tew weHti tbt cota
h ready iot tbe marlcoi»|ili,^t poriioii ot tbo ere p« bowoTer, wbiob ie used (or
taitaaii^tporb aad beef for the winter market if oeoally fed direoUy from the
fiflid. beiiig gathered from day to day u it ie tteeded. Ko syttematio metbotl
«£ mabartog bai ad pet been adopted in ooraoaltarein ibeBlates.' The
virgiaaoll^ibtbfnbotb u^nexal aud organio eUminU of plant food, does
not eegaato noednemira ] bat the time Is near when this matter wiU demand
attention* Xadlan oorntaagiosafeedoranda vigorous grower, and ommot
long be cnitirated on at^ soil without oebAustioa.
Ibe total preduotlon of mafat In the Uaitod States lu the Calendar year
107 was f,84a,(»^000 bnsbels., The average weight of the tmsbei fi^lbe*
aiie U4^ fgea on whioh the crop was grown was fiO,8ey,US acres* l&be
total valito of' the crop (averaged at 86*8 cents the bushel) 480,d48,4(;0 dollars.
The avarage value of the yield per acre 0 dollars 64 cents. The
emmunpUostis to the proportion of 26 bushels pee head ot tb^ population, but
It is chiedy fedto Uve stock. Ths'iinautitijr oousomed was 1,267,11(1,825
bfishels, and the gnantity exported in 1878, 86,461,028 bdsUelB, besides
489^76^ borrelf of com meal.
(||uanUty of inatse exported in the form bf grain mid of corn meal Is
mnCbless than fhe'<inautity oonsamed by animals, coustitutlng the exports
Of live animals and provisions. A considerable quantity of Indian corn also
enteii into the American exporte of spiriU.
l^ariog the ten years from 1660 to 1852, inolu^ve, the averse annual
exports of corn and cornmeid from the United @tafcoa amounted to 6,463,776
bushel during tbe teu yours from I860 to 1869, iuolusivc, the anim<A*
average quantity exported amounted to 11,284,035 bushels; and durmii
tbe nine years from 1870 to 1878, inclusive, the uunm^ average quuniity
exported amouuted to 40,606,888 bushels.
It la estimated that the acreage devoted to the production of ludian coin
in the United blates iacteaBed above 30 pet cent, from IS70 to 1877, while
the increase of production is estimated to have been about 20 per c^nt.
The ra|»d extension ot Indian corn ouiture in the 8(iiu os bXs inoifeased tbe
pork supply very much beyond the reqairemonta oi Uvme oonaamptioit,
leaving a yearly increasing surplus for export to iorcigu countries. The
fslUng oil in the price of corn seome to have eoirespoudod ue.ulv with that
ot pmk and pork products; the export ptioe of tbo former having fallen
from 03 oonts per bushel in 1870 to 56*2 cents iu 18*e,
WATT LE FA RMIKU
T HK cultivation of the wattle (Acacia sp.) fur commoroial purposes has
till now remained au uudoveloped iudustiy. Although a roniuuerative
ttn^ertah&g, uo attenliou has been paid to its cultivation, and couBOqneutly
a direct source of weallhhas been ueglectod throughout this colony (SoaUi
Australia).
Sitioe tho first uUtisation of the wattle hero, the operations of 'Jho stripper
have been under no regulations or restrictiouB of any kind, and the result
bos been disastrous to its growUi. lately, however, regulg^ous iu regard
to wattle stripping on goverumont land have been issued.
Wattle farming will be au industrial branoh of great importauco, and if
the tree is eystemaiioally cultivated^ it wdl be beyond doubt a profitable
epeottlaliott. ^ »
Iu my lecture read Ireccntljf before the C!hamber of Mamifactares on
Forest Tree Flauting," 1 have already oallod attention to this usoiiil ireo.
The Board of inquiry appointed by the Victorian Government to deed
with the wattle bark question in Vlcbortn, has issued its report, a dooumeut
of great valuo, as particular c.ito wax taxeu by the Board to elicit a general
expression of opiuiou on the subject, and numbers of witnesses from all
parts of Viotoria were examined.
In perusing this important report, I was surprised at tho immense
eOQmtmption of wattlo bark. The quantity required for conBampllon in
Victeria only is from 12,000 to 15,QC0 tons per annum, exclusive of tlie
large qiumUty oxpoirted to England where higher pvioos are ofored. The
curtenf; pHoe fer <rood bark is, in Sfclbourue, irom i6 lo.dio ISs. 6d. per
ton, making £63,Odo to£73;7ii)psr annum* 1 am upmqaaln^ with the
onsnal conanmption and nxpoirt of wattle bark m llouth Australia, but ft
is also nndonbtsdly large,
Tbe numecous wttaeiuos called before the Board of Enquiry in Hototia
agree in one point, vis, i*-Tbat a IcsiSer quantity of bat k is obtained from
year to year as the wattle if^disappeating ; whole dlsfriota are aUoady
denuded ot It, and unless |0me steps are taken to cn^ourXlEe^he growth of
Ike wattle trees, Uie^endwill be the tots! oxtemfination of tkiif useful^ native
produotion. At no d|aUuit time tkg came fate wdh%lkav« awaited irhe
isaUla of fiouthAnatraUa, had not the government iseue^%)|fbUti0naw^^
ypitxMthegtiipper os ingerds the elsie of Um tree to bo et^p^; In Eouth
iq|^kllii,,w4bb, the exception oitthe Bopth^eaifjbi^the broad^lenrcd watt^^
i«aofd|»p0w«ntAAi|i«tlv).»8oalir'iwed,lnttk^^^ two
moxe kiads, viAA«*the kktpk wattle, Acaeut aeoN^rf^l t^lPd^)* nod the
iflvi# wittl^ 4d«tdA )(Link)» Amongst ihree llads the bark
: j^Mtiat qnaidit]?el taaaiii,,4Aei^^f«il»ttt« ^^
deflofent in tafinin, Tbe klW jtr ^ddrad Uw
fipeefsi f it ii due of the^nia^' ;raaeh^ Id A ttMtfrr
ted to twelve years « height "dl PidVehk tfc fliA, M»ka6 g,
•ielit years of Oge, end w^l produce wMK le 61Bbs^* dried bai^is^ dad fi^
grown trees wfll ytrfd l00l^t to iwwifc’ per frM* Ttb blw* t^atwa
thrives with us most Inxtfilfmtly. Id the Botsitile gardeh t4n to
twelve years old have reaehed the ^heiitlht of to^hfifeeti ThfSotlm
Australian broad-leaved wattle la p ihaeh itnaller tree, add the ieilifra net io
payable as that from the Ida^^teyed 'vraiBf,%ere(o«et:lvltt<^^
latter for planting. » ^ ^
'P As already menUoned, the onltlvatlop of the wlttle 6or eenunstoii^
! purposes bos till now vetnAlned an nndeveloped Industry; but no doubt os
soon nslt is understood, the utilisation of many acres of pid^te, land, at
present lying waste for miles north, soath, and aeuUuea^ e( Adelaide, or
wb^ has already been exhausted a^ tSUMred unfit foS the gtb^h b(
cer^ls, will be effeoied by tho oultivatica of thu Waitlci hs' it grows
readily in almost any soil, and requires Ud Uttentlon os Its
general eultlvation very j^rofitable. Another impcttuiit point'{i t1is% wattlq-
growing end graeing oau bo ooihbined satisfactorily.^ After iWArst year
when the young tress in the plantation Iiave reached ihu height of 3 tod
feet, sheep can be turned into Ute plantation Without totht young
trees.
We hoar thrft the supply of tanning hark, like the niathrlal for making
paper, becomes search in England, and that Euglish tanners depend a good
deal onlspain at^ other lintinontal oouujbrles tor their supply of oaV-hark ;
therefore, England will always be a oonsumer of our surplus wattle-bark,
and 1 think Umt the market will not often be so glutfed as to effect tiie price
of the hark much.
Wattle oultivation will no doubt attract considerable attention from many
persons who may be without the information neoessery to enable them
to enjfhge in its syslsmaiioal oultivation. Aoeording to the report ot the
Wattle Commission, wattles grow in almost any soil, evon the poorest, but
their growth is most rapid on loose sandy patebesj^U^ where the surface has
b«en broken for agricultural purposes. When the soil is hard and firm itis
recommended that plough furrows should be made at u regular distance of
say six or eight feet apart, into which the need are to be dropped. The
rood should be ^own in May, having been previously soaked in hot water,
a little less than of boiling temperature, in which they may be allowed to
reu^in for a few hours. The seed abonid be dropped at an average distauco
of ^e foot apart along the farrow, in whloh coseabpnt 7,200 seed would
safHccforone ooreof laud. Tho s^d ‘cEottld'frob be ooverod with moro
tlun one quarter o! an inch of soi),.^ ^
Oti loose sandy soil it might even be nuncessary to break up the soil In any
way. On such open sandy soil the farrows may bo dispensed with, and the
seed sown broadcast, and after the laud is harrowed. After tho plaulli have
come up they should be thnmed so that llicy stand six to eight feet apart
from eacli other. When the young wattle trees hsvo attained the height
of throe or four feet, the lower branches should be prnued off, and every
effort afterwards made to keep the stem straight and clear, in order to
tacUitato the stripping end induce au incroaso of yield of the bark, t
is advisable that the two kinds of wattle, vis.', the black and broad-leaved,
should be grown separately, as the black wattle being of a mnoh larger
and quicker growth would oppress the slower growing broad-lesved one,
If attontiou is paid to the oaltivation of the wattle as a source of income,
esro shunld be taken to replace every tree stripped by re-sowing, in order that
there should be aa littlo variation iu tho yield as possible.
The months of September, October, November, and Deoember, at leait in
Victoria, are the months in which the sap rises without intorinissioh* and
tho bark is charged with tannin.
In tho report it is also said that the ohoraetor of the soil appears to affect
to ftome extent the quantity of tho bark obtamod*' A eoreful analysis also
proved that tho bark from trees growing on limestone formation, was greatly
inferior in tanu&n to that bark obtained from anotidfr formation, Offering
from 10 to 25 per cent, tannin.
In order to more fully elucidate the sohemo of wattis mihivotion proposed
(O be carried out, the following tabulated statement is given in the report
' of the WatUo Commission i-«*
EsUmute qfEepsndihtre on a TTattis Bark qftOO
eight vsarA,
Bent of 100 aores for oight yean at a t»te of 6s. £ s. d.
per acre per annum ... . ... 240 0 0
Ploughing lOO aoros in drills 10 fh apart « 26 0 0
Bowing wattles and actual oultivation, inelu ding
cost ot seed ... ... ’ ... 87 10 0 1
gopervlsion for elud^t years ioomtoai^i sty £10
peratmnm ' .... , .«* ... 80 0 0
Pruning,the trees* taking off rnmleai wood (only
«.* 60 0 0'
luddsntlllnd tmtonsieeB expenses... . 27 10 o
Iqtorest on amount expended during
eight yew| ... ... / 246 B 0
? AptonMnili'Of'<^2Pinff8nd 6^
' ISilotV ^ ^ emlwMMiMa *
''/^SaTTo
j. . ^ ' \r \
V. , , ; W2 0 o
/ IQ 6» iollawi^ yaihf 'k liqiiUtt Qtttii->
bs» «| tvt«« would twfdrlpped. TDoWjk v
:H iii««iuied in woia^t (i»y lilbi,
IswifMo^ ^ifild of Moodd stHppriog would
t|iOlwfoc*be400toiisaft£iPftrtda* ‘ m 0 0 ,
toibo lavoulih year the Temamiog tiM would
A bo Itti^di 4tom i^tiioh a eftlU ^reatoe
ittotewe wo«^ bo obtaiaod, eay 4B0 toot ft
via aM •»• , i,D*a 0 0
* ! , * ' ' aiii^wMiai I 1 1
• T M yiilcl it bwlt ifould Hiwroloro toproicut n
uumoy yft|«d oiC / ' >.« •>• dB4»d&2 0 O
Tbo ooft of itfippiAg W<H4d not esoood 155. por
toUy on’ aoooimt el the faeilities preseuted
* by the reguUtity ol the tieeti wMlo oar ting
would repreeeatMiothetlOea per ton. These
eoeebii^ ohergee would be 85s. per ton* and
ou ly$lo iene would bo d^ltdlS, haviug a
elear piodt on the 100 aeroa (after allowing •
ib« U&e primary expenditure) of ... d£3,C37 0 0
•«»l2<eimfHXd(iAom5uryb. J7r.Ph.i ddsluids. ^
TEA CULTUBE.
(Thd dncitmati Commraialt ^bruary 20.)
l^xpftdivnirTB WITH Flakts AMvnioAii Soil.
PBOsaua oir BnnrsB Tbas than the Ohinubk Fbobuob,
OPflNtNa OV A ]|8W IHDUBTEY TO AMBBIOAN EHTEBPIUBB.
B ALTlMOBBy Februiiry 10.—The ouUure o( tea la this country, which
haa attracted public attcutloa during the past year, bae reoelrod a
treah impetua from the visit of a member of the firm of Heeera. Martin
Qillet & Oo.,of this city, to the South, at the request of the Jiopartment
of Agriculture, at WaBbidgtoD,tha visit being one of tuspeptioa, and to
gather data that would enable bim to arrive at some intelligent
conoluaiona oonoerning tbe psrt||^cabiliiy of the project, and as the
enterprlae is so closely tdeatided*wUh Baltlmoro, by the e^Eorts of (his
firiUi who are the pioneeraot this Induetty iu our country, an account of
whatlBi been acoomplUhed, and what the future promisee, may hoof
iat«nS» io the general public.
We are now paying Ohltia and Japan over $20,000,000 annually for
tea, and if this large sum oao bo diverted to our own land, it will be a
doable gain, and largely assist in giving prosperity and employment to
our Southern, people, With this view, your eorrespoudent nas sought
out thofaots as they now exist, which he now laya before your readers,
However sacoessfol the growth of the tea plant {jthea Veridis) may bo
in our oonotry, it is uesleas unless the leaves can be more cheaply
manutaotured into tea, than the same oan bo imported from Ohiua, and
the question reiolvei itielt into two propositions.
jyUfaA—WllUbe tea plant grow and produce luxurlaut leaves with
our oHmata aud soil 1
Oan the leaves be manipulated into a merohautable article
of tea that wUl sueoesafully compete with the productions of China and
Japan ?
Xn Thply to the flmt it may be well to give a history of the introduotion
of the plant IntoAmerioa-^iBiiofa^ bear in mind, is quite apart from the
Pfoduotlon of the tea ol oommerce. It don't ** grow ou de oob, as
the darkey thought. Attempts have been often made to brfug the tea
seeds from Ohina, h# (or a long time it was found that with the greatest
care in the transp^allon, the seeds would not germinate, and the only
reasons piMgiibd were tiiai either the long voyage destroyed the vitality,
or that (wtdeh was the moaj^ptobabla) the seeds were hHhd in Ohiua
by tbe shreiild natives, who Wets Jealous of a rival. Xn 38(iO some good
i^iwere saneessfuny germinated in the Government nursery at
WaShlnktoD, and |ait before the war th a young plants were distributed
1^ the Patent Oi&oe throughout the Statee of Horth OaroUoa, South
Carolina and Qeotgib. Ka special directions werp sent with these
plants. Those that reeelved &em regarded them as ouHoslttei, and
they were mostly, planted in gardens. The war coming on. the tea
plants were foxgotteii, left to take care of themselves, yet not with¬
standing the vlOlsitadeS Of the etroumsianoes, those that escaped the
^ravages oi the pigs (lor it ts a singular fact that pigs regard tbe
'^•bJealaS a hmbmtbs} thrived* and are nOw large planH of four to I
sis leet falgh«-oovefed whh bloom in the fall and winter, and priced
as a highly ornamental iri»rub, fiviug examplss ol the great hardihood
of the plans. ^
Tbegeuwal tmeresslonls that the tea plant is a ver|^^)loate one,
rsoulrtng a tropisal otlmate, b«t this not the oSsOr and iwM fresciug a
l^ore benefleliil than ntherinse. Ifeisrs, Martin Gillet ic Oo„ in order '
to see ImwImrdI thipNA was, ^ied eaHous experfe#ati this winter, *
Tbw tm seapnpIromahot*hoiwe (asevera test) vm {dinted them
te fisloai smflpma in SMlttiapfa* aone ptoMisdi soma exposed,
immieae«xiaire)etw<
there oAui /nh
years th China and Jb^n, says he het^ skw i^ts any^sie IhiMi
hesaw in Georgia and Bonth OaroUna, ‘
The next question watt WUl these leaMI mduoe as good a tea as
those of China ? An unsolved proht^ liU Hessra M, Gillet wad Oo»
proourod from Gsorgstowo, B.a, last s^ng* a hog ol fiMhlsates
from fbese same plauta and they eoald only get ahont teii
pounds, but it was quite lUffiolent for the aifwiimeiit* Thsia wwre
maniputated into tea in thisptty, and tbe result was a prodnbt pal In
the oplnlou of experts waf aquaV U net superior, to any wp get
from China or Japan. One great advautage B had ovsf ShSm
was its fresbnSss, wbteh Is a great Item in thp qqalUy of tea,
lor, like similar atilclssi freshness B U great moommaadatou Xn
commeros a now tea wlU brhig from ten to tilrtp eents per sound more
than an old one. While ipuahlng of new China tSM lb is oi^f a
oomparatlveegpresmon.for they ate genssaUy sis months old nslure
And this being the ease, one oan readily see what a great advintegs a
tea produced in our own land would nave ovor those from so remote a
ooontry as China,
The aueoesslal growth of a leaf ospahls at being transformed, into a
tea of the ftneat quality being demonstrated* theon^ rsmainfng Jheetton
in Oan tea he mauufaotured out of the green leaves at a cost that will
insure profit 7 This is tbe only doubt that oan be east on Ihe
subject, aud as jret it Is an unsolved one, Ho be left to the future; but
B&esscs. Martin Gillet & Oe. feel quite ooofidsnt that they ean point out
the road to a eaooesiful sulotlon of this only doubt!nl pomt.
The Amerloau people little suspset that tbe teas they use are
manuraotured solely for export, and arenot known to the Chinamen,
A striking ftlastrstton la given of this by a memhst of the Ohittsse
Legation on his visit to Baltimore last we^. At an entertainment^ he
was asked by tbe hostess : Mr.«—, what is the best kind of tea : we
always use the finest €fu7iy0wder,** What^ Madame7" '^Gun¬
powder/' lopllcd the lady. *' X uovsr heard of It in Ohiaa," and in a
subsequent explauatlou be said be supposed tbosu were tbe teas made
for tbe foreigners, beoause they liked pretty tess.
Iu another Interview, held at Wasbingfoo, with tbs Legailmt, Itwaa
stated that one-third of the cost of green tea was In rolling, polishing,
oolorlug aud fauejLtwlitiQg, necessary to give them that appoarauos
which is ragardofls a criterioa of merit by the American oonsameri.
Messrs. Martin Gillette Oil. insist that the old idea that in order to
make good too, tbe intricate methods of tbe Oblnese must be followed,
is a false oao, and in their experiments they have elimiaated every
useless maaipulntlou (designed to improve tho looks solely) from tbe
process, and claim to have produced an Amerloau tea on Ainsrioau
principles that will rival in quality and price that of Ohiua.
We have here two striking preccdcute lu tea oulture that will lllustrato
our obanoes of success In America, Many years ago Brasil attempted
to produce tea; they grew the plants to perfeotlcu, bgt not knowing
how to make the leaves iuto tea, they imported Ohiusse labour,
aud went to work to produce Ohluosc tea lu iotm, shape, aud colour.
That seemed tho principal object to make a tea that could be sold
for Ohiua tea. The result was a signal failure, and wn hear no more of
Brasil tea.
to India, on the contrary, the Boglish have, by the iDtroductioU of the
machluery aud by scientific methods, raised the quality of the India
tea to a point that It is crowding out that of tho Ohinese^ tea In
Eugland. 1 am permitted to make the following extracts from an
interesting letter, wrltteu by a most intelligent mauaget of a tea
garden ip India to Messrs. Martin Gillet and Co.
Here is something praotioahlo, and from which some deduotlous of
tbe possibilities of the suceessful manufacture of tea In our country cau
be formed. Thq Amerloau public has been deluded Into tho Idea that
form and appearance were osscnlial elements of good tea, and tho old
lady who would driuk nothing but Gunpowder tea, little Imagined that
it was oalled so beoause it went through a small sieve and yet grew
on the same bush, was cured in tbe same pans, ond was packed In the
chest by the same naked pair of feet as tbe despised Imperial or Young
Hyson.
go It is (bat Messrs. Marlin Gillet Sc (3o., Ignoring the loollsh
prejudioes of the people, think they have discovered a solution of the
tea question, by siuipUfication and machinery. Of course, tea men
ridicule the Idea, aud cry out that these gentlemen, U th^iueoaed,
win ruin the trade, but they taka a bolder view of the question aud
have but one reply, whlob is, What Is boat for the people Is best for
us.” Noone has given the same study to the sclenee of tea tnaklnir as
those gentlemeu, which their many visits to Ohiua aud Japan nave
snablea them to perfeot.
The principal object of their recent visit to the 8tonth was to find bat
where good leaves In sufflclent quantities could be found, so that when
the proper time comes, they can aeoure the leaves and praotioally
demonstrate the value of the produot by making the tea and testing its
quality^ They ihluk they will have quite a lot of leaves to April, for
they have offered a large price for tbe fresh leaves, and given minute
directions as to the plucking and forwarding by express to Baltimorsi.
Their experiments will be looked forward to with maob interest.
Xn odnolusloD, these gentlemen say that only .organised eftorti, backed
up with capital, aud proper meuhanteal appUancss, will prove tuouessful
in the Booth. A few desultory efiorls bare and there, while it mny
produce tea for the uses fif the households will not, in their opinion, '
produce results commeasnxalB with the great Importance of
enterprise to our people* *
tTheahove interesttoli vrtltdq te Irom ihe CSncimaU Cmmerdial
ssnttoua by a plenter, Io whom our tbanke are due. There cau be
little or no doubt that m hte will fionriib la tbe Bontt^n Btates,
and prohebiy tkd ox Mte mxy be good. The qateiloa
wift kMuni.Jtwirip, ■» twA rw
,iiMf«tai> «t «wi<# 'ft, »<i« «»• <mP*j*!,
A FLIA FOE tTEEBS.
{tObteiii
'iMdQillOJI''
A DOlftlCSFOSDlNT wrilM Xn «tonafciy Hkdladlft Um i^oMtltog
of foieit caoMtHntf tuA d^for^tmtot wre mn tiuv toftdtwifclttf t
tl^w m ^ Tftal iitipoMoe. To Kay one Viromtig ofor dootfufa or
GMll XndSii iho vivfc ttoeloii pidiii aro i will*laioimlMtaiOi Thoatid
wbera $a
fS^ liM <Avie MUnomCU ono £(d»i ^itoiUoa to 1iorixO««
AHA la^ cillMaetor Of tte ioeaoiy ^ for »il«i nod tnlleat ooto whoro
• iDI^ of sMkory, mtkM tUecoon^ of aotao rWor*
6wiotdli4r^tlo|*i0»ori»ith|^»ria««tttt, fmd qttirOrtng hot air near
Umi ptioM foil* Bdt tioM ore not | niiptoMa]itolMao«no roUof for the
iNnileil oyo ii thOTAi Thenltlmete weUth cd a eoaotry Ua ejoif* The
%e£^ jhietfefAhiSr of the ritolQbed ijrot «a to whethoir 2U« food will gvoif, or
hyMgnwtttjf ooitte to matotityf aeeinB enough to atop all oultivatioa of
IliOt end 00 to hnpovetiih the oonnttyi Yet men ere hopefttl t end atlir
ohortho'oldirofdet ** Jhthemondngsow the eeed, end In the evening
wIthhoH sot heddt** end bow often !n thla eountry they both ihaU be
htike bid* Sen long io it to go on ? The Oovernttent oeom to expend ell
fhSr &l(ihnUron dleooverkig the beet mode of eolMinff the Yevenae«*wb0n
none ii loft to oolleott they nay think the menae iteoU to be of moro
hnpoftenco thha even the cbUeeting of it* ^ The life lo more then meat;’
iei^ot f fiefbieehnentfo of importance in no far m it offeota the rovenne.
Peaerti ere trealeiHi* yet even in e deaert where e apring of water
noeniib tfeee grow* Oiven water thott» treoe will grow»«reQlii a deaert <
end thhft thiOh oanroa e deaert in not lack of treea, bat Uok of moitture* la
there then no moiatnrai, that Indie’e pUtine ahoald betreeleaa? Bet. nays
|hr offtflial. alloiHnn that troee will grew, what thenl^ Then tteoa
Will do their dntyi whiob it what ignorenoe ees never do. , The duty of a tree
lent leiat to live and grow* dn the oarbon of onr atm^||here, and exhale
motetnrO* The latter ihot gives toreforeatmentite luportanoei ao we may
a tree an enimated pamp* drawing water from tho adll, and giving
It to the anrroonding etmoiphore. This draJna tlm soil* or that portion
of it to whieh the roots have eeoetai in the oaae of oropa growing in the top
foil I bnt with Orees the oeae ia difibrenh they derivo their moiatnre from
anbioili which even in the drjeet weather has abui^aneo to support
them. Soreovet the drier the autfaoe soil gets, tho greeter is tho tendency
of thin deeper water to riao to tho surface to supitly evaporation. While
the atmosphere holda moiaturci the acdU eapocially if onitivatod, absorbs
<water. la wot woather, or when the atmosphere ia riulte aatnrated with
iDoisture, the trees cannot e^ale thoir motstnro into the atmoaphoro> but
the moiatan sinka through the soilj or rana off over it. It is only in the
dby time or dry weather that trooa exhale water vax>our ; iu other words,
only when it la repaired. As to tho abaolnte amonnb of water vapour
exhaled; it can only be estimated where a forest is eonceruod, but in the
dry plains ib must be ouormonSi siuooit has been determined that o single
grass plant exhaled ita Own weight of water on a hot aummer'a day In
Sngland. A tree may then be considered ua a natural pump falsing the
water of the lower soil to glveitlto tho atmosphere, lu faoti a country
eovered with trees may be compared to a country covered viitkpieoftcthst
working unceasingly in wells which they ffudfor themselvee*
•I The eabalation of water from a moss of trees hito the atmosphere cools
the latter* to say nothing of the cooling effect of the chemloal change going
on in every leaf^ and the difference is quite aonaiblo without a thermometor.
This cold stratum of air map have tho effecti should a vapourdoden current
of ail blow over it* of oondeuaing the vapour to rain. Bot should this
happen or not, the moisture given to theali by a forest, condenses partly
an those aurfooea which coot rapidly after suniet, in tho form of dew.
When the loss of water by exhalation exceeds tho amount that tho soil enn
aupply* the tree withers and dies. But ^d the trees wither and die durbf^'
the famine, though the erops fidlod on the eurfaea soil I Should a tre^^
thus wither and die, it even then contains far more water than the soil,
for iinAiled vegetation averages from 18 to 15 per cent, of water, while
«i^dr|od aoU holds but from 1 to H per oent. A forest may then, merely
tegax^g Its wood* bo nempared to a sponge covering the ground. Bo, a
trpo mayboeoi^^rod to r «e}f<4»ting: pomp ffttajog, ito own water, asd
giving ft to tbeatmosphefii god as a pump inactiogifs a column of water,
no ia atieea oolumu od wxter. At the same time a mass of trees keeps
the country aaolst at a saturatod sponge would do ; and ibis spoqge is
aqueexed only when required by the dried atmosphere. To Spot the
atmosphere and supply to some intent in dry weather with moisture
brought from the lower soil, is not this somethlug in India ? Ifouttiug ,
down the olive trees in Biovenee In 1823 has affeotod .the district. What
may we expect In ftiese latitudOefrom reforeetmont ^ Oodiidor, 0 revenue
ofl^alj the revenue may be increased and more of thy oilass tequirod to
'gOUset ft t The olitnato afte hmy he made mbistor and semsAre-wood t3»f
be ipmogvilAs* Then, too, perhaps acme of the mouare, whU^ is now need,
uor be api^led to tiie fields, in rdaooof sueba gruesome tbp^
TtSsrsamra'ai* ^
Xu XtbibUilm, wbrt m, flil ^
lObow Uf attract elletiei,
that tbe prsphrifion el
ormeobanioat industry, w«^«
sodght for with InteUlgenooi trmfipiianiA u rational
manner, with on sopretB td uoiMiU-an4,aolA«» p^vgort^ueA ^
lotHiiilo Value. Xlm pimoft triNP# ^tiii#is^
lathe extrietiott In ffraboU Jf,ntli|ora< tdipllli'tho
refinement chalk phosphate^ cl the genarhl
and pttlveriiod goano la pftedcf thil fertlBM dUr'M stateT
fierionr progreai was shown to havt hsah mMclui ct
animal reluso. However, the treatment of nfgit mfil^ ^ Its faticnal
I ^nttilsationi loaves vary much to bo detirod* U ennnift|imt havo aisc
! struck the observers bow much oommetoo sto^ In aM cl a Commou
ohsmfoal language, for the vario^ pi»||Micni feStcre to
the soil, aaote^ phosphoric acid, and pPB|k^the , thuac ICrms in
use on the continent to express the valM A .while lo
Huglaod, ammonia, phosphates, and the salts of potash, are tho
oxprastions employed.
It is only since 1640, wlwu Iifebig laid dowh the Imperloas law
of restUutioif, that a veritable revolutlcn ensued in the trade and
manafj^etaro of eommerclal maxmrs, In Franca alone three
milliards of fsancs fdptmtt the annual sum antplmmd in the
fabrication, &04 of fcrtlUsers. France Is alto tbe richest oonntry
in the werfd in fossU phosphate of lime, that emph^fnagrlonUnre
being chlsflf derived from the tertiary formation In tbe form
of phosphorite and as nodnIeA In the secondary strata; the
la iter are found in tbo nelghbonrbood of XdlW, Maua, end
In tike departments of the Meuse, and Ardeoaes; the former ere
chiefly obteined In Aveyron, tbe Lot, Beraolt, Tarn and Garonne,
BCsters, 5to. One firm, Desallly, commenced in 1660 to extract
nodules lo the ArdennM $ alnoe then. Its operations have extended
to other parts of France, so that at present it employs 1,000 workmen
and proauoes 20,000 tons of phosphate of lime yearly, of which one
third IS exported. Some of the phosphates oontatn from 26 to 86 per
their meohanioal floenesa. or pulverisation; for the assimilation of a
fertilising matter is more rapid, as tho pointi of oontaot are more
numerouft with the dissolvlug agents of the soii-**water, oatbonlo aold,
end orgaaio matter. But ttmre ia a liutit to tho ooonomio aotion of
miuerala in the shape of impalpable V^wder, thus a ton of triturated
feldspar rodk, containing 10 per oent, ot potash and costing franca 66.
will he iuilQiteiy inferior to the aitii easily obtainable In a tdteaper
aud move concentrated states
Ho doubt it is very laudable to extract phosphates frtiir^bowels
of the earth ; to import guaoo from Booth AmeiJoa and AOItralia ;
nitratb of soda from Chill, and tish guano from Boandlnavia. Not less
important is tbo eoouomio utilisation ol tbe datrUut of slanghter-houaea
and knuokors* yards, and of public markets, lo BarlSi oesspool mattera
afford annually 7,000 tons of poudrettCt and 8,000 tons ot ammonical
salts. At Amiens, fecal matters have nharcoal for tbe base of ita
pmiret^et aud the chopped refuse of flax aud hemp. Velvet clippings,
brewers’ refuse, straw, wool and leather waste; tiiis mixture, when
eutiched with assimilative phosphates, sells well. For years the debris
of slaughtcr-hoUBfis have been in much request In France. But industry
entered the lists, aud by Us aid tbe ntilisation of blood, flesh, horns,
hoofs, hair, skins, Ac., has become a speolality in Franoa. The firm
Burgeoft, for example, contracts for the blood of the chief slaughter¬
houses (u thla oouutry, amounting to 13 millions of quarts annually,
aud they employ 260 persons to work It up Into marketable pvodoots.
The blood is dried by throe prooesses ; oOntalm 18 percent of ultrogen,
aud is mixed with superphosphates in variousprcportlqos. Another
Compauy farms the intestines, Ao., of tbe kiued beaftts, and when
manipulated, this detritus is sold iu three cUaass. Tim average number of
animals daily killed In the oUy abattoirs is, 700 oxen, Ifip cows, 60 bulls,
goo calves, 6,000 sheep, aud 600 pigs. But as hetfia, hoofs, hair, sfcini^
leather, Ao., require twoorthreoyearatodccofil^ose ln the soil, their
rkdootioQ to a pulverablflform is indispenBible-*-fieQca torretacUon is
resorted to. The preparation of bones has many varlooi methods cf
application, but none particularly new. On the west coast of France,
sardine aud mackerel refuse, with aaapli§ts,are boiiod* after being
previously drained, in large boilers; thenpveised Into cakee while hot,
aud ultimately dried, aud gveUnd, The pecnliarlly about goano
oousUte in Its now being rarefy employed otherwise then in a dissolved
4tat6, tbes permitting of a fixed rate of nitrogen, 12 per cent,
genmuBy to bo attained t of late year a much of the Fernvfan goano
rmperted had not more than 2 or 6 per oent* of gnote, and the
farmer was Invited to pay a nniform price all the same by tbe
Foravaia Govarument. France does got mauufaeture either dts-
SQtved or , pulverised gimuo, but supplies herdemahdi from Bngland
and Germany. Farmers habituated to empicy only'* faru^afo^'
manure, guano, Ae., viewodwHUiuspiefon the use of etn^lcal mauutei;
the honor of destroying'their preiadlces Ui^ertbli head, is due to
Ui dcoTges VUie,onlyMrodefifthobby todeathby prescipibiog dotes
of chemical fsrtilisom, contponnded on the data of the ai^i ot onltu
vated ptjbtji, tq ^Utpte tlmaalto carjfsd Away, {ifteas If we Were
certain of the m^ltions of a soil’s fertility, Btrangb, net a mannfiie*
tuter pfsphreskrtifittai manores for the general market 4m M. Ville’s
prinbtp^tA ItiM only in 1830 that Norway eomivieBM to ntilfAi
r &hWese^atkgrktoiing, ood, mid maokeril gs^lin^Ac,, hav^by .
ma<r *5B^«3®!i^ lo 0 >trr pm .«i( f»»}»;^«»*»!‘
"MM*' MfHtMtk^'W'ptiotphPrls'.p^tMi'^'tn pttaU (i«»B«#*l<)y ;
Mmm HMMlpirftekry gtippo, »«ld.tli8
; ^ W A^^eif to bttve «6t»i|tl|fi»g tbotit ib« ^bjltoxern,
Hilkiilii^y the loierBetfeae! Oottuulthiiv tiitte4hi tbeTrooedOro doegre^^,
itoit t«iUN eter by M* ^IdKiiitp donUBittea eonetffred of 26
^ mffmmtt •{« of whene ttete ^rtihigolifieA loi^ttgo l^reprleton;
Mn .hew eienloea the qnevMon l^ije tho fiiot mipowfoee of kb«
to 18^ fn the depoSSheht of the HOreolti ttotrn to;tbe pTMeot
hftMttt! t Utot iShteO the oy«f ^be iiftfeeth^e<l<^htee thoee^od were
Milo tlN^ailhiihiterof Aftrioi^ lo etolia ttko Oofommeotht eeword
tidted the tod the mliied olO|grer4e* The feport
etm the i^UosefO mported to Satope from Atiietio«t end the
diaehM Oeh m pwpedeted by lutidetet^Mtreiifnortliig of |t)ante*-^e«
itooriah VljSeirA^ when the petlve tine# die ; the gtefttng doe$ not
fa theleeet ePiBhe delthate^bononet of the French grepe; hat all
Attirieen atomt^enoteqaelty tanatiog,the Solonltp Ollntoo VialtaUai
of FrauKUft ettd 1!eylor biong the best. 7lie plant erheO atteeked at the
toot dice iim loaoltloo {henna, any inaantdaataoyar xaait heannoeedeil
iy good aianatlog to give atrangth to the woandoa plant { after farm
arara tttenaroi the next beat fertlUaer la dried blood, with snlpbatee of
tmteifa andiron andanperpboephatea* The only eflioaeioaa tneeetloidei» ^
fiitnti0iet of eavbon, ea firct omployod, on the^pearence of the dueoae,
by Idaeon Theneid* end abaodoned owing to tta aerere efleote. The
mender of employing this remedy if now batter'underatood : two
isjeetton holes pet aquete yard soMne to tntfhdate the soli to the depth
of 11 mohea with the poiaonoua vapore and aope apply the quantity in
$ doaia» at Intefoala ci 4,6, and 10 dsya« Babmeratn^ the vines drew ne
the hue, bnt the flooding ought only to take plaoa in amtnmti after all
vegetmlon hse ceased* Then the floes can eapport 11 inohea of water,
from 80 to 60 daysi to be followed in spring by liberal maonring*
TEE PASTOBAL BEES.
T he honey bees goes forth from hie hive in spring like the dove from
Koah'a edr, and itia not till after many days that she brings back the
olive leafi which In this case ii a pellet Of golden pollen upon each hip,
nanolly obtained from the alder or swamp wUiow* In a eountry where
maple sugar is made, the bees get their flrst taste of awOot from tho sap as it
flows flrom the IplIeSi or na it dries and is oondensed upon the sides of the
boekets. They wtllysomeiimes, in their eagsmess, eome abcut the boiling
plaico and be orexwbetbed by the steam and the smoke. But lathe spiing,
bees appear to be more eager for bread than for honey j their supply of
'> &is attiole, perhaps, does not keep as woU as their stores of the Utter t
benoe fresh bread, in tho shape of new pollen, is diligently sought lor* My
^ bees get their flrst anppliea from tho catkins t>f the willows. How gniokly
they And them out I If hat one catkin opens any whore within range, a bee
ia on hand that very hour to rifle it, and it is a most pleasing experience
to stand near the hive somo mild April day and see them come pouring In
with their littlo basketa pocked with this Aral fruitage of tho spring. They
will have new bread now; they have boon to mill in good earnest; see
their dnsty coats, and the golden grist they bring home with them.
PVhea a bee brings pollen into the hive he advances to the cell in which
it is to be depoeited and kicks it off as one might hie overalls or rubber
boots, «>^ihg one foot help the other | then he walks off withont ever
looking behind him $ another bee, one of the indebr hands, oomoa along
and rams it down with hia head and packs it into the oell as the dairymaid
packs batter into a firkin.
The first spring wild*flo were, whose shy faoss among the dry leaves and
rooks are so weloome, yield no honey* The anemone, the hepatica, the
bloOdroot, the arbatus, the nnmerons violets, tho spring beauty, the oory-
dnllf, Ao., woo all lovers of natnre, bat do not woo tho honey-loving bee.
It laqailflp' more son and warmth to develop the saeoharine element, and
the bcanty of those pole atrlpliiigs of the woods and groves is their solo
sod SsflUtSBt ixeass for bting. The arhutns, lying low and keeping green
all winteis «ttiiiu|,to parfome, hut not to honey.
Tho first honty^ is perhaps obtained >&om the flowers of the red ma|de
and tbs golden willow. The latter sends forth a wild, delioioas petfnme.
The sugar ma{de blooms a little later, and from its silken taeBcU a rich j
aaotac is gathered. Ify bees will not label these } mEerent voneties lor mo
as I isOBf wish they would. Honey fkom the maple, a tree so clean and
whelssoma^ and iifil of such virtues every way, would be sometiung to
put ohs^it^ne tot Of that from the blossoms of the applet the peach,
the Cherry, the qt^os^ the ournnk—one would like a egrd of each of
Ihage toristiw to boU fhcUpocoUar qmdito. The appU-blosBom Uvory
lmpo«to»t tn the bees. A i^U swarm has been known to gain twenty
poinds la wsight during its Coatiwusaeo. Bees love tbs ripened fruit too,
aad ta; August sad September tHU widk thsmsstves inpiy apon varieties
. Tha tmikval betwsua the bNmUg of the fruit^rees aiiath.tof the
oUvsr wherry U hrldgsd ever U many loeailties, by the honey locttst>
Whsl a deUghMkd summek manuor those tresi send foilh atthisseseon t
I kafit SKflithing %bm the qualify thaltoaiy, hat it«u«U to keep weU.
Jlqt when* 1^ fsl rigpibmfif Uooms,ilm£oU»t^ bfplsul^r*^^
Indsafi; wWaeomMieadb^ Ifives idm eipseUUy’ In iooalltUs
whore it U extej|iiividiy> cal^vaUd, as in plesss ulong the Hudson t The
ddiieate white elover,! wbilPh to ifiebm ab«i# ^ *»««» *•
neglected» eteu hmioy lUdnapAssed by fovtlfis modes^eolm^ aU bat
odoarisfSv dower* A fioU o| ^ilmssliiorrisiJalimsasids^ji^
murmar like that of sA saosmbbs hive. The hoapy if nobim white Us that
obtainod from clover^ hatvit is mm^o cai^y gelhered ^ It U in shallow
caps whUo that of the cUW iifU deep tabes. The beet ere up end at it
bifore euni^se, aad(ttakwab||ski^<’1*!ii*^^^^*<‘^^ Battheolover
bloome lateir and blooms tveiyiihhme and u the etaple sonreo of supply
of tho finest qtiaUty of honey. Tbefefiduver yiuld apl^ stores only to
the loogef proboscio of the bumhleApe^ ameng oiir aaliive twbi^ else the bee
paitnrogo of onv ^grieuitural districts would bo aniquaficd. I do not know
from what ^efamont honey of Cbomonaisu the Alps is i^Of but ii oen
hardly surpass oat best pmdaote. The snoVMrbite hwn^ o^ Anatolia in
AsisHs Turkey, which i« cegululy sent to Oonetapfluopie fot the ose
of the dmud Beigifioe and the ladies of hia mroglio, is obtained
from the cotton plants whieh makee me think '^t the white clover does
not flourish there. Tho white olovev is indigehotis with as« its scoda
eeem Isieat In the gronml, and the i^plicaftion at oertafn slinutlants to the
sou, like wood ashes, canee* them to germinate and epriug up.
The rose, with all its besuly and perfim ymldsiio hOAey to the boe>
unless the wild speoies he eoughb by the httathte*bee. f
Among the humbler plants let me not forget, the dattd^hm that so early
dots the snnnT slopes, and upon whieh the bee languidly gra^. wallowing
to hie knees in tho golden bnt not over-saeonlettt paeturage. From the
blooming rye and wheat, the bees gathev pollen, also from the obeonro
blossoms of tndlob com* Among the weeds, catnip is the great favorite.
It lasts nearly tho whole seaeott oad yielderiehhr. Itoonldnodeabtbo
profitably cultivated in eome localities, toA oatttip honey would be a novelty
in the market. It would probably puctake of the asonuduo properties of
the plant from wbieh it was derived.
Among yonr stores of honey gathered before Midsammer you may ohnnoo
upon a card, or mayhep only a square ln(di or two of comb, in which the
liquid is as transparent at water, of a delioioos quality with a (flight flavor
o| mbit. This i# iM product of the Uaden, or hoss-wood. of all tho trees In
our forest the one motit beloved by the bees. Melissa, ths goddess of honeyi
has pMad her seal upon this tree. The wild swarms In the woods frequently
reap a ohoioo harvest from it. 1 have seen a mountain side thickly
studded with it, its straight, tall, smootti light^ray sbafi; carrying its
deop-green crown far aloft, like tile tulip or maple.
In some of the north-western fltates there are Urge forests of it, and the
amount of honey reported stored by strong swarms in this eeoiion, during
the time the tree is in bloom, is quite inoredibU* As aslmdeaud
ornamental tree the linden Is fully equal to the mnple, and if it was as
exieosively planted and aeicd for, our lupptioe of virgin houoy would be
greatly increased. ' The iomone honey of IdthuonU U BasBiaU the product
of the linden.
It Is a homely old sUnsa current among boe-folk that
**A swarm of bees In May
Is worth a load of hay |
A swarm of bees in done
Is worth a silver spoon;
But a swarm ia July
* Is not worth a fly.
A swarm in May is indeed a treasure ; it is, like an April bal^i, sure to
thrive, and will very likely itself send out a swarm a month or two later;
but a swarm in July is not to be despised j it will store no clovet' or linden
honey for the **Oratid fleignior and the the ladies of hlslsoriglio.** but plenty
of the rank and wholesome poor man's nootar, the sun-tanned product of the
plebeian bnckwheaU Bnokwheat honey is the black sbeep in tbis white
flock, hot there is spirit and character iu it. It leys hold of the taste io no
equivocal manner, especially when at a winter br^fisst it meets ita
fellow, russet book, wheat cake. Bread with honey to oover it from the same
stalk is double good fortune. It iv not block eitheri but nut-brown, and
belongs to the same class or goods as Herrick's '
** Eot-browu mirth and russet wit’*
H ow the boos love it. and they bring the dellcions odour of the blooming
plant to the bive with them, 80 ^nt in tbe moist warm twilight the apiary
is redolent with the portnme of buckwheat.
Vet ovidenily it is not the perf nme of any flowom that ottraola tbo beos;
they pay no attention to the sweet-scented lilac, or to heliotrope, but work
upon snmaob, silfcweed and tho hateibl snapdragont In September, they
are hard pressed, and do well if they pick up enough sweet to pay tho
ruuning expenses of (heir oatalillfhmeot. The purplo asters and tho
goUen-rod are ubont all that remain to them.
Bees will go tbr(»e or four miles in quest of honey, but it is a great
advantage to move ‘ha hire near the good paatorage* as has been the enstom
from the earliest tiuma In the Old World. Boms enterprising person, toktiig
a hint perhaps from ^e ancient Bgyptmus, who bod had floating apiaries
on tbs Mile, haatrlefi the experiment ol flouting several hundred colonies
north' on thq Mjhiliiippl, starting from Hew Orleans and following tho
epeniog aeaaoB up* fbua leaUaing u st^ of perpetual May or June, the
chief it^kieu bllfig the hlosaome of the river willow, which yield honey
oi rare fajme of the hern were no donbt left behind, the amount
\«y«4«'^ ^ OmfllfM wieb^'b^jr
itiilUKeiosMiMl0ilKii3i tbi^;
tel^Md i^rbiW^orboolE tltW«9lto^ feogetbjiir ^iAtottjr. Kima Ih^ bui^
Ift iMtQOQf ftm lih«t«^ of bivAi fktid mtii lov tin to tj(iiiiA{^ift«
Jilter ibobt twettly'*fot» bnin iboif juitiiiiioo il nwAtM^bt hoiny («lafood
iatotrin uUsunifliitin of wttiab m AMcobod ftH»n tMtw&ti tm tlngt of tho
tbdomoit 0 ^ wtii bao $ tfali is ttiksa off tnd finm it tin ^mb is btiilt ai>.
liiseakidtalad (iMtttioiit pbo^ds of 'hmym tutsd I 4 aUbotsting
mn mwad «l to sag notbiat of tboUmothstis lost* H«w»tiie
ittiportKoetk in $a aMaoniieal pobit of tioir« of» xooeot deiicoby trbish tbo
bonoy is okliaotod wid tin oomb robatind intsot to tbo beei^ Butbooey
irlthottt tbo eomb ia tbo pexfimn tfithout tho ro8o««»it is moToIy tfreot, aud
soon dogfttsxfttOA into candy. Half tbo dolootobloocsa ic ia breabing domra
tboso f!mil ^ cs^ttisilo wydJi yOoriOifj and tatting tiu» nootcr before it bM
lostiiifretboMp by C 0 BtfM}t with tbo air. Tben the comb it a tort of
thield or foil thiftpreventt the tongae from being oyetwbelmed by the flrtt
shock of the tweet.
The dronee hove the lesit tmenvisble time of it* Their foothold la the hive
it very t)recaTloUt. They look like the gisott, the lorde of the twarm* bat
they are reaUy the tools. Their load^ threatemag ham hue no stiag to back
it opj and their eise and noise make them only the more consploooui matks
for the birds* They axe all oandidates for the favors of the qaeeo, a fatal
felicity that is vooohiafed to bat oae. Fatal* 1 eayiforit iaa eiugolar fact
in the history of beet, that the fecundation of the queen costs the male bis
life, yet day after day the drones go forth, threading the roues of the air
in hopes of meeting her whom to meet Is death. The queen only leaves
the hive onoe, exeept when she leads away the swarm, and as she makes
no appointment with the male, but wanders hero and there, drones enough
are provided to meet all the contingoneies of the case. One advantage
results from this system of things ; thero is no Inoontinenoo among the
males io this ropabliC I „ . . ^
(To h eonHmted^)
AMERICAN EXPORTS—1878.
B y the Btatomenta and reports from the Baroau of the
following general reeulta are shown, according to an Amerloau'
paper.
That for the year of 1878. the exports of onr oonntry exceoded the
imports by 250,000,000 dels., in round numbers.
Our piinolpal exports at staled by Oovemment reports are :<-»
Dollsrs,
Broadstnffs ... ... ... ... 110,00(1,000
Cotton and its maoafaotarea ... ... ... 120,000,000
Tobaooo imd its manufaotures ... ... ... 120,000,000
Woods, lumber, timber, etc • tw« est ... 26,000,000
Sugar ... ... ... ..* ... 6|000,000
Frovisions of all kinds, beef, pork, lard, hams, etc. .. 90,000,000
Oils of all kinds ... ... ... ... 59,000,000
!Leabhi*r ... ••• ... ... ... 7,600,000
Machinery, hardware, cutlery, etc. ... ... 12,00(»,000
Tallow ... ... ... ... ... 9,000,000
Paraabd skins ... ... ... 4,000,0<'0
Coals (to Newcastle) ... ... ... 2,000,000
Flax seed and other seeds ... ... ... 2,60o,oOO
Total of products named ... 415.000.000
Thf'O are the leading articles, and all were formerly imported from
Europe more or leas—our combined exports tor 187B amounted to over
550,000,000, dels.—•/owr/wl of iJ'oiottOs, 2-0-70.
proteciioYo'p w'uo'b'from rot,
I N Landwifthtehaft md ladt^rfrio, Herr E. Fleischer, of Oonobite,
thus dosoribei bis aeoidcutal disoovery of a means of preserving
wood from rotting. Four years ago he set about making a preparation
of edal-tar and ashes for the purpose of driving away ground fleas and
beeUea from bis garden, Just ae be bad mixed the materials together
he was called away from his work* and, on returning, found to his
emprise that, instead pf t;^r in the as^ there wee a kind of woody
texture io lie place. AeU ufsUei at the traDSformation, be tried the
experimentover and over a{(ujn wad invariably with the same resoU.
Just about this time he bad oocsHlon to redoor on out-door room, where
the boards came into almost immediate oontaot with the ground, auil
look the opportunity of testing the preservative effects of this mixture
by smeanug the under side of the planks with Coal-tar, aud, spriuhling
them liberally with aiboi, a thm layer of which laiter was aiSo lifted
over the ground. Ttw procedure proved eminently tuccesfful, foi the
floor le stilt in perfectly good couditloo, and not iq the least aitabked
by faogns growth, while on all previous ooeesione. though laid down
Ineqaatly good material, it had at ways required consUnt repair id a
very few monthe* time, and was generally thoroughly rotten In lesa
then two years. Eery Fleischer has sinoe tried ibe same applioation
on the wood«srork of hot-beds and foretng-housea with emUy
fc.'tijHCttotOry rewiti,— ()(e^tkmn'$ Jfoynxfittf, July X87ll^5-| ,
’ kei^4d<NQl oOlthi l$b';
;hti^ped, by any
V'nwmbey ot dM^|i
ipsf^wiidieoWl tdblitioii.
AlgHbii feddoedi bamnit tii#
,b«t reqwleeilhreo ^oife-por^lb^s|lfi «^
'hhd,Ittmanyewits,hUghlyIj^convehlbbt^" ^0%'if
tiauous in iti aotioh, but baS to
be anii redttsd, 41 } the|e dlsadviaiwi|«b hMng
in a maohlfle Invented by w 6wedls6 angiobdr, dnH ^oiU«4i, fM) b*
inventor. v^ Ee LavkFs 8epavatot.'' Sepntotor !k ,too Vfgtia ftttMi
and we would propose tosubstUata for It, * OfeWMei'f’ wi nlpfa espMs*
stvo of its parpoie.
The price of the Creamer!« about A28 ; it requires‘oKfy ^
ol two men fo drive it, and its aetion is eontinoona '. 4e *• It fi
keptin motion and supplied with milk, it will deliver ertam 1 ^ ona
spout and 8kim*aiilk at another. Pe Lsvare Creamer bal bean at
work through last spring at the Swedish Sobool of As^louRura at
4|uarp, and Professor Efalmar Nathorst gives his opinion of It in the
following termsEo tavars Separator, in my judgmenti takes the
first place amoa*g maohgues now known for rklmming milk. It la
simple, easily mana^iLeasily cleaned, requires very little power to
drive It, works eioecdlngly wail, and is oheap; so that it possesses all
the oonditiouS required to bring it into penecal use.* ProfSHor
Nathorst la carrying on experimante with this Creamer, which are not
yet oonoluded. He slates, however, that though at Aluerp a very email
quantUy ol milk is required to produce a pound of butter by the ice
method, the Creamer has given a yet better result, The maker claims
for this machine that it leaves m the milk only 8-lOtbs per oent. fat,
To stater ft In another way, of 1,000 lbs. of oroant it will separate 907 lbs.,
nnd leave in the skim-mllk only 8 lbs. Eo EayaPe Creamer
poBseeses all the advantages of that class of inaobinea. It requires no
ioe, and thus avoids the expenses and inconvenienoes of the lee method.
Jt saves the room and the vessels rrqajrcii for holding milk for 24 or
3G hours, and it yields perfectly fresh cream and milk, whioh ate In
couseqoenoe, of better quality than ordinary.
This remarkable maouine will be exhibited at the London Show of
(be Agricultural Society of England, where it will doubtless attract
great attention* . * A L,
Cherryvalo, Aberdeen.—iVorfA SritUh Agriauliuriitt
ARTESIAN WELLS IN PONDIOHERRY.
A REFOET bee been published by the Pondicherry Qovernment on
the operations oerrled on with artesian wells In the settlement
under an officer of the administration. Some time ago snoeess was
a^ihieved by the sinking of an artesian well in conneotlon with aspCaning
factory at Poudioherry, and it was ooniequently resolved to extond
operations The engineer officer who oonduoted the experiments is of
opinion that during periods of famine, snoh as those whioh the prestdenoy
hM lately tided over, these artesian wells will bo of great me. If the
diffioulty of ublalnlog water cannot be quite overcome by their use,
the disastrous consequences of famine might be greatly mitigated by
staking artesian wella The real cost of sinking a well will be about
five thousand fraucs. At Pondloherry or certain parts of It, three wells
were constructed with the aid of these new machines within a radios
of eight hundred metres of each other at depths varying from 88*58 to
79*52 motres. The Ingenieot Colonial ohef dn servioO des Pbntl et
ChauKseos has been oareful to preserve a complete oolleetlnn of
geological speolmeos of the strata peneiratedi and a OMeienti^ng
an extract from the register ol boring, with the ipaoiment and bottles
of water, bate been deposited at tbe Uagaxin General. Tto report
sabml^tod tof the Madras Oovernmenl has been perused with atlMih
interest by his Grace the Governor In Counoll, vrbo,^t8 referred the
qaestiin of stoking artesian wells tothe E. F, W., nrigaUon Branob,
for ear.y oonshleration.
THE OLIVE IN BUBUAH.
W E have seen soma of tbe fruit and leaves ol the Burnudi olive
CSaliV03nthai)t end to judge from the. shape, the loaves, the seed
the teste, aud even the smell, there caa he no doubt of (he identity of
this Sahmmthee with the oiivew An Italian gentleman ol our acquain*
tanee took the trouble to sand to^Raly lor sene leaves of the Ratlah
oUveaodfromaooiiiportooii with'fheleetollhe Bunnah speeiet which
shows a slight dtflerenoe, In the latter being serrated or dented at
in edge and ooacec tihbedi white the Comer le not, he if dmly eon-
vinced that the frail In qoesiion it one of (be numevone epeotei c^ihe
olive. It should be noted however^ that aeoordtog ton French fforh,
theleavei ot ithe FfCooh oltoe are itightly serrated;
4#-#b^Mit»la.aw'aidh(tat'te b» M
irop<Nf thtwi^tS b® tome gJjVit
SuEM^l^liSSW the Boi^oiMe <iUte mid \ki Bbvape epedM Wfi»t
ff- 1 - ■*' JW
, aUMnd^Meleh ^^e <iUte mi{ t&i Bbrope epejl^ wtot
loiMr, h* low Wnloaihetthe $^mmk§0 ImUmge to
thfr :iNimoBEl»;f « ih® i&i#4tat uthet in the French wo^ be-
fmt^^iedtobf ttf, U ie etoted tbet the (eef of theolUe je ol «
ePiiSethiit held tdek end tbie peouJIeritj la dietfnotljr pereeptible in
t»ef when mooed to powder hu meiHolnel propertiee, being
' hn ftitringent end i febrifegOf end it wee et one time oied in the eame
weg te quinine, in the treatment of IntermUtent ferere. Ihe non-
omployoteat ot thte lent»« • medtoine now Is more due to tbh exletenoe
of obdnparnotiTo tontoi, ench ae gentian, oak bark/^OM
which are eqaally indigenona in Fdxope. « gm
We truit the local Oorernmeut, iootead of trying to ralre a reveSie
by enODoraglng oonriot com petition with bouesl^ labour, may eee
tU true intereeti in enoouragiog the onlWlvatlou of tUia valuable
ffnUtree»-«ifa7iye0a ^oeeffe.
THE OUANGO.
T he writer ot the paregraph about gmngo, to which our oorrer-
pondent ErcarKBA referred in one of his Notes by the Way ”
yesterday, eends the following reply :—
The writer of "Notes by the Way” takes me up very short on the matter
of my advocacy ot ywaagc. What 1 meant to say was not thatgenn?^
was to supersede all fodder for cattle now in use, but that it might be
utilised asa valnable adjunct. In just the same way is the mangrove
—1 cannot think of its botanical name just now—used. The banks,
of the estuary ranuing up from the sea at UasoUpatam to the Castern
House in the ** pettah” are of a very oosy obaraoter ; the stream
frequently showed a disposition to make new diverstoni for Uaelf.
and Mr» BohdOfthen^udgeat Masulipatam, bit upon the expedient ot
Bowing mangrove seeds aloug the banka for the purpose of atrengihen*
ing them, and giviug them that power of cohesion which they Wauled.
Mr. Bobde sucoeeded admirably. iThe mangrove ” jaugle ot
Masnlipatam is now^ooeof Its reooguiaed laD(}.marks,and the owners of
cattle are largely indebted to it for its suitability as fodder for cattle,
The use of the leaves does at drst prodaoe diarrheoa among the eattle
—horses never use it, but they heoome aooastomed to it in time, and get
over the effects at fftst produoed. So partial are buffaloes, ospeoially,
to the mangrove leaves, that they have been known to keep away for
weeks together in the bush. The laot of the guingo, under oertaio
conditions, disagreeing with cattle, ought not, I think, to he employed
as ah argument against the use of it at all. Fresh gTass. your
"Notee*writer admits, does sometimes prodaoe disagreeable effects ;
why should exoeptign be entirely taken against the gmngo for doing
the same l^Uadrat Tiaiei,
AGni-nORTIOlTLTUUikli SOCIETY OP INDIA.
The wgtwl Mowthly QeMral Meeting wae held m Thundayt Vie SUh
My 1879.
JWAS SutTYaNUKD GhOSAi;., Baftadoob, V,J?,^inthe Chair,
Tam jmoQeediogs of the last meeting were read and oouffrmed.
The K>Uowtng gentlemen were elected |
GrdiAhf'y Ifsih^sfs.—filessra. H. P« Boshton, G. B. Aberlgh-Maokay,
SorabjlBadabboy, A. 0. Brett, J. B. Woosman, and J.O. Grieff.
JJamrary 'Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Pbayre and
Baron Ferdinand von Mueller.
Thenamsi of the lollowing gentlemen were submitted for member¬
ship *T-
0, F. Worsley, Baq., C.e„ Mcaafferpore.—proposed by Mr. H. W.
fitevene, seconded by the Beoretary.
Bejah Muttobur Bing, Ghowdry Basaar, Outtaok,—proposed by the
Seovetar 7 > seconded by Mr. H. J. Leilob,
ThomasAodereon, Biiq., Ueiehant, Calcutta,—proposed by Mr. I^itob,
seconded by Mr. 8.H. Bobinson.
0. H, Btookeii Jl^., Bettlement OMoer, Port Blair ^—proposed by the
BsereUry, seeonded by Mr, B. Blechynden, ^
B. X>« M. Hooper, Hsq„ Forest department, Nagpore,—prc^^miid by
Qff G. ^Itingi seeonded by Mr.Bobinson.
' AimaB qeanlUy of lih^ ^ Dennings,
Bsq% .1.
Bsidiol tnqi of segM <bi Andnstmis^^i^^ SL H. MMi Biq,
Xh« -SrtBl'BteAwirt wM<*
leg arnekhietst-^ ' '
The tdSMist Bss bsen isiMmill^ te«ot
m mMOg'ttiidiw the influenee ot the BUo oofdoni shbwors and the
heateomlhlned, Bhrtanhss*# milhi fs^d»y--<mr tgim nroond the
garden have bseq repatred. Eos« leyestog W ^
layers and onttiega of various kinds of noireti&g tebi m fdso fa>
advaneed* Lichee * gotees *oemmeneed about a week Idpugoin sich«
Ing willoommeneetn-motiow. The Increase of fruit trees sbonld be
one of oer principal obieoti, as the demaud tor leult tress ssemt on the
inareaie this year as eompsred with last season, but one staff ot mUae
is meagre. Tboosands of onttlngs of ornamentaKleeved plants liivii
been put down i a fuller list will be glvmi next mbxUi. We bate
several thousands of young tamarinds which ot^t ^ be shifted soon,
as we require the space which they occupy] they are winofior to the
ordloary kind, the pulp being Bwsstev. Ws have rsoeivfd a small
quantity of Messrs. Obleudorff’s manure. We have bad no lull
opportunity as yet ot trying its effects on various fruit tress, but
some ordinary native maiae seed from the Shahabad district was sown
on 17th June 1879, ou poor and over-damp land, and part teoelved a
mere sprinkling of this manure; the manured plants aud uninanureil
ones are sent for Inspection. £fbe one is twice the length of the other.]|
I We also sand a few flowers of double Hiblione,—namely, AT. rpm
Btnmiie, JCermUianm, and Hota genentU minium iemi |Hsauf, Ot
contributions several kinds ot the Andaman seeds have germinated •
Vatioa rahiuta, Umnia madagaeoariame and Catuarim sesdlings
received from Boyal Botanic Gardens, Uowrab, ace alt progressing
favourably ; a small collection of ferns in excellent oandltlcn have been
received from Mr. F. Lsaerus; Jtoana Uaitirime has hesu sown. The
Mahogany seeds sown on 5lh July germinated several days ago. Of
Caffea‘ liherwa wa have secared attogotlier about 120 seeds, a few of
which have germinated ; but as they take 6 or 8 weeks to germinate,
we cannot yet form any opinion as to the number of plants we shall
get finally.’*
HimAi,ayan Oniok.
Bead the toltowiog extract of a letter from Captain J. F. Pogsou
'* By this day’s pattern-post 1 haye despatched to your address a
packet ooDtalulng twelve roots of the ouiou iudigsuous to these hills.
1 believe they grow wild up in Kunawar.
*' The botanical name Allium iopUghyllum doas not appear in either
the British or Indian Maietia Modioa ; 1 have (onud it lU /cAnSfea’s
ChemUity ef Common Li/v, page 448, q.v.
" 1 shonlil like those ouious to be put down and propagated, if
feasible, in Bengal.
*' I tried four yeBterday, minoeil up, and beaten into an omlette. The
tante was very good, nut halt an hour ulcer eutiug it I felt very warm
and broke out into a very profuse perspiration, which could only have
beeu due to the onions, as beyond pepper aud salt, nothing else was used
in the preparation of the omlette,
" 1 tasted a good slice of the onion in its raw state. It was strong
and very puogeut, much more so than any oommon basaar onion of
the plains.
“ This sudorific quality is of value, for the onions (all the tribe) are
mostuourisbiug } and It the present variety is mediomally sudorinct it
will meet and supply a long-fstt want.
<* 1 have put down a lot of roots, and hoP® by-and-bye to ssourc the
seed.
” The favonrito way of eating this is to out the green stem s,
and to grind them down Into a paste on the entry stone, and then to
use this leaf paste with other condiments in making up a ourry, meat or
vegetable.”
The Secretary stated that these bulbs had been sent to the garden for
Immediate sowing. He also oalied attention to a paper In the Hociety’a
Journal. Vol. 11, p, 468 (old series), In which relcreocsla made to the
Himalayan onion as of superior quality*
LctterH wore also submitted—
(1) —From Mcskts. Williamson, Magor A Oo., sending specimen of an
inaeot which is doing much mischief to the tea bushes in the Munguldyo
Compauy’s plantation,
(2) —From the editor ot the iadton Ten Oazette, specimea of%bat la
described *' as a new form of blight on tea bushes in Assam^” The
above have been forwarded to the kind care of Mr. Grots for the
inspecUon of the Boientifio OommiUoe of the Boyal Boitlonltttral
Boofeiy,
(3>-»FrQm ZL Maoallieler, Bsq,, presenting some cobs of American
maiae grown la a cold latitude to meet the request of Mr, Book, as
notified In last month's proceedioga. Those gobs were Immediately
forwarded to Mr. Buck, who tenders his best thanks lor Msi
Hsoalliatefs ooattesy.'
(4)—From H. A ^rtb, Bsq., submlttlag an account of a grand show
of the Itoyal Agrtoultoral Booicty ot British Guiana. Boxeiq of the
fruits and vsgetabfss intsodnood in the scbedule are, Mr. Firth observes,
very like the prodnots of Bengal.
(®)—Frbwihs Officiating Beoretary to the Government of India.
Home, Befonun, and AgrionUnral Departments, giving some informa-
ijfh ki resptot to the totroduotlon and enltoro, in the Andamans, of
Mt^ tos^IG.oltshlchA speolinsiiotflbre, with report thsrspn* was
toil meeting. ^
* A paper on the cultivation of Oblcory, by
todhm T«»yOoto,atta CinchonaPlantersnian article of export to
BgjPopgf
XkttMtoVi twp pipiri wet# (ransfentd IW pabllsatieala thi iourna^
mfi (joosUoa bna ttoi QitlrxMit^oaity been
ftfli to how long tho rmtfjig<«^i»e» of tho potato Inogao will, uii^or
£ftfroiirftblooo»datt<ma, proflor^othofr TiUUiy^ Wo wo not Owaro
that any iJofioito onowor boo boon given to tbfs partioalar qaeotion,
but wo Imvo 0 paper before no by M. Orie^ in wbWb be eh(*w« tbbt
etyloeporoo of PeotAlonefa, preurvod fbr more than half a oentnry
in ibo beH)«rInm, gormittoted oofoftaily os tbo^ which wem taben
freshly Ibnin the hoot plant on the oame day.’’
. HINTS ON MELON GROWllsio.
S OMBof the following leoggeetiono by 0 oorreepondout of the
may be prohUbly adopted now, though the
plan wl4oh he pApoaeo io to make the melon bed in the autumn.
1 am a great lover of melono, and although I have lived in
Philadelphia nearly all my life, have only found really line
melone in thin great State of Nebraska. 1 have a peculiar way of
raUiug them, and at the Pall ie the proper timt to make a melon
patch (I am now enlarging mine to meet aninoreaeed demand),
I will deeorlhe my way for the benoEt of your ‘inaixy readers.
Beleet aaf piece of sandy land well exposed to tho sun ; if all
pure eand, so maob the better Plough dead furrows, six feet
''' ' ' *^'‘ 1 ^ '
kiifictite. , ' r, ,: :y'r V"
. .. I ';
— ^. . . . — . . . ;
^tlHBl P’orsttor, V«d. V., haekn article talc^
A iScienii/h which tells dstliat tb^diestmctto of ^
In America is going on at tho Tlite of
and that this has been steadily going on moco bon^t^tly
ilnco that dote 5g2)E00 square miles of fmrest hate been dertr^ed*
This is most Bul<ddal| and we should think ihatvrtth
thrown by scfentifla investigation of Into years oh thli fnhjiseti;,
the anthoritles would interveue (o prohibit this wimtsiile,
tiOn.
Tan Mahogany promises to adapt itself to tbe oUmateoi^t^
Oontral Provinoea* In the garden of the IXorUot^Uiul fioefety,
||||pQre, are somo very promising Species. The niirrow«]eaf^
iron bark also promises to sttoceed at the same statlom At gooni
there are some Uses ol^tUe Sw>ahfpiiu ffhbulvs one foot in girth
and about 20 feet in height, which have withstood the past hot,
season and developed entirely new foliage, while several less
promising specimons, cut down to the ground, are throwing op
vigorous new shoots.-*4fadras MaiL
apart, twenty-four tnohos deep, in straight lines from mwth to
south. Pill these up with strong manure, old or new, and plough
tho earth back to bury the manure and xorm a ridge; level the
top with the back of the harrow. At eaoh end plant a stout
stake to remain as an indicator of the exact position of the centra
of tho ridge. You now have a perpetual melon patch for ten yeats
at least. In the spring stretch a garden tine iTom stake to stake
and at every six feet plant six seeds in a twelve Inch circle, and
four or five radish seeds in the centre* The bugs will not touch
the melon plants as long as the radishes grow there. Lot all the
seeds grow; do not thin them out, and keep out tho weedd until
tho vines begin to show runners ,* then mulch the whole patch with
straw, nay, iresh-cnt grass, or anything that will keep the shrface
moist and tho fruit from the ground. As Soon as the trost kilts
the vinos, gather all fruit above eight inches in diameter, and stow
it away in a sunny corner under seme now hay. In. this way I
have melons ripening slowly and iinely until tho weat gets too
tool to eat them. Next year plant your seed a foot oir^two uorlU or
south of tho old hills, and so on yearly,to obtain the whole ridge.
The roots follow (he ridge, and the cultivator can bm run through
iiiQ spaces without disturbing the roots. 1 grow the Long Island,
Llack Spanish and Mountain sweet water-melons, r md the green
citron, Alton largo and white Japan citron inelonto. We do not
drink oceans of cold water during baying and harvesting, as is
tho custom in many places in the (last, but draw la>rgely upon &ar
melon patoh, to the aubonndod delight and comfort all bauds.*-
E. IL in the fVutt Nscordcr.
CULTURE OP ALOOASIAS*
'luU J 4 F AN FoRtf8TB.**Tho Japanese Govern meut appears to be
following in the st^s of the Indian Government with regard to
the forest motion. The Japan Atail of a recent date lias the
following As the authorities have determined to establish a
branch of the office for the preservation of forests in Yamaguchi
a number of officers from the head-quarters in the Naimusho
will shortly proceed to tho ifsu. The subject of the preservation
of existing forests, and the replanting of such as have been de¬
stroyed through waste, negligence or accident^ has been receiving
great attentiou on the continent of Europe and in India for some
years past, and the Japanese Governmeut are exercising a wise
discretion in enforcing a proper system of nSanagement in the
forests of this country.—Tiwes of Mia*
Tns Sequoias.—M r. John Muir li/i« au interesting paper iu
Harper^s upon tho “Now Sequoia Forests of California**^ He
gives therein the details of a discovery by himself of a grand
forest of Sequoias 70 miles long, lying oousidejrably south of the
isolated groups hitherto known, aud containing large numbers o|l
sqiUugs, which indicate that the species is still m a vigorous state
f f'uxisteuce. U has heretofore been argued that the tew groups
of lUese trees known made it probable that the SpodeS was dying
out from its last strongholds upon the earth, for it has tome down to
UH from pre-glacial tiuies, when it existed in Enrope also, as geology
testifies. Mr. Muir’s researches lead him to believe that (he speoies
has never been more extensively distributed on the Sierra in post*
glacial times than it is now; and that to-day it is ae fail of life and
vigour as it was lOfiOO years ago.
(From thu Gabosix.)
T EOSE of tho Td/dii and seotion do much thO
best iu very light material, using uolbing but fibre, with the earthy
portion of the peat removed, mixed with about two-fiPhs of chopped
sphagnum (ooccanut fibre msy be substituted fu this country),
say, a sixth part of rotten, dry, fisky inauare, ssoh as may have been
used for summer mulching a vine border or wherever it would be
ilmilatly exposed to like drying iufioeuoes of sun and air; to this
should is added a good pioportioo of sand and a liberal sprinkllug
of jxit shreds and obarooal. Iu a mixture of thi^^ sort these plants
will grow and looroass to an extent uvd poislblu in ordinary poUiug
material, They are mnoh better wholly, or ilmost wholly, shaken
out so as to get the old soU (ntireiy awa;^ IroirA them. It ft best, alto,
in repotting to take the smail crowns ami lofisets away, keeplug the
stronger growths by themselves and treatiuf, the weaker ones In like
meaner. They ate very sbaltow rooteit, col^.sequeutly the pots should
be halt filled with dralaage, similar la ^Uis respect to orenids. A
Jimainyrt is one of the most bsautifitt kiC the smail-ideyed kiads;
ft wlU do well in matotial each os the above^ putting either a
number of the otowus together Iu shallow potn orpana'or in-the
shape of email plants for placmg about amongst the othst ooeupauta
ofmextove. A, morifrhiM aUhoogh from the qulctmese
with which It miqr be luorsMed, la uurt tboumht so laaeh os aa some
of the soaioar kinds of reoent introduotiaru, It is o.ue of the haadsumert
aud most eitootlve ^aato which we poasssa. In the matter of
it requires to be quits dlffstoutiv treated from tlia othori j fi is jj^ly
possible to meko (he tnetorlal in which it grohm too rielM
yeilow loam to au equal proportiou of thoroughly lotcet., I ^ imtoe,
aud ous-sixth eaud, will lU every way suit it* In ytoug
ofilaeti of tuts Aitfsasto, those sUoulil be nboeeii 'that have eomewaets
Tbeks FuxKsrNQ Solid.— The Counii*!/ Oentlman states (hat
Dr. llo^kins, who lives iu tho coldest part of Vermont, where the
ineicury sometimes froexes, says that wheu this takes plasei lih
doee uot think that any portion of Gie sap of the trees r^tnaint
uufru>wu ; yet the hardier varieties .endure this cold utthiURtoud*
“ have observed," says the,editor, “ the shoots of theapple^
pear, .'uid poach frozen etlE (wheu tlio thermometer sank to 10 deg.
above zero) without injury. The miorosoope showedr them lo he
filled vdth ICO crystals, no injury resulting from the freesing "
Tax following dxtraot from “ The Travels of PaUas through
tho Bou ' Provincos of Russia" contains a very iotermitittg
account of the ofiEeot of frost and rain oombiiied on|forost trees
fi5). An tttttstrative vignette , is given at p. 8$. " Ooc
ourioAty was gratified by the now and uneommon appearance
of tho trees, ol which we had reeeived au Imperfect idea tw the
fanner part of the joumpy. The oauto of thto singular' phetio*
menen le as follows :-^evare hoar frosts had compaonee<d iu
these regtone before Ohristmas, and. ware foUcwod by siip|iy mixed
with rain or elsot, so (hat the stnafieet bcanohes of the
trees Were covered with ice sininoh thick; by (his all the fiexlb|'e
bircU ttoos had been bent to the ground in semLnirolee. Theih
tops and branches were iiue buried finder the oenttuusl 4ucw>
which laif upwardpof a yard deep, and kept the tre«»» tnthat
rocfimbenl state* l%a mexible full-grown birch and oak tr«e«
had been ^ly i^jit and partly broken by too weightr of the
ocnAototion bn Mr (ops. ^hile their ibllateial braaohes*^ ima
also bout to the (proiinA The thaw, whiob began here tdf^aids
latter end of febrnary, and the lAye of the ana, had indsed
tjjHii tW -
im''
sXSSW^
tion ot wrtptfMttf^ ^ ^r^^ri^*^itvit OtAiirv ifait Iw
" I \ \ \ |- i l •• | .t l
wo(rti«Wftt»n» 0 «WW'*«'^,^^'K^^^ IndSTor In
0 meef« ||l Sf^®^nii coAb feot •nd iaftlotiiianoe, £ 2 Sv
th. ool«S«.; to
«* *«SS? *\r*I,o qa“t“*i«o^ to th. young
ID ntw w''“*'^‘fl nuture uwl o«>y truioiag fpt filling the
men h«e^^ qnilifted by eiaewhore, For leaa than half
office of loroat offiocw in ^. . _ olertfv. doctors, lawyoiis, 1
tm c<»t nor ZSiX
ufttal and t tvEinine tvhioii nooessarlly requires such ]
know of any i»r6feSiional ^ tlierc is
an enomous ESm
Stt wiiuol •’tf**®,®* “Thi.'wooia gi»”** toul cost of £3,300 per
lufilua <nhTl^?M^^ ptw«?y »*P«»'J®'»*“ training forest
annum. 2, J?t ;« connection with any o£ our
atoa.nts.iB u ^““'l^XtttoiapC of fit^^
nnWeratHOs, would trwn W ^ ,,llea on to
inodtsuperiot “Wt®* of o« home, colwUI, and Indian
perform in the tn“*8?®f",* India or any colony, should bo
Forests., i;?® *S v‘'‘‘ThS*sdfnoo »rts&H of forestry o«i
taught mthat country, ihe sowno Britain than anywhere
treslesA -— -
that portion of
Ceylon Ttm$i
^sattoa rafnfan,6arw .»a^g: "aK7> ®t
oguunt J, vtua.-.^- ---
•>”“'“
their edttoatioa. *, o^g^BsattwaMsaa®
FOBBSTB AISD KAIHFALIj.
T HB sabisolol our present rsmarki hss ooouplsd our stteution on
°LIit nwtais oMaslone, and the oorrsspondsnos on lUe seme
iiofl Enneared iu our oolomarf aud in those ot our
subject, which „^^t^^4oonflloUo(s. A!though the subject
oontempotatlM,ha* eq interesting
appears }“^y* , the Samiay ffuMtte. thet we ate ludneed
StoatirwW^hlr. eppear. from th.p«rof th. P«.fee.or
f <)iinifwv in the Olril Bugineetlng Oollege of Poona.
*‘^rftJfL!rc.ll.uo!. b, etatiu* what he heller., to be the
™^t and Mlentlfio way of wplalning the manner in wbiou to. growth
STrl^n^d. to infiuwo. rainfal'. %“»• ®»‘ “'f®'’
. .It* fmni Lliati the mean aunuot temperature ot the whole
hli readers the fwt, that We^^ a^^ ayerages the same one year
earth i# well reeognlMd w wnstani^,^
with awtber. irom the sun is baianoed by an equivalent
received during each ^ lun*. *^1$ lost was oooasloned by
loss ot beat. It has been proceeds to shew that this is
not tbucsse ; thot the amoim i a ^ ^ ^ ^ coating ot ice
mean annual
80 tact eifth is equlTalent tomeit a coating
radiation of tHlfiknem There Is, therefore, a balance of heat
Of tee ^ly of 6U feetofice to be aocounted for.
,h.
'^'^,'Trt e ’ th'. mpfreSJSV I* '“''"‘•“y
• eompoi^ (i *.. ”*_*P*" ;g temperutort. And whet eto the
iccompanled by a teownon i f
green i**’'®*..^* iHu«t eMfu? emitted^ by the sun. but resolving
And this jbMuical abwfption of beat. 1»
SSwir?. asi-.r^ScPS
amoteot
THE IKDIAN PORBSI »lPABTaSHl?.
i COHSIDHfiABMl ewonot of piiWIt gttWtion to
A deroted to the yitel mbieot Of trie plwUujl *« ***•• “^ “"X*
eereethio end iudleioue uttUdag ot the e*I*tog toreete at that 0 »» ®“ f-
Ueny eble lettere he.e eppeeted la the IW end other leeding p»^
«Ko®Mh.hurtful iiUt towhlohdeuedetlou hu bmn o.rried o.
in leyend laelloneot tUel wlde-tpteed eotVi'*< •“'* *he e»«e whleh he e
oeeeeeatUy followed the eomplete oteerMwo of foreet tieei ftom
ere^t dry e«d eun^eralied Unde. Th. effort, now totag mede by
the Indieu Forest Depertmwit to prereni
meet with only a pertiel euooeee, arising f»a» the egl^ brwM^ to
toteeto hare already bean deilroyed in many dlstriote, aad the arUtrvy
maonet in whleh the Forest Department toetete on iloppiBg all dewaiwe
rto...tl.«d.wlthlBthe«,ope of lU powereof lBte.far«.^ XhM.
2 lT«tloB of mi ref^pr^^^ t*®*"* *''“® .‘® **“"»
d?fl"mnt oyimefan^ o? BrhUh IndU. S*®"
bhm natural roeulbot the training recelreil and the ideas imblnou in a
i?<?rMfcaiihool BDooUlly adapted to the eiroomscribed rule and Umlted
waXof ihe totally inadequate tomeet ffie ever,
varying wants and olroumSianoss of
The teemlnii multitudes that oaltlrate the
olalns of India oaunot have Ibclr scanty supply o*
Ell'Jt short warning without sutoiog the *®r u?“jJ
nf ti; and inoiirrlna wastofal loss by being eompelled to dry an I burn
l' ia"!ibr3^^ ought lo^be applied to rsvWtag the
fawbiiifcv of ibe Qshauated orop^bearlug land. Nevertheless, the hybrid
whleh rSue the toSto hwieommitud tbleoreeland
;uT.is??rprei^ca"lmd^^^^^^
tiott to vary Its mode ot treatment to meet the wants and otf ontoftanoes
'’‘Tli:i“buS!r,“m^tS2to^^^^^^ Jfor-f D®PSf‘““* WrSt
“,5
to.terri their crop, lot went of mennie, whle h they ere dtirro to UW
for fuel when thslr supply of wood from the formts is abruptly cut
off! or l^ios of it raiSad w high as to be totally beyond Ihclr pewora
*^^k^a^oo*ttnlry where the means of transport are stlU so difficult and
costly it is simply disostrovia to enforce strict probihitori laws against
oactUl denudatimi of forest land Denudation must to a cej-tmu
SSent nrooeed, under welbdeftuod and suitable legulationj until by
TuVur^TonilroBtlog a quantity of
wise and careful utilisation of erisimg suppnwi,
judicious and oitenslve planting and ©nforesting wherever such can Us
**A thliroogh^mvestigiUiQa into the ey^em and
Indian Forest Department has clearly be^me a prying neoessUy, and
a radical change In the .method of training Us offloers Is
uecBssary, so as to thoroughly eliminate the anUqoaled ideas wUl
which they have hitherto been crammed, and which have proved to b
as nusulMtblo to the wanU and olroomstaooes of India, at tbe| are wel
known to be preposterously behind in the march of modern progress
Ltl the aotual demamis of science and ®J *maSSemt^t ^of tb
Along with these needful arrangemente in the
Forest Department, and in accordance wUh the necessltlm and peci
Uarlttoi ol^India, the aovernment should
a taste for tree planting among the natives. The formt offioem shonl
be authorised to give the necessary initruotloos and ®dvioc to allr wh
may desire to plant trees on their land, and
under Oovemment auperlntendenoo, wherever *here is a de®®nd
such fonng trees as they can supply. These "hould ^sold to 11
natives at a nominal price j and to further eneoutage tb»m to plan
a reduotiott or esemption from ta»e» for a certain number of y®^® <
the grottod thus plpsted would no doubt induce many of them to plai
Iwt&ae »f Ouit lend. »ud the. greatly ineweee the 1^1 eopply of woe
tot fuel arid the other demanda for various purposes Ih ^be IiwlUy. 1
iS^e districts, wheru the uecemlilesot the c^e <S®®®®^
!^ain extent sbould be oompalsofyo Dnder
and the judicious rimnsgemeat of p;«P«t*y i
officers, local piiwitinijf would prove-hlghly beaefloial *
their comparativelyTlmltad but neceisary
ffssKsrsjawsKiT^^^^
i^Ffrettrjft
!l^ '^1
l!^^> ^1 ^ l^jj" ^ (T 'i^'''!i, 'i,'^ '^'
i;faa^Afcia: ; irtiAii4ti>fc i te
4Hi^'«.iii|^'iRi<i»«HW^^ '4 : . ■■}>"' "-'r..
mm^mmv»0iim9 ss^iiai&i^
’ 4Bi.ft.|u«uw^'K,«iaii.a«iio«iu&'«^^ '
ijk'iioiWii^'«iM){«^ 'w tM«liter '»
■BL UM'-OMbliMl 1 I«Mhb> mi cm “ItoM IMw," Iccltl;
kiwwi, M'‘•^MMMMM^ * tim M» JOnit '*»• *i .!«%> .'WmWc
**<N 9 (i«a. IM M WMlIMtUm It pta^ to fat
oumtMtoi ift I* • fiiitr girimMilillil^fiyiWKrkrM-itbtto^^
HtrtktafM nWHWDpIMnp aftHtti WMki d t ,tnDlltta^'ti‘4*ril>Ti<it
t /I v;? TTI -T f' ' !■» VTTrfHf
U ipp«iM iofoM^ii obtained bf Odtdtt«l Stmr.
Oottttiisitottirof tlMlElMiliMiddbtiiUftHilli, mmt mA
ief«fred» ibl| mioiibt In proouad «( « viUw tIoagfjAitw
towdrdi tli« aotUk-vMli of, iod At A dUUnoo of oboi^ t«o dof«
joortt#y lAAm, Hoogitoto*'* Kooynotn |i tbe ooplttl of a pot^ SbAsl
gfitO; lAtftode gd* ai'c fOOgffttdo 01* atK. It Wourd mm tOere
griOAOdOArtHM of tbo itoAO, bot ibAt tb# tiltAgoif piob up i><aqm
loiiAd looiP OA tho iiirfAoo^ And oh It loOAHy^Hi be^HO oAut^od.
lorbAUo ot fAibor gfiad^tOAOt.
d« tboodgo of tbo hillt tp tbo oottb^weit ot Noogitoia l« About
30 mUoi frbui tbo plaot. and wUhlo 13 mU«i of ibo BvahiiiApiitrAi it
would oppAAr ttuit ifao looilitr wboft tbA oOvOAdttUi it found OAOttOt
bo Hfy fAY front tbo odgo ot tbo bUlA Aud tliAt itr la Obhin A dAy Or
tiro*8)ournAy from tbo rlfOr, for CAiti or lAdon OAioiali. If, thiroloro,
tba atonp ooonrf in Urgo quAntity***# point rAapootiag wkinhno
laformAtlon ia AftilablA—it ia woctk ntiantioii «i>tti|nrotAHyc
Ooroodam ia found in Inrgo qUintlty la'Suutb RatfAli, And boturlth*
eiAoding the lAol IhAt it ia ftioH thao a hundired mU«« Iroo tbe
rAilwAy, oter- a roAd of wldoh tbo Arat Ibtrd it oAoorAbie eten for lodeu
oattio, And ittpaAHblA tot oAtts, the oornAdnin ia enpoirHd toaome
enlAAt Ip MitAApore, ThoKliAal atouf, IbAHfuH, if found ttOar tbe
edge ot tbe pialna, wonid be fArulote advAotAgeoOeiyaitUAHd with
rHpeot to oantAge. Tbe BetfAb dorttndnkn ta a toaghor, leaa eaail^
pelHfiAed atouA tbia tbe Kbatb Wbetbor tbe powder of tbe ietter,
bowerOr, weold do tbe Mine emouat of work an tbet of tbe Beoeb, ia
open, perbnpa, to qoeition. ITe ere Indebted to Coloiiei AbArer tor a
Bpecinhon of tbe ooroodutn lately reoeivAd, weigbing about 20 popnda*
and meaeuripg about 4x7x9 idobea It bad OYldotilly bOpn Iuhh
ad A grind-ateoei
mom iFiNDu.
(A PBOViaiNa PBOgrKQT,)
rnilE ulneral reaourcea of lodia, we are glad to dad, have begun ^ to
X oiaim tbe Atteation whioh they baVe Tong denrved. A ainall
qo«^tltyo! Barrakur pig iron, AS we noticed the other day, baa baoti
deapAtebed to ibe Woolwich Armal to be lefled as to Ita auitabtdty for
ooDverilon Into ateel, and the reauUof the experiAientA will be looked
for with aniiety. Taken In oonluncUon with the fuot of Beogal ooAi
oomlug very largely into urn now, there li a tatare before ua of greet «
protttiae. A correspond lug improvetnent ia the cmdltlon of tbe Bengal '
eotUera baa been notioed, and CentrAl Indlk, frotn all aocounta. la '
eapebtitd to keep paoe wtch tbe progress of Bengal. A million toaa
par apnom is ettlmted to be the out«p«t, rongbly taken, of tbe Bengal
coal nlnn^ Ibuugb a much bighnr flgnre is clafoiod m oettain quardrs.
Tbeir OApsbilittea.'^lbe BfnfMffiAB WfUM, are praotloAlly auJcnown,
otrlbg to tbe outtume being r<q|atided in moat Initnnoes by the
requiiittons mode for thn supply/' Ebpefut as is tbe pfotnre dHtwo
foriis by bo Ineeperieoeed hand, it la a matter for ragrni that tbe allied
iiidiiAbrias of iron emelting and r^uetioa ^Avo not only been failuree,
when uiad. but leave llUlaroom for hope that they will emairge from ^
tbe nheertafoUeawbicb the quea^Lon U benet with. Oar Abglftji ibAu,
for lAvorable reporte from Wool wieb can be wtli undelUHodc-^^ |b« /
oueatUfAdHry teports, under both tbeH beada^ which have! bean botoce
tbe public from Kumaoo. from Wurdab and from BArmbikr, tuivi
bUberto UtrowA hA obill into tbe boeomi of all interoitieQ to
ir(m«^rodM of ^ to mny tostaiiece, aoggested tha yal^dl
trutb that eeiAi indbitHei antong il^ fbf «biabtbe "rn*||ii|>.‘ uf
maobtoery leqajitod, omaot oompstfl^ito: \
our Atuggleb dtoiKWd that dbf tft^'tdl 1>eiuast|arAc^^^ .
oouatry may tottod to tbe
(dglcwieenever to ^ j
the" AXFHA «Dle]D OOMJ^XirY
riwi} 0 ^ |to|»erWlo awthat the A^ba^olAttoii^Any baa ouoe
^ mort;Aftoepecit«f reetiiuin|r opetwioim bit Ito'toNtei^ AlWge-
innotelijiiitobeed tOAi^e #itlr the jforeljfh and Cotoofar Tdbbelffitg
and Pfospecttog Cojitpaoy, Limiled, wbi«b bog ite bead^quarterA in
tjondoa, by which furtlier capftai, to tbe amount of i$3f^00(^ wil^
probahly bo provided, ^be capital of the <|oii]p«Ay be Bxod
at tdre nbmiual nuin of £G0,Q00. iglOjOOO of tbie hae boon annk
ahoady, by the original promotore and eharehoidere. Ai&other
£10,000 will be altoted to tlie Foreign and Colonial Company in
AhareA, on a new ieebe. The remuiniug £3^00 wilt be iHued in
fully paid-np ehares to eundry creditors Of ttm Alpha Company,
who have advaneed money to it. Tlieeuin ot £37,000 is thereCpra
tim amount of oasb upon whiolt the newly-formed Cmupitoy will
prooeed to work. The original ehareholdeip'started the nrine on a
cash capital of someibing like obe-siAth of this amoutil, and
speedily oamo to a atabd for waht of funds. The bondoti Com¬
pany possegees patents, plant, ami machiueryf and a skilled teolinioal
staff and organisation apeclally adapted for the wofkiitg and
development of mtoH.
OBIGIN OF COAL.
T ub Bmt of a aeries of two lectures on the ngture and origin
of coal was lately delivered by ProfeAsor MHJby In the
Indnetriai and TeoUnoJogioal Hueeum. Owing to the uiifaivoor-
able stato uf ibe weather, there was a very small attmtdanoe^
Professor bLCuy oommeneed bis lecture by eaplaiiiCbg that Uie
word coal was more a commercial term than a adsatifie
deiitiitiQm He pointed out that ooal Je undoubtedly of tbgitoble
origin,, sud is luaiuly compu sed of marsh piaoU wlffcb have
undergone a alow decomposition eaohided frotn thf attbAapbore*
He described the ohange which takes place uuder ‘snob 'droemiA-
tanoes, the carbon and hydrogen uniting to form pelroleutn,
parahae.^d the other hydro^earboiis; Instead of being' dlAtoimtoAtod
in the (tiiim of gae, as wlmn vegetable matter Is ^daUdt^oisbd
eap>»sed t6 the atmospiielre. The first prooeae to Uie eiiAtoge from
the growing vegetable tooeal wne tiie formation of peat^ wttiuh
ooutotoed a Moh higher prbportiou of earWn than wpbd f then
lignite, to Whtoh the parceled carbon was atlli Iriifbei. In
oanbel coat Bmro was A^sHUgmtor iwopjoftion of cAibou;^^
followed spitot cosh Ateaiu flfUal, auid Iiouh 'ooaI, In gll ol i^Toli
toe proportion o£ oArbon steadtly tmnwimed IniheiEHnim
ftist ofall was antorselte neah whiob was Aeaffy jpdtb
The tefm bHumonoos cdM ^as a mtotake, there waa' go
inob£» though the matortoianf whtoh bitofiimi ttoitii)i««d wei^^All
to be founA and be hTikl
been gradual dMBed ftoto cOld’By aUbt#fiu|eAn leiAeinn
only the Antoraclte oeah Ptotos&iirr M^Qpy iafaUiMal ^laot
eriasrA^fe&ass^
4<ttu|iiiy ^undt;^vUi^it t^or^ti. to hAV9 ipitiiMm ^
3,773 ii0^ Vhi aew iiipdt l^r Iftiidl^g oot^t^ *t !bilAlt|{[feif^1c1i
im 1^09 ,loll to be « eonmlme hjt tbe gsaraene to ivbiob
Di]klwiu4sb wwJo^oijI^
already ataM l^ reftditMiM deolm Dhftneyriiavkh'e^o a lege)
pimrot 4eb«itiati<m, lo»y»e biaefti oi. iba pUntwa to Nortlb
LaklitoipoveiJBaeoott aa^eMuable aooomokodaitoa ie provided by
tboaeetoo ^aieb to inaka ate of the dopdt lodp tbe eooUes ^Uo voatd
landitoew
IWTJSiRli mm iiiW
W g!m^\ fO«kl0j»e«i pm&^4 m to/^HfiUtoPgotoebt,
ao A^a bl
tilt profttbi laj^l ^/,ir#a Ip ba
nm^ ^beae
fre^uaatly pxoaad 200 per
tot mtodaQl tooeeadTeistorotto individtlida mho, tbfMt
tbebt vm^f it is not to be wondered tMgnmd ideia im» to
expetditoro sbonld baTO dominated in tHt ootmeitsol toe pro*
motera* Managers were sent to to« tea dktriots^ to, oommenee
on salaries wbiob would now be oonsldered Itberid fm a man of
ten or pte,en jreara* experieneo^ This euioidel polioy oontoiued
till toe ooliapse of 1864, immediately pneoediog wbicb Ibis
I'Blfi reports from toe vSrtoas tea districts We very diaooiiragi»|,
and it is muob festod ibat too outturn will bo oonsldetabfy under
esUmates. Tbe weatoer ie toe cause. Thoearijr portion of spring
uras cold and dry, and then toe rain came moob more liberally
than was deakable* .
Ww obsCrre ptioes are not at ail wbat tUoy ongUt to be. Usually
by toe monto of August, toe prices obtained in Otosutta am better
tbmi those of earlier date, but it is not so this seasoQt Where the
rate ia keeping unusuaUy loer* PdubtUas this is to a large' extent
owing to toe immenae (piantities of cheap and Inferior teas which
ate reaobtogX^ondou from Oblua, for, it must be confessed, that
the BriUab public do not yet appreciate a reatly good tan^ba great
guide, in the majority of oaseiik, being cheapness. This is, however,
0 temporary obstacle to toe introduction of Indiag tea to JSuglaud.
The China growera cannot longoontinae tooir present losing game,
audit must be brought to a oloae very speedily.
extraviigance reached its olimax. Menace wore, as a rule,
paid four and five hundred a month; asslstante commenoed at
two huudrM and twQ*hundred and 3% ; and euperintendents,
of whom almost all companies had one, drew one toonsond
and upwards, with traveUiiig expenses, dec., paid* Tea seed was
purchased at famine ptioos, toeoommoneat Oiiinaoommefadtog
Rs. 100 to 150 per maund, and hybrid and indigenous fetcl^ip
Rs# 210 per maund^ Of course nothing could ataod si^ifdt
recklessness, and the almost total ooliapse nf tea tWas toe
result At toe same time Limited'’ oompaniei were rising np
in England, and to India, and were bnyiug up totont gardensi
conaistiug for the,most part of extensive greats of waetelaud,
with a nursery of doubtful value, and a few straggling tea
bashes planted put, and dignided by being said to be ** under
plant.’* These plants were put out at respeotftole disthnceib
Wa observe a firm in Iiondon advertises tea for three ehlUinge
per pound duty paid, Wtdehthey oharaoterise as the finest **the
world prodnees." This will be newa The same paper which
oouttoae the above^ also has a note of an auction tea sale at
which tea ie eold at four ehllllUge per lb* to bond. Coffee does not
seem to advance as tea does. Is it because of^ver produotiou, or
bcoanee toe mess of the people do not prefer it to other beverages ?
Wa,ara afraid the latter ia tlie cause of the deoadence, as aUhougU
the quantity prodnoed aesms steadily to increase, toat inomase
seetktsenJy to about keep pace with the normal iucreaie of the
popototom.
The limrease |>ecbeidoftWqnanti^ ocneumed does not seem .
to itwteesemtwli; nay, to acme oouatries’tois ^ seems to be going
back,"^^ Urnm Brltalfl'is an iosunce of thelatter^
Wx rdpbhUto from too CoMtof Iftril, a full report of a public
mseii^ held to tlt^ ioteresis of the proposed Indian Tea Plswtsrs*
Assepiefi^, toe h^ad«uw^ which will be to London. The
mse^ipgt.irom every polui of vlpw, a very ^euooessfdl one,
ai^R^j^poceedlW.werejtoarao^ an amount of unanimity
wht^ promtom well fiw tl^i fcti^ of ,the ton fd^tlag intereat to
ledt^, 'fiudb;an es|eulatlnn ,08 that W^toh has been formed can
e#wColitos*.W indicated, and it will mvB
tnaterto}^ ta^bep^ ^the pUntiiig iafid oomtawolal Intereets of
India./" ^ V - . _ " ^ ^
Tlfksaibtto'beii^^ lavo#ab^ reported on from Engtond,
we 4 pifMim fit. Wyneed;Jar^ trer^ gM tokbeu^ thdt they mto
A‘cni|#pe*dei«
by'
jmolt pedpte to ba euperior to tosi bbtotoed Horn China, doia boi
and wUhont any parUonlar regard as to future suoeeea,, the
grand object being preaent profit. These properties, were
bought up at enormous pricey varying from im to one hundred
times their value; but what of that? The two hundred per
cent, profit would soon make toat all right.
This colli^me over, companies set themselves to find out
how a saving could be effected in any and every possible
way,«-4ho mirage of toe two hundred per cent* having now
vanished,-^-varioue plana were adopted, and the vesalt has been
to a certain extent suceessfnL Expensee in the gai^den are
now muoh less than formerly, those at the agents^ office have
not been correspondingly cut down, and although toe
oxpeodittwe is now much less than Itus^.to he, it !S not so
low as it ought to be, or as the necessities of the industry
demand* These various sources of ekpsnse are the principal
drawbacks which are keeping profits low, and into these, and
any others that may present themselves, we now purpose
iooking.
The first is the expense of Ehfopoau mani^eihetit;
This we hold to be illusory, in fact, we look li as, a
Souroeof profit, A eorrespondeoce has lately been geing
on in toe Oatoutta^ daily papers on this pointy and as usual,
vaiiofiB views af^^ entertained, some affirming toat Euro*
peafi mausgsmW Wdicapa tea as oomparSd with the Ohtoese
custom ; toto %e/hotd to be Wrong, and'we would strongly
teemamea^ who. thi^k vSo>^ to try a cheap Bengalee
kiafifigdri liNT tov^^ year#.* VTe imagine he would,
ere toat ppidod toad< been reached, have reverted to his
JKitltr9p64n iik4kiogw«]|V Bf* 400 « |tfrg«
imm ia tiie moalbl/ ^ay ah com|>are<l ^itb aa edo^oal^
satlta *0 paji mj 100^ but vhat of tbd ihe Eiirpt
pdait eilaeti fa a^kundred didereni wa/j| wkick trill at tm'ae
ocdar id sa^^aoidas miada^ and aeed m>i ba m<m parileularl/
noilead kera, tra may ilierafora dtamisa tkla ao-aalled dxaw^
badk.
Wa will now look into ihe sabjeot of Oalentia expeneesi^
imd fhiiihead may be dirided into eereral items* We will take
them np BBriatim*
JHrBdorit* Feei<*-This Item we hold as entirely nnnoeeesary,
on the gmpden there is the European manager, who U or
OQght to be tmeted, and left Very much to the exeroiee of
hie own discretion, entirely so as regards garden and factory
details, while in Oaloatta-<Wr X^ndon—are the managing
agente or secretaries, who should attend to all financial and
oommerolal details* If the directors are necessary, then the
managing agents are not, and vtc# versa. To a certain extent
wo hold that neither are necessary; however, we are now
looking at the Hem of directors' fees* If the agents are able
to look after the company's interests ; what is the use of
directors ? If they are not able, for what are they paid so
highly ? It may be said that the directors are appointed by
the shareholders, to attend to their interests. This implies
either that the agents are not to be trnsted, or are incapable
of attending to Uie shareholders’ interests ; in either case we
ask why we have agente ? Doubtless an agent of some sort
ought CO be appointed, and he should be such an agent as
would make the oifioe of director a smeenre. We shall ou-
f^nire into this in our next number when wo go farther into
the subject. The director costs the company a large sum of
money. In a daily contemporary, a letter appeared last month
staling that it was enstomary at a directors* meeting for tho
directors present to toss for an absent brother’s foe. We are
unwilling to believe this, while we hold that directors entail
unneooseary expense on a company, we have not abandoned
our belief that they ate gentlemen. In the report of a
Limited Oo. lying before ns, and whose olfioe is in London,
we find the sum of about £600 charged as directors* fees. Now
from the report, we find that there are fire directors, including
the chairman, and each man, therefore, drew from the company i
ihe sum of £120, which, bad it been remitted to Iad'% at
la. fid. per rupee, would have yielded H». 1,440, almost sufficient
to pay an assistant’s salary ; and what bonolit did this direction
confer on the company compared with what would have been
derived from the services of ati extra assistant. We will look
at H from two other points of view. This sum of £600 was
equal to on absorption of *731 or neatly three-quarters per
cent, on the capital of the company. Will any one assert that
the advice of these five men who were most probably ignorant
of tea practically, was necessary for ihe company’s welfare,
PERSONAL SUPERVISION NECESSARY.
I K reply to Ax xxTBaasTSD P4pTY in yoat'e of Aeguit, •« to what
tea will do on the Kellgherriee; whilst I agree withyoai that lower
elevations may gHa }aich,er ploktofs, they will eecare mors fever and
mlitry. with inoapaoity fo* efficient npervlefon.
A ehort time ago I was .cry much etraefc with an advertiiament
ofieriog an eetata for tale, promiiitig the buyer 20 or 30 per eeiit.if
be managed the property hlmeelf, Ko mention wa« made as to the
praoUoal quaUfieatlone ot the bnr«r ae a planter. ReildmiCe was
inateted on as the oondUlon neoeisary.
Whilst on the hills* within the Iasi twelve months, an^ iivltig In a
aovernment teet-boiue not 20 miles ftom Ooty, two trayeltera
arrived and oooopied an adjoining room, la the partition wall them
was a thin doof with Venetians. Sir, Alpha oomtneuced the oonveria*
(ion in a load Ibhe, uwilng on Mr. Omega the advantages of par*
Chasing a eharedf an estate wttA tJus A very f|foarah!o
report Ws» «lvsn td |fr. Omega of the vatioaa adipaiffrey^^iiiihh a
position oflersd. Thnt fsnllsmaa sxeused himself by i^^atlnk some
:irfhiidfsniiwtanoeaiwi4thalmpfttdh^ Inveiifii^ mtjf al
,prs|Mnt; Up Alpkn'then JofW^'hblVtlfte f|Na^ m
passed ** coolHii’' *nilafsfcrW ^ wl^
gwatadvatftegestobegalnsd throiwb ihsasdribils fJeW'
of thess detaiJed advantages, Itfr, Osiipra hroks info a load laQgjS,^ hnd
very mneh to bis credit, as far as 1 ja^nlid jpiliier,1i« dsdlored he weald
have nothing to do wHh i^b practiees. Url Alpha bad eS^Intly
mUjndged his man, and exmued hkasell 'hy dec^arliiig' It Was the ocfti*
moh praet{ee,sanotioiiSd by euslom,and, Hfeet, that; they sB MSA
The impreisloa left on my Aihd was, that Ihe cheek eolt sW4
to malslriea were the two meimi by which ed^antagee jsoild hi galehd
soffielent tw reoommsad the investment* 'Tbf tfaiekeis; kav^ig
finished their bottle ot beer rode away, one towards Oetj,, the Other
fo an opposite direetion, leavingmsto phlMphtsa on thpi ds lA**
1 quite believe they do; not aff de If. Bat it ie enough Se neem^t Iqr
tea ii{ieaZn»iyrpayinyt If any ds it. Many yeare agO I ri^emb^ 0^
ex^offioer from the Bombay fide being pot iaehhr^ ofa ^ofif sSlille
in Ceylon, In a moet marvelloes way be never hhd ah abinaf om^y,
All the men on the roll turned oat daily, thrOafli ei^ •oeOesdlttg
month. This estate did not pay. ‘ ,
Tea on the Keilgherries is very mnoh like all other phtinlig; GfoU
and ellmate must be backed by an active Intelligent supervision, with
honesty of purpose and some practloal expertenoe, I dh not know
any puisnUl Should enjoy more than tea and tinohona planliog on
the Keilgherries; but h like mSny others, am a slave to oironontoness.
The climate is nearly perfeot. There is hisalthy ooeopaiton for evSry
hour of the day. a good appetite, aitd sound rest at night. Thai lea
and cinchona will pay handsomely oh the Heltgberries I have no
mooner of doubt, if the matter know* what to do, and does It.
A hint as to my own lata experience there may be of service to
An imraaiDSTnD Pabty. 1 bought land that was well adapted to my
purpose. The soil was all there; an analytical chemist had reported
well on similar soil. The only question with me was, whether it was
not what agricuUarfsts call 'MoaC’’—that is, having all the powers
necetsary for plant food, but in a latent state, reqniHog good honest«
working, with a dash of lime or suipbate of ammonlA As soon as I
had purchased the land, I set to work for a practical test. 1 Zuul
eight pits dng, 18 inches by 18 Inches, and the soil wall pulverbed.
1 looked to this myself, but I had to leave before 1 could get tho
eight tea plants from a neighbour. Tbe^" taking op the plants
and the planting 1 intrusted to the party in charge. X gavo
the most o^oto directions as to takiog them up carefully, and
to be sursiPbat the top roots ehould nob be injur^, or tnrned In
the planting. In due eouree the work was done, and reported
as done aooording Sb my orders. Some four months after, I visited
the estate, and found the plants looking healthy j bat as if they
would be the better for a more generous diet. With' a sharp polo ted
stick, I worked in a bandfolly ot spoataneously slaked lime round
each plant. 1 watohed the reealt for a month j the plants made leaf,
but not vigorously. 1 obtamed reports from the suparlntendeut tn
charge some 3 months later on; they were not what I bad a right to
oxpeot, BO 1 ordered two plants to be taken up oatefally and sent to
ino by the quickest route. X was prepared with mierosoope and such
other means as X bad at my disposal to examine each plant minutely,
but as soon as the pareel was open, *' the eat was out of the bag.” The
top root of the largest plant, Inches above ground, was broken
clean off, and barely had 7 inches below the soil. The top roCt of the
smaller plant, 22^ inchea above gound, bad also been broken off and
turned round at the extremity, giving in all 4^ Inohes below the soil*
Under sueh oirourastanoes, the wonder Is that the plants etrugglad on
for 8 or 9 months, making growth and leaf as well as they did. In
thou ^nds of such oases, climate, soil, and manure are onjusily jklamed*
One might as wall amputate babies legs at their knee-joints, afifi out
away half their etomaohs, and then wonder that they do not thrive. My
Imprission Is that one-halt the oofiee and tea estates are mined at ihe
onset by iujury to the top roots, and slovenly planting* On young
estates, mb proprietors dig up oarefully on each visit a doaen plants
oat of each newly*planted plot and test matters tor ihsmielvei. With
a reservs of young plants la baskets to fin up snoh vaoanoieiy no Injury
would be done to ijbe estate, and the supurinfeodenl would Isntn that
the proprietor, though an absentee, can get at facte.
My oandid advioe to Ax nttfi^Tgo BAiTT Is tn to his nsfate
if be can reside on it. Xf h«' oann&lk bp most be golfed by iMroiim*
Stan^, and the sort of man to oin gslfto take his piece;
TutteoriOf AfigtotU^^* ^
Wa rcceifed the atovi uoMml^Uon from to estssmsd UQMisptodsnA
aud dcidiatly' OoMstoadll^ adyies to pisuterscllsm ototo towtonai**
m, /. A* . , , / ^ V'
v, ■ ;■
^ ' i ^ l ijili iii i i i i if i Ijttyi ' Cf ' ^ '■ ' ' ! ' '' y '
' tg', 'fi^; ‘While
; ^ iaii^^ ii^]^r^«ii in tnaia and »ro Jrlsilljr Viluahle aod
\ would eecm that there" Itro Wa»y evlle to he Roi
ii4 opfi^ jod^ takes its proper pWo in .the ehere list. The
. felte'^eetbg o{p» Cejrlon Coflapa^> Iid;^a gWpg iostence,
., ^^h in this ease, co^Eee is eoi, so la^h tohle^ Os sogsr.
. '! PBOSPIOXS OF OEfLO? OOJ’FE®*
: ,s = -M • . , , , ; ,
jrjIEf lolkwiog retaiirksithtQh eppesr in a teoeai aeiaher oC the Pall
^ Jh ie|aUe« lO the ootfee Mnitrjrjia OeiioAi erlU iet«re«t
whOshrai^ittOMlI '*th«l eoSee enterprise in Ceylon
10 sidte and lehhd as any agrlonltncai enterprife Otn be, no merohaut
^KtOtantbOof saperieoeecili doubt, ] adnitt that Ot late years our
nre^faaTe heed freatly redaoed, and no doubt leat dlseafe has done its
dktte to bring ibont this state ottbinga bntsot leaf disease alone,
Abno^xaal seasons and isstiioted outtieaUon^ or, in many easst^ tbo
ebsenea ol any onlttvatien hare oontribated. The last will bring
dleastar under any eojudition of the seaBons-'I^ disease or no leaf
disease t and so it has been with all or nearly au upon whom disaster
has faUen In Ceylon.' Xhase for nearly twenty years* bad tbe control
ol a large number ol estates, and am stUl a pApiletor ol qpwards q( a
Ibaosand acres ol ooiIee> and 1 hays nersi known a properly managed
property. weA oattlyated, bring disaster to Its owner, On the contrary,
I know that no better or safer Investments can be entered into. Let
ms give yon the result in actual figures ol the working ol an estate
which has come under my knowledge within the last four years. The
property in question oonsists of 600 sores ol oofiee, and 100 acres, of
atase. supporting about 200 head ol cattle, ail lor manuring purpose.
SL, _AOtig w^ima l»% /*tAl#innthrh wiiswlpml^ MsmKA iUd,iA.A
•n expeuditurd of £7i75d; tqtal 62/220 busbola on an expqndifcQra ol
A2L2B9. The average value per bushel in Colombo was 2U, equal to
£66.320, or a gross profit ol £44,000 on 600 acres in three years. Ttie
only deduction to be made Irom this would be interest on stie capital
invsated*»s»yt £46,000, at which price 1 believe the property was
offered lor sale in ISffi. These results were obtained elmpiy by good
uanaaemont and ouUivatioo. The property Is not what a planter
would describe as a first'Olasa estate, andit hue no adyautagcs either
SB regards soiltdistrlet, or climate i iudeed, 1 know s ouftsi of estates
more lavoured in every respect, and Irom whloh «quii|||||ood, if not,,
better, resalta might be obtained niuler eiinilar treatngiffr Let this
caamploBafSoo for the present. What Ceylon wants is money at a
reasonable rate ol interest, an extension oC th<f present raltways by
which planters could procure levtilisiog manures at a moderate rate ol
transport, and these ubtaiued, you would bear no more of dissslers
among coffee proprietors. The cost ol transport fur arlifiuiat manures,
such as bone dost, say seventy miles by tail and lUlrry tiy road, is at
present about £4 lOf. per too, or about five times as much as Its ireigUt
irom Autstralisi say 4,000 miles.**-Cbyion Tmet,
THE WANTS OP THE WYNAAD.
T EQ letter Irom the Honorary Secretary of the Wyusad rianiorB*
Association to the Gorernment ol India, must bo regarded in the
Itghtof an indictment Bgalust the local Guvemmeat. It is diifieult to
ondexktand why the Madras Government should volutitarily lay itscll
open to the serioils charges which are made in this lettor. Ooffee is
grown almbst enoluslvely in this Presidency, and the value ol the
enpott of the ariiele in the five years ended 1H77*B, as given in
Mr, O’Oottnor's review of the Trade of India, is as follows
« Years, Cwts. Rs.
1073-4 ... 364,420 ... 1,1!),14,109
ld74-6 ... 311,831 ... 1,80,53.346
1875-6, ... 871,986 1,62.70,267
1876-7 ... 302,460 ... 1,84,66,217
1677.8 ... 397,327 ... 1,38,84,992
' la the W!^lad alone the area of coffee exceeds 45,000 acres;
100 , 0 ^ iabonrersare employed in its eaUivatiun; and the value of the
ptodnoe exoasds £1,000,600. Barely these facts are very significant of
theimpoytance of eoffea-bnltivation in connection with the develop¬
ment of fheteiohri^es bithe ^rssideuoy, and fhe welfare of Us iuhahltaots.
lAlitbtt lM^dinMtnfltbatlnaddt^ont^^ the Wynaad, there are Urge
gr^ ^ laniLetaiW almdy^|lla:nmdorava|Uhleforooffe^^ in Mysore,
Oo<wg,Travanedre, 4 ndn,ntha 8 ki»aroyand Annamatly Hilla; and that
gftiy a babiloq Of fbe land that will probably piove suitable ll^^r uoffae,
teg, and nUbhnha cultivation h 6 S^ m 7 sf» been taken up by plauters. We
mar then form some hiea nf^, ,4he proportmus which the planting
htdi^etiMte Bhttthem itvdU ^y , A ami Ka(iv«
udminiatifailoda' viUdAqjy %60 Pf the cimouiagwmeut of pjamei-
h«reasuidonuin0a|K Iw SWdWhrhf eUrnaie and soil la the
blil jistrictf of BeMkrib be espeoied, very like what
they are in Ceyle^'anl |lileiKi 6 iwiw no nm reeetm m i^ffea*^^}feg ^
should not he oarrie^ on M ignoilfuAy had ettenslvnly with as U U
In the fUltU island dn, the Mde of Padml^ 0hannel, JBEasU
n«ry« oocorred. to tht MihtfWBwobfc ttmt* with A enehnfaf e-
meat tfr Kuropeaa ciiptWsISi,inports of tea a«d e^ee mt^t be
increased lo many milHi^ne lU^tnifi white ten Mmet the of
coolies %ho now make thell nurW the Wynaad might find ninfitible
employment tot their Ubauf.^ .there is no man who utMtoUnds
anything about the capabiUMes of ouc hill dUtriots who will not
sav that there to room fhr an ahormous development of tea and
coffee cultivation. The planting industry If, In fact, as yet only iu
ite inlaooy. It has not grown so rapidly as ft would have done,
bsoause the plauters have had diffUnlitot to contend with which tho
Govetomeat should have made It thelf busioess to remove, If the
Government are persuaded that it to a good tlfing for the country
geuerally to have the hill districts opened Up by Kojfopeau oanttaltots,
then stvps should have been taken to give the capitaiiito faciiltles. lor
buying Of leasing laud, for obtaiolnu lahonr, and for oarrying the
produce of the laud to market, Under ordinary olrenmstanoes, a
prndent laudlord will never hesltote to aid a teuant who nadeitakes to
improve an estate, and, as a matter ol fact, this to the posittdh^ which
many ol the planters occupy in regard to the Government. The Madras
Govorniseut, however, on their part, have never yet recognised the
fact, that ooffae planting to a benefit to the country, or that the ptanters
ought to be eooouraged as teuanis wbo are adding permanent improve-
mcnls to the national estate, ^
The ohlel difilcaity onr plauters have had to conftehd with Is In
controlling their labour, lu Oeylca, whioh has been sOflIelently &mmM
in developing ooffea cultivation to watrjaut ns in taking a leaf from
her book, the Government somu years ago passed a Labour Ordtaance
by which all the relations between the planter sad his oooUes wsre
regulated accordiug to law. By all aeoonnts the Ordinance bM worked
very wall. I 4 the labour had been badly treated under this Ordinance,
we should have heard of it long ago, as the labour lu Ceylon to drawu
from our Tamil districts. The Ordinance has stood the test of expe-
rieuce, and the fact remains that the Ceylon planters find no dilBoalty
lu drawing ail the aecesiary suppllea of labour from Boutbern India.
This fact Is oonolosivo as to the eucoesslui working ol the Labour Ordi-
nance. It to simply amaslng, with this fact before them, that the Madras
Government has gone on year after year perelstentty refusing to pase
a similar Ordluanee for the benefit of the planters in the Wynaad,
For twenty-five years have the planters been urging on sucoesaive Madras
Governments *'ibe varlona disadvantages under which they have
laboured in the absence ol efficiCDt law controlling the relations be¬
tween planters and tho labourers they employed,*’ ** Oar coolies run
aw ay cry the planters. " Ah, yon don't give them wages eoQUgh,"
answer the Madras Goveenmeut, <♦ Bat they have run away with our
advauoes," return the plauters. " Oateh theih and we will pnoisli
them," reply the Government, knowing full well that tho deiluqaents
have disappeared over the Mysore border, This to no exaggoratbu
ol tho kind ol argumeuts that have been used by the plautoTS and
Govomment for the last qnarterol A century. Oaly quite teoantly wc
heard of a member ol Council shewing the Wynaad dlfilonlty by
arguing that it was a question of climate and wages. ‘ Tho climate is
dtoiMtftal to impofted labour : therefore yon must offer greater
ittdupemenii. You must manage to make your terms on the whole
more attractive than CeylcQ or Mauritius.' The planters reply to this
spsuioes arguosenr, to that lb is not the wage whioh to the oause of iUo
dlfficotty, but the want of a legal gaareutee that the labouror will
perloim his part of the contraet Burely the time has arrived when
the domaoda put forward by the planters should reeelve Serious
Qousideratiou. The mistake the Madras Government have made from
the begiuniog is in ignoring the results of the working of Labour
Ordluauoea in Ceylon and Mauritius, where, in both instances. It is tbn
Tamil labuacecs who arc brought under the infiuenoe of thessL laws, Jf
EamSBawaiy has no objootiou to be hound by the provisions Or a epcoial
labour law lo Ceylon and Mauritius, why should he do so in the Madras
Presidency 7 11 the Madras Goverumeut am so squeamish about tn-
fringipg free trade priecfples, it is hardly couHlStout Jo them to allow
so many thousands ol labourers to leave the shores of this Presidency
every year to (ahoar (u dtotant eoautrics, where Uie relations hetweeo
master and servant are regulated by law. The mere fact that it has
been found advantageous iu Ceylon aud MaucUius to tnUeduee Labour
Oedinanoes, should go far to couviueo the Madras Government of the
ueoejsdy ol suoh au Ordioance in territory uudor their owe jurlsdictioa,
Iliid the Ordinance failed m O^ylou, there would be some reason in
seaiatvug lu mtrodoctiou here. Bat when we find, asi we oerlaiuly do,
the Ordinance working lo the advantage of, not only the planters, bu
ol the Governmoot and the labourers tbemNelvea, it to simply abauro
to brlttg forward the old argutneuts against tt whioh ore disareditei
by facta that are patent to everybody. II the Madras Govornmeu
would only inquire carefully lubo the causes of Ceylon's prosperity, thej
would learn a lesBoa iu the admiuistratlonof the plautlug districts o
Boutbern India, whioh might in a few years prove of eaormous betied
te the country. Mr. Logan, the Collector of Malabar, seems to have tb
ouufideuoc o£ lbs planters, and to Uuderstnud their requireineutB. MThj
not let Mr. l>>gan then bs commissioned to go over to Ceylon, an<
aaocrtaiu what features In the Ceylon system of admintstratiou oouli
he applied with advautage to the planUng districts iu this Presidency
The Madras Qurerament could not possibly go wrong it they too
steps to eosura the same degree of prospeiUy for the piantlQ
iiidusities iu Southern India that hat s'rcady been obtained in Ceytou.
II wo wanted aoy lurtber instauoa of the eharactertotio iudiffereuq
of the Goverumeut io the egieMsion of coffee ouUivatiaa, it would l
fou rid In that portion of the Assoctottou's totter which refers to tt
appitcatioh of the Coffee Sicahng Act of 1876. We do not know wh
to reepottsible.lhr (he limitation of the Act to Wynaad itself ; hut tii
obvioue remark in Mr. Youge’s letter that" every dishouest de^er Uv
beeu emboldeiM^ by Mm loot that he to free to operate on the ooffeo a
sgop enH W« pgsMm 3 he ridge of the ghauts," is not very compUmeator
to the ItttoUlge^ Of our wgtoiatota } uoc does it say much lor thel
scrutiny of tM Act while it was pasBiug through tho Logislatli
Mgffrwe ATwiL
ITIhB plaittfrt of ilia lui’iira i frWatiaa wM' 0i^ Kara
^ laid baforo Iba ^oranifiiattt ol India, ia a alaitittaiil i3ia^ • b/
iba Honaraiy SaoMiary ai ilmlr Aaiooiatlon, ilv-Htaii iir au<^ a
manly Anj (^ral|^ij!nrnratr4 maenar aa niigbi to aarry aooViaiMi
and claim |ha aUantlon «ud conaidauiiioa of tha Vloupoy
Oonaoll.
For iba laat turanty yaam tha ai^Jeoti ol Ibla memorial bgta
baan Iffonilit to tba notkw of tba bfadroa <lovaramant witiiooft
avail \ tbarefora it ta of neoaatlty aant loTthor, tritU the avowad
totentlon, unlew redraoi la obtidnod, of laying ibe oaao at tba foot :
of tba Tbrona; and ibo jdantora have abown by tba anorgy and |
dogged penlatanay «fUb ^ob tha^ bava tnalntainad tUair oaae, ia i
ftoa of tba rebulEa of Oovarnmant, tba anaara of bangbty offioiala,
an^ otbar obttaelaa to bo ovaroaina, that thay era not the oUaa ol
man to abate one iota of ibafr axertionai irbilat a ainglaohanoe
ramaina onfrlad.
Tba Obffaer indoatiy ww aoaroely known In Sonthorn India five*
and^twenty years ago. Vat at the preaent momant !t axporta
npwarda of one unUion ataxllng^a worth of prodnoa yearly, and tbia |
iaentmetol from land whiob, beforatbia indnatry waa Introdnoad,
waa utterly Worthlaas and nnprofitabla to OdvOmmant, or snob
naiiya proprietor as poaaaeaad ony, waa a hotbed of malarious
fetar, and the abode only of the tiger ani elepUant, and every
daseriplion of bapat of firey.
There ia aearcaly another iaatance ao ramarkabla in which the
emigrant Englishman has shown his Indomitable will to overoomo
digiouHies, unaided by any, or anything but his own determined
strength and oouragei although obstrucm and restricted by the |
Governtnent.
The ooltivation of oofEea commenced before tlia mutiny, and the
settlers ware, therefore, as was usoal in those days, looked upon as
interlopers by the Companyb Civil Servants, and received very
little encouragement when her Majesty the Queen’s rule was
proclaimed. It was naturally expected that the same protection and
^istanoe, as was afforded in other colonies, would .be obtained in
English capital and English example; but the old system
continued to prevail. Why does Government still continue to
pursue a policy so detrimental to its own interests, and to the
interests of the native population ?
It has been admitted by politicians of every denomination, that
three things are neoeseary for India j-^the oironlation of capital,
new industries, and the employment of the popnlation.
The planters have done all this and more; millions of English
capital have been Invested in cultivation ; coffee has become a
greet support to tbe revenue of Madras; and 100,000 natives are
employea in a business which was never thought of before ; and
above All, tbeir example and intercourse with the natives, has
induced them in a great measure to follow the same pursuits, has
enlightened tbeir ideas, and ensured their loyalty and devotion to
the Crown. The planters* greatest difficulty has been the
Irregularity of the labour market, and insuffioienoy of control over
tlioir labourers, and they hbve again and again urged the Madras
Qovornment for ao enactment whiw shall be as beneficial to the
employed as to the employer, but have been again and again
ref lilted; benoe tbe present appeal to tbe Etupreme Government.
Tbe value of this industry will bo seen at a glaiioo, and its
threatened decline, in oonsequence of that want of sympathy and
enoouragemont which is always more or less necessary for the
well-being of every such extended undertaking.
The amount of coffee exported
Us.
In 187B-7a nas B7l,08d ewts. valued at ... i 62,70,207
In 1877-78 207,827 „ ... 1,83,8*.«02
and the area of culUvation is upwards of 45,800 acres. There are
no new openings in prospective; no new-comers; several parties
with tbeir money iu the batik, who were waiting to putohase land
and invest, when Govc^rnmontiball decide on a protective Labour
Aot-*have drawn out t^aeir money and gone to Australia or Hew
SSealand, and one oapitahst, who had wasted two years, loft last
montli in disgust.
Tliere are ten times ilie number of available acres still untouched
and suitable for coffee, tea and QhiQhofta,wltich would be occupied
in a veryfthon tim^if those ready to invest could be brought
to believe in tlie suffioieucy of labour, Which can only be instrred
by the aid of the Government. ‘
Extension of cultivation moans Increase to tbe revenue, which
at tills time is of the utmost importance ; and when that derived
from this source can be easily doubled, the country benefited, and
the poorer daises usefully employed, without any Increased
expenditure to Government, it is reasonable to hope that the
prayer will be granted, and we shall look with much intop^ tor
the answer to the Ftetprs^ Utemorial. ,
' ' ' * ' W,
5' A Abstoaet for toe
of tdt 8^ A berorage increiwto<h fIw
while toe demand tof cbffto
qnauMty of imported tea
TW,92» ewto, while H 1871 ft %W iiehilF^oitW^^toe
ambttnt bdng <!to tot btoer
during the same period tocto owls. «oil8lB,d0Sewfcm^a
condderah^ dtoiianthiia Wheh Inetoaei eddi^ pmlllloA li
taken Into account. Ffor oaw toe dtsteaile be, i^laito i|i4
theory of a larger sAtidnthm^ of bhtooiT, to#
that arUole remained almost as etationavy oh thaV ,ol Mitoe* lift
a ourioOs thing that a beverage which presents so mah^
for the working olassss has. not oome Ipto. i^Mern^ Amfid
stimultnt, a healli^; agenoy, and posseaiing great aoitoilhlnf {K^ji
coffee would seem to be toe very tl^ng fpr
labour tor long hoora in the open air; imt nto, and bn
the aide of tea, Jt appears, as strongly as everi and even the df toff
generation must yield to toeir power, or we shbidd bee iodte
evidence of an inergased consomptlon of coffee oottcorrendy with
the enormous development of tea imports. Perhaps the new
movement fof coffee ^vems may do semethmg in this dkecUen,
by unfolding to the working clasBOB the virtoSs of the berry which
they have so long neglected. Trae,toere have been early coffee
stalls in the* streets for many years past, hot the article vended at
theee establishments is not exactly calculated to create widespread
popularityi The curious decoction may possibly be sustaining and
beaHivifig; so far as thiokoees goes it leaves nothing to be
desirea^ Sni the flavonr is distinctly nanseous, and the sediment
so plcotifnl that, as a Workmim waa once heard to remark,^ one
gets meat and drink at tbe same time.* In former times, it was
not very easy to obtain a good description of berry except at a
high price. Now, however, Ceylon, Oosta Elea, and,to)Otberu
Madras produce very fine qualities, which can be bought at much
lower rates than the So-called < Mcoba,* and are quite, if anj)
inferior to that standard of excellence.*’
aaeaBBBsaaseBB^^ .
DISTRIBUTION OF OUR COFFEE OROF.
prei||^date tbe distribution of our coffee crop stands as
To Uaited Eiagdom
„ Maneilles *.*
Genoa
„ Vrnioe ...
„ Tiieste ... , ^
,, Other Contiueutol Ports
„ MautUias
India and Eastward ...
,. Aoitralia •««
America ...
to Sth August 1870 784,000 40,808 <780,004
—Ceylon T<nie«.
COFFEE IN FIJI.
C IOFFBE planting In Fiji Is now a diflsTent'xneUsr'frota' wkofc it waa
/ whan tbe Ceylon planter bought in Melbounm tor a mofeeettga
large trijst of forest land. Desiring to see his property, he made hti
way to {lydney with the Intention of shipping for Fiji, bat procssded
no .farther, having got an anthenHc aeconnt while ibefp that two
EtticpeauF tiad been eaten On his plMe a short time befoiil Now, shioe
the Gevemmeut his taken^over that groop of Isfatods, life and
^pertyiamofeseoute; an# the presence of several Ceylon piantsrs
has pushed the coffee enterprise to the front. I gift the JoUowing
oBOtatlon from an Interestlag letter jest veoelved here itm Tbe
writer of tbe letter hoi tome nbnildesable i properly In. the
OQobannt, and engar plantatlonarfbnt of htoopffeO 1^0 wrillSt can
retoOB(mIdcwitoilwa^stolti#toM,ftom^^ of
(ct any rise) gtown hi Ff|hiFn el^olffewthasM bwht ffathered
from trees Httiemore toto twA yearly old* ffeveral gentlpmsA Ifctt
btonTaS fw •dd other oof^aeblnstv,
Plantation.
Native.
Total.
... 662,054
8,048
671,602
... 30,870
2,808
18,187
261
^ 600
761
... 4,425
8.106
18.621
... 44.708
t,85l
. 46,554
... 2.872
10,000
3;87a
... 40
80
70
... 1.716
7,78s
0,481
«. 4.564
^008
5,467
... 2,008
0,107
8,290
1878
... 784,000
40,808
780,004
' .,r__■ '■ " ■■
OIJ?dl®NA.,
' ^OtlKb fcj #» 1BWW> *^*
/otttU>'
iS!h»Tta«tt w •«
ISSS;iH!SiUtoWT@ "”•
m wvfwvw
liiaent mud
B^^'t i)k •
COFf BTS IN brazil.
ssB4rsSf-SS
From ifa»t 4ato to tho P^‘ ^e jmy grMt.betweoo
article batl^o the flaetoeMo^ f^ ti y Akplained. There are,
one crop and another, *"*1,*^^. *” i?it„ MtalUation and etema*
doabtleea, varione oaueee *«* ‘'"* f,“'|g*t,,| quootiOo. The
tioo,batthe mimarjr oanee ot all Is ^
halt followed ImmedUtely on the •“""" jj* wm achieved,
of forced labour. ««<»“ ‘ Twir^ld w snbstita^
That jsreat toroa having been dw^Wd w»w. MluCion of the
year*, vra« •« foUo wa ;-^ -P-—
' '■ iV i ^ ^ M , „ e, I h i l l' 11 ^ ’ . . ..
ikottgU hr »o mpm ttm X for th® yeat 1878 9 waapr»^oJ«i^ity .5?*"%
Year.
1832 .
1832 -
1884
1888
188«
1387
1388
1338
184ft
isa
m2
1M48
1344
1H5
1846
1647
BagM.
Year.
683,816
887,185
666.462
723,6^2
869,766
748*183
936,66)
)^083t680
1,607,941
1,383,892
1410,964
1,436,926
l,^09>i7
Y,849,882
^009,848
1848 .
1849 e
1860 t
1S51 ,
1883 .
1868 e
1864 .
1856 .
1866 .
1867 .
1858 ,
1869 .
1860 .
1881
1863 «
Bags*
3,098,866
1,786,744
1,644,648
3,498,995
2,888,889
3,006,441
3,484,084
3,868,107
2,S7U,U16
3570,480
3.230,769
3,485,884
8,825,167
2,688,684
Year.
1863 .<
1864 M
1866
1866 .<
1867 .
1868 .
1869 ,
1870 .
1871 .
I87i ,
1878 ,
1874
1876
1876
1877
1,653.359
1,811,923
8,197,464
2,868,635
8,266,989
2,772,929
8,189,789
2,704,742
2 . 881,626
2.460,851
2,433,7*19
2.678,281
8,152.296
2,766,922
3,845,U4
* for til. year W78-» «** pn^o»|ip«y
menu of thelebrifaBofaelory.Wd WonptedtoSaMeJ
owhirto the drjnew of iU eeaWB, »« <»«»•
eatenelone, only 181 »rt» having heimi pitted out. The
of plant, iow in bearing «r41.736,»B6. fith *
'til aat thl. new tad.etry t. an •“’Th.ZnS
tea in earllet days. ., y,, „„ 1878.79 ie #Ieo
The Government QuinolM St srepOTtoip^y^ ^ qoantiw
to hsof “o'^e of &irt of tl» l^viwf y«K. Tbit
made being l.Wo‘««- ^ by a steadily inwnfaelM
incieese of », hvwevor, one or two things in
.ale of the febrifuge, mw a», o»** ^ the
the report to whlob aotual i»»t to Government; this
yarns of ibebarkledeb.t^ tufowerLTot Is oonoemed, but it
may be ell right so fin ji.jayM,i.oa. The nett oo,t of the
planes tbo pftotatinn at a dwadwtag , n, j^blUd to
fcark need wa»E»..0 8-119j^ JV“»wvu ggg iaoibi., the
U.eoo«t of^maknig. 17ie quwiny
value of nt til p 26916-8*4 The total cost vras
chargee of^^manafactnnn^ w„ 7,007 lb. the
therefore Es. 76,^9-W 11. 5’owhad this bark been sold fn
ooet per lb. Was p. 10-14.7^8. How mu v ^
the usual way, It would 1 '^^”249, with exchange at l-8d.«
Bocottut. Let os see how this irculd show. , ,
•••
T tftl ifc .e •“ *" ^
u ija nfl r».7'746 At tbifl rftt® it cftttld not W4U b®
and if. aJ is by aom® who
Bold »ma®r Be. 6 pw 0 , to bar® lb® aam® ®»
U it Cild L Inclined to doubt tho economy
wilphate Of *» 1 would doubt ellll more strongly
Bupposed.to follow Its o.e, a oontiouing its manufsotora If
the i>roprjety of tho «ov® . u j- ^ cheap rat® wlioro
it be we can understand the proems, as a q“e"«on
fevora are ^.Q-Pcial traoaaotion, it would imdoubtedly
?.r;a .Wp- »..
ia tho usual way. ....
* 1 I inaf lUa Madras government forwarded to tU®
1« fur India forty-five samples of beik grown on
Secretary of “tat® t r ^ j haviug them analysed to see
th® NeliKhernea, ta The analyst’s report is to bandf and
which gave *i varieties are apparently not worill
i8 vory%:tha«fltjve in
SSl«ri.o^ootsUs...togrow„tbe outturn
from them being aa follows,
A NEW COFFEE ADUIiTEIIAHT.
T® ^ otwHvatlons were made on a new metUod of
of data atonae» whlob, afK* ^
“ f^****"" «f ««•••• wwM, when mixed
growrfSlidMm eimli iw geeJysHMiconittnmr. loformaMon
auttwrittea atBomenet House from
reoeiy^d bylwWww w ,<)isoaverf and
»* »t“ “
Quimne «.
<lttHDiidittO, •••
CiftChonidmo
Oiucfaonluo.. -
Amorphotto AUcalom ...
Total
C\ Calmya
per ceut,
4‘92
,4, see
... 1*66
... *62
*70
MS
7‘80
0, 4M9ttsW^*
por oeat
4-86
‘17
1*88
•24
•»ft
7‘47
Tb«a are «rtaiuly tb^
they serve to indicate what m y . , provided thoit)
XrT^ono London* b,’u.., M^^^^
year. Ve P*"*! „oS a^t roalised was
, StS
stood at, l-llj** io'^.drM. the difference being
Ss 66.768-8-1 ««lw Vrsimtted to fl«ame,‘“» “
gain ^ exelieibge, j“'“?ji!f?*iv55mnt"^lo Ibe Govoruuient in
«seaa«'S£si,'5AWA'
. , ^:/ ,7;,.- , ' .. :
WT® titit iQbitoo mumijfftottufe lit ijot 'Iflih^'iiii
T T i^t l>oyond the etagh 9i exp^rW«iit; hut
Beggf Buib^lkid $»4 Company are p0mr$rUg with ilie eatoipi^iK^
ieria^ BufSeieatlyenootire^hgk t*rom^ aom
l50,OOOibe* ot tobaeoo^loaf were realised^ sauplee ot wUidh wtoe
shipped to Euglaad, and realised fair pHo6a.««irjriw.
HOEING TOBACCO.
TJOEtNa tobaeco, by some gtowere, is a very slow and tedious
•*”*» work It ebould be done very rapidly. I can aee no reason
why It ie oeoessary toont andoiean away all soil that ie in contact
with the plant to the depth of from one*half to an inch, and then
pulling up now and fresh eoil around the plant. Many f annore do
this always, f*. it because they mippose that the displaced soil has
become exhausted? Ko experienced person can think so for a
mom«ni. WUy, Aw, do tboy ponlat wems to mo)
foolwh operation ? Is it beoause the earth has become crusted and
throwing a amall portion
of fresh ea|^ uptm the surface of the hill havo the same oJIeot, and
Without injury to the plant ?
I am of the opinion that this deep cutting with the hoe near the
plant JO all wrong ; m common or ordinary soils, the soil is loose
enough to admit the air and heat of the sou. What more is wanting ?
1 think it is well to hoe tobacco as aoon as it is evident that the
roots have secured a foothold, and the plant shows a t^udenoy to
grow a llttie. But hoe very lightly, and be careful not to run the -
cultivator too close to the row; then follow with the boe, cntliojr
up the wee^if any have started. And if the land has been fifcbsd
a great while, the weeds will show thomaelvos.
When they are near the plant* if not easily removed with the
comer of the hoe, stoop and remove them with your angers, but
^^no means endanger the breaking of the nearly started rootlets.
Ihese htUe abrous roots are exceedingly tender and easily broken,
and a day or two of valuable time is lost for the giowth of the
plant to get back where it was before it was hoed, t have seen
men BO intent upon removing the soil, and so close around the
plant that it would ho looee, or a little ball of compressed sod iu
where the roots were imprisoned would full over, and the boor
would have to stop aud hold U in position with oue baud whilst
ho braced it up with some fresh solL I am of the opiuion that it
is welUo go over the tobacco rapidly aud often, at lo ut four times
boforo the plants havo aUaiued such siseas to beat all trouhlesoriie
in hoeing or cultivating. And after that, if weeds start, go through
and remove tbeiu. And ail this time he sure to have the land well
stocked. If a plant is missing, see to it that another is set in its
place.—Amcncan CtbUimior,
CULTIVATION AND CUIIING OF TOBACCO.
fpHB cultivation of tobacoo la most extensively carried on in the
A United States of North Amerioa. It requires couBiderable heat to
come to peifection, but with care aud attenilou, aud by Ireatiug it as au
exolio, it may be very sacoessIiiUy oultivatod in much colder olimates.
Tb»’east frost injures it, but this is the case with many plantv which
arc DCTectheleaB successColly cultivated iu the northeru part of fSurope.
The seeds of the tobacco plant must be sown in a prepared seed'bod,
and be carefclly protected Ironi the least frost, for which purpose
straw and fern are used, as is done by the tnaiket gardeners who raise
early culinary vegetables. When once the dangers of spring frosts are
over, they may be safely transplanted, and if the ground has been duly
prepared, they will arrive at maturity before the frosts of autumn, as is
the case with potatoes. bnok-wUeat, aud many other plants which are
natives of warmer climates.
To acoeleraie the growth of' tbe lobacoo plant, the gronud shonid
base been deeply treucued aud liighly impregnated with mauare for
some time before, for ftesl dang, gspecially that ol^ horses, would impart
0 rank, disagreeable dai^vijr to the leah It is, therefore, by a pro*
paratory course of high Qttltivailoo. and by bringing the soil to tlie
state of a rich garden mouid, that tobaooo may be cultivated without
mnoh feat of failure. There can lie np donbt that If u were not for the
fiscal resirletUms arising from datles Imposed upon tobacoo by almost
every aovernmenl. the enUtvatiou of It would boa resource
to imtWe industry, espeeially on a amall scale by cottage gnrdnnere.
In Holland, of which the climate difilers Utile from that of Omt
BHiatn, tobacco is eoltivated to a vary great extent, even in very poor
aolk by groat attention to manuriug. and by aoceUireting the growth
of the plant. The seed is sown in a well-prepared sBe<l.bed iu> March,
and protected by mats laid over hoops as long as tUe nights are cold
and frosts are bXjMotcd. The gruaud in which the tobacco is to be
transplanted 4s lal4 in oan-ow beds, with intervale betwMn them,
which Is dug dcti <toeptr as it dope with asparagu# 'v ,
manured with sbepp^s attng,' These beds are 2 leet at w and
2 feet a inches at bottom, wiiii eWog eldet to beep ilte earth up; the
inlecveis m only 6 or 9 bmboi, fnd mn t^voltly as dmko m kcet)
ndfibi ib
piahU m pkMl^
•ifintibg, ka ihsWow^ b»*het
They Cfaonld be vigoroni and h«no « .Th#
are Inserted into boles made by h pi^per Ins^tomem^ ^
the roots end the edberlot Sirtii may bb oomplefely btdrledivjnpm
bottom of the etenii or six leeverahcmla
more, the lowest msy bsplnobed ofi« If $he
moist and no great bent (or s^gsuiiMitlic} witii0r4 lbej^nti, ;1m
wltUearoely appear to have shflered frem the removaU' Imie '.wbul
die, whleh most often be the case, am replooed by others IS^I w ^
ssed'bed tor that purpose. Great atiention must be pshl <0 tmi
an the time the tobaooo Is growing. Weeds must be oaiefel^ eradlcatiimf
end the earth repeatedly stlrmd bsiween the plants Wltii boss ht
narrow spades to aoeelemte the gfowib* When thedeates.fteanlre M
oertain sise, the lower lesvse thouUl be plnobed o|b to |ner«Sjm4&#j bhm
of the upper, for the former are apt to wither before theihlljr^ heyt
acqnlred their fntl growth.
A fine tobaooo plant should have from eight to twelve large snedUtent
leaves and a stem from 3 to 6 feet high. The tap should tm be
pinched off to prevent its ranniog aud drawing thC sap from the leaves j
aud every lateral ibpot should be carefully pinched Oft as soon’ as A
appears, to prevent branching. A few plants are left for seed, and of
these the beads,are allowed to shoot the full length.
The seeds are so smell and so numerous on a plant that a few plants
produce a suffictenoy of seed for the neat nmp. The plantations Of
tobaooo are continually examined, and every leaf Injured by insect or
otherwise Is pulled off.
Tobacco takes about four months from the time at planting to come
to perfection; that is, from May to Beptembar, when the leaves are
gathered, before there is any danger from frost. One si ogle white
float would spoil the whole crop aud causa it to rot, As soon as
the colour of the leaves becomes of a paler green, inclined to yellow,
they ace fit itc be gathered. They then begin to droop and emit a
stronger odour, and they feel rough and somewhat brittle to the touch*
I When the dew is evaporated aud the sun shines the leaves may be most
advantageously gathered,' which is doue by cutting down the plant
close to the gCuund, or even a little nudsr the surface* They sm left
on the grunud to dry tlU the evening, taking care to tarn tbem often
that they may dry equally and more tapidly. They are boused before
tUeevemug dew falls, which would injure ibam, and laid up undsv
cover In heaps to sweat Uanug tha nuht, ani aome mats are thrown
over the heaps to keep in ina heaW Ifthay are very fall of juice they
are sometimes carried out again the nest day to' dry in the sun, but
mod commonly they are left to sweat (or three or four days, and then
moved aud bung up to dry in sheds or buildings made for the purpose
—like ihoM m whtou paper is dried in the paper mills, which allow a
thorough d^ght of air, but keep out the rain.
Every tobacco plaoUtion has such buildings, proportioned to the
extent of the ouitivatiou. The floors arc most comtnuaty only the sod
on which they stand, but It is much butter if they are boarded, because
on the eurlh (be plants are apt to bo tolled, which luiures the quality
of the tobacco. # h /
In some plaoes the leaves are now stripped ofi the stems and strung
ou pack-thread to hang them op to dry i iu others, the whole plant is
hung on pegs placed iu rows at regular distauces. and fixed on laths which
ore run across the buUding. AIL that is required is to plsoe as many
plants as possible without their being so near as to prevent the
circulatiou of the ale between them. When the plants are quite dry,
they are removed in moist or foggy weather, for if the air is very dry
the leaves would tall to dust; they arc then laid in heaps on hurdles
and covered over that (hey may sweat again, which they do but slowly,
The heaps are carefully examined from time to time, to see that they do
not beat too much, and according to the season and tjhc nature of the
plants, whether more or less filled with sap, they remain so a week or
a fovinlght. This part of the operation requires much alienticu and
experience, for, whether they do not heat to the proper degree or too
much in either case, the quality is impaired. An exper^eaUed tohaeno
grower wilt asoortain the proper degree of heat better wlih his hand
tlmu the ablest soientlit could do with his thermometer. It the tesaves
were not stripped oif at first, whtoh is uot the most nommon prseties,
they are taken off now, when'the proper fermentation is oompleted.
audsor^d; those which grow on the top 0 ! the stem, in (ha middle,
an tat the bottom, are laid separately as being of different nukittiat.
They are tied together in hoodies of ten or twelve teem and agaiii
dried care^ljr, when they are ranged in casks horisontaUy and pressed
in by means of a round boaitl, by lever or lufew pressure, as Bwyn as a
certain quantity has been laid, the pressure is equal tp that of several
tons. This is essential to tiie safe tirhnsportktloQ e^ tbs tobacoP. and
it is (bus that the great bulk of it arrives from the nlaoes where its
oultivatioo is most extensive, ns la Aos^iea* > .
The finest tohaepo, however, ie made into tolls, whleh (rom, their
shape are oalled earfoti. the, taaves are plaes^ together bf HargS
handfuls, and wound very tightly round by sUipe'bt fibrous wM
Strong grass at a tims when ihmvp somewM Utlflisy tAw.
ponsolidato and require only ^erasjMd tfi make the^eit and
g enuine snuff, or rspyieA aa fw qefled, The snuffs emninonty anld.
fiSmpflF* fiiattttihotnreanad prepared iu a inofa opglpil^t^
*#“< I* .*** wo# «,< til.’ <HMiM Va*.
mi
TmdfB fenfl
ln4ilkf;
..
:i|i ol»taiil% b6U«r ,my
{upif ih tlif market, Tita 0 f «ttb'
ifi^ that ailktrorm eg^a aim;W irreaevye^ in
the aoid,t0iy||(a|jaiiM^aoHhaSUIa (where a&hUidl/ setrt),
Qfitil the meat appve^tute time ler their heieg habdiied arrives. .
Tha^ftk ehaailtntlon imt the werma pfodliioe4 by oonatant hatohiag
in the warmer partaof India ia thua amded^ while the birth o£ the
young worma eau be ao timed aa m allow them to be reared on a
plenlifttl auppi;^ if y<meg and ahocjjleiit amlbmry leavea. Thia
* ooeura in the montlia of Mareh, April" and May. Tim result ap¬
pears to he eatabliabed that the oocoona produoed under thia
ayatem in the Doon are dner and in better condition than are the
ord^iary ooooona of Bengal. It ia understood that a private firm
ia in treaty with theP^partmentof Agriculture, N.-W. ProvJnees,
for tho traoafer to them of the Ctovemment ailh eatablishment and
farm. Gominproial aocoees is certainly more probable if the
enterprise is proseouted by private energy. But great credit is duo
to Mr. Boss, the Superintendent of the Doon, for having proved to
private enterprise that success is possible.
Now that the silk crops of Italy, Franco, and Spain is a decided
failure, the Lyons silk-weavers have been much excited by the
news of a discovery alleged to have been made by a Uerman
merchant, who proposes to ooat flax fibres with a solution of silk,
and it is stated that shares in toe company'* have already iMa
' rushed to a high premium. It is said that fibre equal to silk oau
be produced at nine francs per kiiogramme instead of 35, and if
this is true, it will beat all that Manchester cotton loading can do.
India is much interested in the report that jute can be treated in
the same manner as flax, aud “jute silk” is the product of the
future.
Tuk information Wanted by car correspondent fioui Banohoe,
has been kindly supplied by the writer of the article to which he
refers. We give tliegistof it, and trust it may be of service to hiu^.
“ Take a cocoon, boil it well till soft, in water jUi which is an
“ alkaline solvent, aay liiuo, soda, potash, &o. Then manipulate
“ with a bundle of twigs or the iiogers till a single thread begins
“ to run off freely. This will unwind continuously till the cover
“ (like line tissue paper) immediately next to the chrysalis is
“ reached, when probably the thread will break ofir short. Vour
“ correspondent has probably misunderstood me, because all single
“ cocoons can only yield one thread, and my allusion to it was
“ merely to point out that these single threads could be run oft by
“ softening, instead of drawing them, os is done by the carding
“ process.”
The (j?fl2e«ssays reports arc daily arriving from the silk
districts of an alarming character. Disease of a kind not before
known in Japftn has made its appearance, attacking the worm in
jts most important stage, and arrestingtUe completion of the cocoon,
which, on exfliminaticn, is found to be imperfect and valueless as
Mlk. The weather, too, has been very much against the crop, and
although theire is said to be a larger number of persons engaged
in this culture, the yield for this season will, it is confidently
stated, he much below the average.
ON THK TUSSUtt SILK OF INDIA.
(Continued/rm poffc No. 8.)
T HB liteH report on tneser, ealtnre is one from Maioi^ Conesmaker.
dated langacn, Ahmednagari on the IQth of January of the preseat year«
At Toonah kp haeestahlhdwd a hreodiug HtebUshmept, ami has pleated
laSoy young tre«w feif ^0ing the worm. Be' says it thrives well on
jUtfSrsfi^siialnd^ianornamM shrub fairly abandunt in the canton-
tBsnt of Poonsh^ Eh has eh^ of feeding them on edb twias
brought to thsiB in eaptlviW, and allows ftheiUi Oaiefnlly watched, to fetxl
in the open air on the growing shrqbs; This was an evident ohange ficr tbe
better t thelarvie aihalthditi four to five deyS hisfeead ef five to eight dsye;
they spun thejir eoceons id ^ (o fid dayfi , hvdeod of frem 40 to 50
days, and the mcihs empiiged ii^m .the ^pehmi'lh, 27 to fi> Osya,
their egge proving Aofe fertile than; nn^ep the fiiSe* ph|n. Be tiid.
themalsooii OaHMU caranduei and Ihey throve ito h^ on iMti
eateii ^ ‘ ‘!
and'wee ever sp'rtf%,:
^ ri/-.
,bw3|iepotted, was k iSok leaf'liNielO^v,.^.,, ^
'i4lbt the Cattssa'did net spfoat been anoe dewi^odV ^
the nest seM{m*«tipetinieht».,file|^ ,<^i^^
fiiO and BOO plofuts of f<dlow%
9»osmUptah^fi(fru,
and jPwifopfwa iomsnioMt soibat wemoy tdok' fofwav^ with a large degree
. of interest to the resnlt oS so praetloal ah ei^rihreot.to domelific^te this
interesting silk producer in the Beocaa. ' '
Csptain Biooke late'^
*' In CUauda aod Snuboolpoorf Cenivtd Provinees, when ilie cocoon crop
ilgaihored, koshtas. a weaving c&stOi visit the villages and bay them from
Uie rearots. They arc Uien, os soon aspraeiicable, boiledinaiyeiaade
frOtti the ashes of jangni stalks, a plant figown for ,tUo oil eapresaed from
its seed. This prooevs olEoctually kills the ohrj'saUs. at the same Urns
dUsolviag the muo ilage of ihe ooooou. The ooeoons are then etonid foe
u$o. Tho melhod of reeling is pnmitivo In the extreme, and to ils Itnper
foetiona 1 solely attribute iho scent aitontton Uus valuable and very
beautiful silk has hitherto rocoiveJ, A description of the proossi is as
follows s^Tbe epiunor, always a woman, sits on the ground ; on her left is
au earthen vessel,with a thioklsli run, about 0 ioobesin diameter and dkJbUes
dcop. The saucer is Ibrec parts filled with a mUturo of poLssh aud ashes*
pitted down to a level surface, and kept damp with water. Upon this
the cocoons to be spun aro placed, the outer portion, of inferior and nearly
useless silk, having been, first removed. The thread in ordinary use
amongst the weavers U spun from seven cocoons \ these ate all placed at
the same time in the eartheu saucer, a filament is then taken up from eocli
cocoon, and. being bronght togcUier, aro rolled between the hand and left
thigh of the spinner, which are kept damp by an acid selathm of tamarind
and water.*’
In IJouaal, tbc cocoons aro put into boiliug water to killlhepupm ; iu
some distriots, when intended for sale, they are pu t in boiling water and
dried in the sun. lu the Nizam’s coontcy, the cocoons aro loaded with
dhobee’s earth and alkaline ashes to make the reel. In iho Midnepoie
district, they are boiled in oow -dung and reeled hy hand.
Captaiu Urooke says that, in fieonee, the pierced cocoons are wound,, and
that no koshtee rejeols a cocoon simply because the moth has eaten its way
through it, lie has fallen into an error as to the moth’s mode ofeait from
its cocoon. It separat!es the fibres with its legs and wing spine, and so
creeps oat. It has neither teeth nor mouth proper.
Bach species of silkworm has two stores of silk, one on each side of the
alimentary canal, and below its mouUi it has two so-called splnuaretsor
orificos. ihroogb which tho silk issues eimultaueously in fine parallid
filaments. As ihe silk is drawn out of the stores, the worm coats it with
a vatmsh teohaically called gum, which contains a brownish yellow oolour-
iug m atter.
Tho tusser worm, In spinning his coo'»ou, takes short sweeps of his houl
from side lo aide, depositing the silk very closely in parallel fibres as ho
does BO. It has been thought Umt the worm twists iho silk as it exudes if«
but this is not the case. Besides the gum which coats the silk, the worm
seorotos at intervals a cementing fluid, wbioh it kneads by an oxpanding
motion of its body through ihe wliolo cocopu to coneoUdato and harden it.
This cement gives to tlm cocoon its drab colour.
There is a striking peoaliarlty about the fibre ol iasser silk. I have
carefully and thoroughly examined it many times under tho miorosoopo,
and find undoubtedly that tho fibre is flat and not round, like mulberry
Bilk.
There is no doubt that it is to ibis property that tasser silk owes if s
glassy or vitreous look, refiecUng a little glare of light from the angle (»f
Incidence on its flat surface, whilst the mulberry silk fibre, being round,
reiloots the light equally in all directions.
By some this property is considered a drawback, but by the time the fibre
has become modified, and the flatuess difihaed in the loom, I think the
lustre of the cloth is enhanced by it.
This tapo4ike appearance gives the fibre thU disadvantage, that it is losa
homogeneous than iho ronnd fibre of tho mulberry silk, and I find an
undoubted iendency in it to split op into smaller fibrets, thus causing the
silk to swell out when subjected to severe dyeing processes, pariionlarly
the bleaching one of recent date, thus giving a substantial and important
reason why its coloured cements should be removed by gentle action.
The fibrets havo a disUnct structure, upwards ol twenty in number, and
seem compactly laid together, showing tho striated longitudioal appearance
of the fibre under the miorosoopo, 1 dare say it is this fibrous compound
structuro^ absent, as you sec, in tho mulberry fibre, which is an element 1#
its dyc-iesi sling power. 1 found permanganate ol potash td ho the host
agent to separate Uwse fibrets.
The dtametor. from edge to edge, of a ifingle fiat fibre ol tasser silk from
the outer part of the oocooo, averages I|770th part of an inch, and from
deeper in the substance of the cocoon ]/7t0lh of an iueh, but the external
L fibres are much more variable than the intornsl. The thickness from side
side is 1 /lOOOtbof an Inch. The outside fibres are capable of support,
iug, wlthopt breaking, an average weight of sovon drams, and ihe mner
eight drams, whilst the Usual ataeunt of tension in all the fibres is one iuoli
to the foot. The fibres, like a)I biker silk fibres, are laid in tbo cocoon by
the Silkworm in pairs, united, their edges, and not*by ibclr flit surfaces.
AU the Aatuatiidm fibres Ihoye examiued are more or loss dbronsand
fiat, except the NfigUsh species carpinv, or iilmperur moth, whichv
m
In Kolifa 6(»%aibiref it OMobn In ftb« 2M«t]b«r of mt
iBOQrlM4i^ Mr^cp jUi 4rowiif(>i mo «it milorgedialoroMopIo uppOMnoeo a I
tbio ir)4o^;Blio^i ifef tx-on«p»roalf «>4 flbrelleso Patoio; nM .ol^.
U tOTf «i»loti 0 i \kB% tbo fibroo «M voflod oioept iviiorp, 1 ;^; ^nM w
Wb^iW beoomo fl 4 » 1*0 4ottbt fiom proisvifo. .TbU otypo^t
0«poptSM^ iotW $aiuif%iid9 40|m:4tiiig 9oiflbr«i, »a4 iho found
OttOtf wbJob X bud oftobtiibodi^flbty pnmtn to tbo oeotOtioa of oortoeue
intbo diffoMUt opeeloo vufjriag ia fluiOity, tbut of being
eiorotodiaapioroMaitatetUaiiibutortlio Zfom&poidtif. lliOro oioy idso
bo ft didbrooee iu the liraotaya oftbelr oprfpoiitore; but tbia X Jure not
bod an ojiportauit jr of loreetigetiag» «
I ftta glad to ilftto, thft otber dlagviait wew praperod M dux by Mf.
Bidet, ft pupa of tbe Leek Att CUu. The maps, ebowiog the wild ailk
diettiotif wem doue by Ur, Mired Uoore» of limlr, and I bare beoa taadh
helped in the aiieroeeoi^e woik by my ftwietant, Ur* Bigby« and 1 must
not omit to mention the aMiebanoe rendered mo by my printing staff.
It is a ^ilaoy, held by some antomologists, that the worm twists the two
threads together as it farms thom at tho oridoe of its splooaro‘ei,ia all speotes,
both SmSy 0 id 0 and SaiumUdw, The two ihreads aro simpiy laid side by
si^, as yea see in the diagrams. It would be impossible to twist the
t«w threads wiUiont tie worm itself revolting ooatiauously with tho
amission of the silk, or for it to hare epinoing wheels at tho secreting oridee.
X prop:}eet therefore, to ohaonte the word spinnaret, which conv'oys on
inaeenrate impression, and substitute for it aeripositor,
Igaring now tlie more beaten track of the natural hist ory side of tho
QQeaiion> X come to speak of its merchautable and art side* binding, many
years ago, that tusser silk opposed a resistanoe in no ordinary dogree to
tinctorial matter, 1 took an interoat in the subject with a view of overcom¬
ing this resistanoe. In its small alhnity, ordinarily speaking, for cdlr^aring
matter, it ranks with the vegetable fibres of ootton and flaxi and whUaU iu
many processes, it wonld oome out scarcely tinted, the mulberry-bred silk
would be found to have seised tho colour with avidity. It, however, takes
the aniline dyes, under certain conditions, moderately well. At that tiSaa,
end for some yeer# prevlonsiy, iitlle tusser silk had passed through the
dye-houses. About forty years ago an attempt was made to lutro luco it ia
Uacclcsfield for sewing silk for black, but, on account ol its irregular way
of taking the dye, it was abandoned. Mr.D^vid CUrke, oC Macclesfield, at
that time with bis fiitlior, Mr. Jeremiah Olarko, were much interested in
bringing it to the front I but, SB Mr. D. Clarke informs mo, the second
parcel not coming from the dyer in a saleable stats, a c osUy trial took place
at Chester to determine whether the blame lay with tlw dyer or the silk. I
believe it was doeldod in favour of the manufacturer, odd against tho dyeti
who, unfoituuatsly for him, had succeeded in dyeing tho sample parcel
Buoceasfuliy. However, the result was that little or no tussor silk has
been used forsewjiig purposes from that day to this. About twclvo years
ago 1 made many expenmenls in dyeing tUii silk, and bad tho saMsfacUon
of seeing my way to further uUhs^iion and improvoraout, Iu 1873. th*
firm of which i am senior partner, oonsls iug of my brother uud ni sol,
cxhlHted, at the International Exhibition, at South Eensingtou, tho result
of progress up to that iinie, iu a scries of black and coloured siUs, which
were in advanue of any similar effort, either English or Contineutni, as fai*
as my observations or kuowledgeestendoJ, and they attracted a good deal
of attention and led to a fiirthor utilisation of tusser stilr then a drug in
the market, except for dress silks for women and girls in the uudyed and
pleasing sh.ido natural to it. which is fawn colour,
Tho development up to that time had been that this silk could be dyed
into any middle or dark bliade of drab, slate, brown, green, violet, pr d^rk
red, whilst, to pale shades of blues, pinks, cense, scarlet, and otbers, tne
dark natmal ground ooluur of the ailk interpoMd an insuperable barrier, as
Bolphur, or any then known bleaohing agent, could uot reduce the silk to a
whiter state. The dmd&rattm of pale shades led our quick French
neighboms to study the c&mposiiiou of the brown oolouriug mibte . aul
to find a solvent for it, The orodtb of this aobievement mus:. he sv>'^<ded
to M. Tesai^ du Motay, who was led to try permanganate of potash, w uoU
vras at that time attructiog much atlontion on aocouut of its groat 0 |ddu>ng
power on orgauio uutior. He found the browny colorantyiebled't) ,t)iia
Mgent. Uafortuuately, the cxodisiug aotion being tao violeub, the U'ltc of
tho silk os well as its coloration was aifecled, and ^e sdk was tendered jy
the time it became white euongb for dyeing into pale colours, so luifeu so as
to render U iiseless* IXpwever, a secret had been discovei ed, and it .a t ii«,
that oxygen, nodor ocpliiun oombimng condiuoui, ftuited with the colourmg
matter, which ti j»tt becaxie separaled from the sHk. The object now was to
• apply the i>xyge*i ouder gentler oouditioua. This M. Tessid du Motay again
Bucooeded in doing, and in a very ingenioua way. Ho brought into contact
With the silk an iusoluhlo body, which, ou contact shouU yield up au aUna of
oxygen in tho nascent form, which should gently unite with the fa vu.aoloU'ad
matter of the siik without attacking the fibre. This, although a rou.^h
method, Bi/1 rod the diJQcuIty, and the silk, originally of the colour of ihis
sample, can now be bicaolied Iu this way to that of the saiuple t show you,
which is of sufiicieutly polo a ground to admit of Its being dyed into any pale
ooleur except white, 'I'iie eubsiance he found to comply with the re luirad
oqadition is binoxide of barium, llufortuuately, the proooi^a is loi expen^
exvq, and prevents on extensive ntiliaation of tusser sUk, but tuers is a
probability of tho pfloipiple being shortly applied by metUodf, which
wiU bd ht tho. time cheaper and more w ii lv th^legitlmte aphe^e of
dyo-howeteMuacalppamtiO&thfta that of M. ici^sic 'du Xoi^h
whewbylheiMMteeMo*yi^4ilJ|wpr«e^ i
iolutioa,fnSUutdof ifeti4^ \ /
Irt 18741 bad the hrWiqalf to^Mva a
Mallet,tTader-Seeretav> |>r |ttdia,.aii;k|to commttttlciate,
''for the informotie^ttf liidia,Ai^4cy^X
n posithm to UtnUk oa Mip ^ilyoidg the wMMlh pt^eced by tht
tnerer worm*" ‘ . -
On my repbrt being reeeiveS), t w$k retptpftel jto ipjiiiHe a ^ InveiMgiiMot
of the lubjeew which Mv^ed iMf imtutidly ^o fwo headi, a donstderdtioi
of the silk, and Of t^ttetorii^ mMitkrOi ffer & I the taw, Mlk ai
It comes into tbii eoiiatry to be prepared %f tke hafiii»keet aad Chihi
in such a rude and filthy state at teiaterpoeeatmaosisary obstadMs to its
taking the dyes* X felt sure that oleas^ a^ moca ekiltal tahlMs oi
rsflbg and preparing the gilk for .the taarhMb woatd aqcompaaiod
less Tosistanoe to tinctorial matiter, ai^well m farfiiehiag a imprl>vM
. quality* At my request, orders were issued fo« the eblle^lou in the
dlffsrent provinces ol India of U complete assortment of native dye-stfiffs at
well as a supply of tusser silk.
Xu rscammendiflg tho Goyerameut of India to have the natives taught th^
dyeing of their wild silk! with dye-stuffs indigo nous to India,' I hod
motives, one to prevent the native artol Xndb Mxa tampered, vfltb 4by th(
introduction of European fugitive dyes aud crude eolonrC, and s^othei
that they could bo mode to utilise, What their country bas overlieeB sc
r'ch in, the remarkable tai^ty Ol natlvo-growfi dya-sinffs/which in othei
than wiliV silk fabrics, ihey have known probably 4ol ^ohhdid of years kc
well how to nse. To take dye-stuffs to India must surely be'carrying Coals
to Newcastle. 1 have since received an extensive and most Interesting
series of ifdia dye-stuSii and tanning materials, wMoh X have at present
under exa minution. 1 also received a quantity of lusser cocoons, and, not
hpitig able to have them reeled m England, X was authorised to go to Italy
to sec it I oould have them reeled there, and effect my bope^for improve-
meut in the manufacture. By tho iutroductlou of a friend I obtained
permivsion to visit one of the filatures in Piedmont, that of Messrs. Gadduui
and Co. Ou arriving there I fouud an extensive mulberry silk reeling and
tfflbwing cstabilshmeut, situated m a most beautiful valley, iu one of the
soulhorn spurs of tho Alps, about three hours’ journey north of Turin.
On explaining my mission, aud showing the wild cocoons, 1 was
told there was not much ohan^ of success, for they had several times
tried them, and had fouqd them diflleiilt to soften, and impracticable to
wotk ; but knowing too welt how natural is the tendency of raaukiul iu
any new idea, lo suggest objections rather than the means, I asked for
permission to be allowed to try myself. I'he permission being generously
granted, and every assistauce kindly afforded me, I was taken to the reeling
room, where about 100 young wometi wiro at work, with weiUtmined
fingers, veoHug tho smalt Piedmout cocoons of Brndt^is meru The operation
was interesting in tho extreme, beigbteiied as it was by their strauiito
siuging of old Fiencb songs, in a dialect not even umlorstood by tho
Italians, a strange aud all but forgotten tongue, which has to be learned by
the miU-overlookera before they oaa oommauicate their iustructions to them.
1 was told these girls wore the descendants of Huguenot refugees, escaped
probably from Provence, to the ItMUn side of the Alps, at the Kcvocathm
oi the Edict of Nantoa, and that they still retained their patois and their
folk love $ they worked bard for the few months of cocoon I'OeUag from
five in tho morning until ei ght at night, for a franc a day ; after work
dancing and^ siuglng for the hour before bed-time in the most joyous way.
Apartments are provided for them at the factory, and when the reeling
season is over, Ibay separate and itituru to their Alpine villages, to wait
for the next season’s work.
The operation of uawiudiog silk from the cocoon is aS follows A number
of cocoons are immersed in on iron pan, in water, nearly boiUng, with a little
alkali to soften them. A semi-rptating brush is placed ovCr tliem Which quickly
catchos the extoi lor fibres of each cocoon, and the more leadUy enables the
xeelor to find the wiudable thread. They ore then taken oat aud transferred
to tho reeler, who sits leaning over an iron pSn of about U inohee in
diameter, in which she has a few coooona in hot water* the fonudends of
several being iu one hand. Four or sis cocoous, os the ease may be, oro
beiug Bimulteneously reeled into a siugle thread by the reel at her back,
whiob diaws off over her head the cocoon threads, they danohig and taming
In bUe water. When a thread bi^>Lks, or the oocoon is reeled, another in
qaickly presented from the lot in the other bond, the manlpuUtton being
ohe of great dexterity. Several years are required to attain proficiency,
and it is not until tho* fifth to the seventh year that a ree^r is entrustM
with the most delicate reeling; the keeping of the lies of the thread regular
aud free from rough places being the most important care.
ll is this branch of the maudmmtiiro that in tusser sUk is so defectively
treated in lodia, the reeliug being done in amna iastaheee rouud the nhked
knee cap, batgenerafiy with this Imxd reel. .
X took some of my wild cocoons,' and^ with rnnoh diffionlty and patience
after several triMs^ sncwc'l^ iu SYfftenifig them by the eddnf long-aontinned
boiUsg in water, ip Which was added sotp, potash,, and ^yoariite. When
soft bnoogh, one of the most skUted gitiswM toldofil teieel them lor me,
and, aftar^idding the cooobnaot the outer and coatMc threads, aha reeled
the thread of fonr cocoons into one, allaott wtihoat a bfchk, much to her
evil delight and to thaaurprise of my friends ahd myn^i; « ’
the’rsshitiog tdiser raw Stik wss takafi W (hd ihv(Mi$
nOB, M thdro made ktd orgamfiBS atjid tmdi» ^ cadh finietiesi as to
fMefidSa whesMdthM;^^^ idei ^l ttdfitt s»k omOd
*eri<mtl7 fi^qiit mlb^V
ffi^s&iaisia's^;' ••^'
j *^j'***^^**^i^'.r^^?^ **“••** “if •■“•*•''' *»y “f
*»f»* “* J*Wtt J«rf' low.
w«gbli>g»ta1»|l|to> AMiMguoflbt^flnr m» aiUt,«itn «( « ts 7
M it li gMtMll, otanw. PiWB tt>« »po«iui,tb«
«t I Mii«riatwa«l, I*M»iw 4 »^bfita*«hn,«t»iu(*»
4 wmi* p?ri| 00 ft * •d.tiiple wMoh I lutro % pl^oMUM to fhow you,
ntr ana Uirowu 4lk I Ikave fooqifed frOM
Thaaia^tof Ilia
mw«^8I 0*: 1* dr*ma per 1,0(W jaH* | tU« efgeaelno end
<*r ,B Hefoaud some of my cocoons very
a mcnit to jrqe|t no dpdlit owing to their bao, eui} to not Jbsving heen reeled
helordwestberynpoiM^ .fourteen pounde atia.a.hs1f yJeltfed one ponud
w nwr Pq fnformii me theft' some oeooone Ito has iastpurohe^od ia
MsfieiUes ere larger in alee then those 1 cent him; they ere dsTher in
ooloii|ri,hntrselihacU bettor. He Is obtlining from ten pounds of them
one pound of mw i^lk*
ISven* e finer Uxreed might be obtained, but as the fibre is only the
V 7 IOth part of m inch, or three times es thick os ordinary silk, I think
61 deuiers is a g^od end praoUoable limit wlnn native re»I«vs can have
proper app|iaiieet, and he taught to be as bandy as the roelers of Italy or
the south ^^‘vaneei 1 dare say some of my hearers may remember the
improvements which took place ia reeling the malborry eilke of B^gal and
Wratie, when enpeiioreUm and machineiy were introduced, a good ms^iy
years ago. Before that time Bengal silks were held m very low^etimation.
#»»d were very difflonlt to work, but aflcr the introduction of better appU-
nnees, Bengal silk wss sliown to bo as capable of refinement as ony other j
and Brutia.silk now commands, by its superior quality, the highest price
in Ihe market * and I have no doubt that, in degree, equal success lies
waiting for the tusier silk industry.
I trust I may pqmt to this mattafactnring development and great im¬
provement with pardonable pride, more especially as I am not a manug
facturer, and could scarcely ospect to find untrodden ground In adomi*5
distinct from, although allied to, my own.
The new reeled silk is much lighter in colour, as you see, thati native
reeled, and has very much more lustre; in fact, it is the most lustroas in
|ho undyed state of nil silks, and possesses greater strength and tension.
J found, what I eipectod to find, that the silk thus reeled dyes mnoh more
easilyi more shades end lighter ones con be dyed upon it than native reeled,
It has no disagreeable smell, and only loses two ounces per pound in beiug
cleaned for dyeing, whore native refii6'd»tuBS0r loses in some coses as much
as B 13 ? to seven ounces per pound, and never loss than four to five ounoee,
It IS os clean, to use a technical term, which means free from slabs aad
irregnliiriliea of thread, as ordloaiY silk, the cost of reeliug new and good
cocoons, Pnd msqufaeturing them into oryanaiao and tnmi, is about
seven shillings per pound, and it is ocrlain to make its way in inaoy fabrics I
where extreme fineness ia not required, and for a variely of purposes
in paaamenterie, triramingk, braids, soacie#, broad end narrow goods. It ia
beginning to bo largely used for these purposes in France. Its piioe has
lately risen, whilst that of other siks has either remained stationary, or
ttotuully depiociatod^
1 have urged on the Bjovernment of India the importance of iutroduciog
to the natives of India the European modes of reeling oocoons, and some
time ago drew tlieir attention to an invention which simplifies and
economises this operativn.
Mr. Mackensm, engineer, of Milan, has introduced a Milan hoase of
filateurs, who have jnveiito(| and patented another mode ot reeling, by
which skilled labour is dispensed with. If this iDBohine is pronounced by
experts t'> be a Success, there is no reason why cocoon reeling should not
be carried on in any village home, as flax spinning was formerly.
M. David, the largest ribbpn manttfooturer in St. Btiouuo, seeing this
improved manufactnre and dyeing in the Indian Section of the Paris
Exhibition, where they were first displayed, offered to buy all the cocoons
produced in India, If the price would not be more than one franc per
kilogramme, a price which Dr, Birdwood assures me is reasonable. Ho
has applied to ^e Indian Gtovernmeot for 2,000 kilogrammes of oocoons for
experiment at hss owa cost It would bo a very good thing for a tmdo
to spring op to tttsser cocoons, tlbe natives conld aa^Uy be enconmged to
breed a larger eupply, wbitot improvements in reeliog would reqaire time,
and would meet with obstmdbe; of rsoe, religtoa, and habit diffleult to
overcome, also the enterprise In this direotiou would have to be pumiy
private and mercantite, as I tiiak the OdjirQineht of India would not
enter into eeminereial undertakings, but w<^td probably, and e^ruinly
glre most etrenaons eacoamgoment and help to..illmulatQ the
further sptea^ of this, toosn inteveillai; induistry.
I was xbqnteM by Dt. ,fetodwood last year to.asha»it the dcVelopmCuts
of wMehtossck silk Iras <ispitide,^to^^ Indian Section ef the Parle Exhi¬
bition, Sir P, Onfilifle Owki^ dnleted most wawhly into the idea, and took
the greatest Interest in It throbgbont, .givWg me all the enoonragomaut
1?^ ^ f tep*ite«»ted,side by ride with
tie beantifulobjects bed defcwtoteed ^ wwrt hemelf.
in no extoWon b^o^ bad India been shown,^maimer so wotOky of the
Korgaous East. It was the India hf 'iha
h^estatpiraUons. Krititerbad io laneb dteud
ptoffl^on of lodian commerce, thosb rds^l^ M)s entity dffe to fflif P,
Cunlflto Owen, and to one wbasb abljrloiriMdliiin, Mr, P. 0, Clarlte,
lu the wild silk etbibite which I lohling together lb thii
Section, not only were the improvemente Oherim in manttfaotitrieg and
dyeing* to' which J have rlJuded, but anutimr^and Btore decorsilve phase,
and one developed, ai> far as I can gather, rerlimfbt time in the history ^
of either the Best or the West—that of printing, It M stroafctoe that
fabrios mode of tusser silk, either of native or home mangfiKtlnfe* would
besasoeptiblcof mncheariWimenfelf they could be printed npofi. dftor
many froitlcsi attempts, I at tost su^eeded. and since that time I bate had
the aatisfeotiou of sneoeoding to applying and fixing a mdeU wider fatttO
of colours.
Thittkinx that designs of an Eastern type were nainrally the most appU-
cable to cloths of this wdd silk, I bav« obtained, by the Courtesy ot Dr.
Forbes Watson, the loan ot a large series of wood printing blocks, of
native design and workmanship, from the India Mnsenm. I have nsed
Ihein lor printing nearly all the illuitraticne of my lecture, and have placed
a few on the table, to show how beautifully they are out. In England the
I finer details would be in copper, bat ia these the hardest wood baa
been oboseu aud most skiUfully cut. To oompletc the coTislsbeiK^ri
1 have adhered lo the nee of native Indian colours coloniiog
matters. You will notice the deep rich red of the India print ia madder
or mmijoet, the good toned and permanent indigo sUados, as wall as a
variety of obhy welWmowu natiye dyos. The designs on those blocks
era extremely ititeresUng, and if I had time to exhibit the whole series of
the imprewious I have taken from them, I am sure you would agree with
mo how they abound in originality and beautiful drawing* If from ttos wa
ere led to think generally of the native art of Xudia, we may justly feel
some sorrow and regret that our infiuenee tboie does not tend to perpetnate
it, and regret with Dr. Birdwood, as be so well describes in bis handbook,
lhatit daily deterioratee. It if wore not that Sir Cuuliffe Owen is sitting
so near to me, 1 might bo lod to suggest wbetitor wo oould
not try the experiment of twining the tables somewhat, and that, If wo
muetaendourartnuiBlersto India, we might at least import some from
tncrc to try to bring ua iuto bettor ways.
Truly our credentials to teach an ariistio people are to a sad conditioa; if
we take but architeoturq for oxarople, we ore but copyists. Imitation seems
to bo the evil geuiue of the time, and oven what little originality wo bttvo
to be thankful for is preyed upon by an wipriuoipled selfiafaoois in
docotetive or structural art, and is no sooner born than its raseaUty, which,
in the greed for gain in such matters, sees no dmltoetlon between mauM
and tmm ; whilst, on the otlicr baml, «o strong is the existing jealousy
to protect that which shuuld benefil, all, that wo may scarcely with safety
look over our neighbour’s paUngs to see how groon his lawn is.
I would call fttteution to the sweetness with which the col on w repose on
the naiural and unbleached ground of tile cloth, as well as the gpcatei*
sharpness and depth of those printed on bloaohed groumU
Moay of my examples are painted iu print colours, on ouUiuo printed
designs, on aneient and most iuterosting mode of decoruttog cloth, which
I havexevived. '
I think you will agree With me that the material so decorated is beautifully
suited to wall hangings, ourtoms, eorerlids, and all fciuds of furnitnro work,
and whilst not having quite the brilliancy of the mulberry sUk in its printed
Btttte, it has a richer and softer suifoeo than those of creftoDnes or chftlliV,
whilst its lostiag qualities are superior to those of any other material.
Alossrs. Durant, of Iiondon, have kindly informed me that tusser raw silk
oottios from China, aud they beliove the lai go shipmeute of two years ago
were principallv owing to iho fomino in the distriets of prodhetions,
Soareely a bale, they say, has come forward daring the present season, nor do
they expect any at the proaont prices. The present price of tusseft raw silk
iu Loudon is 4 s, 6ri, per lb. The stock in London is China tuSstfre. It to
ooUeoted m the district of Ohefoo and shipped from Shanghai* The price o^
Indian tussore cloth is about 2s. per yard, 34 toohes wide.
Thereto a veiy Urge quantity of China tossor cloth exported from
London io the Colooios. An immense trade would be developed to India
if better quaUties were woven there.
The following table shows the state of the London market to tnsret silk
for the lost few years i—
Imported.
Year.
Stock, Jon. let.
Bales.
Wr* .
662
1«76 .
424
187« .
176
1877 .
. 428
1878 .
1.181
1870 .
r- ..
1,282 1
wv, wiw .MiD/ uaies, witii a consumption lorJantiary
ofldfibaleb. Should the demand eonttoue at this rate, the supply would
be insutfieient for the'^'ear if mere>comes in.
tototed itei|«<^i^toSrr M
bteeadoii
theif
it ^ T ^ we year suae ottenuen was arawn to tt oy
titebiledi itoell, thfi purohaMS briug 7W bales
Th0]ro»Uw|(Mf t^1>U iliow# pfe«wfc wwlrtfc
(AfrUl««i,l1l%'i^ " ' :'' * ‘
} y .' V/ ’ '$*^4*:
CMl ri«if liWliii .„ o. «t 0
Ciuiiott H ^ ’« «'• M, 'tA ®
0 ' > Ko# 4 ‘ If >•• «»* ' t,** ,
Jupu wttrboaJi<l^o. 24 «, .» ... 0 ,*
!t41iaft wgatjKine ... ... «• ' ... S6 ^
Beoiral raw ... .w ... ... }i 6
Hniiia „ -.. ... ... ... " i** 0
tflWWft* M ... ... ■» .** „. 4 <1
|[reai improvcn^eA^S toa^e In tbU adnttt^j and <»n iU« Oontlnnnt Df late
yoan In carding and Bpinning macbinerr, bare enabled mannfactorort to
ntUlBe all Uia Bilk that eonld net be reel^f encU as pierced cocoona and all
kinda el waato Bilk.
Mr. daytQttbaa been kind enougb to lend mo* for my leolare,iUa8tfaUona
oftbla naelnl pbose of mattnfaotore, epecimena ot ipuntuaa jt allk in each
etage of mknwfiietore, from the firat oardfng or dreMittg operations to such
perfected fahnca W yon see before you in cloths of varied design arid
siibBtaucei yarns for weaving and sowing, and shawls In plain and printed
There is now a great demand for tusier and other wild silk waste, and
England possesses more than eoMeient machinery to spin all that can be
imported. ^ -
Another Com for the use of tusser silk is the mamifaotura or embreidory
si-kf) and their application to cloth by the needle. 1 have had manufaotttrod
a few silks, which have been arranged by my wife for illustiatioa this
evening. She has also worked a fow pieces of Lusser elotU in thoa*» silkj m
various designs. The larger pieae of ombroidery, which is undni^heJ, is a
trial pieoc. Mrs. Wardlo began to work first with untwisted silk, whioh, ^
may be observed at the left corner of the work, has a fluffy appearance ;
thorefore, I rescoramend for ombroidery purposes a slightly twistoJ silk,
which 1 think will ho an impro’.o moat on crewels, and possibly flUwcUes,
aud BO prove a useful industry.
THE BILK INDUSTRY IN ASSAM.
Thh following Is an exlraot from the proooedlngs of the Cuiof
Oommlsslouer of Assam, in the Uovoaoe Departmeal, dated «hilloug,
the 6th Juno 1879 *
IllIfJ0r.UT10N.
The attention of the Government of India has long been dircotod
to the possibility of developing the silk Industry of this country, ond
at various times information on the subject Use been ooUeuted.
The most widely..distribated silkworui in ludm is the tasar, and it is
to this that fltteuiion has hitherto been chiefly drawn. This silkworm,
however, though it is found wilhio this province, Is nut oommoti. But
there are other welUbiiowu silkworms which are commonly cultivated
in Assam, and whose value will probably prove little, if at all interior
to the tasar, and it Is in the extended cuHlvallou aud production
of these that the developmeat of the silk industry of ihis province
obviously lies,
Besides the two which are abundant in this provmco, the muga and
eria silks, upon which experiments have been successfnUy tried, there
arc a large number of wild silks to be fouud throughout tills province
which have never yet been subjected to expefliuents under trained
European skill. It »s very important that a sufficient quanUiy of the
cocoons of these silk-worms ebon Id be collected and forwarded to
Europe lor exammallon. The success which has receuUy been obtained
In the manufacture of tasar, eria, and muga silk, renders 1 1 not
improbable that other common wild silk< of this proviuoe will be fouud
to have a value in the European market It is of great importance
that this point should be ascertained, as the cultivation of the silk«
worms indigenous to this province will bo likely to bo acoompaoieil vith
the least difficulty. It IS not to be expected that there will be any
extended cultivation of such silkworms before ik Is ascertained that the
produce has a ooMmeroIal value, and this, therefore, most first be deter¬
mined. p 4 sections fill be issued for the eoUsntton of cocoons of
known kinds cfjilkworiti, which have not yet been egperimeuted on
iusuffioieut Qkiaotitjrfor this purpose.
la consequence of the very fuportAut results which have been
obtained tram the experimonto lately Qouductod in Borope, which seem
to point to a possible great development of Ui« *Uk trade of ludto,
futihet information baa been oallcd fof tu Ooeeroment of IndU
Resolution 1. of 28ih February 1879, published in the Bupplemtmt to
the ^aietUvf Zadm, dated the Uth Maicb 1S79, page 313,
This liosoluLioo, dealing as i( dues with the Silk of India geUmaUy,
is liTgely ooeupled with consideraiious uffoettug only the tasar, apd
this sBltwoein, as has .been said, is not eounuou iu this pmtuee. thuf^
ever be in the future, at preaeut it iscleairlt|jtt tbe attentlop of
those who arc deklrohs ot developing the sH i of Assauf Sbhubl
be dlreotedVo the ettUivation and ptoducHuu ut Ui4allhworijh9 common
tp Assam; li wai
iuUon fia '
At pr^nt U
province, should
the silk being r^led Wifi fbe MopiM bfforg \s|^, Mm,
eelvaa abouia be (after Ibe s^bvms W bs^ eatSfnHy kiftefi)
and packed aud sent‘to bwket wlHmut g»yv
there is some dlfficnlly In nnreellbf^ eopooui if they are mme'^bau a yep
old, and are too hard an^ 4ey.'* This Is of ,1 |m ntmnat fmpottanM,
because aU the especial .akiil and trAtnlh^^ and the,great llabmir
which would otherwise be involved < In' this iptlnalsy,, and whloh it
would be particularly difficult tcrobtaiii is t^Hi proV^U^ arg vi^nepd
wlfb. ^ ‘ !' '
UU only now necessary that the coooo'q should he pyoduced,'and
for this purpose aU that will be required yvill be 4ha, eel^tla|i atid cttl-
tlvatlou of the trees suited to the ailkwofolt ismk of Whicit aTf. 0 ^m<>n
jungle trees, and proper care and attsiiUcm to the iBkvrarm
its growth. This will require lUtleor no oCpUal, mud oi^iuaty
skill and attention, jtu mu appendix td iliis Beaojluldoo (Appphdix
B), such information os fs already known on this fubjeot dn qigarti
to tbo euUiration of the more common silkwornt^ jof ibis pruvlaue
has been oolleotml, and is published for general iofoVimalipo.,,
The permanent demand for cocoons of the classes,
this provloce oanuot well be eaeerteincdj nor con Ik yet be said
wlwiher the production of cocoona will ultimately prove remunerative ;
nor can H^e said yet which will be economically the most profitable
cocoons to cultivate. It will not be till after some time, and after
Ihe trade has become to s ome extent calabllslied, that this, question
cauhe fully answered. The tralo iu coooous, like every other trade,
will depend for its sucoesa on a great variety of conditions. The cost of
producing oocoous In large quantities caunofc praotioaliy Im tosted
without tixpcrimeut, and the same must be said of any ealculation of
tfibir probable market value. The popularity of the material into
which they will ultimately be worked, the cost of maniifaoture, and
an immenso variety of other considerations, must be praclioally deter¬
mined bofore any real answer can be gii^u to this quealion. Bbt, so fur
as can at present uc judged, the prospect of this trade seems omitteutiy
hopeful, and there Is very much wUmh should direct the attvntiou of
the Buropoans oogagod in ton cultivation in this provltico to this
industry. As has been said, the diffioaltles of mauufacinre have
been overcome, and, with the development of the industry, the cost
of mnuufaoture may confldoutly be expected (o decline also, and (his
wlU probably result in morcased demand for the manufaolureU
at'iieles, and suable a higher price to he paid for the cocoons. Already,
one silk manufacturer, M. Bavid of St. Etienne, has expressed bis
willinguoas to purchase 2,000 kilogrammes (55 maunds] of lasar
cocoons at t frmeper kilop^amnie for experiment, and there cau be no
doubt (hat manufacturers would be found to purchase at a similar price
cocoons of other kinds. This gives a iKtoe of altogether 30«, jisr
mauud for the ooooous delivered in Franks, which, with exchange at
ls.Cd.K»Bs. 20 per maund»«*8 annas per user, to oovei^ alUost of culture,
collection, and transport. It has been farmer oasertod by M. David
and other manufacturers that ajl the potoible produetlon of India
would be eagerly bought at this rate. This Is probably too tow a rate
to be remuueraiLve to the producer, hut it must not be considered as
the final or fixed market rate of the fature. The Government of India,
iu liesotution 1. of 28th February 1S79, paragraph 6. assert “ there Is at
least ns great a demund in the European markets for the oooonn of tha
eria and muga worm, as there is forth of the tasar.'* It should bo
noticed further, that there is a use for waste and tot pletoea oocoons, as
these, where they cannot bo reeled, can be spun.
The great abundoDoe in the jungles of Assam bf the food required
by the several kinds of silkworm, and the ease with Which many of
the trees aud shrubs requisite for their food ban ,he ,obtained in tbe
wild state, and could also be cultivated, render pcsilhla an almost
unbounded development of the pioduction of .coooooe. No diffioblty
need beamluipated as regards carriage of the eoooooe, nor n&ml there
be any delay likely to oause harm in irausporttng them to the
manufacturer.
, # * . ♦ ^ ' * a
Looking to the great importance to the prbvlnoe of Assam of the
development of a new iOdnsiry, and the pfwdttotioit of a new export
staple, tha Chief Oommlsstooaf is aoxtoue that every sbouid be
made to develop the Silk ia^Stry. He therefore eoltoite the active 00 ^
oj^eratlon of the many Eai#saQ gentieman resident In thif prdvinee.
Ue feet* st^ thas there must bh not# tow ghntteiiatt Whose Ira^ug
and tastes ^ opportunities, moat aitobto tlmm tp tondir vary wtaXlp
assistance, tmtb In aoUectIng the iofosmafioa Wow imUsd fot fa pato;*^
7 of this ftopototioo^ and lu making colleotfons df Wild ' lilkworais^
cocoons, aoeompanied wfth latormatidn regaidtog tha htetoty
of ih^fse silkworms, aud the price aud probable 4akattto to Wbidh they
can be obtained at present, either wild or bC duHP
vation. . ' ' ' ^ V ' ' / ' ' ^
But, aboye all, the Active oooperafiou of NuiWiHW^ fs
iteeded i U ike ouitlvation of the mow oomhioolir«ktibWi» ilikworma
of Assam M to bedeveiopvdr kw as to fotiiaiia liable of
tradA^ There is mttoh nuiilvatiou of silk to Itok mmb mf there
to, is nbicfiy to smalt quontiilee, and tor hoeies' t Tliieie doaa; not
<ie»m to bo any reason why the jpioduatlou of should not be
k\mm
|1i« iobjllc
Sr
tbftr sa
oflpoefi ftt AMwpr to ‘
J^'okdir «t tiki OdinttiiMtom of Asm.
te nfelAN. ^EIOl?tTtrEI 9 T.
«qib^
4 tii'l^tiD« i^iktloitE»a Inlurift ojt
owireyioff any ioforttiiaolt
tiPliMr0B«B4 to tliB mi
‘ liiit'iaitteoHonx ktdm Mom#
„ ^ifeirBoaiToS frofi.%j?€iriitti5«kt
ooutilitid io pft(«iri{kli 7|
Mat hf lOMy gaottoikiitt ii ttkii pro-
S. 0* B. BlDSBAIi^
Stby. to ihi Olitef Oottmr.^
\ lift* lortuii has Atfctmdit} Ikot AUii^ of tbo HiidiUr o£
i^ooHaro ta Qtemmy to iatr^ii^ 4md aeolimailai Hid
J^op^ysi Ymt^-JHai or ^aptiktsi .oals-lWMI^g oilkworoM*
coOBiiComoDt of eggs .obtained for t{di||nir|K»^ paokedin four
bags of ** white ahortinga** etiolosod, in. aif alr-ilght box. On
opening this it was found that many of the eggs were quite
mouldy, while others had hatched out on the l^g voyage fmm
Japan, and in the absence of food had snccnmbed to starvation*
*—J2rom« and Colonial Stail
Assam*
In tui 4 ^pi|pondlx a note is made on a few of the more important facts
known ton the ittbfect of pmollcat serlenUore in tfaeproriuce of Assam,
Itsays't^
As regards Jbefy fotabaont the; oatnrai diaitnotkm of ilkworma is
iikM'Saeiir^teB are whdiry donaealicated and those which are partially
dosaesticifed. AbOnt the wholly wild silkworms which are oolleetcd
from t]M Jnnglea such as is the ease geoeraUy, though not invariably,
in India With the taiar snkwo^ni, little need be said. It may, no
donhtibe possible to give some artfneal stimulfii to their produotfoo,
and in a sense they may then he said to be partially oultlrated. Also
manyot the wild silkworms maybe capable of being domestioated
This if a point whtohd*^ only be determined by experiment. It may
be doubtful whether Jay targe trade in wild silkworms be possible in
Ibis provfnCaj>at when onoe (be coeoons have been collaoted, the
general rehijw which Ore made below on the subleot of sorting the
coooons, and patdclng and despatching them, wlU apply to this class
equally with the other olasiee.
The chief partially-domesticated silkworms of this provtoca* are the
muga or moonga, ike tasar or katkuri, and the Attaeut attag*
The two latter, the tasar and the atttutf arc also found in a wholly
wild state, and a silkworm, probably the same as the muga of Assam,
is fonnd wholly wild in Oaohar. Some of the other wiki silkworms of
this province aro said to have been partially domesticated* In Assam
the muga may be said to be wholly domestioated, but in its general
treatment corresponds to the tasar and atlast and other wild silk
worms which have been at timee partially domesticated, and it is
convenient therefore to consider the muga as ot this partially domesti¬
cated class.
The difference in treatment ot this class of silkworms consists in
this, that they are led out ot doors and not kept within houses, The
muga eggs are laid on small bundles of grass ot straw, half the thick¬
ness ot a finger, and tied to the trees before they are batched. The
ninga worms are reared on the trees, and standmg in the open, and
not on leaves ooHoeted and given to the worms in bouses, as; is the
cAse with Pat and Eri. Great care has to be taken to destroy the
ants, which would otherwise kill the • silkworm. This is frequently
done by putting baits of molasses, fish, Of dead toads, at the loot of the
tree. But. besides these enemies, the presence of a large eolleotioo
ot silk worms is sure to attract other euemioa. crows, wasys, and the
iobuoumon by day, bats, owls, and rats by night, will, unless guarded
against, destroy great numbers of tbo silkworms,
The silkworms themselves are prevented from leaving the treo by
bauds of some smooth substance, such as fresh piaictaiu-leaves, over
which they oannot craw). If all the food of the tree has been eatou,
they are allowed to descend, and collected and put on another tree.
When about to spin, they will descend the trunk until arrested by the
plantain leaver They are then collected In baskets, aud over these
baskets are suspended branches of dried leaves, op which they crawl
and form their cocoons. Many silkworms drop off the trees, aud the
ground under the trees on which they feed should therefore be kept
clear, to enable them to be easily fonnd and replaced on the tree.
Oantinual heavy rain is apt to wash them off the tree, but otherwise
they seem Co be able to protect themselves from tbo rain by crawling
under the leaves.
A curious fact which has been noted lu regard to these paxlially-
domestioated moibeie that it frequently happens that if a female moth
be fastened out at a convenient place at nlgut, a wild male moth will
lilscover and impregnate the former. This fact is sometimes made
use of to sirengthsin the broad of comparatively wild silkworms,
which seem often to deteriorate nnder domestication.
A further point may be Incidentally mentioned,—that crosses between
different kinds of silkworms have often been attempted, and with
Borne encesss, but this sttb|eot requirsa too elaborate treatment to be
conveniently dealt with here.
Of the remalDing cocoons, after the selection has been made for
breeding, e further sortlnt will have to be made.
The French growers sort the cocoons of the siogte oommou silk
worm iJSm^ya mri) intones many as nine varieties, distinguishing
the good cues from those in which the worm has died, aud making
other disdnotioDs required by the trade. The reeling of silk from
the cocoons is nearly all oone on the Ocntlnent of Europe, aud i
principally la Ihe south of Fkaoce* As a branch of manufacture
'eeliogis unkaown In England, which latfefSf^uut^ only works up
he reeled eiik. The trade in eoooous would ffiprelore be, ot least at
Irat, with France, ai4 for the purpofc ot ascertaining what aisorU
neii^fi^oopooim was required, It would bh nseessary for the gfcwer to
put hrmteUlnoommunicatlon. through his agents, or otherwisej wUU
Ihe manufactorew of |hat ocan(ry. There would be no what¬
ever in thlS| and men oim tt wercasoertidned In what mafmec the
soocone abontd be sorted) there ought to be little practical difflcutty
n sorting thm In deBpatohtngepsolmeii bales the point of impor-
auce would naturally be to make ihe bales as like ihe samples as
possible land prObimy at first it would be well to make as many ois-
iuoUoQS in Che ooooona at were readily ootieeahlei nod to err on the
>ide of oveiomlantedletlaettoiii father then etheiiriic. The manm
Potmen mpM «t onee »olaft oat whlA
mpoftmie, and ^foi
Tax Amerioane seem determined to try everything. ProleBeor
Biley has reported favourably to the Agdonttural DepUrtninnt
on the prosi^e of allk-raltdng in the l^uited Btat^ For
many years Frofeesor Biloy hue given much attention to the habUa
of the ailkworin, and siuco he became eonneotod with the Agrlcnl^
I iural Department he has been oonducUng experiments ih silkwonn
I culture. He has now put forth a report embodying the result of
his studies, in which he taken the ground that tbo enUnre of the
worm and the manufacture of silk may be made an metensivo nod
profitable industry in the United States. At present there in no*
homo market for the cocoons; but that objection Professor Blfey
bopes will soon be overcome. In the course of an extended series
of tests, the Professor finds ibat the mulberry may bo entirely
dispensed witb, and the leaves of the Osago-prango—a very common
hedge-plant in sections where the climate is favourable to the
silkworm coltare—may be substituted without iu any degree
. impairing the resulL—ihtW.
IMPBOVEMENTB IN EEBUNG SILK.
K eeling sllk from the cocoon has never been profitably done
in this country, In France the operatives oam an average
of ono franc, or 10(f. a day. In China and India tho remuneration
is still smallor. Iu no part of the world, however, does tho silk¬
worm thrive better than iu this country. The mulberiy tree, upon
whoso foliage it fattens, wilt Hourish in our soil, la fact, at this
time, hundreds of thousands of dollars* worth of the eggs alone
are exported from OnUfornia, Kansas, Missouri, Lonisiana, and
other Btates, to Europe and Asia, becaiise of their superior quality*
In ihe existing process, tho cocoons aro put into a vessel of hot
water, aud there in the foltiug of silk of which they are composed
is softened. Thic felting, though one-eighth of an inch thick, is
made up of a fiingle thread, and when softened aud a slight
pressure ie brought iu bear upon tho end of the thread or filament)
it unravels with facility. From flvo to seven of these fliameiits
aro joiQe<l to makeup a larger thread. This work has always been
done by hand in great pait. Bteam is sometimes used to draw
those threads, but tho difficulty is that the machinery oannot be
stopped quick enough when the filaments part, and for this reason
the thread formed by joining several filaments is likely to be far
fromuuifurm in thickness.
XCdward Sorrel, Jr., an engineer, became much interested in eilk
culture two years ago, after reading an exhaustive article on tho
subject. There the difficulty of reeling the staple was clearly
demonstrated. He fancied that the problem might be solved with
doHuato electrical machinery. He, visited tho Paterson silk
fttotoriea and others, and after making many designs, finally hit
upon ail automatio machine that he believes will fill the required
conditions. This machine, which he has patented both here and
in Europe, was exhibited recently. Mr. Serrell says it is ah
improvoment upon the French, Italian, and Ohinese reels. It hak
au electric stop motion by which, while several reels are run at a
time by an operative, they iu effect watch tUemselvos, or rather tho
electricity watches, much more sharply than could tbo most
experienced operative, and if the thread or any single filament
suddenly parts, the reel «s suddenly stops aud the filament is
united. The little oontrivanco over whioh each filament runs is
about an inch in height and is deliberately poised upon a rivet that
ruuB through it, and Is sustained by standards. When the filament
is runuiog steadily across it, it is stationary, but if tUo filament
breaks, its two little arms fall mto a gutter filled with mercury,
oonneoting with the battery. This at once completes the circuit, a
little bell is rung iu tho engine room, aud the machine is at onco
stopped. By this means an ordinary operative (Mr. Serrell says),
may^^ly reel from thirty to forty pounds of silk in a week with
certainty and ease.
Tho silk industry of this country is valued at 2fi)000,00O dols*
aud tho whole silk trade at ahfitit 50,000,000 dols. Tho cocoons
aro raised hare, sent abroad (a. be reeled) aud then brought back in
the form of twist to be Paptr*
mmmn
^ dwiiwfi^ te «l| i;dr(#9y I
w1»0.li%f01)|M»I tdihout ^0 lojivetf ^liiA llonii ib^ir
proinfffSi m woAfc to food, fite Wea^m t^tho woi^d Ar«
iibus/ ^0 a groat extent tbt^irn> baek u|K>n the enj»^liea Irem Ckina^
wtiare the mannfaoture of ellk tree firet t^ae^eed aoriie tiro
tliboeaud ireate, aa ia enpi^ed^ before the Chtiitian era, Aeeord-
log to Gibbon, the first introilnotiou o! the manefa^are into
B(^op0 waa made by dnatinlati, ih the tdxth oentnry, and It ia eatd
that in the twelltb century it found fte iray into 6^)y, whence
the fiaraoena imported It into Spain in IgSfi. The li'reneh do not
appear to bare praotiaed it tifi the aixtoonth oeotary, when
Franoia 1. planted it at Lyone, its present atronghold ; aud
Kogla^d not before 15S5, when It was brought orer from Antwerp
tp London. Of late years the importation of raw silk from China
to tl^oonntiy has eoormouelyinoreased, while, aooordfng to some
astatislloal tables in ihdSiaiiaif its value has declined in something
like an Inverse ratio. In 1367 the imports are set down as
amounting to only 40^000 lbs., averaging 25s. per lb. This
<;[ttanti(y was more than doubled in the next year, while the price
fell to 22s.; and in 1862 the imports trebled the amount of the
preoedlng year, while the prioe, instead of again falling, advanced
a littlp. 1873 may be taken as the year when a limit began to be
found to the great expansion of the trade, and the imports had
then leached almost exactly three million pounds, while the price *
waa almost exactly There have boon some fluctnationa since
then, caused chiefly by the comparative sucoesa or failure of the
Kuropeau crop. Thus the value of the imports in 1874 woe under
two inilUons sterling ; whils in 167G, when the Karopoan growers
had a bad year, their value was ^ miliiona, and the quantity
imported reached the high flgore of very nearly five milfionB of
pounds, ^le price lost year was 17s. 3^., after having varied in
tlie seven preceding years between 14s. 3d., which was the lowest,
and 20s. fld;, which was the highest charge paid.*-*Gh7^s.
ADYEBTISMENTS,
THE BENGAL PURVEYING CO.,
GBNBBAL DBALBBS AND OOMMISSION AGENTS.
ai^2, Municipal Market.
P fiOVlSIONS, Indian condiments, crockery, gWss, hardware, clothes,
and every description of household ccquislfaes supplied at the
lowest Bssar and Market rates.
Terma Strictly Oash.
In order to gain oonililenoe we undertake to despatch goods, on
receipt ol the first halves of ourreiioy notes ot drift for ihirty days j by
this arrangement oar ooDstituents will have the option ot approving or
rejecting the articles supplied*
Country Produce, sold on Gomxnission.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
T SB Lahorktery of the undcrsignwl is open for all deserlptiona of
c<^micai ^alysifl (either cOmpIeto^or for particular consiM .tints
only), in* udtD| waters, minerals, ores, agricultural and tnannXacturcd
prMuete. ac.
SPEOtAhlTY. j
A K ALTSIB of soils and manures and reports upon the Improvement
, of lauded estates.
Fee for analysis of soils, iuoiniing report .. Ka 32
Do. do. of manures .. „ Ifi lo 32.
EUGENE 0. BPUHOOTKSr,
ACTttOH .OI»
** PfHfidof XlAtMmal 4firk}ilivrt> io and Ufi ,
Gil«attii, 35, mowHngheaBoa^ -
Fiwt 0* s.^ r«|» “ ■■ •,
' -p^fawFi^- ^ »• Si- ' ■'
I 2^8® "* ' Wf ' ' tM k .1 W ’ , M
10 pgr mt, reOlution e* lit ' •
amOBQBSTBBST, Jt«»,. ■ Acm ■ , ’
BATBS aSHDT ft 00., ... 4, md Jmrg, imtiml, A<i:
BUDOn»ap»liCBOWBm<ic(t, Hamm,
FRIEND OP INDIA & 0Ci|SgIAt.
(W»ih/muin,}
SATss or avasoatrvfoer.
t Jdifance Rato, Tcm*
For 12 months .20 0 22 0
M 6 montba ..It 0 12 o
Bintrle Copy, A.«, 8.
Agaiitg In tBofidon:
GEORGE BTRBET, $«).,... CornhUL
K ALGAB, Esq., ... 8, OknmttdOne, R.G.
NIOHOtili» k 00., ... 1, R. 0.
BATE8 HENDF k 00.4, OU Jmn, /iVadca, E,0.
Bsan OrpicB^-S, OnowBixfiBSK, Caii/currA.
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,» 12 0
Ctosli Saleg at Office, two annas per oppy.
Cark SaU$ tn Bireefs, two mmi pot c<^y,
BACK NUMBERS AVAiUBlE AT 4 ANNAS PER COPY.
AU snnsoaiwioNs unpaid within 15 datb op a raasi will
22 OBAUaUD AT TBS AU^AU aAT28.
▲genta in Xiondon:
GEORGE STREET, Ebq., ... amMU.
P. ALGAB, esq., ... S, Clmmtidant, j&iuedea, G.
NIOHOLLS k 00,, ... 1, mitdftiaro^root, E. C,
rates HENDY a Co.4, Old /#wry, tmdm, If. a
Hbad Orrios^, Coowanroiiav, CAi.cunA.
■ INDIAN ECONOMIST.
T O MWchants, District and Revenue Offii^'Tlaiitera, Indigo anc
Silk Manufacturers, Zemindars, and oil interested in the Agri
culture, Minei'alvgy, and SiatiiUos of l^dia.
FOB tiAJ^g
THBBACk VOLUMES OF ME-
*'Xa4iau BoonomiaiV
*«A4rfi^tttmI GaMetliG of India,"
'«8tat|mofldi Bepopter/^
SalLbound, as» notr |roem
}jPfkit k$g 8 pet Vokm, : ^ ‘
These volubieift, edeb of whidi is mplftte Sn aV
literatni^ of the last MX years on the
other induttfies id thecouAtry, drawn ttm ofiM and ftivameouroef,
formhtg a mass of elMiMfiad and Indexed ^iiidarbtatloB that can bi
obtains nbvYbwe ciie.
Ai^ly to’tlm
? iomifAL OF INDIAN AmCULTUBE, MINERALOGY,/.ND SVATmiCS.
VOL. IV.I CALCUTTA; WEDNESDAY, 1st OCTOBER 1879
' ' NOTICE.
Tftn liiDiAS AamouLtUEiST will ho supj^Ued (o all Schools and
[No. 10.
Missionaries in India at haSf pHctf.
«
Oaf<jU%ta» 1876<
B. KNIGHT.
CONTENTS:
C0»ttttSJ?C)»»*NCB‘- ji
The Arftk»« ^Ixi^iiraeatiU
Furm, M vouktotittg ... 837
Oliewlmojff* Twe ... ... 837
Bee<Koe^ag. 8*8
lieana Luxoriaus ..., .«• 828
. Crttl. T,rt» ... ... „ ... *48
MdasoremasU of Teak ^j^reet 3^28
Ati JSupeviRtattt ia the
Pr<yvideea «» ... 828
Bamboo Paper... ... ?2I)
The Briabantt ExMbiUoii m. 329
A New Weather Tbeory ... 889
TbYoaol ... .. 830
K Caie of Freud ... .» 88*
Tobacco CnUivatjUm ..331
Kotegurh Notes ... ... 33‘i
LkAPINO AUTICLB3— •
The Drawbacks to sttccessln
Tea .832
FarwijWeeda ... 383
ModerTarms for Bengal ... 886
Fpitouiai. Noias .830
CoMMltNlCATkU & SBLVCTBD-^
The llovea Agricultural So-
rvPty bf NngUnd at KIN
bum *.337
SttUllower Oake fqr Cattle «*. 888
Ouliivariou of Ooree ... ... 388
Charoual Applied to Jlovti-*
culture .888
Artealau WoUh lu Ceabral
Auetralia ... m. ... 833
The Pitcherl PUnt ,.388
Fly>Cabchldg Plaute.839
Pastoral Bees .... 389
Deatmetlou of Foeests ... 3Al
Comparative Vaioe of Oak
Bark . U\
Cattle Mhrnire Brp^rtoat ... 841
Agriculture iu the Nizam’s
Dominlona ... ... 342
Bamboo Paper .342
The Yam Tribe .840
The Cork Tree ... ... .. 844
Wilful Water Waste in the
Madrae Pceaidetioy ... 344
Ceylon l^a: 3Cr^ Charles
Bhand’s Patent Proooas of
Prej^TaUon ... 346
The Present Condition of
Jodmn Agrionlture ... 349
Maouring Band wltU Fossil
Sholls , ... .S. ' lit* 347
TlmTaiiteoitGoeoanukBetiite .
I^operty ... ,** 347
jihimaeb ... ..347
• Paob.
Native Opium Crop. : .347
Polarifloopio tents of Cano ... 848
The RiiBsmn Cora Beetle ... 049
Corn Beetle Machines ... 849
The “Nuisances” of Old
*Eogland ..849
Manutiug Wheat at Sowing
Time ... ... 349
The Musacom^r Plantain
Order .359
Charcoal .. 360
Ilojal Botanical Garden,
Caloatta.361
Agri-HortiouUnral Society of
India .8{1
Bameh Fibre.* 362
Tjie GAnnBK—
Fruit in California .363
Natural History Notes from
Burmah.. 363
FottESTitr-*
Notes . 384
Seod<Time ... ... ... 364
A Monster Ijog ^ .864
A Buried I*’orost .364
The Forests of h'iniand ... 065
MlNERALOav—
Notes .. .356
Facts about Coal .» ... 366
Report ou the Alpha Gold
Mine In 8outU*East Wy-
naad ... *.■ ... 365
Tun Fiianrfias’ Uazrtxb—
Tea-
Notes .369'
Tea on the Neilgborrios 3d»
Java and Japan Tea , .. 3RU
ToattrolUug Machinery ... 380
Copfsa-*-
Notca ... .^ ... 380
Parasite of tlie CotEce Plant 301
Ijiberian Coffee .38*
CiNCffONA—
Notes ... .. .. ... 3Q)
Valuable luformatiou ilcgard-
iug Oltmhoua .SGL
White-ants Attacking Cm>
choua .36 L
Tobacco—
ludiau Tobacco ... ... 362
Tohaeoo Xmprovoe the Boil .. 362
BurtidULTuan^
. Silk in Ouvdaspore ... ... 862
J^lk-prpduolng Dombyoes ... 362
' i^aBtiaEMBUTS .863
COkBESPONDBHCB.
THK ARAKAN RXFEIUMRNTAL jrARM,
MYOUKTOtJNO. *
... . . . . . ... .
, IJOTIOE TO COkKESPONDENTS.
Oiin* 0f^^mdsntf and Oontrihutorh unit greklj/ ohligs ua
the returns of cxdtioation are
tUded wsi^^t and meoaure^, tp gm their *
MngHsHs 0hip in ’ the text, in parenthesis, or in a
/oot'^ole* J%e blgah in p^^tieutar oar^e' «p muck in the dif’^
/rent PrtndMe$i 4ha^ i$. dktetuUljii ntemary to give the
Mn^^h vtdue 4aifes^, ii6 he a great re/om
iftfve Qpaernmat (ieel/ follmed iki eem tmree in all the
vjickd renorte Mliehed hy iu •" \
to THB KBlTOtt.
Sib,— In your editorial notes (July last) you exprcaa a wish “ to learn
wbeihet tobacco i« succeeding thero (in Arakao, I suppose you tneaii,
siuoe you name Dr. Brown, though yon say Bomah) or not.” To
set your miud at rest on this pofnt, I assure yOu that tobacoo does
not only succeed there, but grows most luxuriously and much batter
than 1 have seen it thrive in auj other part lu Jadia, nnd I have
been over almost every part of It, To give you only one tnifanoe. In
Arukan 1 have grown, and (hat without applying manure—Government
not supplying me with any—hut only a littia wood ashes which I
scraped together in the villages, here and there, Virginia and other
aorta of tobacco ; leal 32 inches long, and fine enough to make the
Very beat goi(k leaf, and if it has not turned out so, the extremely
limited amouat of labor, and bad at that eretif and the want ot a
proper caring-house, are alone to blame.
Should you desire more tu format ion on this Subject, X have to refer
you to the appendix of the Government GoS^te in which it was intend*
ed my monthly reports should be published, Xt this has not been
done, I suppose GoTcfuiuent has its own reasons for this, Howeveri
it you can obtain Government sanction for it, 1 shall be most happy
to supply you with copies of them all.
0. H. % SOHOBNBMANN,
Zmie Bupdl., Myouktouug Bxperimeutal Farm.
1, Ballygaugo, September 8tb, 1879,
OHAULM.UGRA TBEE.
SiB,—1 bad the pleasure of reading in year issue of June laei an
article couoernmg ibe ** Indian piantaadapted foroommetoial purposes/'
by John B. Jackson, A.li.S.
The said article calling the attentiou of the reader to several useful
plaubs which arc to he found in India, states that the most important
of ally is the gywoardia eiloraia^ or ahaulmgra tret, on aooouut of the
great use, for cutaneous or skin diseases, of Che oil extracted from its
seeds, as used in several hospitals of Loudon and Paris.
Asserting that the abovementioned tree isa uative of Pegu, Tenasserim,
nud other parts of the Malayan Peninsula, extending as far at AHam,
Kassiay aud Bikhiiu, states as well, that, U has not reached to the
central and western parts of India. It fa with regard to the last asiei*
tiou that X take the liberty of writing the following lines :•*-
1 have known in many villages of Goa a tree which some perlone
call Kofuty aud other Kounty^ and which 1 think may ha ideutiSed as
gynoeardia edemfn, Boxb. or hydnooarpus odoratm, Liodl, This tree
has all the obaraoleristios of the genera hydmeArpHt euoh as dioecloue
or anlsexual flawers wUb 6 sepals^ 6 pimls, itauteus 5, pistil 6.
But ot the three spUoles, whtOh form this genera, are described in
the Stand h&ek of th» Indian Flora, by Keber Drnry, the A» odoratus
oulfi bas charaoteristles more oonfonant to Goa Xornty, The h* inehrians
bas its bares erenately—se.wated, whereat (be leaves ot JSsuaty w
enttfe and aeuminate, as the A. odoratus, the ftoweVi of h, iiWbrtans
being small and white, and those ot £omty not very satall, but of a yel*
luwisb or pale* yel low colour. Besides, the fruit of A, inebrianSt according
toifi<yA Ckgtwnh^ Furest^ i$mtth India ie used for poisoning fishes, but
as fegards the fruit of £mty, U is not known in Qua that it has been
used for the same, purpose. The A. alpimis has entire or uncut leaver
but not acumiimte^ aud ihe fiAwers are bt a Whiilsh green odour, theta
cbaraUterietloe beljug 4ifltd dXBefcut froth those (ff JHoKtty which, as I
have already «aid| Imn ygHowiib fiowers and aoamlnaie leaves, like
those of hiOderatusi
t )wM«i ^ pnif ^km In i^iofu
•bftddocAr,«iWf l|3rlike thfttof ^ v ,
h ^ iNr 4t «ftfMted lt9m X:mtp iii«d I 0 V «y|erM) ^
and piirp^Mi, bM proved very PnwMiA io oiw ot eataneoiii
or skia dfieaeei, end bm ati oopleannii toate add mp\l for ibaoe
reiiooe 1 a«a iaelioed to beHeve tiialonr if Uif <ihai^lindgrft tree
afroftbeipM^ aa I oaooot nlj 00 my limited knowledge of boiepy,
1 feed you lierewitb a branott of with ita leavea and floweri aa
weU aa a tonder frait of tbonme, tiopiagyoa will be good enough to
let me know wtietbor my aappoaitioir in tbia matter la well founded,
If ao, yen may reat aaaured that in tbia country a very good quality of
tbta oil ii obtainable for a low price, as there are many treea of that
kind which geaaratly grow without much eare in damp and cool Mila
on llte brlnka of atreama.
The tfiiU which 1 tend you ie pounded heoauae it ia the only meana of
fending it enotoaed In a letter.
J. DJB UIBl^LO DBI 6A&1PA10,
Captain of Baglneera in the Fortogneae Army.
Tgu are right in your anrmise, the plant of which you sent apecimena ia
the 0yn0ffardia odorata or Cbaalmagm.—£I d., i. A,
BEE-KEKPING.
' «oi^iit^:3E^n0|t^kdi|^li)l^
wOidhynltlMi'lAtfnUdii';if/^^^|S^ tke
marginf ol the ik^0Qn 4bd\^^iifT pupbMly
auited to the growth of tMk, aap'| amoqnvihbfd plenta*
Ilona could be raiaed tberedh, vr|th Tery^'lltlto it4^
required. “
lappend IhfrffuKfOf my ij}vefti|aUone :«* ^
No. of
trees
Averaffs jgirth
at 8 k« from
Total avcfige
halghh
''iO'
inaaiured,
1
grotiud.
7v inohss
50
6 in.
years.
80
3
551 M
59n
0 ..
• 10
4
47 „
05 „
80
16
18 M
38.,
9
H
76
18 „
55 „
Ol,
1
3 36i M 33 n 0 .1 * 10 > at Cemheoondiq. s
i 47 „ 08 Pu 30 J
lb 18 M gg;, 9,. H... AiCabiftalam.
76 1 ft ftii A V I liower Cola.
35w 0., 7 j rtenAnicut. .
By comparing thefe resnlta with those obtained from ireff of eimiler
age in the Nllambur plantaiiona, It will beaeen that the grbwrh lathe
Delta of the Can very la in no way Inferior to that ajltidned In the n^tire
home of the teak tree. * ^
B. E.C 1 BEQOBMAN,
^ Cfptaiaf B.S!.
Tanjore, 37th Anguat 1879.
8iBf—In reply lo B. E., I beg to atatethat Quioby'a New Bee*keeping
ia out and out the best work, and that it ia to be obtained from Orange,
Tudd& Co., 245, Broadway, New York, for $1*50.
BEE.
Kumaon, 8lb September 1679.
REANA LUXUniANS.
/ StB,*^Yoa may perhaps be g>ad to be able to publish a aucceia*
fnl experiment with Beana Luxoriana in these parla. 1 hare therefore
muoh pleasure in informing you (hat both here at Pachmarhl and also
In the plaina below at a place called Paohlaora, the plant has succeeded
very well indeed, and ia a far aoperlor fodder for cattle of all kinds
to the much vaunted hut useless Prickly Oomfrf>y, which grew here
too, well enough, but of which cattle would not taste a second time
while they eat the Beana greedily to the last ebred,
L. OOBDON,
Afalataut Commiaaioner,
Pachmarhl, O.P„ 8rd Sept. 1879^_
CATTLE PE8TS.
Sla,—I shall feel greatly obliged by any of your readers eaggaetlDg
a remedy for ihose pesta^ibe dans and stUuI» that infest the cattle
folds in tbia country. The former is a sort of big fly that aeuda Its
sting ao deep beneath the akin that it almost invariably draws blood.
The peasants born dry dung cakes in the cow-boums to keep off these
posts, bat not always iucceaifally.
The satalf la a sort of vermin that manages to attach itself hard
wherever it finds a nook or hiding place in the body. They are almost
Invariably to be found in the angle behind the ends. An sntuh can
only be pinched oil from the body with great difficulty, and when taken
off, blood is found to ooae out of the spot where It bad attached itself.
Should oleanlloess be the only remedy, what partioular poiuta of clean*
lineaa should be attended to,
A NATIVE,
29 th August 1879.
The first mentioned post ia a large fly which stings freely, and ti e
other is the common tiok,—Ex>., 1. A.
MEASUBEMEETS OF TEAK TIIEB8.
Sib,*-A perusal of the sports upon the teak pUntations at Nilambu
in the Wynaad iatrlct, and of the teak loreeta in Burmah, which
appeared in yonr issues for May and July last, induced me to have the
measurements taken of such teak trees ai 1 lound scattered through iha
Tatijorc district either s\ngl;f or In email plantations. The largest
number (82) of trees in any plantations here which 1 have come across.
is that to be feund at the Lower Ooleroon Anlout ahod^ 15 milea north
uf (lombaoonum.
The soil in which all these trees are growing, is allnvIAl, and oonsiste
of sandy loam deposits brought down by the Elver OinVery, The
teak was introduced into the district by the late Bsjab fiurfojeh of
T«nJore, and a very fine specimen with a diameter ^4 inchos at 0
feet abofg tho ground WM lately growing in thf> ob^koomponAd ai^
this station. It was out down some five years vt a ^ohable apa of
59 years, and wont to make a large portion olthacburubfornltar#/ The
AN EXPBUIMBNT IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCEB.
hiR,-*Might 1 ask the favour of your inserting in yonr columns the
following balanoe*sheet ol an enterprising but mined native leather
mannfaotnrer in this district? If yon oblige me, | will briefly, In a
future issue, remark on the very striking features which it diioloses,
and will try to explain how It happens thgt with raw material and
labour, abendad^ and cheap to a dagree-^perbaps unknown elsewhere**
the craft has been carried on at an ahiolote loss
Bs. A. r.
lllyfwholunre was bought at ... ... 1 12 0 psrewt.
Lime „ ... ,M ... 0 8 0 „
Amaltas bark f „ ... ... ... 1 2 0 „
Lmseed oil ... ... ... U 0 0 ,,
Skilled labour at ... ... 4 0 0 per mouth.
Goat skius „ ... ... ... 0 3 6 each.
Yet ihia anfortunata pioneer of industry, who mads an mmellsut
artioie, found nothing like leather aa a road to ruin,
GHABLES W. HoElNN.
Baipur, 24tb August 1879.
Acoount shewing the receipts and payments on account of tanning
goat and sheep skins, oommenoiog from 1st March 1875 to end of
July 1879,
BXOBIPTS.
. By salQ of 26.308 goat aud sheop skins at dlffsrent ratm as dotailad
below—
B«* Bs. A. P. hs. A. P
0.462 goat iRtsortatSS per 100 „ 1,747 18 S
2,087 „ Snd do. 18 do. .. 087 10 0
8,64$ sheep tot do. 20 So. .« 1,729 0 0
0,264 „ 2nd do. U do, LOIS « 8
By sale of 1,446 obaUnn skins to Bhoe.miikem Which
wore destroyed in the lime, at Bs. le
period .. 144 0 7
Do, 1,128 itlsoes skins oaten by wbits^aut and
insQota dfAtroyed in lime ,, 38 4 0
Total .. 2/»69 167 is 7
.Bfl. A.P.
hs. A. P,
per 100
.. 1,747 18 e
do.
do.
do,
.« LOia « 8
8,088 8 8 .
. 0,055 5 S
B\ sain of wool 8,6881 seers at dlSeient rates—
S4U seeinatBeesrs par rupM
»O0 do. 8# doT
1,867 do, 8 do.
W9 8 S
5888 14 Vo
M74 7 ar^
m 4 1
* Bans.
t Dhnabar diaU«\
8 87 , 8266474 .
90 w destroyed by whiiskLiifiSi
8^86 net sold." 4 <
i?ASl|asisrrs* n*. jlp.
«»lam* rt W;WT iM* wJ «iW >!■>»« -»»« "■*“»“ ■■
•< g »J
M ««• ^O- " ------
88 1 7
ToW' >., 3^8| • ——
SHwdiMot «l» P»“*^,£S. “"“T '^!^." *‘- ’«» */,
’ 8414 per pflJW .'.;« *• ., .. 85 4«
Op. K««*
* so» * JO- \l aoi ^
• S ', t I*
P.y<tf«t.Ml*»eat ftp® «<«h«W ^
.. .
80 ao. e ao* ..
840 0 0
1^7 13 0
CoW'dung oi*k®8. each
840 mud po«» pur^jwed at 0 pio mcu
8,0,15 6 1
840 murtpowymru^w**:^"-'- ,, .. . i-r ««
ruffiaw ot basl^ jj^^ch to
220 14 0
WiwtSp/ efiaVi ttqt^ti <• »■«""<"« **”“”
In Hoira .®
„ Umo.. ■•. • •• “ »
:-ota«»",.-* •• ••«•>
bamboo papbb.
8ilC-l«Bdl«»‘htaH.Ueop,otoar P.P.,
1.W lot “
1 wnliOB UlMO two loot., <i^»od ' „g bomhoo .t.u.s
ollha uawoHMtod mi(«tUoj»ol Dt. Kin*. t»«T“ » ^ low.oott
waald not •*****?*xhaao IW®* owtogod
■T.£?is?£:sii -rir,:::;
attnn»|*-«V«o**d,^ttil thoto'JIJauaoilU, tt not impotplblo.
dht, whMb OHM oo«bu,6d with tho 11 ^ 1^ 0^0 ^
**li>?Ttenwl«Mt ptODOtiS ol i»M»f P'»»t*tb»» oodot IrelgaliOB.
ijrittttll#»**W*P^ too* ottUU bamboo Into
sSsSStSH'sSSsH
rinKrtyteni^
loitoThMUkop tata wa»«toeh.«>ap«P«»
4 Bark
.oljoodqiiritVtlhrthtbtVlp*^^^^ «wU»»WKW»» W
I hat* hUborto w»lj UihMiW«Mly,fijil^aa',- ., '. I:]-. [
' ’;i- f HOMA8 BOOitSMit.
Claitliettgk ' ::'
S&th Attguit 18T9. , ' -
Tho aunfloo wterrod to by Mr, Ya*
ohowS to anyoiia ioteuwted, atiy da y botya4»,U S 6 cloolt.-»to^ 1. A.
IHB BRI^BASE EXHIBITION.
BlB,-Th* Hrtlonal Aitloultaral and f^fCrtmo?
QiiJ? 4 ^iid ban Jtt*t l»ld ttialt foortb anattal aahlMtoa M Bth^a.
H not otowned with that .u«8a*.*bloh ha. Ultbrnta ‘^**^“*
of th. .awgy dlH.lay.d by th. ..woiatlon,
who bare wUneM.d pait eiblblllon. 1», that th* pw»nt on* “
iotenitiRK thwharaa* j*t wlto***»d. Thaw ate two «*«»*» Mdiag
to mak. It «.f All the prawn, eahlblt*"U1 befotwcdrf *» Sj^fer
tobadi.play.dat th. International coming «a then. >*
neat, and which had Induced QeaenelandeM •* *®7 "f "^''
stale ol the cattle trade, the trade on which Queendand Uae hUh
almoet wholly li.ed, Which being ooMlderably depteewd owing to
ovoNprodnclloD.heelndnoedmen, with meaae howe.et •mall, to make
tentaUrea In the oalabltahment o( oth.t produetlT. poraolt., Th*
raanlt ia that at the proMut ethlbltion ate to be found apaotOMn. Of
almoat e«rything produced or to be met
Qaeenslaiidera tliomseWea are wonderwBtrudU Id fiad prtotidftjly »
rich tbolr mloptod ooantry roally is. AuBtrallaiw aw coBimOBly anjl
justly credited with ao ftittouat ol vain and oonoaltad notion or tna
capabilities of tbeii cooutry, bat If any of the other Australian Colonies
are able to show up so well as Qaeenitaad has done at this moment,
outsiders will look upon this blow about their country as a rery pardon-
ablevieo. The quantity of the exhibits was not ia proportion to the
extent of country, but it Is to their quality that wo must direct our
attention.
Foremost amongst the Industries stands that ol sugar, Tb« Moiplea
exhibited were good but lew. This industry started in 1800; in 1807
168 tons were produced, the crop for the preieut yeer 1 have estimated
at 14,000 tons. There are at present about seventy mills at woik
Qneeiisland exports more than ball of her produce.
aVJocco.—This industry may be said to bare ticuily established itself.
Ithasbadmany trials to go through, but is now practleally tbrirlng.
The difficulty has been, not with the production of the leal but with
the curing of the same. Like sugar It grows sucoessfulJy from the
Herbert river to very nearly the boundary of N. fcJ. Wales.
rc/ee.-Tbere were only three exhibits. The plant has thriven
hitherto wherever It has been tried from the neighbourhood of Lrisbane
to Haokay and the Herbert river. It is however not expected to
develop to any extent until there Is a greater amount of cheap labor.
' Amongst the most iutofcsting exhibita were those of Queensland.
' grown hbtee adapted for paper-making and other purposes (thee* were
^ exhibited at 1‘arls) and two samples of jute grown near Brisbane.
These fibres aro engaging considerable attention, for now that the fact
^ of their growing well, and it is to beguppossd profitably has been
* established, it will not be long before wc see factories started. Cotton
! which ouoa bid fair to be a staple Indnstry, has almost totally collapsed,
‘ the want of cheap labor and tlie withdrawal of the aoverumaot bonus
are looked upon us ihe chief caases. Arrowroot ia largely grown, and
® hue for some time pust firmly established itself. There am Several
^ factories in the colony, and I he samples exhibtled bear witness to the
’ superiority of Its quality. Tumeric and indigo are poshing, and ginger
appears to bo already a staple product. Though yams and cassava
I were poorly represouted, ihey thrive well. Besides the above, citrons,
u lemons, limes, oraugei. oumquats, plae apples and bananas ware. If not
1 larselv, at least well represented. Of coooanute strange to say there was
t only one exhibit, name) y. from Uaokay. Ooilectlon. of Indigenoas grasps
Z wero both interesUag and iriairnoilvej owing to the extermiiiaUoo of
mwytoough ther«.kle« .lepMlerio, byahaep «»a lU. prem...-
*, tlon ol a»H*a .»«•• “<• ®‘ I"*'*" **“
!“ lamly oe.-.pi .4 ooMWemWe ettoattoa ou the pmt ol the ^^Her^
^ wU«mpleeolrloein .■»e.U»a urMo«hlbltea; itie lst«.iy
*' iiown 00 the ooort Jungle Unde. About U »»'>«« *>“'»]•
fo 1877 Aliheugh Ihe Q. iM« U on tbe «holo light, the dutj ou rice ie
nnedallT be»»y to M to flonuferaut Ohlueec (mmigntlou, whioh It
r“ bJirafet date not effieb , The oolleetlon ot Oneenriood ‘"digraou.
tteb«iW»>»wyHeb, gome 409 epeeloiauB moat b«»e been Mhiblted.
„ pmd tolU from tbe vwieig «Kd entent, out.ide« oould ,«dge ^
f!; tbe twlUi “‘•R'' W ■«“ toWtaJ
■" HcDDlIf UtM* 1# »iB» .p|r*b»bm!y Ol * ayslem ol forwt eonse^PI
S «tSwi nul^n ..rrled oul. ih. recklem d«t.uo..on »,W
m
TEE
going on will fe»ttH -In tnnlLfog Qdotnilaadi wbloii bi now tbfi
OoloQy m Inr M iilmbov^ii oottoorned, tbo poortot in Anttrtlin.
luggMiUo at iIm fiohtioii ol tho Qotenslnnd « 0 tii blttMHo
eaUivnUdt teih# 4 biit no ntaottrofi of noy lOH worn onblMiodf
Thtro wa» g Igrigg ooVeotiou of emMatial oils mA Uno^Oteo frnoi indi*-
genoitp pUntir ond otbor uttlvo aooroM; enoilyptoa r«i^9 «a 4 oi^riotf*
Dogoog 0I4 wbiob bad it not been for tlia •pbi’ioai imrtftflont sent
bomoi wpnld at otto tima hava cut oat cpddtt^ar oil, wafi alfo ropfcaabtod
M woUm a Dugoog prepared akin gad a ituSad apeoimOD. MarfOplat
bidaa for wblob there U little eato at preeent were eabibited. Oon-
•Iderliig (be tkoaeaoda of Mareoptale aon^liy deetrojed aimply for tbo
cake of esterminatiou, 1 ( ii really a pity (bat no eeoure and paying
market can be foead for (be ekina, but eren tbeo tbe didiettity retntioa
of bringing them from many mllea inland to tbe eoait railwaya to
markat,
Amoogit the more inatruoUre ooUectione of Natival Uiatory waa a
eaeeoonttaialag a colieotlon of ioeeote lujarioea to (reea and other ptanta
In flew of tbe depreased atate of the cattle market and the low
prioei meat at pretent fetobes, one would bare expected to see eeroral
tneaUpresorfing prooesies exhibited, there nerei however, bet three
firm mho showed np two of the ordinary boiling down process, and
one of tbe Morgen so^oalted lofillratiou prooesa This latter process
whioli was at work some years ago failed ostensibly for want of
management pare and simple, The present exhibit consisted of a couple
of oaiks of tbe iu&Urated meat in brinSk and a buUook's head also
Infiltrated, (bsfore division from the body) whioh after some 5 weekss’
curing emett as fresh as newly-killed meat.
The Becbe<de-Mer and PearUsboU Fishetiee showed their trophies,
bat will 1 understand be better exhibited at the Sydney Exhibition.
Few who have not visited tbe Queeneland mines, can form tbe slightest
oonceplioo of tbe mineral wealth possessed by the Colony. Ti*w
exhibits in this line were both numerous aad rich. The Hpeoiincus
ol gold in quarts were some of the finest and riohoBt known. Silver, iitif
topper, antimony, cinnabar, galena^ and other ores wore largely
represented. Nor was there any laok of precious stones, diamonds,
opals, agates, Ac., both cut and on-cut. Coal, too, the mines of which
are about to receiro a stimnlas, found oumarous admirers amongst
(hose who know, as did also several beautiful pieces of marble, polished
anl raw.
H. L. U.
Brisbane, Queensland, 8th Augaat 1379.
have be«|a a dry petlodi iff ,
wai a wet pei^dd« ' ' "^ '
this hyppih^ii reeelvei pondnna^tiotK'lftt af
ticn ol thwavetajse pricei of'em idarMi| {he , to« .
Ordinarily after a wet edmai^ y«af*i mi^ai; to he,
high, and after a dry eammeir the i^eree^ NoW It i| a^^ high
averages prevailed from 1354 to aad lo# Imm to 1^59 ;
they were up again durinji down la up to 186fi4» ^WO ^
to 1869-73, up in l$7fi-4, and down to
How far these cycles may be shown to ootooldo flth ttto greaiwr
cycle Ql II or 12 yesrs whioh la observed in thb
of spots on the sunh surfaea, is mOto than I have time nobr:to 1
bnt my good neighbours at Sherborne know that^for souie two;of three
years past I have been pointing out (0 them in pnbUo leeturea tnoiA of
tbe things 1 have spoken of in this letter, and t have only to regret that
my foieoasts ” have been more than borne out by the facts.
So much for chroniele* Now for one word of prediction. The
number 1881 Is odd and divisible by 3 ; and if there Iganything in my
theory, that year ought to be the middle one in a triad it hot and dry
summers. 1 am looking forward, therefore, with much eonfldenoe to b
good summer to 1880, followed by two similarly food ones in 1881 and
1882 ; and for the sake of every intcreat in the oottntry, X earnestly hope*
my expectation may not be disappointed.
Ham KOa, F.Bjk,8.
Poyntiugton {teetory, Sherborne, July lfi(St. Swlthto).
THYMOL.
A NEW WEATHER THEORY.
TO TBU BDlTOn OF TEA MADBAS MAtb.
6ib,*>A now and powerful autlseptie and disinfoetont called
** Thymol” has been recently brought (0 the ^tioe of Ihe Medtcal
rrofessiou, and will doubtless soon become known to the public
generally, as it appears to be so tar superior to every other disinfectant
in use that it will probably supersede them all, Thymol is a erystallue
Bubstanoe extracted from Wild Thyme (Origanum Vulgaroi) its
antiseptio power is reported to be eight times as great as that of
caibolie acid, and it enjoys the advantages of possessing a pleasant
fragrant odour, and being perfectly harmless. I have no donht It is
already well-known at the Presidency towns, and my object ik not so
much to recommend it to the public, as to suggest certain uses to
which it may be applied in waidiug ofi, or possibly ouriug sundry
UiseaBca to which humanity is Bubject. Thymol has the power of
TO TUB EPITOB OV TUB MAIL.
hiB,—I suppose everybody on occasion enacts the part of weather
prophet, and sometimes bis prediction oomes true ; but if 1 were to pose
in that character in your columns, and proceed to make the melanoholy
claim of having long foretold the present Uisaic.! season, 1 should
probably get a shrug for my conoeif, if not a laugh ^or my folly.
Dropping, then, the prophet's mantle, and arming myself only with
the chronicler's pen, 1 would like to place on record one or two results
of careful observations 1 have made extending over nearly 30 summers.
The first of these results is that dry and wet periods succeed one
another in alternate waves of nearly equal length. Not that thla
e(]bahty ol duration » quite ahsolutt, or that the wave of one period is
exactly the/hcnsiife of that of a correspondiug period at an earlier or
a later time *, but there la enough of regularity and uniformity about the
waves to make the family Ukeuess clearly diaoernible to any eye that
looks for it.
These periods extend over three whole years for each, and ihi'
following simple rules will enable any one to work out the several
cycles of years for bimseU;.^
1, When the number representing any given year is even and exactly
divisible by three, that year Is the middle one of three odd and wet
summers
2, When the slumber representing tbe year is odd and divisible by
three, then (bat y« ar to the middle one of a triad of dry and hot
summers.
For example, 1860 is oven and divisible by three, and the prevailing
obavacterlstio ot tbe throe years 1859. I860,1861 was wet, or wet and
cold i and, again, 13G3 IS odd aud divisible by three, and everybody
remembers 1802,1863, and 1864 at bright, hot, apd dry summers.
Taking now a range of 27 yeare over which my own personal observa*
tlOQB extend, aud applying the rules just given, the wet aud cold triads
were 1853 5,1850.61,1805.7,18714. and 1877-9, while tbe dry and hot
triads were 1850 8, 18021. 1868-71, aud 1874-6; and without
olaimiug thgt no single year broke loose from this very idfnple order of
seuanc, t leaftenly maintain that all the wet or dry
iammers bf tbl^past 37 years fail aocorateiy 'nditowoitte wetovdvy
pittod as given above I sotbat no very wet year tails in what thoaid
orresUug fermentation ; one part in a thousand is sufficient to efiect
tins; although our knowledge of the aotiou on and in the system of ihe
poisons which onuse certain Idiseases, is still very imperfect, yet we
have leasou to beliove that in many caaea they set apfeimentalioo,
causing putrifaotive changes. Such are the poisous whioh pl^oduoe
diphtheria, cholera, aud typhoid fever, and probably malarious fevers
arc prodttced in the same way.
That drugs possessing antiseptic qualities have ihs power of prsveuU
ibg. arrestingi mitigating, or ouriug certain diseases, we have satis¬
factory proof ; among ihe most powerful may be menttoned carbolic,
nltroua and sulphurous acids* But these and many others have the
drawback of being highly irritant, corrosive, and potobnooe in large
doses. OarboUo acid has hitherto held the first place ha a remedy for
the destruction of low forms ot animat aud vegetafato life, and for
preventing fermentation ; owing to its possessing these pri^ertiea 1
employed it about ten years ago in the treatment internitly of epidemic
cholera, tbe result as far as it went was most satisfactory^; ahont 70
per cent, of my patients recovered; ihe usnal mortality avert^tog 60
per cent. 1 have seen too mneb, however, of tbe vagarlbs of obolera to
make dedaotione from the experience of one epidemic, end have not
Blnqo had the opportunity of testing the value of Uie drag fu any
widespread epldemio. X think from my experience however
* bet lam fully justified in recoannending the more powerful, and at
the eame time more agreeable and comparatively harmlese antieepUe
Thymol to the prevention and treatment of this and other diseases ;
if, as anpposed, ihe poison of f^olera oonststs of a germ «r low
form of life, which sets np fermentation in the eyatem, we have
here apparently a remedy capable of doing baUlo with the enemy, ,
That its employment as a purifier of air and water daring an
epidemic wonid be a safcgnCrd to a great extenti toshactog tbe UabiHty
to contract the ffiseioee, there can, I tbiak, be no doaht| bat I have grSat
hope that to It we'ebali Also find a oure lor tbd disease if admtototend
early, before tbe vital powers heve become fatetly depressed,^ t hive,
by accident, just seen a statement in the Lancst that .Thymoi haa npt
an a|rseabie fisvonr, and that it has conietxm^tjy been prepared jn
oapsfilei each oontatoieg onb grain of the ingrodfent, add It to recom*
meadod to persons suffering from dyspepsia,, fii whtok phikSiaolive
chingii tohe place in the stomaek t W. % Uttok a few of these
THE DffiJiW.jiCKteDiTtmiST.
ciiij»»i^ iiiim' ..wM toiiM ba an
dtiirlt^ tlia obolara* fqif •M
taJtan lob o«i ^otat tbao tbvooft^ifao
tba i^ir« WUW aar« of tbo (U«e»BO| t foiob a(tmblat«r as
mbab tba attpaarai^ot tba ftrjit pramonltarf
Bigo, ^abao! ti*! l^biioirbaot poarar of tba atomaob b ailU in force, nod
troabb tts voobbr-^iioting led banco in ibe bbod. Tbara m oUiar
^ diaciieeafb vblob fbpmpi will ba fonnd mo cl astffnf, bal 1 dcilra now
t^HlcnloHy .to; rccomittend i\$ naa na o propbylaotlc, and perhaps a
caratlra a|(atil ip ^bblaro^ and t trust aeme of my madloftl brethren who
,/ 1 )ar« tbb bbpoctnntty will give it a fair trial*
yoiira, &(*.,
^ 0. A. A.
A CASE OF FRAUD.
TO Ttia EDfTOB OF THB NORTH CHIIfA HisaALO.
^XBi—The followUg inoidani Is at present being talked of in tea
circles* My informaUoa comoa entirely from native sourooa, and ia
as fotlovrc
A eertatii foreigner is reported to have bought n obop of Congou last
seaflon* The oanalcoarse w« adopted by the godown-inan^of weighing
every paokSgeasileame in, aud duding the weights ran evenly, he
eoQoIttded alt was la order. A peroentage was then Aken from tho
bulk, whiob was weighed, and the paokages opened and Inapeoted bp
the foreigner and duly passed as equal to muster, and then shipped,oH.
On arrival In England, 100 packages were found to contain only broken
leaf tewi which sold at 8 ^. per tb , w bereas the remainder, similar to
wbat Ibdcxporter^ntracted for, sold at Ir. €d» pertb., and 1 am told
that a oertlfioate duly signed by four Londou brokore was sent out to
that eftSQt,
1 am informed that (be native agreed to refund a portion of the loss,
but kept putting off tho payment. The foreigner Is said to have
purchased from him tea amoantiug to the promised suno, and naturally
enough placed it as asetH>ff against the loss. The Ohiuamsn declined
this method of settlement altogether.
It appears (hat a meeting of the Tea Guild has been held, and It is
said that all the hongs haye been instructed nut to send any more
musters to the foreigner in question uuii I his last purchase is paid for
leaving the original dispute unsettled.
1 have held several conversations with nativsi on the subject, and
even the most respectable have changed their Ideas aUd express the
most dangerous views. They now argue that as foreigners refuse to
entertain claims on piece-goodsouce removed from ibeir godowns, so
are they lustified In not reoognisiog any such claims as I hare
mentioned.
They further refuse to guarantee the bulk In any way. but say the
purchaser can open every package at bis own expense (Tls 13 per
koodredt)
To any dru largely interested in tbo trade, such a mode of prooeduro
would be manifestly impossible,
No parallel case baa arisen in the sale of pieec-goods to that which is
nowoitedi the only claim which has ever been preferred has been for
mildew or for deterioratiou on the voyage, but never fur dishonest
enoloscreol foreign materalj or In other words, if 8 |}t». Shirtings of a
certain standard have been sold, the same goods have been delivered,
and in no iastaooe has a bale been found packed with cotton waste or
other esiraneous sobstance*
In a trade where good faith on the part of the seller is so material to
the wel^re pt all oonoernsd as to the tea trade, it is most important that
no suspieion should attach to any one oonoernsd in tiie businoea
*The whbls ( 3 U 61 U 0 & is of such gravity to all ooucerned, that I trust
the maftsr^ Wilt be Mrlously taken up. and if necessary, tho active
intervention of tba Chamber of Qommoroe }usited.
Trnslibg yaa may ^ able ip spare space fur the foregoing,
Xam, yours truly,
TEA INSPECTOR.
Shankbai, I9th August*
itOBACCO CULTIVATION.
, TO Tttn RMTon OF tna Manaas AinaNUii;ii.
dxa^Xt W4ild >a you call the atteutloa cl your tobacco
planters to the should now be getting up their seed beds and
so^IUff^. so tlial fbt plants will be reedy seltliig out by 1 st JHovem-
bei*. The wealber isndw[ IhkiMbe wigh]^ and no lime should be
lost; iit one genial shower of rain trwci^ moi^ to bed tliau half
a doisA 'Wateiinii^ TIWl*l<iitgh 4 ^ Ihl iMat twelve ino^
4 «n*. tin d«iti « ptgOtH, «aA ««ik ia
wgood quantity of weed Ck vegetable siheS*, i would prefer that the seAd
bed be six iiuihesdiigher than the grenuA the plants or seed may
not be itijnred by exoesaive raiUi end I wegld advice that the seed be eowa
in drills, not broadoasl, fpr this reasoq; IfyoniOW l» diills, you, can the
more ensity weed, water and puU the pianist Without trampling on them
Your seed bed cap be a part of the tobaceo Asld^ and a piece of ground
80 X GO feet, will give you sufOcieut plants fto several acres. Do not sew
)our seed too thickly. Any fairly good gronitd will suit for tobacco. I
would pretfr it a little sandy; you can always manure poor laud, whereas,
if it be too rich, the plants aud tobacco will grow too thick and rank, and
not be suitable for cigar makigrg* In America a good loose sandy loH is
always preferred* As Soon as the seed la sown, the plautct should atoooe
plough the ground for tobacco ss deeply as possible, and let it be so for at
least two we^s, so that it be anbject to atiuospherlo mAuenee, when It will
be more easily putveiiied t It should then be harrowed onoo or twloa. before
the second plQugliiug. If you have no barrow* yon can improvise (me by
using a branch of tree, on which you can tie some large stones. If procur¬
able. use tlie seed known as the ** James river,” f believe it can be got
from the Secretary of the llorticultaral Oardeas, but I would strongly
recommend the planter not to sow seed of bis own raising. In England and
America, no farmer will BOW his own seed, but rather that fi'om a/arm
some imles distant. By up means water your plants in the morning, but
after tho meridian sou has passed. If you water tho bed tu the Bilraingi
your giound becomes hard aud tho water will evaporate, whereas if yon
water in the eveniug, the water has a cliauoo to porcolate to the roots of
your plants. KehW water too much. You do not require to deed your
plant bed; moderate watering is always the best. Whan your plants arc one
inch high, it will 00 well to Scatter lightly, with the hand, woof ashes over
them, as this will in a great measttre keep away tho fly and the bag. If
the tty should appear, it woirld be well to water twice a week, with a solatlon
of six parte water, one of wood ashes and one part Inne, this wlU destroy
the eggs, and not iniuro the plants in the least, Whoa about three inchea
high, your plants will be ready for setting out. Always select the
strongest, as you thin out the plants \ they will grow rapidly, so you will
be able to plant out every two or three days. It would be well to have
some mats at hand, s.t that you can cover your plant bed during the heat of
tho day. Your planters should bear in mind thac the more care and atten¬
tion they boslow ou tlic plant bed now. the better will be their prospeota for
u good crop of tobacco hereafter. White seed is growing, it will taka
all the planier's tune to get his ground into proper order to receive the
plants, aud ho should bo collecting all the refuse matter he cau to bum*
and scatter uver tho ground ptevioun to his second plougbiug, burnt wood
or vegetable ashes, ato oonsldeiod about the best manure for tobaceo,
which requites a considerablo amount of salts to be in tho ground ; else it
will not burn, or i£ U burns, the ashes will bo black,
1 have had considerablo experience also in sugar planting, both in th(»
United Stator, and South Amcrioa, and T was mneh surpnsod a few daya
since to L 0 . 1 F ibo suggostion-<-*plaot only the tops of the segar-caae, and put
three 01 four m the drill together You should carefully seleet your stalks*
and place them evenly in the drills, Ii will be very little more trouble to
do lb properly, and thou you will have a nice oven drill. The Into Baron
Liebeg waa a great advocate for poudrette as a manure for sugar-oane, ajut
gave an example where ho used night soil; the produce was several tons
per acre, over the yield of that manured With farmyard manure aud city
sweepings. It is a wonder to me, Sir, that your city authorities do not
manufacture manure from night soil, aud try aud lalrodaoe it amongst tha
farmers. It could be manufactured at a low price, and would become a
source of considerable iv.vcaue to the MiimcipaUty $ U America it it never
allowed to go to waste, aud froe’y sells at $50 or Its. 100 per ton* The
Japunean consider it the very best, and always use it lu peefertnee to
farmyard or any othor manora. As 1 am on the subject of tobaoco, a few
words regarding the manufacture of cigars, ns made in Oaba and Amarioi,
may not bo out of place.
In the hrot place, you should select your leaf tobmeo with care,and to do
BO you must excrciae tho senses of sight, faoling, sineU, aud taeto. Beleeia
thin, souud loat, for the wrapper or outer cover ; try and get the leaf so
that the wrapper oan he cat from between the Veins, and not acroOs ; tho
inside or flllor sUonld be a light. Or what is oa Hod trashy tobaeeo ; this
tobacco is much more free from oil, or nicotine, than ia a heavy thick leaf.
See that year leaf tobacco is evenly cured and of an uniform color, aud
before purchasing, try it, and see that it bums to a white ash and fragraut
suieil. The night before the toboooo is to be worked, seo that the tobaooo
soleeted for the wrapper is thourougbly moistened with soft water (It woald
be better to boil the water and lot it cool) then roll it in a blanket or large
coarse olotU; by thi» means tho wrapper beaomos pliable and will not tear.
Boo t'lat your workmen do n^it wot the fillers too tnueb, for in this lies the
great fault with your lodiao-mado dgate. As soon as your day's work is
ended and cigars counted, they ought to be spread in the sun for three of
four hours and then cooled Is the shade, Theuyoucan pack them away m
i hu large box, but if yon tie np yetir cigars in bundles as soon as made, the
damp fiUev aud wrappers eani^ dry; aud the conaequeace is tlis fiUor
beoomer mouldy and fermented thereby giving the cigar a bitter taste, and
causing an nnpleasantSonudtlilm ante tliat of a w^t or dirty pipe. Drying
yont cigars ^VeS yeh npellteV edvautagS. for yon cau ptaoe them in the
market wWna wenk,' M 4 ,they will have an appkarsnoe of age, and smoke
well. KoW| Eivi yAjtt Inte nigat-makers, as a rale, do not use the scrap
iobMco (pr g|ippipgt)» Hi leU it to lauff-XMkeis* at a oominal prioe* but in
mutfiiiliLlltnifiililiBif“ftl*! *** jfftwMWfr* ''cV/'''!'
i«4Mwira«4^^ tl£^3r «A^‘^)>lffe4 Ibii |»ttiMtf ^
- '■ ,' : ' ' .
|t^jpi»i: 3*ew pliuUrt aod dgvc
Xlmiimt ^
A TOBACCO
Oir «v>kitsvsr xxABi^'AmiiiJnroa.
HftdrAA
KOfBGtmH NOTES*
TO THIS SDtXOSi
Sj3Ii«^T)io wtfttliAr tUo month hai been aomtiataotory. Xbero
hay beaa too moah raiOr on oooaiiona yery haavy* and owloy to baaty
and O 0 $e(y eoaUuwi mlfta. the aun baa bad no opportnntty of making
Uaall .^U. 7booonacM|iianoaiitbat the gronnd la thbroogbly soaked,
weada abonud In loeh pyofnaloii that it la tmpoagible to keep onUifated
planta oloat from them. SO moob wet will damago the proapeota of the
hay orep^
Tbo toHowing la a ootnparatlve (able of the peat dee aeaaona
1875.
1870.
1877,
1878.
1879.
Hiaiiv UAyi.
17.
19
7
n
23
Finfe iiovlston
wot; latter
Ovy.
Sint half
ve«ywfc,prfr-
vvntlitg oiO-
Ooor opm*.
tioitB fckHJuiid
baUiSviuMot.
Dry, Oraw
SbADtOit la
gotaequ«)ao«.
Very wot.
Ones grow¬
ing 111 gro&t
liisarlauoo.
Very wet
and ntlfby.
the lati .
qnlbe liltUug
the stm. bntn-
wor
eoasaquouee
of (oomnoiii
moleturo.
' S«rii«»ic>i'«ra^.,«K|l^
heiini; ogbbbgi^ Id |4ei%/ '
that biflfpbmpkib (natyf^
gifth of al* UHt i4d ii i(!tf|riwiw4’J^8lWS|
its eOad wab intiodnbed by fb4'EtyvlI^rM
Arni,Piaoh.Kiiid. Caa(«^9UBM
•taotedf diia,l9 gTtmjtmoaiarataihAf^'b^f
Kotegarh, Aagttat blat, 1879«
Light sephyra, alight tbnndef and lightening, morninga misty.
The tbainioaiatar (fabrenbett) bung in an open veraddab (6,400 feet
above aea level) W, aapeot, la idDont 60^ In ibe morning, 69^ in the after¬
noon, loweit 65^, bigheit 70”.
Upon tba Held range baeelnutR are ripening, berberry ebruba
covered with purple berrle*. An everlaatlug (lewet (Afatrioarla ep.)
■omethtug like a cbatnomne; wild aeeei pea, wild balsam, and
Sllehaelmaa daisy f Aifsr are in bloSsani. Lillies of tbe
Valley gone out. .
The young birds are beooming strong ou tbs wing, and will bo quite
ready toaHord employmoDt (o sportsmen neat mouth (Bepiember)
Ortketa, grasshoppers,frogs, bats, owls, spiders, dsbworms,dice, wc., fco.,
in abnndaooe.
Food*gralns have risen in prlee^-red dour 8 seers, white dour 7
seers, barley 12 seers, nrad 7 to 8 seers, gram U to 12 seers, fable rice
6 seeia coarse ilee 7 seers per rupee. Prides are eipeoted to rise eon-
eiderably owing to the projeoted visit of the Oovernor-General to
OhUil nest month, as the tag-rag and bob-tail aoonmpenying him will
oat up all the prodnoe near the Hue of mareb, like a swarm of locusts,
and we are situated well within the luQuenoe of hia march.
The villagera are buiy onttlng the weeds In their fallow fields ; these
weeds are out with a long sickle (vern. ^ratti) and allowed to lie and
rot for two or throe weeks, after wbiob they will be ploogbed, into
the lend together with the roots of the plants from whioh they hav«i
been cut. In this way the villagers obtain a first rate crop of mlged
rotten and green manure, and If to this a thin layer of stable Utter
can be added, the outturn from the entnlag cereal crop will be
12 to 16 fold. So yon see the natives understand something about
manuring (heir cropi---ln faot if they were a iltUe heller oil so as to
be able to keep up the leqaisUe number of cattle to supply tbcir hold¬
ings with manuH<, the iaiM| would never deteriorete, they would be
a happy rase of bev^tgi not vequiriug'^io get into debt, or jl they did So
then only temporarily, as they cocld always count on a slcady annual
yield from their fields; now, wittiont maaurc, their oujttnro decreases
by slow degrees, until many of (heir fields have gone out of cuUivalion.
ilmply through eithanstion ot the soli. The' native eultlvator requires
alUUe capital, and his only chance of obtaluipg it If by working for
Suropeaust wbcre he can do this he is well Aa ctigaat,
Afid yet knowing this, the bureinofals who are trying to govern ludla
do their utmost to i revent Kuropean set tiers oomlng to India, os when
they are In India and are quietly eedeavoutiug to mkkea home for
tnemftivei and tbeir children, and dispensing money^lOr tobor end
materialf^^ia duds neighbourhood to the great ben^. Nereid, come
bureaucrat w$il|(0P ta and^endoavour to rnin i,\uM%he Buropejau
ceUler knuplles down to bUa after tba manner at a native, Tlia
CAict7rrjf acTOBJSfi uu isxft,.
THE DRAWBACKS TO SUCCESS IN TEA.
TN .our remarks on this subject in last issue, wa notlHod
two of the drawbacks os European management, and
Directors' Fees f the former wo tlmngUt quite ig|aginary, and
the latter only too real. We will now see whether any others
exist, and the first we notice is
Managing AgmU^-^ln what follows we would like it to
bo most distinctly understood that wo have no individuals
in our mind's eye as we write, it being the system we
wish to apeak of/as wo are convinced that if the present
agents were changed .twenty times, the result would still
bo the same. There are two^ things concerning the
agent yfhicb are objectionable. They are the amount he
receives and the basis on which that amount is calculated.
The amount he receives is of itsolf too high,^, 2 pany agents
wiXiiC for siuhii^ salaries, 6o:4 the mi^'ortty draw largo sums.
It is impossible to arrive at a true estimate of how much an
agent receives, as he takes care to keep the amount in doubt
so far as reports are concerned. A report lies before ns of a
Company which last year made over 400|0001b. of tea, and
which has a capital of over 8 lakhs. The amount charged
direcUy as Secretaries’ ollowanoe, is Bs. 4,200, bat it
is impossible to tell how mnoh of the heavy charges debited
in the acoonuts go to the agent. We know he bays stores of
all sorts, but we do not know how much the price of these
stores is augmented by the commissions received cither by
the agent or by his sircar or banian. All these impostUons
are customary and patent to any one at all acquainted wifi the
Calcutta style of doing business. The ageit dobs' not
personally know the price of implements, and believes all his
banian tells him, while the latter gentleman pnrdkasef them in
most instances in the baaaar* at cheap rates, himde them
over to the agent at (he prices charged by Eurapeatt houses.
Then as to the mode of calculal^g an agent’s commission.
He usually draws a fiaed salary, which is gi^ndly called an
ofldee allowance, then ho gets W commission (pomtAonly' 2^ per
cent.) on the gross proceeds of the crop/ and 5 poV .bent. 6d
purohose of stores. The latter is cornpmatirely trifilhg, but
^e former is a }mav|£ chaige, not psf^ is'l^haps,^ but
indirectly, as the agwt is encouraged by his interest ^and
we are all of fit liable to be moved by self-interest) io hisiet
on a style of mannfactoe which is simp^ rnl^oui Ao the
good name of laiiMai, tea* It ^ hasi. howeter^ ihh! ^^'tsge.
in the Itg^t^s eyes at least, of kadiag
hm conm^sipna depemL Ne ofd^s alrs^g
tim itq in obedienee to llreptimift hh
. . >tAt?d bj; A pettMtii^ o!
|)A>fi^ of ttOf ,gire^ 3^ WiU easttre the
^ ^eeMed mi in the inteteat «f the eompanj^as
neer ciroimtaneee the hgent's interesta will
ealneidf with those of the owners of Uie pi^per^ he is looking
afte^ •
. Method of SeUififf.o^Wo beye giren this subject the most
cateCol ooasid^iM^oiif and hays arHyed at the conclnsion
that idl tea shonld be sold in London*
There are manj reasons for this, we will note a few.
' London offers a larger market, with more scope for open
competition* Iho buyers here are comparatively few, and
areas a rule well-known to the habitnds of the Auction-,
room. A nhmber of Speculators attend the Calcutta sales,
and buy up largely, with a view to shipping borne for resale,
and is it for a moment to besnpposed that Ihof would continue,
year after year, to carry on this trade, if it did not pay them,
truly tiie British merchant is not such a fool. It taay be
that a loBS-<**-a heavy loss«*-may follow now and again, but
on the whole it must pay* Now whatever profit these
merchants r&ke would be made by the companies and more,
for they would save sale charges here by sliipping to
London.
Again, we bare closely studied the average prices obtained
here, with those ruling in London, and allowing for freight and
insurance, we find the London prices better. It is impossible
it could be otherwise* Another error in selling teas in Galcntta
is, that almost all qualiUba are forwarded to London. If the
Companies had energetic agents whose business was wholly
and solely to look after the tea interest, then lower classes of
teas would not be scut home at all, but openings of which
many exist, would be found for them hero. Wo have often
used these cheap broken teas, and do not find them so much
inferior to Pekoes and Pekoe souchongs that their relative
values idiould be so very much below the others. Good
P^oes and Pekoe souchongs realise now about 12 annas
per tt». While these do not sell at much over 6 annas, and
it is absurd to suppose that they are onlywortlihalf of the
others* The real reason of this relatively low price is, that
these teas, which will sell at cheaper prices at home than the
others, have to bear an equal burden of freight and duty, and
that they cannot stand.
Granting that the freight charges and duty amount to
6 annas per ]b.t this means 100 per cent, on the value here,
while it is only 50 per cent, on the higher class teas. Hence
it follows, that if possible^ a market for tlrese should be
found here, and that there is a market, is evidenced by the
fact that during the four months ending filst July, there were
imported from China, iStc., 7,27,7651b. This was at the rate
of over two millions of pounds per annum. This sort of
businees is too troublesome for the great merchants who
superintend our tea interests. We do not speak sarcastically,
their business i8> as a rule, exporUng an4importing on a largo
* ^ scale, and we could not look to them, to undertake such a
mode of operating. Ifut thU ie just one reason the more
why they are not tlm proper class to look after the planters’
interests.
We, do i^oi.intend s^ing a word on the broker or
auctioneer, |[^^ee wo have nothing to say, but because
the subject has beef'diseu|iw^ fiafiee«%and has practically
be^. deeded ^agmnst the entire aystm^iee beiugone
ef^i^i^es tN* iroret;fen^tnriamf to interfere with
the legitim^ progreeilon of trade*
’, Wo'wiU Qh|y:i^^ ''
c^Ohipanies -
Carried on ^Jth |qo small a wofjktog 3hie is fetid to
success. To gst over the difflicufty, two methods We adojfied*
1st by debentures^ and find by loans made hjf or throjugh the
managing agents. Very few adopt the former wbkli is a
commendable way. 04 gettiog over a temponiry diffieolty.
The great majorUy resorting to the Second, which is by far the
iimpfor of the two, but it is a eO'sUy remedy. Interest at
the rate of 6 to 12 per cent, is charged, and generally simdry
comnussions fell in as a matter of course, but the most fatal
part of the arrangement is, that it puts the company entirely
in the hands of (he agent. During the currency of the loan,
the estates virtually belong to the agent, and he
controls them according to his own sweet will. Wm true
methods of getting over the difficulty are twoi^^Debontures,
and the issue of more shares. If the embarrassment k tem¬
porary, debentures should be resorted to, and should be
retired in full before a penny of dividend is paid to the share¬
holders. If on the other hand more capital is manifestly
required to carry on the concern efficiently, more scrip should
be issued. If the Company bo properly conducted, there
shonld be no difficulty In having Ibis fresh capital taken up
by the existing shareholders, and if this should fail, it k a
pretty clear sign that there is something wrong with the
Company’s financial condition, and if It cannot get along
without borrowing every year for the succeeding year'^
expenses, the sooner it gives up business the better. If the
want is only of a temporary nature, there should be no
difficulty in raising by debenture what may bo required.
FABM WEEDS.
X T is now more than twenty years ago, since Professor Buckmau,
of Ibo Boyal Agricultural College, Ciienceeter, wrote that essay
on agricultural weeds, which, so far as liritatn is concerned, al)
but exLaueted the subject, end rendered it a difficult rnattor fot
anyone dealing with the eeino topic, to do much more than echo
what had already been said. During this interval of tweui.y years,
a marked improvement in agriculture in all its methods and
branches has come about; so that" dirty” land, laud overgrown
with weeds, all but ovcrmaBteiing tho crop, is an occurrenoo met
with, we should say, but rarely in Britain, The fawner of to-day
fully realizes that weeds not only take up space on his laud that
ought to be occupied by paying crop, but lliat they also use up
tho planUfood which might have gone to the building up of bis
crop in greater strength and weight j besides, the cost of Weeding
is an item of considerable impcrlance. The vegetation that would
naturally cover a soil, were it left to the forces of Nature, without
the intervention of man, plays a voiy importaot part in gathering
plant-food from earth, air, and water, and storing it up in an avaib
able form in the soil that yearly grows in resources and wealth.
When the forces of Natuie have been at work for generations in
the formation and enriching of soils than man comes, and inter¬
feres so far with Nature’s operations, that be substitutes a crop of
bis own, for the variety of Nature's selecting, and wbat was
lutherto restored to the soil, he carries ofi in the' form of broad,
beef, wool, and beer, and the mo$^ of these and other products he
can get out of the land without permanently injuring its fertility,
the better for himself. The plants which were of so much inipor.
tancs in Nature’s arrangement for building up the resources of Uie
soil men look on now, not as friends and aUles, but as so many
intruders and disturbens of tbeir arrangements, to be bunted out
and destroyed, to make room for the utilitarian.
Worthy George Sinolair, gardener to his Grace tho Duke of
Bedford, in the ** Wes^ <4 Agriculture” added to tho fourth edition
of his Grasses,” solemnly affirms that weeds are a special contn-
vouoe of Brovideoee lor ** pei^etual exertions” on tho part of msu,
a stimulus bsttir Jbabita and more active indostiy ; ” and timt
without weeds^.land# would go out of cultivatlou (see page 323-4,
£[inolaiE^OA Graases). Nowadays, wen om not so apt to mingle
dogmalfe theology with causes and results! which can g ive a very
good MWOttt »f tliWMwIvwi wUlwnt PO*^*^***^ *
deviiiDgand tote^ttring .t .vwy ®'.’’'f”
Thumo.wtowaaaMSttly la.lrom*nt#l> *?«?S5*.25!
AgricaltawlnttS#,?! wltichho’*^®* PrMWenl to I8y«^^
«h« dating » tog ia« of
i)amohW»*ndbootoon all »orU oltoptoi (It m wld 867lagUj
d«dt^wWi wMd« in to " Oodo of Agttoltor#." In I80«
poblUbnd to th» fifth votoma of tha aomianntottoM to lit Boutd
of ggttoaltota, •« aawy on Weada by Ur. PRt of Wotothwnplon,
Mr, Pit* wnamore of a bataniit than an agrianltanat Latorai^
Mr. Holdich'of tha Jo«nwl, a wan nrhw knowla^a of
tomtogweawtenatotahladay, had, batoa h» daatb, all bat
completed an aaaay on thia aubjaot, wUiob paaiad into the handa at
Oaorea Slnolatr, waa pnbUahed aepatataly, and afterwarda ambodled
to the fourth adftion of “ Sinclair on (iraiaea." Slow than
Profaaeor Bttchwan'a aaaay which appeared In 1856, le perhapi the
moat notaWe contribution to tho enbject, ^
Samnel Jobneon, tbe Loaioographer, whoee knowledge of Ulto
nndGtoakrootawes much more oatenaWe than his acquainlance
with what agricnUnriata call roote, happily embodied the popular
idea of "weed" when he defined it, ae •• an herb, noaiooe or neeleaa
In tbe book of tho farm, Stephens eays, •' when any plant la found
growing where it sliontd not be, itie a weed." Morton, “Oyclopmdia
of Agricnltnre”saye '‘every plont dilterent from the CTop and
growing with the crop to its hindrance, is a wood. In this view,
every indigenous plant, and every cultivated oue may m turu
become a weed. The ehed seede of one crop may hinder tire
growth of succeeding onee ; and call for removal.
The fanner then finda plants of various kinds indigenous and
cultivated growing among hie croi>s, these he must keep in cheek
and eradioate, if he can, if lie is to gnther (he full measnre of tbe
•benefita etored up by tho toi'ooa of Nature in tho land. It eomo-
timea happene however thot for want of eomo knowledge of
Botany, or a defioienoy of the power of oxasl observation,
which n etudy of natural ecionoo tends to foster and mature
mote than most studios, Uia efforts to get rid of some weeds
help materially to inoioase their number.
The ooltefoot (Tnssalago farfaro) a oommon enough pletjt in
Britain, that golden yellow flower willt slender »aly stem, wUioU
in early March, lights up every heap of rubbish, marley elope,
lailway cutting, and many fields, with its etard.k. bioesom,
oontaiue on an average ISO seeds to every flower bond.
Every one of lhaeo seeds may, under favourable oireniu.
stanwB takes root and prodnees its kind, becoming ia. torn
n roof, boating many flower heade. The flower hoaila of this
plant never stand ereot till the pollen ia matured ; and as soon
as tho flowers have been ferliltood, tbe flower head droops and
thua pteservee from rain and dew and frost the embryo aoeds,
until they are furnUbed with their curioue downy appendix, so
admirably uuitod to cairy thorn aloug on lUo wUiga of tho
sligUiost breeze.
PlaiUB Uko the coUafoot, tUo daudolion, the thistle and others
belong’mg to tho Bome natural order (comnoaitas) emiowed with
much fecundity and vitality, are waCtod yearly over all tho land.
Tbe roots of coltsfoot are cut to pieoeu and dragged about by
the harrow^ to begin in new spots the work of reprodootiou,
eo with couch grans, Unlbs of the common garlic (allium mneala)
reproduce the plant in amazing uumbem. Tho importance of
endeavouring to kill out weeds in their early development,
before they havo rencUedE^maturtty, is perilap* not Bofflcieatly
realized in praotufAmuials ov b§nnial» may be eflEectualiy got
rid of by cutting «ho plant at any time before the iced has
ttirived at maturity. This process of cutting down when the
plMit is young, before it takes a proper hold x>f the land, wilt
in the end prove much more economical than having afterwards
to bo at consiJorahle cost for weeding* ^
The fecundity of some of the commoner Britieti field plants
almost oiceeds crodibiliiy, and this added to tha diti^ereuce in the
tiojes of their flowering and runuing to seed, and the fact that
in BOiUe oases in Ihe same plant fresh branches may be putting
forth now fiowersi when others are bearing lipo «w^y|#iider their
deetraothm a.matler wot tto bo aooompliahod tri
Tho followitig catalogne is drawn up several hundred
obeeiVationB inode over firo yeani iii diffieront^tik^ England,
and inclndefl a variety of Qeolo^ral forrnfttidtts hud varioaa
of Octolto^lW
«ur rsaflert : ttd «'oWfUto ^ rTT^SIS'
obtorrations. Obtorvaaow ol ffl-'/fAuSS"
gnfl most tooaMMOmevir»»di,of’rt»i^,j«toofwtoto
viflnabto as toey Witold b«itotott^> _ . ' . ' ’
Oonuaon Nkme.
Black xauatard
CharlocK
HhepUerd's purse
Hodge mustard
Co* parsnip
Fool’s paraley
Bed bartisa
BaadeUoa
Klplewort seabioue
Hardhead eoabioaa
Htmking chamomile
May weed
Bordock
Sour thistle' i
Qronudsel
Musk thistle
Cora oookla
Oommon'XA'npioa
Oommou dock
Bed poppy*
Betkaidil 3!faiae.
Number
efas^
tCia
sloglu
pleata
Staapii ni&ra
Stnapis aruensis
Capssikft ftwrsfltofidilorw,
SflWmJrlttw .k.
HtrUclium
MtJum cmapium ...
Bartsh omntiiBi
LaontQdon ttkfuUacum
Lapana communis
Csnfattne* scol»»esa
AiUhmis cotuU
dnf.aemits ar^anaia .ti
Af'rtiam laeftpu f*
8<iu6hut oltraoeuB
iSenecio vi%af(s " s.
Oardus nuuxna *.
Agroakmma githago ^
LgchnU dioim
Rumm
I'apAm’ rhcBus .s<
4,090
4^6^10
6.400
6,000
6,oiro
4,800
SyO0
8.400
4,090
40,659
45,900
2i,m
19,0i)0
0,(00
ayeo
9,940
8.496
13,000
60,000
fiepteiabev i...
Septshibof 10,
fiepiember 93,
October 14.
Oeteber h
October I.
September 10.
October IS*
Beptembor 8,
October 1.
Beptembei 18,
October 19.
The sources whence weeds are propagated and distributed
fuay be classified under three heads*
/ndtyenews ^lanta which vary with tlie district^ Uje soil,
and tho method of cultivation. These are more or loss reducible
to a ininiinum by careful cultivation.
2nd .—Ma are scattered by natural agents, such os wind,
bird, &o., from manure heaps, road-sides, uncultivated ground,
railway-euttiugs canal-banks, lanes, hedge*rows, ^to., strict atten¬
tion to waste land, pastures, and oomifions ; cutting froTiiently
whatever would prove troublesomo, before it runs to seed, teuds
to loHSOU tho evil from these sources.
3rd.—A third source is/oul seed There are always in existence
specimens of humanity who find it profitable to adulterate. Host
articles of sale are eubjoct more or less to adulteration. In some
cttsee it may bo Irifliug, in others it is so groat, that the genuine
article iorms hut a fractional part of the whole compound. It
is not such an easy matter nowadays in England at least,
for unjust dealers to palm ofl! on farmers either inferior mauureB
at high prices, or crop-seeds deliberately adulterated with weed
seedH. U is to tho Interest of the rospectahlo dealer to supply
tho best article at ihe price which may secure for himself a
reasonable profit. And the British farmer has now no difflcuHy
iu securing a fairly pure and genuine article guaranteed, if it
bo a manure, by some practical chemist to oontain certain
substances in certain proportions if crop-seed, then tbe guarantee
of a professional Botanist is surety for the former haviug whot
)ie pays for. To what extent crop-seeds wore deliberately gdwU
iu Britain twenty years ago may be gathered from the
following table
7^alfle of Weed seeda to the Bh$UI of Cre^y-ssya,_
Kamo
Italian rys-grasf
Pitw imported
Pwfluoial tve^graes
Duto imported
Mix^'d ie«d«i rye-sra****
clovers .« , •••
Ditto imported “**
MettJow foxtail
C< ck*^ toot' ...
Boecp*s fesctts •••
Hard foacoe ‘ «•
(Sweet, vernal ...
Cwsted dog’s tad,
tdaseed »"
Mean of St* sample? of cow
jwriiaielovaf -t
Bad einyof , ...
ISrtteh cbvttf ..._-M
Weod-sovds
to
I he Buebol
BsvasKa*
994.809
4(9,569
945,S6<(
433,080
3’t.8-20
. 63?,«09
81.480
74^.809'
167,880
102.400
400^800
804,610
dirfiee
I MUed'fiSSds are g^erally very
foul , ,
I Uraw seeds are u^aaily mixed
I with weed-ara^es, lehrsU
1 ^ ' weigh than ' the
genaihe seed.
Both >,an4 Cake
^ds )W krajr.to ifiarimt in a
' very fcuhefcabt
}
, t ......■ - ,■»
^ iMl^ if «ay of^i.i^nix^eoiKi^.Doi^iA
mfty bo 0oi^«ib9^^im4it«otdbl^
tudoo wbotUer
.tt»4 i)oti«d 00 ed, A^y
; 0 k%l^ o& tlio ftdnUotftMii^ m^l 0 r dollborato
ye tb(dl bo gl*4 (a gife thetallfit pab*
; ; : MODEL FAKj^oSBBHaAIi,
r ‘ ((hmmunieat€d4) .
BObj<i«t of ^ Model ferme" eppaaro to be takea up iu
^ ^ aarpMt by tba OoverDmoaU of Booabay aod Madras,
idkd it^ bi] porfaotly aarpriaiog to aoo bow lUoee Govemmenta,
eobordliiaU tbobgb ^ay be, bpaa oat tbeir purae«tnoge wbea
any aobottie bbarlpg oo tbo .agnoultdre oaumerco or prodootiona
of tbeodnntrjir coinea into i^neetion,
2. Captain Oommakar bad a great idea of luiaer caooons,
and wrote a lot of nonaonae about them, and the Madroa
Government at onoo banded over to him two or three
thoufiand mpeea to aid him in his reeearoUeB, t.6«, in iludliig out
aftjsr three years of trouble and waste of time, wliat any one In
Bengid might have told him, nis., that the tusser woim thrives
hast in the open air and requires no domestio attention in the way
of roofs, baskets, dMJi, &o«,.to make it oomfortable*
3< Another man geis bold of model farms as a ** hobby horse,
and about a lack of rupees are IsunoUed out in bu/ldings,
laboratories, material, &o., for the purpose of teaohmg a dozen
or BO of “ l?illoys, ” Moodylays,” '* Swaraees,** &o., a “ Mouatain’*
of science, than passing them tlirough-^** 300 examinations,''
CUdav it ye Ciril Service Bsaminers,) keep them at Government
cost, to teach people who cannot road or write, what they do not
require, cannot afi!ord to carry out, and will not learn I
A While the expenditure of Government money on suclt
scientific institutions is to be deprecated. The^ idea of having
Government t'arms is novertUless a very good aud laudable one ;
and if the Government would only take away from the farms their
highly scientiflo character, and at a very much less cost, give to the
cultivators of Bengal, Government farms in each dietrict, where
they could learn the style of cuUivatfoa that would suit best
their moans and condition, and from whoneb they could procure
vegetable seeds new to them, food grain seeds that they might
wish to introduce iu their villages, fruit tree grafts, and such otiior
items at a fair cost without yielding a loss to the farm, as also
obtain practical instructions how to manipulate the various
agricultural products that may be new to them, aud that%ould
pay them, Ac. Such farms wouldt be capable of doing a great deal
of good; and hereafter, as the ommtry rises iu its gouoral
agricultural eduoation aud needs, they could bo made to dispense
a higher aud inoro scientific class of agricultural instruotiou till
it reaches the " Sydapett fitaudard.’*
5. To place matters iu a moro practical manner, I will take
as an iustance. the district of Bajshahye, in Bengal. In this
district the Indian corn," or mains," " bhootfcah " is virtually
unknown to the ryot. Here and there, few and far between,
where an emigre from the N.-W. or a ** boonaU" from the
jungles Chota Nagpore, has his abode, a field of bhoottah "
may be seen, but not otherwise, and on my showing ** bbuottah "
cobs to some of the cha$im in the eastern portion of the
district, X u^as asked what was to be done with it ? Is it eaten ?
C, X have grown Indian corn in my garden iu Eastern Baj-
shaye all through the year, but as 1 watered the crop daring
three out of the twelve months, and the ryots will not do so, they
will be able to grow it for about eight montlis in the year. The
Indian ooru \b> a very paybig crop, the com can be Oaten, the
steams yield' gopr (treacle) and the leaves are good fodder for
cattle*
7. Another, oro|» ihi\t, grows to perfection in Bengal is the
arrowroot (M^‘auU, Aruudicinea.) * It requires no trouble
bej^ond WM tbe imidas toimerio (^own very largely Jn
Bengal,) ddlf gi^ylMdtonqrmonaly. I have obtained ovm fiSb.
of pnre arrowroot powdOr from a plot of ground a little less than
the twel^h oi <wre in ares. This plot had the year before
boroe a crop and X i^iAviieither manured it, nor
tftk^h hhy i^t iA ^ yield may be
tsdeeh eO A Mv and qfd^y puA Taking ^lie mmtot valpo to
.Bo. 270 less oulMvelion andmanufactuimgi Ac., say Bs. )00,
leaving Ba, 170 to the good^ oil Be* f'O per beegah brides the
seed. , , ^ s
8. I heard a man in the diyU Service who waS discussing
this subject wUU me onoe, WgO 6h 1 the arrowroot from the
East Indies has no market valuq In Europe," and even in the
IfOndon pries current for August last there is no value
marked against it But I can account for tbia jtq the younger
days of John Company, East Indian arrowroot was exported
to i(mm extent. No# ihai arrowrooti was the stuB procurable
iu large quantities in some of the Indian baaaare under the name
of ** TeO^Khoorproduced by the natives from the roots of
varidns jungle plants of the ^^Qurcuma" family, viz, Onrouma
Angnstifolia," “ Curcuma LeuourUiaa," Ac. Tills production was
obtained iu a very careless manner and ooutaiuad many crude
substances besides arrowroot. As a result it was aoon found to
be inferior in purity to the article obtained from the West
Indies, from tho roots or tubers of the ^'Maranla Arigidiuacoa'*
under tho careful manipulation of oxperifjiiced aud doubtless
well-to-do manufacturers. Pure starch cannot bo very different
whether it oOrne from the West or East Indies, and if the East
Indian Government will only have the East Indian arrowroot
properly analysed, and mako public its analysis in Great Britain,
that article will very soon hold its own against every other
country. Bengal could grow thousands of tons of arrowroot, arid
it would be used largely by the poorer classes who are notori¬
ously fond of starch food. As matters stand, the ryots cannot
procure seed tubers, they do not know now to mauafacture the
article, and are quite ignoraut of its uses, and it is the same witli
a hundred other differeot iloma, tliat only require to be placod
witbin resoh of the Bengal ryot to be grown uud to be
Utilised.
2. The Bengal ryot is a peculiarly Conservative creature, ho
has certain grooves, old grooves, iu which his aricestors before
him ran, and in which he rutu. Place anything before him
on those grooves, and he will run on with it like a fiend, but
do otherwise, take him oB his old gmove, and you have au
apathetic, indolent, stubbornly inert, valueless '* cuss" Thin,
I once was speaking to au intelligent ryot who cultivated about
30 to 40 acres of ground about grovviug fodder fur cattle.
Cattle fodder !" he cried, looking at mi with a most comical
eaprassioti of amused astonishment. " Grass for cattle to feo l on ? "
Why sahib would it not be cheaper and easier to Sell jtlie cattle
than to grow the grass?" "No, it is God's work to grow the
grass, and the cattle are the * Shaitans' that are al ways
destroying it, and feeding themselves on it." " It is useless to
grow grass for cattle 1*' Now, here spoke the Bengalee"
according to his conservative ideaa His groove has been never
to grow fodder for his eatUe. Why will he do so now ? And lie will
nbt do it for generations to come. Now wiiat good wilt it do
to pour Geology, Ohemistry, and all the other "cologles" on
Buoli creatures'? No good at all, and apart from tliat, the
common class of Bengal ryot has just sufficient means itt' keep
body and soul together, where will he find msaus tlien to expend
money on scientific aids. The poorer classes of ryots eat food
that a sahib iu decent circumstances would not believe good
enough for tlio subsistence of his dogs; and these are the men
who are to attempt subsoil draitiago, deep ploughing, oltetnical
manures, Ac., Ac.
10. The Government has very IBtle idea of what is grown iu
each district, or how it is grown ; and no sooner is informatiou
on any agricultural product required, than a oommiUee is dopnted
to procure it, and the result is tnfiiriiiation hastily gathers i, that
is crude, ooinmon place, aud not to bo relied on.
11. U the Governmout would taka about forty to fifty acres
of land (on rent,) in each district, choosing au old indigu factory
or oilier old buildiug for the dwell in g*Uouse, and start fdrmr in
Bengal, it would by doing so, lay tbe foundation of a very usefut
and beneficial departune&A
12. Useful, becauaa thtough tbe recorde of tbese farms a vast
amount of valuable ^ $n£(nrmation ought to be forthcoming.
And beneficial heoauda ^ihrougb the aid of those farms the
common agriafdtmrhtt ^ drill bo able to learn what is done in
other distriotif in<',,ihoway of tilling the soil; he will be ablo
lo procure tuedif gi^dns, plants, and other materials such at
loedjipiM.fbx ouUh dUewio, Ac, at a fair rate, and also he
^ mn ol b 0 ^)it^ '
t0gtix^Uig jb« miij
iaftly^ to OOTlr^fiiAit wilj procort iiif<Hn|ii^Qi' ^Jii& Ijiltr
farm nmjgffrii ^f a political natore. wbon At;
preaeot H croAiiot ilo^ baoaoao itiiAa Qoi got opp jmba^toJtoif fo^
tii« xuo^oatii f iio bare not somo oMoia),«tato» and BOoUim OAO
only 806 to Xiidngal rjroi (hrough tobr '^offiolal apooUto**'
add tbdO only see him with tho moral armour ’* tot he doni>
aiaooa aa he auepeots he ia heiiag lotodat by aOovenmient
aervant who batt to power to pmiiaU him ki aoy way.
13. While adyooating Oovenament farmt, X do not adfooate
farma placed under ^^farmera” or awell agrfcnUudata tfainediu
Bnglaikd, or Oemaoyt or anywhere elee* lihe our awell etaf
and people la the Forest Departmentf who at the end of the year
send ia a report of a few mads made, poor people found
treepaBSing in the junglee proseouted, and hrea put out What
the Oovei^nment ought to do ie to procure men, genilameiiy who
know the eonniry, and the peoploy can talk to to people In
the citoVu^e language. Who have a fair knowledge of Geology,
Chemistry,Botany, and oteorology,who can draw and drangbt, who
ha?e had agriealtural experience in Bengal, who know something
about cattle; aueh would be the men to place in charge of to farms.
Men who, not being professionals would not sit Idle watching for
the result of certain experiments ns profesaionala do, but would
put their hands to eTorything agricultural, more about the district,
keep up a correspondenoewith other Government farmers, see what
the lyotfl produce, help them to get whatthey have not, keep up a set
of tabulated books for future reference of the barometrio pressures,
the tormometrlo figures (of some moment), terrestrial magnetm
experimeute to match, notes of rainfal 1 and weather,efCocts of rainfall
on soil and rivers, ofEeots of rainfall on soils and crops. Manures
used, eftecta cl manures. The Government faimer would also
keep up a good fruit and vegetable garden, and supply seeds and
fruit plants, &c., in oiher words give his time and attention to his
district as if it all was oue huge farm belonging to ihe Govern-
laent under his care ; and his bead-quarters was the place whence
all information and advise would emanate and knowledge of the
country be procured and come in.
14. When the Government have after a few years found that
to peoplebegiu to look upon the farms as necessary institutioiiB,
and to information gleaned by to Government farmers has been
reduced to a standard, there will be some date whereby to judge
of the wants of the country, and ton if there is a necessity for it,
grand institutions like the Sydapett farm could bo started.
15. Doubtless there will be many who will cavil at the above
suggestions, and others who will laugh to scorn to project of
starting farms under other than properly trained farmers. To such
I say look at the ** Forest Department *' what Is it doing ? simply
nothing. Young men have been sent to learn forestry. In it there
is a large stat of well paid ofUcials, and what is the result, simply
uotUingl; and why, because the officials know little or nothing about
lodlau jungles, and bow to mauago them. They believe tore duty
is to Bght every human being who approaches Uio jungles, and the
result is, ho has his jangles to himself, and he may keep them or
eat tom, but make an income for the Government out of them is
next to impossible for him.
IG. If anything were required to show how little the forest
dicers understand tho Indian forests, it is there opinion as regards
the Ires. The Ires in the Indian forests ate of the utmost beuelt,
the burnt leaves and charred wood, supply manure to the twee,
and the smoke and lames destroy myriads of vermin that injure
the leavsk and plants, net^rtheless tho great duty of our foresters
$ntr$bils dku to i^^ovent Ices i
I see in tho last ValmiaQazeiu a meagre report of to oper¬
ations of the Forest Departoient for the year, and one Item in it etruok
me aa poidtively laughable, it was tot in the Palamow district the
Government had hundreds of square miles of forest that did not
pay. Now if the Governmsnl will simply help the |ungle people
with seed aud food, aud get them to rear tusssr ooooohs in
those jungles, to result would be very difiereut; to Goverumeui
would thstead Of a loss obtain au enormous income out of them.
But o| course the swell young foresters highly trained doubtless
MW iMTOtanytiiDK about toiiwramoog obMtaabi
iriiar»tb^«^tnlw4luidtIiey]uow noa.«te .bootjt, and n»
with OovMiuDMit farM It trainod' agriouUniiata ow^a onl and
« sm .zaminatiDUa * MW ttltt il (iw <0^ nf MM' keh f attUi
it^iha'battta. '■ ' •""''
, it/'
'oiUia
inMtika Hr.
jMrfaadMpafKrftba-ebMwH
Mllnlat tinaa " charging agol^i^l^rhlaSwlAJt wWMM
toUMdrwaota nnta «i4> UBaAenjlliM
special anelyst would bo WeceSiiky lor >
18. Suppose the Govemmehl W4^
^aoing tom ueder three ** SOMbe/* two ilitdler
cost of it all, with rent for land^dtc*, would hed ti oVet ^ 00>
or 50,000 for to first year, at most, and if nothing to
the outlay, the series of magnetic, themionie^^ and blromto^
observatioufi, logethev with their aocompeoying crop and Siri,0uU
turel reports, will be well worth tot money.
IP. To put my ideas into practise say :w
W ff ^ • *
5 Qoverxmteat Farm Supdts.. & lOO w tt Ti ^
1,500forixmoams ... ». IS^SOO
6 Wiiteri to keep aoooaeta, de., at So, ^
ISO for 12 months ... XalSO
6 Chowkydars ^ 0 per montb,
** 80 for JSmoafibs .m .m H1I2'
18 Farm bauds @ 5 per moath,
, 90 lor 12 months ... ... 1,080
Bent for 300 anres say .m ... .m
Ofoce chorges Stamps, Ae., 0 8,
18 for ixmonUis ... ... ... 218
Travelling espeaies 48 per
mao, lit per mouth, 10 mouths ... 1,728
Cultivating, seeds, do., say
Ks 8 per aore pet yesc
... 80.876
Implemeuts, books, oto famiture, chemicals, do., 40. ».
Boildiogs, repairs, do., out-houses
... ... 9/>0O
TotalBe. .m 42,178
Of course the following season the outlay will be less by Bs. 6,000
expeuded the limt season on implements, d:o.,dl:o., and there wilt also
be an income of some extent to further reduce to expenditure
But at the eame time the farms would have to bo supplied with
strains of good cuttle, sheep, and goats, so as to be able to add
that great benefit, improving to breed of the live stock, to to
other benefits that they will dispense among the Bengal ryots.
The Government could in cOnneetion with Uxese farms organise
agricultural oxhibilious every quarter, at which small prises might
be distributed, aud at the end of each season, a district agrioultural
exhibilloa could be held so to enable the Oolleotor to judge of
the progress made by, and the interest evinced in the undertakiog
by the ryots.
EDITORIAL NOTES.
O N account of the uncertainty that exists ae to tobrops at home,
and the present crisis that has arisen In Bugland regarding
the rent of farm lands, the wheat|supply question has oome to the
front. All countries are striving to grow this berealla order
to help in supplying to eleven million quarters Which to United
Kingdom now requires from outside, and which want will be
much increased shortly, as less aud less is being eowu year by
year. However 11,006,000 quarters equal about sevelity mitlioiis
of maunds, or at the rate of productlou in India, to to entire
crop of seven tnillioua of acres.
WWBAT growing is steadily inoreaolug In New totafid* From
the etatifltios ** of that bbiouy’ for IStT, we find that the crop
which was 4;054,377 bushele in 1870, had rito In 18?t to
6,836,369. Tliit latter crop was raised from jt43r,4O0l gores, being
at the rate of 86| butols for aom« This Is about dohbta tbe
quantity produced for eciW tn India, and If wo am to totpete
at all wHhsdeh a fresh and virgin cdltith^^h Whoves Us to
give our attotloh ib iho sle idy ImpWem^t toaolj. ‘
Wa have been favoured with a copy of to
Admioistrato fiepoift for 1877-78, from
province well in to ItolVii
tom'having been under ou^Gimto
wi^1^^«820« ^0 toitt toM
(t witJk
. ^ i«Wct
4 h <49 teail m wikioli to imd»qi^^ <l|y )so^
tlb forujt oii ilre^fortlbfiiFttri^eoj^^fl^ or
9$ ai93r^fl^ti9ir«4<^d^l^ 4yii!«^49( jlkirMi
tl^ mm iwtd 99 aCUn «l
9 e^U bftro^df o4 ibit wU* wkioU is
rioH > 41 ^ ibfitf 4r0|M|j tnd tbk tli^ar ooiiUa99
doi«g:fl)lp4l91IE;^4«4'' r‘* ^ -
<|19 toil mm I|>g49 of 49oUoiog P0W9^, they move ofl!
elaewbere oni repeat tbe operatioti. By tbie prooeit valaable
* foreijte ate deetrajred aad no proportvoaate gain eeoiired*
Tm people ot Btitmali ate taking a leading part in inetitntiDg
agtibetenral mm* Xbaee o 4 |bt to have good multe^ and are
becoming popular ainong the ouUiyatiOg olaeeea
-
DO. Foknia Witaov^e report on indian vrheat in an exceedingly
intereeidBg doonment, and tella oa many tliinge tre did not know
snifioiently well betore, fOr leetanoetliat a very large proportion
ot Indian wheat wae of a high olaai, but by being ao maoli
mixed with other clasaea^ other graina, clay, and other foreign
aubatanoeai the valne of lo^an wheat in England waa much
lower than it ought to be. We are elao told (hat this high
class wheat ta not confined to one diatrioty hut ia pretty evenly
disUibuted oyer the ^principal wheat-growing districts ot the
land. Woiai^ hud that the total production is 40 million of quartersy
and as this is based on a prodaction of abont Id huahala par
acrSy^thohbme productkm being double of that quantity. The
annual demand for wheat from abroad for tlie tJnited Blingdom la
88 miiUon bushels, and we 'imagine that India might make an
efiort to anppty the greater.part of this.
Taa Government Botanical Gardens ef BaharniTpore and Huaeoorie
seem to be doing good work. The former especially is properly
carried on, and iho reaulta are highly satisfactory. During the
year ending 30th June 1879, tbeie was distributed no fewer than
5,043 young fruit treSs, as these wore moat probably for ^vate
gardens, they must work a change in the appearance of our gardens
and oompounds in a few years' time, why is not more done in this
way in BengaL This latter province seems to bo standing still
atmoal in agiicultnral and horticultural aJfairs. Besides
those fruit trees fhSre wore distributed 39,250 strawberry plants,
2,025 timber trees, 9,348 flowering shrubs, 10,000 ogave plants, aad
13,037 packets of sei^s which ia surely a good year's work. The
money: loss on (he year's working ou Bs. 22,144, and we aro glad
to find that a pecuniary profit is not considered a $m ^ua non in
the working t>£ these gardens.
BrrmiBXVg experinmnta in cotton woro carried out in the year
1877^78 In the Bofltlab,,and we have now ilie report before us. It
doosnoteeem tlrntgreat anocees him followed these efforts, as the
average onttorn per acre hue b^ fiOlb.,. while 600 to 800 is not an
ttncommbn prodnction in America* The average local value of the
outturn was Bs. 194340 per owt.,, which amounts to Es. 945-5
per aofe^ and this as A gross revenue is nmnifos% too low for the
^ayat. It may be true that (hat year was an excepiiohaliy oaf ever*
ahleone^ hot unfortunat^y bsppens that such years are becoming
the tujle ratihef Ihan egoepBon, The highest outturn was 1301b.,
And.i^afoi^ lOlV*^ reprWiBiig gross Ineomes of Bs. 23-041
l-i24 yespi^4vely^ It seems almost a waste of energy
anjl^oi^m^y O* an article wUioh does
not pay^'^m^4l^e scope for the proddotion of othore
which . .... - ^
Wf^ ^ ^aiada b our iast issue
i<*9 Agri-aorticuN
, mA i\^ while
intro^uo*
«< eaot^ ra«re. taken.ap
^ ^!*H Wm Mfiiwlv airrifiulli^al hOai4^iOo* mnd eicaerikieitite.
We afe IhorSbi^N/W ;
m^dioouo'fasjijytm' may to any lavidtOnkf^^hp^'
parisona being n^de bet^^ the
Farms, We highly kj^prove of lo i^^ ^
tfbn, and know tha^ha Niqinpbto>¥afin m MoOhd ,
respect “ ‘ ' ' . ‘ ''t'‘ C-!.,/'
Tna trade of Bxa poi^ of Qbfitag^ eni^i^e^
during the year, the foitoma shewing a iKitmdncwem
in the value of ilw trade. ThIiiaelMy due te (Uh
which mm tnore than dohtde thdift of «^e pth7lepiy^;i#W
to 318,517 ewts., v»!nhd at Be. l8,d3!,l7Qi aa^agiBM Ul^ewtN
valii«datB 4 7,70,0OOiai877*78« The otfaev expi^ odnslf^
paddy, rice, tea, and tobacco; IHko imepofta of ; idoo
ineroased from 401,199 owts* in 187748, (o 598,68$ oWph ^ f3te
past year. Tho quantity of tea exported was 607,a8$]h.,, oF#Mob
86,265fih were chipped direct to Hnglaad. Tto tofai AUttam
of (bo season is said to have amounted to 8d0^925lb»
Btandingthe increased prosperily of the port, its (i^i^e <Mdi yet
be regarded os Catablished on a stable footing. 01 the arlMea
composing tUeoxports,only tea andasmiai porUonof the rtoe am
the produce of (he district iMf, the whole of the juU ^
the greatef part of the lioa being brought from otUer.^stflohi
of Bastorti Bengal. Thus, any ohange of oiroumstances, making
it advaniangeoUB to the firms now engaged in the rice and jute
trade to send their stocks to Calcotta for sitipment, might reduce
the trade of Ohittagoog to tasignifioanoe. There appears, lor-
tunatoly, to be no reason to believe that such a change Is Impendiag*
COMMUNICATED AND SELECTED.
THE ROYAL AaBICULTUBAL SOCIETY OF
ENGLAND AX KILBHRN.
T EB important tneeiiog of this Society, whose labours and otdeahi
are se intimately identiaed with the material and mdustrial
development of our ceuntryt are always a matter ot naliooat Jnteresl»
but various etmumstaaoes oC an exceptional oharaoter hats attramed
ipeolal attention to that |ust held at Ktlhuro. Its elose proximity to
our overgrown metropolis was la itself a notloeahle feature, brinsfug
as it did, the inhabitants of Londofi into more immodfstoaud iustrqctive
contact With the uiefnt and lagenious agricultural and msobanieal
davelopmsttts wbloh have bo greatly oontrlbuted to the progress and
prosperity ot the BugUsb people. It must be admitted that those who
bad oharge of the details iu oonneotion with the Kiibura meettug ntsda
suergeiio and praUisworthy efforts to render U worthy of the ooesf ion,
audtheooouteoanoe of her Majesty the Quoeti, and his Hlghaeef the
Prince of Wales was not wauting to give U the augast cauetioti of the
Throue* But it is glveu to morlalM to deserve, out to oommaad sUcOesi.
The elemeais ware uaauspioious. So to speak, old an i ostahUshed pre¬
cedent fatly justified the oifictal directicm ot the Boyal Agricultural
Society in couatfng with oorifideoee oa sunshine ia July, even in
Bagland where we aro said to have plenty of weather but no oUmste*
; It is unhappily notorioes that such autlelpations have been k this case
I sadly disappointed. We are told that the rain, It raiooth,every day."
During the meeting at Kilhurn, this say tag has been literally verified,
not simply as applied to the wide wide world," but In a atrietly local
sense. Indeed, were it not that the rainbow, with its coat of many
ooltiurs, now and again gave us kindly amuranoe that we nesd not fear,
not unreasonable apprehensions might have been entarUjned that (bo
time had come lor anotber deluge. Under such eouditions it is not
surprising that the elie Selected for the eshlbiiioii wSs nidueed to a
sort of muddy, waste, tbrough wbioh it would have bton quite
impraotioahie for visitors to have made any progress hat for the hurdles
KUbarn* However, ia (heir oaee, virtue was rewarded, lor they
ttioet have seen mueh. that well repaid them for toy (vouMe they
may have taken. 4t pinfiot be denied that the •* 8how " at Bilbum
(weather exeepted) was; (be best, a« E waa Undouh<Odly, looking
to the extent Of groufid oeveied, the Urgest ever htud* ktauy
mot of laud .woim ocicupied by the (suta and stauda of axhihi.
tote; and, ootwlMaudlhg Avery drawback^ the humerous visitore
maltbave fett to be seen twice in a
life* Wo'Oimii nu|.‘,1^^ la a Emited space, msotion mry
thing that ; hui we may specially ellude to the
rem^kahle &plky teM hjr HesBre; J. and H. Owyane, phe g^t
. hydraulle eapSNito of Hamtaevnnith and London. Qur attention
Buvioadded aad we are nd sorry that we were iudttced to
imiMiiei
xlf/ «pS4^>k' iD<
r iMMriMif *W-iiMr-«>tSK» ifcf«ajwfiS*r''Att^
^.4IM« uiA ttw.‘ .Dmt p Milti t i
S 3 . Jirt£ 4 %i’ir 8 &'Sr^
aTOb a-Mra^a^rr
taCMwMteiA^igiUditwn^ M«p»t>
Iv Af; ai>f«M' MUWM OtlM •MtiUat thtlf
iiM fM ^ liilO' \6AiA j 1i6#bt«r; moTT^tadpIj
00tf«NHfftl»tl lott Ih*
inasrnmaimmamnmm^
80 »rLOW»» CAKE FOE OAm®.
pEOFABSOB BBBOSTBABl), oX Um Boyat AfHenHarftl Aeidemy,
-A. poWlihi^a ttoit ItadttUiry!: otilh« tlrttlMcH i^nfloirer.
Med o^M^fpod dor mittle, St tfielWi: nutt Ik preetate.^^«
ooostaiiojr of eoMpotfkion* nrelyi it everp mek iktdi ia ottieT oafeel,
u met with la oodial^oe, It ooatalok fran 18 to 18 per oeat.
of fall aad 88 or 88 pM ceat. of protela eabetaaoei, tad iiMf
theMfiliei a natrllli^ telhii ter above Ihei ot taost ovdlaety leediag
etbfls f bealdei Wbiehit biit a moat agreeable UatOji god U altogetber
free fMet bitter or aoy lQ|artOaa maUen, SotaeoargCoi eapertmeate
oa ili effoetiapao latieb oowi bare bMo made at the UUoaa Agri^l-
tatai laitHate by Baroa Aherbjoliai whieh toad toehow that it both
improyeg thedaalltyaadiaoreaiee the qoaDtity of their mUh^ theJwUef
from whlob le alio of exdepUoaat exoeUeoee. Uaay praoiiMl ftrataif
la t'h* fiefgbbiiofhood hare aleo made trial of the laoie foodi aad are
titmaliaoae io'their faroorahle verdiet. Their mileh oowi all look
greedily to the obkO from the Bret day U waefed to t&em« add la
all ema oa tmproremiut io the .quality ot the ihtik was qolekty
ooied« For draught oaeo aad fattealog buUooka alio it ie e^ally
aoltablei elpeeially for the latter, whose meat preieots aa oaueiiM
rmhaeu of fibrour wbea* thee fed, aad It may be girea ia email
quantiaea to horaea with maob adraotage, mixed lato a thiok math
with ohyff. Io oomparifoa wUh other feedlog etufEi tbti oake b very
cheap, ahd It cao ^ given iu larger qaaatitlM tkao moet othe? oakee
'Evlthout aoy ill effeol. It ie also pertleolarly fret from forelgp
matter, aa there ie ab^fllouity ia gathetlag ia the crop of eeeda with*
out adveatitioue admixtarea It ebould be remarked bowoveri that
experlmwkte with tiiie oake audertakea ia Oermauy tome few yeara ago
gate far lem aetiefeotory reealie than those reported Io , aueb eologlidio
terms by Ftofeieot Bergitraad*-*Cbaafry dentlenmn^t Hapazint,
CULTIVATION OP OOKBE.
O N the Coottoeat, as ia Bnglanid, the ealtivitioB ot gome iUtea
eurry^M) io waste plaoaSj M a food for cattle» appears to hod
advooatM amoag a oertaia wgioa ot agticuUarUli.. At a reoeat
of .tte .Frii^mlk ActHNtwM SMlttf, U. .Bmn gsrtwMt
iWKliwUHt oit«i( ■wota ifl ibd dfaMoUM ot tbo VdfiNek tomtht
ia PoaMfOolg* Bo fouud la gone a pteaitful supply of grata fdod
for hie fkbtdt flom 8epiembertp BayJ, avea<Sa the depth ot wfateri
wfaea MOW, had ioo were taastergoliheijjlpilloo.. Biloh eows, (»ea«
and ahea^ ait ata it seadUy, aad evea %reodlly; at^ ia fbe OSM'
of the Afabmeattoaed aalmali, the qhOlity ottbO, milk wMOggei^tooiaiy
obUCbed w^ so favWabie, tM VC fwf?*'
■toekmaa deetared he would vaiber have to give uo o^ Oiah WoM
lor ^ftpr feeding, the anlmali mabiag 8eAi apod ^ M iaiM
alto^hM aapr|M«Dted manaer^, The oropa wme growa Opoa a
barrdh son, of aopraotioal value for any other poroosef gad!
withtl *0 slight addition of BbUihels of pompostmanurepHgaiMgenv
thoyigfd^ U« frob 900 to 800 qwt. AH tbeiM^^
groOh mu qbSallied CrOiu Fraaee, that being S »
tb«»f«hgWy,aa<]g ,
bowmir;
dNUhMiiiriMbb.
«bng* #CM th>rii>«IUtdgt
AiqmniMMtpg^frMBiMwM^aibHbMktlwnMotfik a
ImM mlMh ‘
A» ptwtbwB «*>»w«d >»aitdBtiwdiMiinw>w.«rt 6>i«yba<ii»>»|iiM*'
forth that, ovea Were the drataa^t p«rt^,A lidr mhHafir of oharMl
would materially aoi as a valuahie leriui^, . . ^ ^ ^
oQsCWhutd M but'amert tfSa ^ am plagt,, wl^^advaatOAM OMmM
that would peioealottiablo. ' ^
Saoh pleats as the vetieoated^teaved ^aiiaQ alaa €lafratiaii aad
poktiog uompoetj watarskA li8l^ih%btwoshd%i#|is$m
Xa jDoaaeotioa frith this Ml^isok'iMiaiardltahk ja^ m W' dt^
abhtb sand for potting,purpoiM aad for roolUiaaattiiigitMi. , wo aaa
aabtwarathih’thiraliaoy p^dula^ aukrlailht ta tha kUatsi^al for
, aia&Mott|kifatioB{for pottiagi^ MgaapiWgto b^wmjfW
mf|i€ tha ecMppst mart oloptria its taatniNb P® that^akt aad< avataratM
WS%'hat'pmy a tbo,axhaostlve part., Tho%ladhrmpaafy,sol>ai the
m^'hat'ptiiiy A tbo,^haostlve part., Th^iadhrimpaafy.A>ai the
im&fialiASuiMi^bt ^iSj hp{ilid8,Vod la adf aotXi tha aSitl:k#iroabil
sbonldtakapbMe, thay.bjkliig sIMady taoMthpaotMidMaMilvad^^
eompaokaaiMioravaaUhg thaStHfaneaol bit tothS bSst^oY %ba eUtiloia.
The aseaptioos to^ha iwla are applioabla^to vamrrsaaaolanlplawit, oaoB‘
.as iMFelargoiiiami wtdoh prefers for fooilag^ matarlai a mpdoiotely
atifl anil, or eUbh a oomposb as will allow tbo flee peaStraBoo of air
throogh it.
h will ibu be Mea that laad may even bb used with dtiadveatSga,
most people believing it Indispensable to everything eoapeeted wiia
the propagation and ouUlvaUoa of plante.—A If. fu fbaairyOeafie-
amn's gfeyosine,
AltTBSIAN WELLS IE OEETAAL AtlSISALli.
QUOOESBFULltoringsifhrwaterhave been made Ifl Frame Oonntiy,
O Bontb Australia, la a dlstriot hitherto altoost devoid of larfaoa
Water aad regarded asoonsequeatly almost wortblesp for agdoulti^al
or pastoral purposes. One well, ettflk ia some ar^ obnniry near Lika
Froma at a distanoeof 400 miles north of Adalai^ m
on being bored to th# depth of 370 feat, pro^aoM a dully aupply bf
10,000 gallons of exoelleiit water; and other artaalan walls ia the
same distriot Lava proved equally eucoeaeful. As tharasii)ko| tha
entafprise we are told that whereas that oounkry wbtttd forbtarly
only omrry a few thousand head ofetook, Us oapabUUies ard* tiihw
porl^ly unlimited. Tha sueoess will stimulata simitar whtwrpdiseb
olsewneie. Mach of the Bo*oaMed ;desejrt oouatlyy iebmiiiW < thb
bouddry between the coast diskrtots and.the, rtph jaa|ori£}m|da
whic^bave been discovered in the interior of the ooovin^t, will ba
reclaithed by tliis means. The South Australiao ^a^tpmaat ist
Mending asoientidoexpedition to the gbbrbs of the 0rekt AmrAllair
Bight, wUh • view to tha seleoUott of proper ailaU fof Mrljudaifr walw
\o tap ^6 deep sprigs which araAnown to asdak thefti;gol|it w
i^rt of thaobnntry which has. hitherto been regardUd as ^Ibubw ^
most fttbo^ltable portion of AuiEralia wilL ihia Ihaaiiai ba
thrown opah to agdoulturai enterprise,-UTTia CiUbAiiW.
TBi- Ft icHSRi pjtiisrijr. ;
iTtHja carioO., UMjr ;.{)»
A Aintnfiib 'on nAoMini 'It.
wUohl)'... Uwf liMd
BNfMrioB. .TIm ipiMit, i j. 'kwwa i>7.taliMMiiiriiiiiM(ib
M lAMIrtri, Ae.» S
berd«raolQaMB.>M>4udSomh b.ttra«n1^* iSM%kV"
aiirtt yttillel., .b(ma.n^ 0 Q'Mn^UM. *'
Iwatveiaobw
Ifciwvima' fmiM/iitMliiii.j. '
m.
^SitmSFra^|i|ra|f^MiVSi <
" , Itt^laie )MiMiii^ #od
ip ^ |Attir|j9iin)^ tiAKteffo in
,, iW ti^
•f|k iftfi^^t^ifiyigl^ ^ lf!9l|«fil Jtbn di^oover^ tl>M dio plant not
nn^ natobniy INktrd^gMM^it^ and ki noailalied lif inaactat la alao, and
likdii^i^dna ^iHa iiidapendeiit foaaari^aa of Br» Darwin* The
piMigaicNMn^ ^ Bota'od p^ 13^ a i^n^ll hook ipeditled Arran y
k pl^ In all: ChiiitOB.*'^ By the Bev. David Dandahorotinli,
Ulniater of SteveniOh, (Bdlnbur^h, ^Blackwood, 1820),
The ibthor wrttea ; W ^
»Bheeidaey
Baably preimne to tip thetparkfliiir daw.
01 leadat fraih to Oti^eha diet the death*
Tbefiiaenedewiotm oleia^lierviagiandfovt;
AtidaomiiMr taoa^eeltid foliar atfaagthaoa the pUat*
l^ipli^thflaf when panetnitedf belter thrlvea***
ToiliiitlielG|leWiiief hpte ia appended What 2 have said
reapeeting the attn^er being tinnriahed by the dead bodies of
the flies wbiohdtantangiaarteAtbeofV o/oiy ou»i| k ao litf aa it
iwiatis to the aita^dawy hut X have litlle doabt that it ia a omteot
oue.'^ He adds that fiir J. B. Binith was aware that the Akerioan
plant Dioama mwcipuk ia **to a certaia eatent noariabed by the
ihaeota #h1oh it oaUdhea/* The <* vlaooha dew of the Drosbia ta
aimpty yagetabla pdpalite. Tiie anthor made pne oudonatnietake
fiiipdoiingTt, that he snnpoaed its porpOee wea to prevent antaU
ioseota from inleatrng tl&deavea.** It is more likely that thdy are
attraeted by it, aSthe aphis is by the honey dew ** oa the ieavea
of' tbo Xime^tveew One of the beet eaamplee of a flytrap Is
foaroiehed by iftoMn moenicituin* If the apathe is oat op^« the baU
at the lower part will generally be foond full of flies. They creep
in, attracted by the atrong aoont of the epadia, and are pravtuted
from returning by tlia fringe of deflexed hairs whiou All the
oonstrioted part or neck of the 8pathe.>—JP. A» Fal^,
II ... '-Pie
PASTORAL BBE9*
(CbstbHwd/Vuai Ab. 9, page 310.)
T OWAADihe eloiaoftheAeieon,eayia July or AagMt, the fiat gees
Iwrtib thatthe dronea moat dl* i theveis ao fkrthor uga for tHow. Then
the poor oieetasiM^ bow they ate huddled and hngtUd aboat, trying to hido
in oomen end by*wAia! ^ere la no loud* dodaat hawwlng now, but abjoet
feer leiaea Ahesb Tl»y <*diwr like hunted eriminale. I hove oaen a dorsen
m ]ao«e of wedge themeoivea Into a amaU epaoe betcruan tho giMw
ae^ UieSondb where the bepi oealdact get bold of them, or where* they
eeemed, to ha oradoohed in the general ebiiighter. They will also erawl
oididieindbidiimderthe edges ef the hive. But sooner or later they
ate all hilled cab The dfoae mekee no feeUSanoe, etoept to pull baok and
try kt^aaviy; b^iipn^g yonfieUinhiepl^ with one bee luhold of
Ipt^O^or }*enr hsad* and anpihef a^hold of each arm or
hfi a]^enUii^^,|e(d{ag|myoari^ wUhhii eting, the odds
are'ig^jyriiiKM'yoih
litli waSnielin <ieA elm. ihae the ^pum h medsi not bore. If the
eattia iwp^didkanf flpilnorareat lMkmwerelh«ofbp)dagcf tm mother*
Uidyhib»dBnadeieei)ieaty.ee Idt apea eome device by whieh a royal baby
eoald he.wamwhtetarid nafcnf en oidiatiy ene,nr elae gii^ up the irehion of
eoyelty* A!1 tlmheei iakheiarehiveaeQmniea parentm end the queen
leid tbsi'^ wmlter are phe seme hi the, egg end kke w>k i thepa^t of
lbpa^||i*lb!ilmi«^ rthimb being mnSh larger, and the
jM» 1rtp4 ad s^lib wntela opatingeoalee, eu^
iiidhs fbm gwem aiih no epis In tbejroyal oel,Ui> the workert tike Ihe
himiA nl^lmnefthmty^ two, adj^nliig oner,
end Ihmtdsoddlelt, lilint Mm end j^eigbieen to# Mom
kMoidiBe#* in ke imj^l feurfb
eiwiMii, M x^t n pMa^
egiiast Mkf, mother
fime% pkpfmP' fito 4sMWto.etto to4 awm k |he
''Mib' '•* pipi.da^anee
mt ««
, ^ *»' mm
'' mm* ’ 'wiiMi
', Mil bem
>leAilewiid mSwkf
'keofA pike^,'ti^,/^^lfe|Aim4i4 .
toneA'ahtomsed'.^ flag Mlj'
Showed no {nmiktoei^ hUd^firesgmlS^^M
Fevtheseai^iamybibesweUAniiMrn!^^ kJi^WSk ‘
Hnbsr. . I ^ \ ' tf.v i' ' T'"'
verMeSl, ii^ie the' tobk W
ttends «n.|fe be eA ^w hlrffMnd Sto ^ ^
Urn m^on hap^St^evdry igiieiilly ’;pravo^''ite'
, faeii ji'de 'uMflk ruler <iind ieenm m onm |e/Mjilto' y#jM4e
Reneh Kt^eleon the first eprliAied' the, aymbo^'; bM svw .m
M>w mare of 1 his ^nesty >i m k Mm isf fhb
f haiiohaMm bee waa'nied m the emblem ol pec^ ew4f|^,'kMk^^ Mi
the orders of ite king.. But the feet is, a ewjMUi of berets
damoovnoy« and kings add o^ia olh flnd no lij' tbfi|!r
The powers end aothorMy ard euMmijr 'fS^efl m ^ ‘tato*'mhe
workers. They farnteb afl the bmisa imd l^reff^ hf 111# em|m3b>h^
edmtttiitevstlidklre* Their word is la#* end both king esM
obey. They xagulata the ewarmlogi aOdgivereiMfo^to'^ili^^
iiktte from the hive i they reledfcend.mske ready the
eondnot the gueea to ah ,
Thopeahbler offlee, end laoreduefi of the gaeso eonebMe in ibe Isot fhet
she ia toe mpther of toe mm «hd toe btos Weand
mother and not as a ebvei^gn. . Mho iatooSble tometebtolO IbM;
the swarm oluigsto her beoause she ts toelrllto* BspMved of ^lelr
end of ill brood from which to rear to, toe awto Ittoa 4l besM infl ito
dire, toongh there be an abundanee of honey ia toe tdva.
The oommon beee wiU never me ibekatiiig upon the qaesd t If she te
to be dispored of they atom her to death i and toe queeahorislf will
atingnotolag but royalty*«uctoittg bat # rival qoeeo.
The qoeee. I eay, ia the mother bee # it ia uadoubtadly oomidimiiMIng hat
to call her a queen and invest her with regal aathority, yet eh* ia a soperh
ereatore, and looks every into a qiteeni It la ea event to dbreegutih im
amid toe maae of beet when th* swaim alhtoto ; M amtosns a toMil
Bedna you havo laen a queen yon wonOer if th^ or that has, whieh seems
a litolreger than its fallows. If not ahe, bal when to one* reto aet
eyea upon her you do not doubt tor ,* moment t yon, know fhaf jf to#’ j^eeto
That long, elegant, ahining, tomlnine-lookiug eteatiire sen be nto to
toen royalty* Bow beanUfully her body taoere* m dimiutoto ehb
tooka, how dcdibeittle hat toemiato 1 ThStodo n^fjdiAto
har, but oateia hat and touch hre pareoijk. The dmoaj, or m4rei a^e lareo
bees too, but ooaree, btUuh broadtouldered, mreoidiae look^ lAem
iabutona toetorinciileittmthetlto of a queau that lOoka toreiH end
authoritativo t Huber ralatei that whan the old efuean to toatraitofuhSr
movements by the workers, and prevented from detoyliig thb yeOUg
queen io their eelle, ahe easumoi a paculiarsttitudb and uMefs ahoto to
atrUcee every bee motionless, and makaa every bead boW | Whili toft
aouad luBta notabeeattrs,bOtalilookabatoedamdhniitbled.yatMhetoiir
the emotion ia one of fear, or reverence, or of sympathy wHh toe diatrwi*
^Hi* moment it ceaasa, and she advOneei agaia towards the ro^ MliS, toe
bsea bite end putt and Xmr *a before.
I always feel that 1 have mlaaed some good forinoe if I sot away
home when my bees swarm. What a deUghtfal summer eoandlt le 1 4W
they eome pouring out of the hive, twenty dr thirty thouianA here, eaok
striving toget out drat 1 It ia as when the dam gives way and leto the
watera loose ; it ia a flood ol bees wh|to bceaka upward to the air and
beoomea a masa of whirling blaoh lines to the eye an^ a Sblt ehorna of
myriad musirel aonods to the ear. Tuia way and that way to*| d^, now
oootraottng, now etpanding, rislug, afnklng, growli^ thlek^ hl^dt some
brnnoh or bush, then dtsporaing and moiaaing at some oto point* Mil dually
they begin to alight In aaniret, when In a fe w momedta the whci# awarm is
ooUeoted npon the bianeh, fotmittg a hottch perhrew re a twc-kallon
merenre. Here they will hang from one to three or tour honre, ^r uuUl a
anitoble tore in Mie woods la looto up> when, if ihby have not b^ bflfered
a hive in the mean time* , they are up and otf. In hiving topm>, if eny
Aoeident happeiu to the queen the eatorpriae mlasarries at once*' One' day
I ebook a awarhi from a amall pear-toaelnto a tin pan, set Mib pau down oa
a shawl aptesd baneato toe tore, and put the hlVe over It The bare
firemtty all amwled up to it. and evbrytog eeemSd to go wkll'tor ten
or fifteen mlnocei^ when I observed that something was wrong ; toe bem
began to boas eioitedly and^ to rush aboot to a bewildered maures; towi
they took to toe wigg audmlretornedto toe parent atlKil;*, OuSttt%i^
toe pan, Xtout^baaentoto too qnare with tote* or four etore to. flhe
had been one of Mto )ifibto lsM,hadmiiaidtodpiu4d
hadeetU npou lier*' I eohdsred bet tenderly buck to toS iKtow, but either
toa areident tortotretld tot% iritolmfretotoe yeit^^
Uberetodltt toeretd one of toem badlilieki to Sombkt, tor it wre
ten days
jrooreypjs^M hottfstoen^ in toe
wSoAh 1^' iMre^rem 'be no doubt tbevloelk up irew dnerteto 'eUner
■ 'r 's'S
* j ') ' '
thiU 'toi, MriMto/wSMM
-, ... ..
' t« uf^^p 'W m
thAt k fWM'W 0^ ft wtud^'ii^ ilaft '1^)11
wk ido tiw iw«*» Of »*>
tblHlft fti* gtAyaf>wf
plftiit. I wonl4ftoteyfta»<^ Uut ibftii# ifrbftft ,fti^
gttiiig Sr, i>i« Ap^ftTlattir ftbiiwA iffiwfildfi naif wlifaljr %r
ngftMr kdi ftfcUl Mwrlifti ta tajk, ot; tift^K
tin jfmt Uffiiriftff bftmi, M tdm ^
wllfcftftfcir®^4Va4ki^
b«t% iwpU^«S 4 io Katt^*.
tUrsud^ftni fkt^tioftoartftil, and 1 hftYft i^bwft nitt,twajr
ttt tlbft Held ftrho tfboftr«rea
ixniik ft ftfftrm IftftVM iox Ilift Wftodii tlicy «rfrott t)«fow yoftf^tly know
|ft,^aE% drrfuW*f»» t*»e M wi<b.sprwd ftttJ fti«iiM»
MaMvtf. Aftft iftiddWlr «P tofteikftr tli«ir forMi,
anaTSw ilfey iftfrft lifttftaiiftgi YorteJC of boos, ttio <ittoen tp|iftrOftfcly
iatWft^tie'ftndt^omwimblviBer about kftr ftii ft pivot, Ovor orchards
iuii%ifladowii ftbfoH swfttnps, or iv^oods and deep vatloys*
fttrftlkkt ifo# ftppoiflM tr^ Blow ftfcfiwt.sft that you Clift kflopopftfltb
pn^fttty wltU ft ^p^eed that would tire a foft>11011^(14 In this
ttig^t&ft li^Widtud keel 4o ftot mote k tight Uofts, 6r straighb lor wild like
rSoA of hiid»»kotf«m»d*ttdrwmaMke chaff whiilwlod; imltedly they
form ft whitiiig, rmroiviftfo ttobiiloaB mass aftoen ot tweftty feet aeSross, that
KOCiiftifclid^iUlftpWjo^taftkiliiiwk. theyftfO aofc partial as to the
kiftid of tree,-pine, hwnlook, elm, Wroh, Koapte, hickory .-apy tree tilth
ft good pfttity high op or low down, A swarm of mine rao ftway from the
ftoiy pfttcQt hire I gave them, ftnfl took op tholr (joarters in the hollow
iruftkofoa bld apple-tree aorofe an Bdjoining fteld. The ofttraace wfts a
mooBeboie near the gtouni. Anoker ewaho in the nelghboorhood
deserted th4r fceejfiet aod went into the cornice of an onk-house that stood
ftmld emitrfofts k the fear of a largo mansion, But thsro U no aooOimting
for the tiitrof bees, fts Bamson found when he discovered the swarm In the
oaroass^ or mOrS probably, the skeletoB of the lion he hod slain.
In the woods of aU ports of the country that have been settled any length
of time, these wild swarms are more or less ftbnndhnt, and Inrntsh the
occs4ra for one of the most delightful pastimes the automa brings, namely,
hee-kunbing- Nearly every BeighbM)uthood in the back country has its
nol^ bhe^nntor, nSoftily ons of those picture8i|ue chAracters that savour so
■tnmgli of the wild, and with on eye that will follow a bee nearly as far as
ordkory vWiOtt wUl follow Urn flight of a bird.
^ One -night on the Potomac a party of us unwittingly mode oar oamp near
winds of heaven blow down, for
our special delectation,<^6 least so we read the sign. Another time, while
iitting by a water-fall k the leafless April woods,! discovered a swarm
III the top^offt krge hickory* I had tlie season before romarked the tree m
a likely place for bees, but the screen of leaves conoealed them fro^ me.
This time my former presentiment occurred to mo, and, looking sha’*p|y, sure
enough there were the bees, going out and in a large irregular opening.
In June a violent tempest of wind and rain demolished iho tree, and the
honey was all lost m the creek into which it fell, 1 happened to go along
that way two or three days after the tornado, when I saw a remnant of the
Bwarmi those, doubtless, that escaped the flood and those that were away
when the disaster came, hanging iiia small bkclt mass to a branch high up
. ear where their homo used to bo. They looked forlorn enough. If the
queen was save^, ihetemuaUt probably sought another tree ; otlierwise the
bees mull have soon died.
1 have seen bees desert their Ulvo in Urn spring when it was infested
with worms Qt when the honey was cfthaostod ; at such times the swarm
seems to wonder aimlessly, aligUaug hare and there, and perhaps la the
end tmiUog with some other rolony* In case of such union, it would bo
carious to know if negotmtions were first opened between the patties, ftod
If the bohselessbees are odmhited ai once to all the riglita and franchUes Of
their hebefoefcota It would bbyefy like the bees to have some prelimluary
plan and nuderitftnding about thc|kttor on both sides,
Beef will a^toudnto themii^^* ^ aimostauyciuartors, yet up hive
IMBft topkiinfrhem so as a seetku of a hdliow fcree-*^* gnus os they
lire ffthf ft to the aonth and We«t where tbc swset gw grows. Xu some
Bufopcftnoountitcsihckive iS gtwayft wade from the trunk of a tree, a
aoitabie cavity bmng formed by boring, 'i^he ald«fashionod straw hive is
picturesque, and agteai fivortto wtt|b the huBi#' /
theta is Aft 4d supemubioft atili ab^iiaho)} ig tome parja of Bto conoti^i
thftt to oeder to have kuk with bees, yon muav toh them ^ol fttiyf death that
ecensi to too family, it you fril to do this they will go off nr will perioh iu
thehivftt to^toodgeof the evening, aftor tlie beei are all la fipto the
day’s il to be summer, toe master or owner appxoachts the htoe, raps
genii} n^lti add when line bees i6s|»ond with thpir kquiriQg bmm, fftys
LftlT. for May] is dead.” It is a rowaUbout roeogailtou of ^
fact mfli take a lively ktorcit k yanr bees, end b|y^^lukale
wifli them itod wit' wltii' ^n« fth^ Itove a floed ubic>aia&dlaff on boffr
,,J
•* ■ • . ' ■./ i'
umr mwtfkti wwwrt «__
«» MMk boa,. ‘ i(my iMl m*
onairbaM^^ <to»m»y
htrneieiii^m ihe gtofti to frmitftf
ihaecia.iJSstomd
bythe 1 iatidl«f%'iheirbtok^s^^lW M;i*i^> 9 W^>he
saiipr to the house, ov by the slm^to ffetoffh' iff my ^aftl' ton
crawl kio the hive. Heattoihclr UCe, and wa ftphftttotly Utoltothsptoay
be revived by warning him. I hhve ftlto pltoed up dfoMSg btol
rowing on the river, and seen them aafety to shofs*' It Is; ambstog ^ toe
them none hurryiog heme wheft there It ft fehm^ei^itoimt mroatoigg.
They come piling to tlU the min Is upon them* that ato cvmwen
by the Stona doubtless weather toesbtot tody toft to toft ohSitteag '
or grots- Xt itnobprobahietoata bea wvftt gab fott1»y wimdeil^ into
strange and unkuowD parts* With their myttod eyes thto see evmythtng;
and then, toeir sense of locality is very aeuto-*^i| todeftdt one of their
ruling traits. When abtoimo^sihaptoee MySi atobtogeod
pasturage to the flslto or swaWv or ^ tot be^tototer's boft ol hbtoy on
the hills or ip the woods, he returns to it os unerringly os fftte,,
Honey was a muclf more impoitet Article ci^ood with toe aaolentS than
it is with ns. As thsy appear to have been unAcquaintod with sugar,honey,
no deubt.,stood them instead. It la too rank and pnngent for the modem
taste i it soon cloys upon tbc palate. It denumds the aj^tlto of youth, and
toe etroug robust digestion of people who Bvs miuh to the upon sir. It is
i giore wholesome food than sngar, and modem ecmleetioaery is poiion
^Ide it. Beside, grope sugar, honey oontoiiie manna, AuoilagA poUen,
and other vegetable odortfexoas enbstanecs and joiope. Xt, is • sugar
with a kind of wild natural btimd added. Themoonaef itoeU Is both food
and medtoluei and the pungent vegetable extcftcti have rote vlrtnes. Honey
promotes toe aucretloni and dlssolvei too gto^nonsftnd starchy impsdimsat
oitoesystouu
Hence it ii not without reason toto with the ancients, a land flowing
with milk and honey, should mean a land aboonding in all good thtogsj
and too queen to the nursery rhyme,. who Ungered to the kitchen to eat
bread andhoney*^ while the "king was to thb parlour oounting out, his
money,” ires doing a very senelble thing* Bpomtoondas is said rarely to
have eatoft enytoiag but bread and honey. The BmperOr Augastna one
day inquired of aceatenarion how he had kept his vigor of mtod and body
BO long i to which the veteran replied that it was by Oil without and
honey within.*’ Cicero lo his «Old age,” olossds hoUey with meat and
milk and cheese os among staple artieleB of a well-kept farm-house.
Italy and Gteaoe, k fact oli the Meditorrausan countries, appear to have
been famous lands for honey. Mount Hymettos, Mount Hyblo, and
Mount Ida produced what may to caliod tho cUssin honey of antiquity, au
niUcle doubtless in no wise superior to our best producto* Imigh Huut'a
^ Jar of Honey” is mainly distilled from Sicilian history and litomtare,
Theocritus toroishitig the host yield. Sicily hts always been rich inbeto*
Bwlubuvne (the traveller of a hundred yearn ago) says the woods on this
island abounded in wild honey, and that the people alio hod many hires
neat their houses. Tho idyls of Theocritus ftre native to the Island In this
respect, and abound, to bees***" flaUnoted bee#” as he ^calia them to toe
Bevcplh ldy!-*-and comparisons in which comb-honey is the standard of
the facet deieGtabic of this world’s,goods. His goatbeids con think ^of no
greaitov bliss than that the month to Altod with hoacy-eoft^, w to to
incloi^ in a chest like DapUnis and fed on the comhs df beei’t iti 4 among
thod^ables with which Amiucii cherishes AdonU Am ** ktoMT^toikies,”
and ottor titbits made of sweet honey*” to the oonat^ol Thencritos
this Cn^om isaaid stUl to ptovaU: when a oanpte ate nftiericd the ftttondftiits
place huftsy to their mouthA by which to«y would symboltae Jtht Jtoto that
theii love maybe as sweet to their seals as honey to the pMatA It, was
fablod tokb Homer was suckled by ft pricMess whose toeOsts distilled honey,
aadlbat onto when Htodar lay toe bets dropped hboey upon tos
lips, In toe OidTeitomeut toe toed oi: toa pmitotodMmaaneiwastobe
batter aflff' honey (them Is muto doubt aboftt the htotffr to ton
orl^al), that he,might know goed ftomavilt and d'oiiftiton’ieyee were
enUghteued by portakitotof «ob» weodorwUdhcnsy | " JS%.I
how m'meeyos have been jftltohtoBed. bCoftUWlNlftdftffttleef l||aftho^*’
m Iw 09 this part of ble diet waaconcentied dchn tofMaptlak
during his Bcjourn to the wUdtonsH* hto the
mcnatstoa and ptotos n< Iritoi eutoeiftely «>a^/ Abbflt^ft^ ctoer
part, toe Icoasta, d.wA toptfttoeffftedpotot eni^toeifaaai^^
nmeh oknnot to :tol^ Ihctiffh toft! whmamoiif jtoe
tldigituetoltoitoef peSmllted to eat* Thay
not auten bto' foniiW'to ttot »«# ptonltore^ toetofkWtoJto
dtotoir
,btoa’boW^''tointm .toVtof
wltolitoV.* iki|itotol!A;ft«^toftlofttotli'effenfff^
toe ptotihefe' toim ^
^ 4u»A wA pvthLtM, wad now
tii^fll ^ If4a n^ket* Bttt hokesr i» kodear tka woxld otac; wad tka
in ^ ke^ itiU* ** Man way dagwaecata/' »y# m kid traveitefr ** may
tWgkt ikkavia by taikick tkfly aaqidred moWtt; maottiaetarmufuft/ffail, aod
iaomittadl^aa keMafaa»kb» Otkaireetskf tkawild donrara of film Wilder,
nois; Om iiiduwtry wtd oafittr*! moebaftlof of the bO 0 | wilt ooatfana wiUu|it
«kBU|m or d«|rogi^U>Q ”
t)mm\]otxo^ ov wonmm
A Vf UlTlSU lu ibo Xron Ag$ wtka bks b4en making a
. atndy tkeii rapid dastraotion in fikafioountry,
and tliair e0^t an oUmata and iiaaltb, aaya tltal ainca 1835 tUa
foraafi aiaa of iha'Waatorn Hamispbara hat daoreoaed at* (ha yaarly
average rale of ^ydOOfOOOaoraa, or about 11,000 aquaro miloa* and
that thla rata in tba Unified BtafiaaalQOa haa advaaoad from l^OOO
square imloB iu 1885 to 7,000 in 1855, and 8,40Q in 1876| while the
last two years have soaroety bean less ealiaoatWa. Statiatios for
80 years pratioqa to !8d5 show that wa^ have been wasting the
supply of moisture to Atoarican soil at the avaraga rate of savsn
par oant. for each quarter of u'^ceotury during the lost 125^ yeats^
and that wa are now approaching the limit beyond whion any
further deoreasa will materially iufluenoe the climate of the entire
oofitioent. Many Kastern regions^uch as Afghanistan, Persia,
India, and Asia Minor^^ooce possessed of a fine olimate and
abundant harvest are now often scourged by paitlleuoe and
famine, and it is altogether probable that their ntii^ortimes be$;an
with the disappearaiioe of their native forests. It is quite likely
that we shall suffer iu oUuiato, fertility, and health before a greet
while if we continue to destroy our trees as recklessly as wo have
done, and il behoves us to be warned in time, Wliat has happened
elsewhere* may cortoinly happen here. Indeed, there is great
danger of it, for we know by experience that fertile lands have
grown sterile by loss of trees, and tliafi sterile lands have in turn
beoomo fertile by systematio planting, A certain proportion of
well ^veoded as well as arable pasture land .is essential to our
material prosperity, and this proprUon can never be kept up unlei»s
regular tree planting be ado^d as a set-ofi to the excessive destruc*
lion ineessanUy going on. For 150 years we have been felling
the forest; for the next 150 we should try to restore what we
jiave taken away*
OOMPABAm® VALUE OP OAK BARK,
fTTHB question has often been propounded whether tlie bark of
^ the Onerous pedueulata or of the Quereui rdhur is the more
valuable in tanning operations* The reply must materially depen<i
on the proportion of tannin and other astnngent principles whioh
they rsspeolitrely oontain, the quality of these suhsiauces being
tUk Sgttot mtasttiw of their value for tbe purpose nauisd, Some
reseafs^s on this point have recently been ondertakou by M, W.
Bitnpir; results of wliloU, ars bf considerable interest. Ho
analya^ thk- baik of each variety, taken from twelve-year old trees,
g^wp oAtha dame site under prsoissfy similar oondltions, and iu
the course of his operaUanS not only determined the, point at issue,
but also established the fact that the percentage of tannin fii (he
bark of eaeli variety varies considerably according to the time of
the yeifi^ at which it Ts stripped. Of barks stripped at the end of
A^t, that 'Of 0* nsdkncalam oontainsd l4*8o per obnt. of tanniu*
and thi^f Qt'iwkib*' Ifi'fio pet cent. At the end of May the
veaf^Ve 10^71 and 10*48 pof oshfc.; at the end of
Jone^ per cent, j at the end of duly, 0-80 |od 8*11
per oenihL^i at ftaeud^if August IV23 and Mi per lent, of
tagnln, *hi4 ttAPpears that the
proved the W* yaleeble Ihroughohl, though the degree of its
ai^eribrity over we nmer^ vkt^ excewi^ly aooordmg to the
w^ kidsf.''
Wa have ^spwi'^tf^^HkJset
Uia'SefsaieJ ' ")' ' ' '
Beporfi on an experimeui of llkevelke ot MtUs msottfe da!|^
hai{.ysMHeadluigaUfi Dsosmber WA '
The following experltuent haSbeep made for tit* purpose ^ hrloglug
forward tke^ dlUtrenoe to vefue el- ttsnnrs aader (Us syifism MeafiHa.
bo* maitnlaetitre adopled on ^Is farm,^ and of the two cemmcn
methods of firaatment by the rrots la this provhies.
Tbe oatUokbes srsmm of hc««ing eatile is bWSfty as fsSWs, Over
a pU ipsk about two.end.bplf feet la tbs gteond, a ^ed ti sOemed with
eaves overOiaugtng in such a mennet that neliker the sou^s rays cen
psasfirete (except at an ohiiqQS augle lu the Morelqg and ev^lng)
to dry up tbe luauare, nor (he raiafatl on or run Into the pltlo
unduly wefi tbe cootentsaud render it too molifi for the ekUte fio rstt on*
Tbe oattle are boused lu this sbed a( ttigh^, each lo ssperets sompert-
msnt| nud were suppilod. Ip tks case of (ke pyesent expei^iiiekti with
grass only, III the mcrulug g liifile litter, gtalks of plltilUi,l^vsaev
uttoousumed food, la strewn ovsr (be box* espeotally wksrs l^edang
bus been dropped, and nothing Is rsBovsdeaiU (lie.pU tifall, Wbrn
the bulk of ibe mautyrc Is carted eway to the field. The top lejera
not deqotnposed ere replaced in tbe bottom of the empty pit es Utter,
la this way, twenty toade ofmennreper ennam, conlaliiiitiikt whole
of ibe duug and urine dropped wbUe tbe eulmal is not it work mo
aeonred ; and bulk is Ob talced by ntllixing any waste snkstsnoe for
Utter, (bus adding a large amount of ovgauiu matter, wblohi plioed
in tbs soil, asU as a powerful rajtainsr of moisture.
The cowduAg employed iu plot Ifo. 2 wasobtidaediromagrsxing
ground and placed Iu a heap for aome monibs until required, tbe
common native meibod of storing mauure not required for fuel. Tbe
ashes were the reeult of burping an equal weight of tbe same cowdung
representing the residuum from tbe ** btelly/’ or cowdung cake, need for
feel tbroegbout India.
The experiment was to test tfattoomparative veins of equal weights
of each manurei. Had tbe ekperlment taken tbe form tfl using (bn
total amount of manure obtatned from a bullock in (he senm time, the
resnlt would have been more striking.
It may be remarked that dung was from mature cattle fed duly on
grass, witboafi any gram, oilcake, or other food to enrich Aha manure.
Tbe orop on which the experiment was tried, was Queensland mulae*
grown on a poor light sandy loam. The seed was sown in rows 2 feet
apart ou (he 18ib April, and hafreeled for the Sale of tbe green coke,
19tb of August.
Tlie rain fail during Ilia period of growth waS 8*85 Inobes. but this
was euppieuiented with ooeasiousl irrigation from a well as roqnised.
7'ke foUmiftg arathe mtAUpev acre
Bo, of Plot. Manure per acra*
Plot Bo* I, Cafitlc^box manure Sfi tons, 1,87a
*w »f II. Dry uowdaug 5t tons. ... I, (SO
„ „ III. Asboa from toua oow-
dang .. ... 4,820
n ,t I^* Blaok **• ... ),96a
The smell quantity of matiiire emptoynd, tbe minimum of eratef need,
aud the oomparaifvely poor soil te which they ware applied, fully
aocoant for the light ylAld, but tbe eomperative resnll Is vary clear.
Tue yield of ttm oatile.boxmeoare both in cobs and fodder Of H per
neat, and 71 per cent, respectively, over tbe ubmanured plot, is remark¬
ably blgb, tbe manors being Well rotted and tsken from the lowest
pari of tbe pit where It was thoroughly satumted with nrlne*
Tbe xlighi increase of 4 per ceoA given by the ashes over cattle dung
manure is due to the foroing action pi the fnrmer, Ibe whole of Ibe
ooastitoeoti bsiug releesed from tbe organic opmbinaUaiiis they were
held as inassimllabla vegatable matter. But as the dang of an animai
has been prared by careful experiments fa Europe to noulkfu only
about oactocffh <f( the pUnt^ food voided in bt^b dung and niriue/ it Is
not surpifsiug to fi*M ih’* result of ,its action far less snargetlc then
when both are miiabln^ gs i'u ihecase df (he catt)e«bcx msAsre. The
aeinal dedrsas^ of jhiddHr wheo ashes were einployed is curious. The
plant pinbi^l 'enifitvhdlnudHr the too it<mulatltig actiou of ashes fruni
insolfiohsUt 'tbe as^ut givVu whsn aided by the
organic bhgiier domblwe!^ both U) the drietl oowiluiig and tbe oattM»ox
maud^ was Tite frequent waterinRS Msent*<i as necessary
for malna b7 native gardeners ruuud Bmgalcrs, ore prdbably largely
•;>:>■„; .f, & ;,:,'■;
''■Q«|wlMMd«ot, ItfMlfwiitM'An«{) Ban|it>«^
AOBICtn^iDRB IN THB NJUlfS DOUINlOlliii.*
^ ^ ^ * n il* . . . ^ ^ ^|1
rpHIl iKH^IUou of ilie fl^uttfirii) HU RigluMi
X toriilMei HiiftiiB^rod laaiaootifoiaitH
dogroo tilaco the ftcotmioii la power of Hie ])hitoeU»o<if Sir Solar
J«og. FU«’«!id*twoa^feAro ego the poeioalqr af Ihiefortioi
of Indio were oapreiim to on eateyit ihoi k oixaoet inoonoeirfd>le
in iheoe d«jfe« ^ero Iho opcM end eeonofoioel oen<lillon of the
ryot ofe inotUU wHUh oeonpy t)«e minds of the moiorlty of XndiiMt
offlcUW\"V^o oepPOt hiotoryof tite tyranny eoerolsed by forager
Moj^id the eaUivathig olaeios has yet io be written^
and when it eOmei iO tight, wo betieee that it wilt prove to be .
a .ctttiooa and» not nnioteresMug ohapter in the reoords of the
Govenimeiit ol Native Statei. The famine tiomniieeiou^ which <
visited thp NUam** capital last year, l« not unlikely, We believe,
to be^.^x^a.cl, Mnegrtlimg a goad deal of information on
thU ;>8nhjiCtr wh^ wUI afford food lor rede^on to tlioee who
prefeso to intereH theroeelves in all mattere pertaioing to the
aiBeiioratioa' cl the unhappy condition of the majority of the
Indian peaeantry* Tire replies to the famine qaestlona propounded
by the ghntlemen who visited Hyderabad wUi, we uitderstand,
contain an aoeount of iliC manner in which agricnltnriete Were
robbed and tortured in this portion of the I^eooatt a quarter of a
century ago* The officers who held high pcBitione under the
Niaam^s Oovemment in those days looked upon the ryot as a
inarkeiable eommodityi to be sold to the highest bidder, who
sold him and his belengtnga to somebbdy eTsa, and ifo on till he
came into the posseeeion of some tender ^.minded fellow* oonntry^
man who plundered him of hie crops and personal property, and
tortnr^ him when be oeuld obtain neither. Such ocourrencet,
however, are now happily past, and only serve to show the great
itnprovement that has been made nuder the present nfgfnia Sir
Sular Jung, as soon as he accepted office, set vigorously to work
to r^urm tbe agrlcutturat abuses, which were a positive disgraoe
to the first Native Btato in India. He removed those offioUls
who had made it the chief business dt their lives to rob add oppress
the peasantry, end in a very sliort time effected such a rovolution
as baa occurred in few other Native States in India. At the
nrosent dey the condition of the cultivators of the soil in ibo
Nizamis territory will compare very favourably indeed with almost
any of tim Indian districts under Drltieti rule. They are not
heavily taxed, the asieesineiita in the majority of instances beiug
aUoeether in the ryot*s favour. They have never been oompelled
to contribute to an income-tax, a lieenee-tax, or aiiv other of
the imposts with which tlis inventive goniue of Inman official
dom delights to torture British Indian subjects. Mr. Furdoonji
Jamsliedi™ admirable little work affords a complete insight into
the condition and babltst both agricultural and domeetio, of tlie
peasautry in the chief dlsirict of the Nizam's domiaioaa.
Aurungabad, as most of obt readers are probably aware, was once
aa exceedingly powerful Mehomeden provmoe. The city which
bears ilmsimie name waa built by Auninggebeat a period when
Mogul infiueiioe was dominant in the Deeoan, and u ooutalns
many interesting relics of the old Mogul empire. A new revenue
Hurvey was introduced lately in this district by I he Nizam's
j^veime Department, and the iiltrodnctioti of this new coudiiiou
of things has afforded Mr. Furdoonji Jamshedji an opimrtimity of
giving an Inteveetiug and valuaMe account of this portion of the
Nizain'e territory, ft may be taken as a fair sample of the
for the y^ar; and WC agfipul^rwt, the money-lCodSf, and iha
cilil coX He Kmbi domioloui ia. our auihoy
tells us, like Charles tlm BeuOnd’a Bailors,** iiisHmuch as he makee
his money like a hofse, and epeitde it like an asp."
« His psMlous ere not stroag; he in atretic, end takes tkin m eMay,-^s
never elated with eueoeii, oer in roAdUy igoitvat^ by mirtoHdne. l^S
is ft iherottitli Pcuservative > tie wlU oft Aft seffw grsftt Wroawe wHh pr^aoe
and reeigtt aioo, but hU Indlanaitou i» amwja the lea#t easirAtMuimt
bemftdeupimUispswiiu«ito<il(M*dof< rhpits, thouipi thev iday ywldThltt
no DtoAti W hftp!^< ou the oautrery.to btaifta npos hie pufM, If the
reffiiUtodtpIfoe be net aeatgaed to hie hanoeka When they walk In pieesAsion
•t the Iwirt. ox if he hue been wiWuHy^ preceded by miot^ paWy ie
eff<»rias libatleust ^ the pile of fuel that t« ta be fired at the UpiA fhA
Katihi ateami h*P»«iuei that a cruel wrong has been dene hun, a«d hlspeiiee
of mhid is dSSsd. tfewlU hattut the courts of the taluk and dSttiet
who came in aneir saaf
essptttiiiUy built:
the fonowtQg.iie^ul,^|;hl^^
, S. -
nil),
ft W mM
freeh mdk m the oatry, and la
I?: f ’ if ^ "■'i-
whey aud curds so iq iaipibvi ilie fShtlbr mmfa With
cultivators of tba first naj. scow absssi, the asWI h^ruiewfil set
first Olhit of cultivators g^imy take tlnw inesW a day. DreaMUatis
served out about »ltte o’«lW> ^ mmWteg, It ccasfsts of hot jowar^ oi
h-^i -cai^^ a duih of ,«bk c«fdf» apdin^eHu^tw* Bstwesw tw 4 ve and
one 0^0^ they, take ihow mWduy meal, fdW Sototlats d loiimrl
ood^ti <S^Id‘aSf widuwith Thisuppsr, aVaJgW
Amougst the village feaaU the r^sh noUueablo Is the Poio,* held
in honour Of tbs village bunoeka, virlio afo bathed and have ihell|r
horns painted and oUd hivihesm*Ma of 4ho owners* #lvCi^ and am
led through the village ami ImmrlpUfl^y feasted at the end of the
iamcaha. The hook tfcate at eexhetengthbl ^e manner b which
the tenements are held, the eyslom of cpltltation, Ohi methods
of psywetit, the harvest, and tUr manner in which the village
artisans are reimbureed by the. Kunbi.. in j^aiii lor the services
they have rendered him during the year* Thm inidade the
blacksmith, carpenter, porter, barber, Ao. ; jtHeee people arp all
ealled The important question ol tlrn relationship
Mmmn the mt and the eouoar is very fully gone Into, and hi a
manhffMWhl^.ehpwe that Hr* Jamehedji well understand* what
he Is'SrriUitgaWut, The .ryote generally under the Nhmm'a rule
are ttOjl iha«Vi«d to the same eateot a* thorn in acme, parts of
British territory \ the l>eooan, for inatahoe. Mr. Hope, we think,
might eateh a few hints from what the author of the hook has to
aay on this eubjeot. The Honbie Member'e Deccan Byots* BlU will
go far to plsoethe Dritisli ryot on a level with his brother cultiva-
lors in the Nizam's dominions, inasmuch as it will remove not a
few of the faculties tliat the scuoara possess for gradually
acquiring posaession of the ryot, body and *oiil. But on K)
importaiit a eubjeot, wo will allow our author *to speak for himself.
With the view to preventing the Bouoars from acquiring absoiuto
and total poisestlau ^ of the ryot and bis Imlotigiiigs, as is the case
in many Deccan villages—
The following mMSUfM were a looted, aud circular orders giving effect to
them, were from time to time issued by me Judiuiat De partment i—
1 Ko ex’piurtt decree was to be passed br a Ci«il Court ugainsi any
debtor^ until the oreditor should have proved, by his books, or otherwise,
to the sfttisfaouoa of the court, that the boud was esecoted for ventabie
and fair oausiderctioa.
2. It a usurious rate of interest had been charged, it Was to be reduced
to a reasonable rate. When the amodot of iuterost did uotejcqeed the
amoBnt of (he principal, the rate of ictereiit entered iu the bond could be
a^ihered to, but when the amouiit ot Miterest dt 1 eseeed the prinelpal, the
Uinulu law of Pdsi d«u>iU was to be enforced^ Of boweyof long standing
the debt mtglj^t be, the ,aiQ)n>)t of interait givpu by deores was never to
eaoeei the amoant of principal
8* When the’oultivatoi'Was unable to pay at onm the amount of the
decree passed against h^m, the o^niut eould order it to be paid by isaSonabla
instalments. If the cirauoistanoes of the oope Warranted; interest being
uilowed toriraott the decree, one per cent, per auumh paly was to bo
allowed, uoUl tbe debt was liquidated.
, 4. When attaohmeut was issoed against a oultivator's proper^t hkikoiMMi,,
his agrieultural iniplemenis, his eaitie, and a supply of grain enough to
support fatal and his family, till usxt harvest* was to ba,esetBpfasdlCroin,
etectttioii.
A. Nnvjadgmoiv-debtor wsk to be Imprisoned for debt imkss sni^feid of
havku coaled hi4 Prspqttyvm evade
q*iiftae 4aasiu^s bave> workod most satlefaCtocily. And it will be
a happy ^y for tlm Pooua tyot, when similar ex^ptbuz aiA mado
in his favor. Ou tho whole, the hook coujtaiiis much (hat Id both
inierestiogtauU gatuabla, aud is the more temarkablo from baviirg
been writieu^tiy a native^ und in a matmor and etyle that w* have
seldom ^^'^u Hurpseetfd* As a ooutribAitirm W agrlouHtayal litera¬
ture, it will be prized by ihose who iuLeiest tlmmaelves in gudi
mattef% aud by tho geuerol reader an well^^foMimag* .
BAMBOO PAPfilB.
. - I - - -r- ■ in i - -I ' , '
W ff) see that . In hU yapCri ou ilm BoyidJ^jbaaktd 'Qgriaim df'
. Oaloatta for tlte year Di^4 Nfiig shoi^ fbat bljl^is
aitljl ttuoottvlijoed fir Jko lirpbabl* auepess of' Hfe' ^
wiiniw r« ;<»«!!»■ i» M ill;Aw*'',
axp«tauc*g*ia<d«ai^ tii«proc*H«{ ■.
. .if bamiiotiiin^ lrjr>'air.
>; ^; ;ggB; -iriK m m
idf ^Uiiti ii $pink 9 f 0 r ^ tin^ i»|»ttr(r«pt^ >«|iofii »n 4
•f M^seiii pdiHM«8 pwitonlat •pe^«l; n •ttiiil nnnibar grQwin
ttfmffftitito Vifiopg. SIMM ttl« M oompMitfveljr liNla )mD«ra
«ad^l»l4]^ ^tiM b7l)0|«ttt«i<. 8m4 $t4w w{l4 in fli« «a4 mmj
ftm^g tlk«m Imfe« tabsr wbioh «<)ii b« Mt«ik nitli The yeridua
yhaia ealttyefce*> **0 poi aiftpU or verietiei of eee apeoiet} hat apeeies
hoteaioallf 4i^^tiaet» pf^nliag a fel{at« Oai oapeot geoefellp
eh# kMieiw veofta vhrj^ ih aliipe, f i«e« m4 tMfea* p
It if ttMatHy te hh 4etiro4 {a eiajejr to ^orooghly airferaUad *04 4eftne tH
the ipaelefj thit ^hey eoold he oolteeted epd g|owii $n eimie oae of the
Bothide Oerde&a hi e w«fin elia|>»^* to eppreeleto the edyeotavea of the
htth ead feroiah ^pteeiae rolea fpr the aaoteeafnl eollnfe of eeoh«
Thtk'imporUtit tfihe of plentii Hea toheroos Toob, moatty e^hb, leevee
With nebehaped n|i»r twieioff ftema* The yeriova khide eve dUtlaaoithed
by the ehepe end ocAear of the tahem. The''Veat ludiee U thtia themitbo
eoahtry; they tfi tbeire whet ihe potato it te MaoJ x V^* they h«ee nn
acrid prineipAe* The tobert of veriena apeelea dye eaHIteted' {a neariy
all iropioal oountriea aa Smpnrtiut efoalentf. They ehoand| in fatiehoeotia
mnltert and ^offen raaeh a lafffo alee. Their enitore it’ eOni’dtrod to
haye epraad from Booth^fiiuit Aetaahd ihoUaet Indiat\ ittands Where
proaont^ Dio$4mn olefo ia the mott eompioaty d^ewq.
The yam ^ mileerihlty aikUlypted amonfs all the tribaa of the ialandi
of the Kaetem iyehipehi|;o^ and aroaaraUT moat to Where rhse ia least
abandatit» hnt it nowhere forma the ohiet bread of the peoploi df riee.
maiae, or aage do» Tb^ Malay and Javanese name <* vbi^ or ** tfite;*'
exienda not only to the kngaaget of the Malay ami Bbilipptne Istanda.
battothoae of the TaoifLe and Madatrasear. With all the yhrietiea of
prooanolatioa there eaa bt no donbt of ib>^ yirtaal identity of the name*
It ia probable that aeveral ipeoies of Diomvm ore nntivea of the Malayan
ArehipeleiiOt but that the ealfnre orisrinated ’i^th one people^ and was ;
direotly orindireetty dlaBotainated by ihem> seems likely from the PniveiRatity
of the aame.
In the West Indies, the Indian, Barbados, and red yami are planted >
early in Aa(i«st end dntt in tbo Janaary followinjir* The Perinfftaose and
Chitnea, yams are planted eariy in January and ’dag iiu September. If
not brotsedp, yama wUt fcaep veil paohed in ashea, the Indian yam nine ’
moatha. the ihtrbadoa and red yama tvelve months*
Theroetagrov very largOi end are mealy and easy of digestion. Tams
are generally both dry and pelatabte, and not inferior to any edfbio tubers
in use, either in deboeey# fkvnar. Or amoant ef noarUhment. They are
usaally propagated by pieeeif wbieh meet be eat su as to leave a little of
the akin upon them, by w* ioh alone they germina te, for the roots have no ;
apparent germe, Imt east ont their weakly stem e from every pert of the
sarhioe alike. Theyero put into ooovenient holes (two or three in each)
vbioh are generally deg pretty regnlar and about a fooUand*a haIf or two
feet aqnare i theee ate afterwards filled in from the ad|eiai«g baakt* and
the wbblo^ pieee eovered with osoe trash, whiob lerveato hSopthegronnd
eool and lresh< apd to prevent the growth of weeds, from whleh these planu
must be earefeliy preeerved nnril limy gro w enffidently to oever the mould
tbemaeltof. The wotaahpnldbelJiftedaa .earefaUy aa poeiiWe, ao aa not.
to eat ^m, lor fhoae eat throw eat their strata very early, aud are i
kehbm dt for aayUtieg M plantiag, (Brownef'e ^ Mietery of Jamaica,^)
There is an em^ti of yama from tome of the Weet India Islande;
thus, In 1174, lidiag esrt. of yama were shipped fr^ Jamaica, taleed :
at 41171. '
It fa enlt^ ImpoaaiWe to oompare, as rospoots their gmi (ties and ligriowl-
tgrU ^Vantiigeei'the fifteen or twenty dilfereat species of f^foeoorsa, which
aj^t etdriVat^ in varioos parka of the, IntOr^topttal aims. We enn Only,
t1^eppfoHv^ywiiihtali^w genmsl indlnarions gathered from diTerent authors,
and eittfWly: IfW thO iaWeitiog weik of Vielisrd on; the ptsnis
iUeer^'h>Wn#^,4|f the soil, eaiolht, onl^, thf.Jgonr^ of the
th.,’
''lt% •W ilift..
1|n^. w
W Kf. 4.SIJ iPimi ,
somei^thet^d
I fipiiash eolonimff Aia^ ^'«e t in WV' namm, in Ihe
Isle orBDo«'hbn.c(wib(«rea 1 inMt^t7wo»tahM$,imd Mew C^^edodla; «di or
^ ’ ,, ’; , ’!■ ’
FromBemnMoSfler’e *«iWsfit TUny »* Wltal^ for Atts^mW'f^eng^s
Plants Of Braiye ^ ^^aafor i^nti of Iddiji.*^ Or.T.'ldsg^^
•* AgiMtnmde la €rb|mae thin tJaSie * bther loarem, m iohdense Dm
foBowmgdemttebiwihe'imrimi#i^M^''i'i.' ' ^ ^
iJtsltdi'ea' XBirtasd^ii Tie "'Kaawf yam, Affoe, pricHy or
Onbrna yam }lndM,Ceehitt Obinr. South 8ea,I^d^^ / \
^am priekl|r, aa t^ name imi*Ues, net nbgaltti leavps alteraate, on-
divide!, eordifem. It ripest latefe Dian aome ether eptdtm« wad mquiree
no poles for staking. It it propagated from imalil taberk. This yam is of
a swetUsh tsaio^ aod the late Dr. fieeman regarded it at onebi the fittest
esoutest roots of the globe. A variety of a hhiith hue, onltlvated Contial
Amerioa (for instance at Oarseeai>, is of a vtsiy daheiooi tested
In Bombay ibis speelet isoalied the D»a potato i,tbe rpo| weight, about
two poauds. It recommends imelf by the enoeUent <}uahty of lit produce
and Its easy mujltipUceDoa* . ^
IKoseoraa elate (Unn.)* The winged stalked, Kegro or red yam, Ut^yam |
India and &ath Sea liisitds* . The rientB ore fear^englsd dad not f^okly.
The tobetf, of which there are many varieDesb will altetei nndertebenritble
circumilanoes, a length of eight feet, end the prodigiouo steldht of^ona
hundred pounds ITbey are, ter the most ^ part, ovoid, more or Issi long.
This species, and the preoedlag out, are the Iwt principal kiudsoalDvaked in
tropioai countries* D. aUte is, In culture, supp«irted by reedi. It Is pro.
pagated fifom pieces of the old root, and comet in warm climes te perfbetipn
in nbont seven months. The tubere sway be baked or boiled* It'is
this iipae^ which has been euteestfuily cultivated iu New Zealand, and
also in ihe Southern Statee of North America. Thie i# the piifieipal
food plant of the New Caledouiaos, kU<t the tubers there weigh as much
as I7lb,
DiosawM fUnn*) The nriivea of 'I'ahili. India, and Now
Hollmid, in iimrs of sesreity, eat the aaillaty bulbs of this yam which are
about tbo sixo of a email potetci, end they are also oaten, oecordtng to Dr.
Begot, ia FreUah Ouiana, where the pleni. grows Wild In the' wosds. h ^
fomeiimos called the Drenoda yam*
Dhicorfa eapsanenris (Kimth,), V. nUig$imtt (Iiamk % 0. dtrUroeim 1
Negro or Qatusa ysm j tropioai South Anteneo, originally iuitedehed from
Africa. The stem ia spiny, tbo loaves ontiio, oordiform; rha tubers
generally aiippte, liar., more or loai ovoid, large, but tender pird less delicate
ittfiavour .than the Indian yam* It la, however, very productive, and less
esigeot of good soil.
Dtefcoreo /asCtottZate (Boxbitrgh). India. This species has soreral stems.
Tbo netiVes of India ostraet atorob fiora the tubers wbioh are long, mid
Qoileoted in bundles. Several epsc^os of India and the Air«hi|H>iago, Much as
D. dioarte^ria (Blanco), D^opworih/lrira (tenu*y, Ao., grow luuariamly.
/>iotcor§3. glob 0 §a (Roxburgh). India. This is the Hvdente yam among
the lurtives of Boogsl* The etems have six wing* with the angles, and Dm
inhere are largo and roand*
Ih’oroorsa IMifhUa (Noes). lExira tropioai Western Ausitalia. Evidently
one of the hardiest of the yama, and on that aecount deserves purtjkiilarly
to be draw imo culture. The twbsw are largely oUnSitmed'by the
abortgtnos for food t it is the only plaht on which they best<>kr, any klu4 at
- ottltivatfon, erode ooit is.
Hteseors0 Jopoateu (I'himbeig), D, Ratetes (Deorisi^* The hardy
Chinese and Japan yam^ The aitampt U cultivate this apeates geaef ally in
Rarope, attmoted oonsiderable atteuUon nema eight or tea poitte ago, but
it has not nisde progress. Baron Maelter remarke 1 This apaikloa* whmti »
notlpnckiy, has been oidDvated nemo yente in tbo Metb^iAc BOteu'ic
asfdeti. TbouteteriaUtereXor'imteliariri^i^ edmplote^ bat spema te
indloate that D* tiwniuerte Br^.). and D* jmnotete (B, Be,); Wte httUi
rofevablo to D, Jispontea* If this assumption sheuld prove coeeact, then wo
hays Dm yam along the coam tescte ef Nenh'and Bate AnsWilla, ns far
eottth as latitude fifi*. In Ansirnlta we fiud the Wild root Of geeTteste,
Rios'oma nuMiNmterte (Lamk)* The TiVoliu innu and
Insular India, afao BonDi Sea Istanda* '4 high climbing priotey apsoies
with opposite leaves. Roots eyUndrlca), as Duck as »u arm | tbeic taste
caeetdtegiy good.
jpiesffoma mnQiHi/nUtt India and Chliin* Netpriekly. 'One of
tbo edible yama. , ,
iDtomrtu j>enite>Aylte (Uite,) ^ The kidney tdbtpd ynm. 0oath|eQte|aiid
lusriar Indm, sleo BomA'fitek P goad pa«>^ psWy
' species wiOi alternate dlii^ leavnewkli four tebef^ ,l9nk eufUfsted
te Bengal, but very mnsh ebteAmb^ ^
. I)testerae pufiiim In^te, Ben^ginijaimatesiiwd
';(e|M»imilhteebneofesveratyam
fire mentte^' ea proriditig iilGowtse root.
' Ol^ t j i a » ftw, Od&l B. Hvrilffm. (Fmj,jj*tw»
MWiM
fM^r# to Ninonf
PiO90(ir$a il4toi0 <OMm«a yi». So®«i Aito*toMiti»fiBr«
J*pgpi^ alioitt tilt Sto toUndiMd Nofflii mi tooptoot llant ^otftoiUft
liliewiso re«o^ l^om tn^ieol Aftto*. o]pltodrio*l| noli pftoUy
TN Mrid iroot reqnlroa ionking Nfore boiling. It hM provod hnrdy to the
Boutherg ^toi of I|[oTth Amorioa.
XHotmidt fpM<t (Eotii.) Indio, Boot need likethOM of other eptoieii,
JHoi^&rtatoftmiosa (Komig)* Oeyatoyam, Indin. Ihe nomn^atore
of 0 ome of the Aaiatie opeoiea tequirei totihof fo^ieioa.
Dtomrm irifida (Idnn, Oeotxil America. Qneol the yami there
onititated.
Dio$cQrea triphyViM <Uon*)« the book jam. Tropical Aeta. Aa an
ediU* not eqn^ to the potato, if not superior to it Bme ▼arietie* of thia
yam are purple fleshed, often of a tety deep tint, approaching to black.
JHtmma tnUba <ljaiB.).{ D, affinit (K.th.).; D. truneata (Miquel)
(Ueyer), The Indian yam. This species baa been in enUivation
from time immemorial by the ahoriginee of America, Ita tubers are most
agreeable to the teste. The stem is without spiuesi the leaves are large, the
loner oues^ve five to levoa lobesi the upper oues three. The tubers are
numefous, ovoid or round, covered with a blackish skin, rather crocked.
This excelleut species is much cultivated in Brazil»UaUmsi and the West
Indies.
Veiions other tuberous XHoscorees occur ia tropical countries \ but their
iSBpective degree of bardlnesai taste« and yield are not recorded or
assertatosd. ______
THE COBK TREE.
O F all the various prodnollons of the vegetable kingdom mbiqh
man appropriates to bis own use and coaveolenoe, there Is hardly
one so naiversal as the bark from the oork tree, for not only la It
employed In the nrts and manafaotores, bat artlolss for domestin
purposes, saoh as stoppers lo bottles, Ac., are to be fonod in all parts
of oirlllsed countries. The trees from which this substances is
obtained are a spoofes of oak, Qnsrens Suhsrt and its variety Q, oed-
tUntalii, the first of which grows plentifully in the eoalh of France,
Bpain, Algeria, and in some parts of Italy, the eeooad Is a native
of the Atlantioilde of France and Portogal, where thfe tree grows
to the greatest perfection, and to which country we are indebted for
the major part of our supply.
The cork treo bears a general resemblance to the broad.Ieav«td kind
of evergreen oak, of which species some authom consider
it only a variety, but when full grown it forma a mneh handsomei
tree. The wood of the oork tree is of little valu^' for uonairnotive
purposes, as U is liable lo deeuy, and it also ia said to contain an
acid whiob destroys nails driven into it, btic It makes an exoollent
fuel la the countries where it Is grown. The value of the bark fully
oompeniates for the Inferiority of tfao wood. When the tree has
arrived at a certain state of maturity, or twenty years-^some say
earUer-^^it periodically throws off Its bark after tt has grown a
prodigious thickness and begins to oloths itself with a new one, The
bark thus oast off is very indlflerent and of little oommeroial value ;
to prevent this the tree is not allowed to have tis own way, but the
bark Is artificially removed by the following process
In the months of July and August, when the sap flows plentifully,
a circular inoisiou Is first made, a few inches above the surfaoeot
the ground^ then a similar oironlar out round the trunk immediately
nndar the main branches, care being taken not to penetrate the inner
bark. The portion intervening between the two outs is then slit
down longitudinally iu three or four plaoes, which divides the bark
into broad sheets or planks. Tbo tree Is now left for a time so that
the BOitture from the sap may dry. The bark Is then removed from
the item, more or less carved touording to the breadth and diameter of
the trcM from whloh it hes been taken. The inetrumeot used tor
outtlng and removing the bark from the stem is a sort of aze, the
handle of which Is flattened Into a wedge*llke shape at the extremity,
which serves to raise the bark. This axe Is not unlike that used in
Britain for taking oft the bark from the common oak. The bark
grows again, and as Ibis tree exists, according to Dr. Hamel, a
hundred and fitly years or mote, its disbarkioe takes place regularly
every eight, nine, or ten years, the quality of the bark improving wUh
the ioereastng age of the tree, which is not in the slightest degree
injured N the prAcess. At the first and second gathering the bark
fa only fit for fleatf for fidbermen'i nets and other ioferfor uses, it
Si not until the thtri. disuarktog that the sahstauce has atfidned the
desired perfection tor the mannfeotare of corks. The sheets, layers, or
tables of oork •• they arc oallsd, are now eoraped on the outer surface
to remove the eoareer parts of the epidermis and any epfphytee or
other extraneous substance. They art then thrown into deep pits, and
coveted #ilh vrater to eoftan them fa order to he flattened by
preewure unde? heavy stones, after which they are dried over a fire,
being frequently turned during the prceeei to prevent their returning
to their ongioal shapei
There is also another method by which the moist pressure so pits
Is diipeneed with and the bark ia drawn flat by the iheeta having
their oonm side placed towards the fire. In time they are oonsider*
abl/ charred by the heat; they are then turned and charred on the
other side, though to a leas degree. This charring givea tbemitortal
what the oorkreutters call nerve, and hasntoo rhe eiNt ototoitog
the poret of the ectk itrhich otherwise would aUub ipoliture end
render it ussMs lor thojiarpoie of etoppeci, ^«s, Ae. Too much
hurfliiig destr^ fto ekwlle^, hut If mat enfitotontty hoint, U will
pot be film onoogh for the operations of too cork*ouiti«r*u knife. The
' hhrl no* m«tofi0ii4 iwtofhjdNN
s^ntofiAe hntfl Ifc.to-houglt ^
br^erowA vtooto feaSk;
of cork'to its softneto Uhd ^ejltortfety, %
properSes sbutasit deeihot grow to
of any value lor eeooomto purpotas .i ,>
The cork tree, g. Awfen aud its saklstte^Ato ^to
In m»wol lb, totwrfo*!. bytlonltiiyl. ”1
BugiaCd, It was totrodujsed lo or Iflifl by the ^IDawwir of
Beanlorl, and if readily propagated by wwnA _ . ^ ^
Where the berk ol Qwrwt catwothC «WatoN,^iiiaoy
lutes have heeu found to anpply it# place wmoim too fpohgy wa
or wood eubiUnces of other tteas. The wood of Ajwae |winsfrw,
growing in the West Indite, called the alligator apple, Is of sndi a
soft nature that it is frequently used by the negroes, Instead of corks
to atop tbeir Jogs and Oalabasbes.
The word cork la said to be derived from the Spanish careflo, from
the Latin eoHew.^M, GkatimU* to tkc i^ktirmaemieal ^htwmK
WILFUL WATER WASTE IN THE MADRAS
PRESIDENCY,
O NE of too chief points urged in recent publications from toe Uadras
Agricultural Department bae bem the gr^at and reokless waste of
water which ohsraoterises irrigation in this presidency. Mr, Bobertson has
raised bis voids in this behalf again and again. Only to be told, *'The Board of
Beveuua does not sgrso with Mr. Itobertsou.'^ '* The Board,** iu iis wisdom,
refnaing to give reaaons why. and seaicely ever attempting to npaet tho
Agricultural Directcr*s conelasioiis by argumaut or inttstLWticn, whioh
indeed are too soundly baaed to be overthrown. Mr. Bobortson is not
alone in his opinions on thie point. They are shared by his chief colleague,
the gentleman who haa now temporary charge of the department. Under
these oivcumstaoeoi, and remembering that the rising intellect in tlio
eouBtry, both in the serviees aud out ol them, so far as it has graspe^l
toe problem, ia with the experienced ogrioalturists named, wo may bo
hop^ul of a change taking place at no distaut interval. The time indeed
is coining when men will ask whether it really can be true tout such
reckless wastA such wilful waste causing wofal want, was tolerated for any
length of time by a Oovernmeot professing to be guided by soieutido
knowledge.
The enormous amount of water used in growing paddy la held to be most
anjuatifiable. On the Conveiy valley lauds it is said to be customary to
maintain eouslantly in llio paddy field, until close on the lime fur harvest,
from two to six inohes <it water, making gO( d by daily additionn the Iobbos
by infiltration and evaporation, which are soid to amount to at least ono molt
in depth daily. The qnonlity used probably is not lees than a volume fiom
ten to fifteen feet in depth,'^let the reader pause and imagine toe mass of
liquid tons typified—sn smount which. It is said by competent nuthority,
would suffice tor the cultivation of three timos the area of paddy now
watered in this manner. It is no wonder when such is too mode of euUure
adopted, that t]ie yield of staple crops in this piesideucy should bo so
miserable as it is. While iu Great lintaln the average yield of wheat per
acre is ],6(f0ib., and of pulses l,7c01b. in Madras, therespeotire propoitionv
arc (cereals) 700tb. aud (pulses) 4501b. To further show how wretebedly
backward we arc in this respect as compared with other countries, wc may
give the average yield pot acre of three other countries, ct's
Wheat
Fulaes
n».
E.
Belgium
, ... I,6$0
I,i70
Ilollaud
a aaa
... 1,500
i,$dQ
France
« •••
... t.oao
8,010
The smaller yield in this presideuey it due nert; to unfavourable oiroum*
slaitiss oUmatically, or inherently p>)Or soil, but to vicious modes of
cnltiVUtiott. of which it would be well if the ryot could be thoronghty
pttfgefl.
Oott chief reason why the cultivator wastes so much water is obviously
because he doea not pay for what he receives aoeording to the quantity he
uses. In Orissa, we believe, and certainly in Northern India, ooropu Isory
waller tatOB have not been found to work very favourably or to conduce to
barmomous relations between cultivators and irrigation authorities. This
was, to a great extent, due to cao'cs altogether apart from the evil wo
complain of with regard to the great irrigation works iu the south of this
piesideucy. It is absolutely certain that if toe ryois were permitte d to use,
free of char^, only one-third of the water they uOw soak their fields with,
and were made to pay for all over toat qwiity, they would be much more
chary of misuse, and woifid guard against abuse tban they
do now, It shunto N tod diffleaU for too revenue and irHgatton officers
to devise whsntoy snch a result might de achieved. If the present
waste were checked,Itoe consequence could not fail to'be good for the ryot
himself. He wimld. fl>r que thing, bo compelkd to practice a bett r
system of agriouUnt««-^nito^f enormous gain,the couM^ueades ^f which
can hardly ke over*i^d* l^'a^toer, and also grdai; gato, toe ddi^^tages of
Inlgatiou eotod extended, and area^ sow toBHrkftootiye for wNt
of water wonto be toade to jrield to toe nattob^s needs In tod' toattor dleod
guppUes. Aga^ #nd still more importont, (be pNsIht proddet ofWh
wa^ttlcaltaretovffibaTe deserlbed is d aftist ih^br grain, the paddy
. clT»4»flWo«»ii|' ii^ti^ $»
:tm Aller §mi jitter, ^6»6ra-
Ipov ytm, tJadw
«ra ii4toesta^ th« ry^ te to odo^t
roW^i| ips ^ivpi^ a |ti9#a^ varioty of fdod at^ w^ikSd be protiM, «a4 the
j(«ia b tM WieidaeUiijd to the eountfy wociid 6e
l)’|i^ i^ch eo ap^anotiy smell cbeagt ei llmt i|ei|folred {b teaBlatiag the
vilMwee^of wfttatBBlMddy fields, the proapBi^ty of one potUon of a
Irreet JCstpii^ depends, and is allowed to be fritteied eifey, eppavently wtlb
utter heedleftBesii for outside the Depettment of AgtieeitBre in this presi-
deucy urebuoir bf uo body who b*s eonoemed blmsell with ibieinatter« T^ho
AgHcultural Department is yet in ite iofaney | one day it is destined to be
ihemoitimporliantinUteltttpii'e. bat at present iti power for goodj its
in&oenee asaiost evil, are o^y smslU Wo make bold tossy that iaall ite
offleers bare attempted, tbe department baa deierred well of the public,
but in nothing is it sO deserving of bearly support as in the matter to which
ae have referred in this artiote. Our scuso of suffering endured in the
recent ftmine. when eultivatiou was at a etaud^still for want of water, is at
present loo keen, to allow as to look with oomplaoency on ^uch waste as is
DOW going on, or to allow ns to ootatomplate worUng officials slrugglinir
against an old, deep*rooted evil, without lending them all the countcnanoc I
and aasiitance which it is in our power to afford. Derger crops than Bro |
now raised, «an be reaped from Madras ffelds. We bWe heard a story of
a man who obtained about Ido acres of aveipge valley land,^ which when it
came into his possession was burthened with a debt of lls. 40,000, De
took up his residence on iho land, determined to cnltivate it himself. lie
did so, with the cODSe<ittenee that he has paid the entire debt, saved money,
increased the produce of bis land by 48,000 Madras meusaie, ^>r 7001h, of
paddy per aore, by adherence to the principle of using and not abasing the
water-supply at his command. What this enlightened mau has done of
his own motion, the Btate, ee landlord, ought to eompcl its tenants to du.
If it rannot make its tenants wealthy, it ought, for it can, prevent them
wastefully culiivating the laud it leases to them. Ae matters now are, the
Slate shares th btemo with its tenant-^-ifadms Atkenmm,
CEYLON TEA : MR. CHARLES SHAND’S PATENT
PROCESS OF PREPARATION.
C inchona may be kmg aui< ug our new products, |bnt it is every
day becoming more'eyiaeut that tea is to be a close rival. Abun¬
dant crops of tbe fragrant leaf whose decoction affords the universal
ond ever-populat English drink may afford f>teaclier and even more reli¬
able [>eeuniary reiuins, than iho rich haiU of trees which cau only be
stripped Ur utilised at oensi erablo iiitervala, But the great advantage
of cinchona is that while lU culture proves a most important supple¬
ment to, it does not necessarily iuterfere with, cilher tea or coffee
eultivatiou. Tea m Coy Ion is more likely to bo a rival to coffee, and to
boceme the moro favonto and, in some cases more profitable pursuit of
the two. Especially will this bo tbe case if the continuous anxiety to
improve the preparation which is umnifesfed cn every baud brings us
tu tbe result now fairly anticipated of Ceylon tea acquiniig a peculiarly
high, and perhaps pto-eminont charaoler in the English market. It Is
quite unimating to witueaa the healthy, if not keen cutnpciiuon, which
has already sprang up between *diflerent fea planters or latber mann*
facturers in this Colony* The jealousy mamfested for the reputaiion of
our island teas is most ardent and commendable. '*It is tolerable iiud
not to be endured,*' as Dogberry bus it, that one extensive shipper
should banard the slUl budding repute of Ibo infant tea colony in Mm-
dog^lane, by sending ibither preparuiions liable to be confounded w Ui
•* cemmoii Java 1*’ While if the inquiry should bo raised iur tlm bo t
local tea, we have immediately claimauts frem East, Sonlli, Noiih, and
West ready to produce high teBtimonialSy eauU with his circle of duukiiig
nduiirers' and regular customera, and better still, backed by the inde¬
pendent coitificateB of experts In Assam planters. China moichanta or
lioadou tea-tasters.
All this is as might he eBpeoted. Tbe planting colcuisls of Ceylon
when they once go at a new industry, do nothing by halves* When the
impiilie has once been given and fed by the promptings, the advioc and
pracBoal information which can be brought to bear through these columns,
our planters, we ere thankful to say, do not stand long indoubt of what,
they ihoBld do. They do not wait on the Government, or call on Hercules,
but put their own shouldcre to the whcela In this way esn wo account for
the rapid and magnifleent development ©£ the planting industry which the
Ceeiral Drevinoc of Ceylon hue witneseed during the pa t gei<©ration.
And ihe relate of watchful experieiioo, shrewd observation and keen inter-
iffiimge el criticism *0(5 euggestion are now seen in the advanced state of all
out tropM ouUiwsMon, and the attention given to tropics seliom m^ptioned,
much lose trwted pmetieally, anywhere out of Britain, Mr. Hughi^ h^ld us
repeatedly he was quite astonished to see the amount of attenllcn given to
edeutide cultuie» Uieoietioally apd practically, among the planters ot
Ceyloh. But even um gWkhig te the impmeiponts m culture* we
those in the hsaobhiery, IBI various imbo* to smte
first «laiS4?i?epMB!(iWiib*owi^W^ The ppritiou of Ceylon plwta-
.m «oafc ^ ttifi di oompB^ with Woot «o ffws,
t * . • ' ’
issu^WBtevldeiweot ihisltmh Is pveparation we excel. But th^ eom-
P«rattva stale of . pteieeUbU experienced was not atiahted Ih *day.
One by one were the improvemenie introdneed, and ehlefiji' by faxitleai
pUnterv, in the delate store, InpWlpIng nmehiuery, cistemti bufbdcUee; as
well as in the maebiae paelers, wlUBOWdre, and siswre, end $n the tdeking
and thorough drying which diaBugiiisfa prepuHtiou In Colombo.
It is not to bo the same with tea f Bhall wo not have ** the battle of tbo
pnlpers,*' wbkh for yvare afforded a fertile subject of dlscnsiion in our
columns in another form in oonneetion With this new product? And may
We not aeticipaie that tbe outoome will be such an improved system of
preparation for tbe leafeaves both on the plantations and in Colombo, ns
shall establish for our produce a staudard of superiority over Java, China,
and even ludia teas ?
To-day Uirough the courtesy of Mr, Charles Sband, weave in a position to
oall attention to emo of iho'earliest and, perhaps, most important improve¬
ments to which Ceylon is nalnwlly to give birth in oonneotlon with ite tea
I onterprise. We need scarcely say that planters aud mhem iuterested iu the
cultivation of tea iu Ccylen, sresurprised, and frequently disappointed with
the groat divergence iu the reports of Lon don brokers on the qualities and
valncB of the parcels of tea which have been rent home from time to tUuc,
from tbe same estates here. On one t oeasipn it may be tbe •mate of tbe
tea, the colour and stieni^th of the liquor are olUhal could be desired, and
the valnations most encouraging ; at another the tea is badly mado, and the
liqoor is miserably thin,and wanting iu pungency, and the valuaiions of the
same descriptions are rodneed from twenty-five to fifty per cent. Bab when
we contdder the circumsiances which at present attend the tnannfaoturo of
tea in Ceylon, surprise at Iho absence of uniforinity lathe quality of the
produce of tbe rame estate or of estates at the sumo elevation altogether
disappears. As a rule, tea ie being cultivated hoi c by proprieiors who»e
knowledge of all that concerns the manufacture has been picked up chiefly
from books. In two or three cases tea-planters from Assam have been
engaged to manage estates, and these have taught a eertaiu number of
kanganeaeandcoohea Bometliingof tbo process. Many of these coohra
again have found their way to other tea planUlioua, and thus to their
care, skill, and judgment many of our ton planters aro dependent for the
proper manufacture of an article peculiarly sttsccpliblo of injury on the
two essential points of fermentation and firing, in India, where both
manugcra and coolies have through long oxpeiioDCe become thoroughly
acquainted with the delicate process of firing, and whore ail possible cou-
vouences con be afforded on a la; go scale, it is posslblo by groat earo
exercised in the dholing-house, to reduce the injury to the quality from over
or irrognlar firing to a minimum, but there is no doubt that in spite of all
precau ions and watchfulness, some injury takes place, arising firom cure
leasQoss or ignorance of coolies, or why should there be so great a desire on
the I art of Indian tea planters, to find some method of firing tea, wltick
would obviate the necessity of so much depeudoiice ou the care and judg*
mcul of the Inbourere employed in the dboliiig-house ? Few Ceylon plan-
tero have any acquaiutaiico wiih the delicacy of the operation of firing iosii,
hut most of us know from expemanoo, how difficult it is (o get coffee roasted
to a poiut fit to drink. What wonder then, that so many samples of the
tea sent from Ceylon ate condemned for uoi being properly lermented, or
for being more or less burned- Tbe injury from the first cause can only
occur once m making tea, and may be more easily guard©i against, but ah
tea is (irrd sud tefired, overy repotition of the opoiatiou uggravales the evil.
All this being generally acknowledged, out readers, and especually Coyluu
teapiauters, will bo glad to learn that a process has been luventod by Mr.
Shand by hich tea cnn be nianufacturod very much more economically and
efficiently, without the aid of charcoal or the direct aotlou of fire heat,
'1 he ncocstary forms having been complied with, a patent is about to isawo
to Mr. Ehaud, so that the speoillcaiion will shortly be available for public.-
tion and a simple mekpenrive inacblno embodying the principle may bo
ready for inspection in a few days* Meantime it is eoongb to say that
through its agency lea planters will be rendered iudepeudent of ptofeHsioual
(kill or special care ui tbe dhohug-house, while of the satisfactory nature
of the woifc performed evidence ts aifoided in the following eorrespondenco
and repoit on the first samples of Ceylon tea msdo under tho now
process^
City Chambers, llailway-place, f enobureh-street.
London, 23ra May 1870-
The second lot of lea, samples turned up two days ago, and I went
straight off with them to Messrs. Thompson when they hod a groat sampling
and tasting* Tho preparation is pronounced perfect ; and the tea first chop
in every respect except that the samples get a little “ fiat ” from coming
home in paper. To preserve the aroma, Ac., e.icU sample should bo iu
load.
Voung Mr. Thompron was eapocwlly pleased with the uolout of the
infused leavos. Bend a lot of stuff homo up to those samples, and it will sell
right well. Enclosed is copy of Thompson's report.
(Signed) W. K. Lbxkb.
88, Mincingdauo, 21st May 1879.
W. M. LxaXX, Esq.
Dbaa Sm.T^We hate' the pleasure to repoit favourably on the last
musters from your Ceylon estates. The leaf on tho whole is bettor rolled,
and tharo nfa mWd Pe^oe ends; but the chief improvement is m tUo fer-
mexlaUca Bud epriog, whioli have been successfully eawied out, giving an
evgii «fter And« rich fall fiawm*! liqnoTf • nam^lea
liAVA naiihar frathneas nin^ affimn^ bat tWf if probably owi^ag to tbnlr being
paeM in papar.
Saeb teaa aa tbaaa» wa thli)ti;.{woaM find a roady * aws daar
8ir. yottwIaitliifuUy, (Signed) Vfu, Jaa, andllY, TffoH^aon*
Wiih.tbiaopmparativelypieUmlaaty axperienot of tb« no'o^ prooeaa ao
favourably apokau of, a notable eacoeaa may be oAtioiputed wbea tbn
patented maobinea are in fall working order, and it givea as the greatest
poaalble pleaaove to find a veteran eolonixt like Mr. Whaod, who, baa been
ro long identified with oar progreia both M mecebMit and planter, leading
olt with Ibe first patent for improvenieiite inteamanalaetara in Oeylon. We
hope his patented ioventioa will bring him a due reward in direct * royalty*
while indircetl^ both in fcbaoaee of bis own pUntations and in tUoae of
other#, it enableeUie Ceylon prodnoo to ** top ^o market." Mr. Bband's
principle, we need soareelyaay, it found ia the appUeation of steam, and
the advantages beeWtois for his iaveelion are, we believe
1, That it ot viatee the use of charcoal or other rUky means of firing.
2. d?bsitht quality of the tea is greatly improved and made more uni form
gi it cannot be lujared by oareleis firing.
g. That tfte cost of fuel will be trifling, as pruningt, dried weeds or
dried gross or any wood ansalted for charcoal can be used.
4, Teat where steam engines are employed focroUing mnohlnes, or on
premises where teas oan bo refired as in Colombo, so expense for fuel need
belnonired.
5. That aa the maohines cm be made of any absj the amal lest qnanbtie*
to the largest may be made daily.
0, The cost of the maohines will be small, depending on the quantity
ot tea required to bo midO'-^and moreover, ia wet weather fresh picked
leaves may be withered in the maeUines.
We have no doubt that futther 0 mtrivances and inveuUons to improve
the manufaetore of tea, as adapted to local wauts, will follow the present
improvement until, before lon^% Ceylon becomes ns well-known for its
superior ten aa for its uniivailed coffen prepsiiug machinery.—
Ce^;lon Ohservir.
THE PRESENT CONDITION OP INDIAN
AGIIICULTURE.
f pUE following paper was contributed last April to a Oaf&tta (edited by
A the sindents of the Agricultural College, Girenooster), by Kumar
Onjendra Narayan, Jr., of Koooh Oobar, who is studying at the College.
The clear and simple account that it gives of farming m India wilt prove
interesting to English readers, and we are glad to have received permi'Bion
to reprint it. The Kumar is Honorary Seoretary of the Hehanng Society of
the College,
As no one has ever attempted to WL He any thing on the above subject for
this Oaztlttt 1 take the first opportunity of wiitiog a few woids on a subieot
which Is vory important for tho ludmne and people in geneial destined fur
Indio. I have come across some of my fellow-stadonte wlto ore either f
spend the bo^i part of Ihcir life under (he tropical rays of tho sun, or ot
least who express a desire to go to India and make a fortune. This sabj/'ct
doubtless wonld have been belter treated m a proper hand, but 1 regret uo
one has ever though* of it. My sole intention m soioottug a sabject like
this ia to give an idea to our fatere planters or farmers of the aysto u of
agricnlturo existing at present among the Indians
The elimato of India is hoi, but the weather, uuhke that of England, ia
certain. Wo know when it is going to rain and wo know when it is going
I ^ be fine. By counting the numbor of monlha since the beginning of the
new year, we can say when we are going to have dry weather, with a
pleasant breeze, end wben wo will have cold days, but with a bright,
pleasant sun, 1 must confess that sometimes our oalonlationa arc wrong
but oevtainly it is not our fault, but simply an emption to the generdl role
and 18 always an unnatural or unusual ocenrrenoe.
Curing tbelattoi* part of autumn, the places whioh were flooded in last
summer are restored again to their former oonditious witli some additional
now soils—the ulluvial deposUa—which are brought down from the hills by
those big rivers which drain the Korthern, Bonthern, W^estern, and Eastern
parts, aud in fact the whole of India. With the end of autumn and the
bogioning of winter come the pleasant days for enjoymefit, either in town
or in ooQotry. Men Ion I of sneiety generally prefer the former, while men
foil of sports and aott.Jy generally tho latter. This eours.) of things
continues till about^the oJdJJo vt spring, wben the people begin to fetorq
homo. At about this time we niso got occasional rains, wliioii we can
always keep clear ot by observing the neeuraulatioa of clouds over our head.
The spring is soon over, and then oomes tlio summ er, the eerly part of
summer being the hottest part of tho year. l>drlng this period we seldom
have any raiu, and not a single spook of eland to be seen in thf'sky, Tkia
is the time when some of the distncts get BO hot undor the scorching rays
of the sun, oepecially places far out from tho seat to injure the prospects,
oftbeinhabitantaby burning up the growing crops. This scorching beat
is followed after some time by showery rains, which continue iu Some
place! aomettinea for hours aud hours without ceasing, liivers soon
overflow, a®d tanka, pools, and even the fields which f^^.proteelAi by
nuv artificial mothid or enbankmeat are soon filoodod, jiMge nctive boats
are seen aatllng nvor tite. peddy, Indian ooro, and other fields i tins gonetatly
happeiOnfi l^wer down tiie tivare io sneb plnCfif ai 0engal» ^1^^ at Sindh,
The eyatem nf land-owning If. ap ; fb|JoWa i*-rA, ,,
lemiadar, aa he is geneimliy
one hnndred, and tb! laud nkoiA y|ilag^ di«A
ment } under thlsaemladar there a,re iyme^^fer
probably have four or five bf these ,vilil|gaB ^ ^ ,
are liable for rent, taxe^ imd eUiertthli||^(^ee^ d Wm
the zemindar nnder v^om they hold their ^ Bat'the' deidiAMihth of
thelaodisnot fiaedyet. There la in each VBfi^pe 1^4'llhlei biflHbndali
who holds the village under the petty a^ndit^ Al|d ^aeii Cbi^s, ot
Sandals are liable to tlpdr landlord for the;re»t ih^ ylBage ahd'tha lk»d
about, and anawerable for UiS oondnot of ibe vd!lil|eirai*^ abd la the
mauagemeut in general of the village. Ha acto as an inWjijretbr belfwaon
two rivals ,* someUmea ovengoosao faree to letlirle)^ tiUir' rsUgloas
rights, and especially in some parts of indla this ptabtice, ia gtestlyolrried
on. Then this Chief again divides the land among Ills viUagere* reteining
a small portion close to the vtllai(e for hie private purpOeis, and wMeh is
generally kept in order by his servants. This small portion of land he
frequently tarns into a kitchen garden. The land Which is held by the
villsgerf under the Qiief might be under one of two condittonS i«-FiiSily,
that the prcKlnce will be divided into two equal parts ; If the villager used
his own plougbo, oien, Ac., one of these *111 go to the villager and the
other to the Chief ; in oases where the Chief has provided with every
necessary, ioiplements, Ac., the produce is divided into three equal parts,
two of these going to the Chief and the third io the villager. Beeondly,
when the villager* hold a cer tain piece bf land rent free, they must do a
certain amoant of work for nothing, under tfie dtreotion of the Chief or
person autUcTrized bj^ him. Both of these eoaditious are iu themselves
faulty. In the first instance, where the produce ie equally divided, tho
villager evidently takes very little care for the future wetfuie of the Imds
as long 08 he gets a good dividoud ; he does not care whether ho exhausts
the land or not. Ue goes o» working like this until he finds that the pro¬
duce does not yield a good dividend, then be gives up (be land and takes
acother piece. If ho ie partiCnioriy an ovei'CaUansting man, hoeooudoes
the same thing to this pieco also ; and as these men don’t make more than
Ids, or SOs. a month, they oaa really effect very little improvement in the
land, la the eeoond instance, where the men are to work under the diroc-
tions of the Chief, it matters very iitile to Uiem if their Chief suffers from
failure of the crop wbioh was grown by them on the Chiof’e own land
under hia diteotlous. And as these Chiefs are also poor in tbeir oapitnl,
they can hardly do anything by whioh they might improve tho fertiU<y of
the laud t uufi >^f by chance some Chiefs have got a somewhat larger oapitai,
they don't know how to restore the forbiUty t > the soil or effect any
improvement lu it. . '
'rhere is hardly any stock kept by the Indian farmers (if 1 may bo allow,
ed to use the term), like their brother fanners the Europeans. In the
couutry higher op the Ganges, also ru Madras and Borobuy Presidoncire, a
dozen or (wo buffaloes and a few milking cows arc se?n in the villages,
accoidilfg to tlieir sisec* A few goats are also sometimes seen about a
Village, which arc generally kept for (ho markots ; bat they get nothing
like tho troatnicnt which animals kept for tho same purpose do in England.
They are nsooliy takeu out of their pens ia tho inorniug, either With a rope
rouud their neck or else loose ; then they are driven into a field, where
they arc cither tied t i pegs driven into the ground or let loose as (be oosC
may bo ; and then in the ovoniug they are driven back to tbeir pans.
Bhcep are rmuly seen in villages, and especially those round a town.
Pigs are not to be sofu in villages forming a port of the poor stook, but
they are kept only by a sect of peoifie, whose business is to keep pigs,
mako mats, sweep, Ac. This is the lowest and poorest sect of people.
If ibo village is a Mahomodan one, fowls will be seen, and with them a few
dnoks. On the contrary, if the vllinge is a Hindoo one, no fowls, but a
few ducks may be seen, which are usually for the private use of the owner.
Horses are not to be seen as stook; but if the Chief be a iwell,a)[><my
might be seen at hii doo% oiiher for fals own uee, or for hie fun's use,if he
has any.
Tito geaeraUy in India vary according to tUe soil and the rtlativo
positfbn of the land, either to the sen or the mounUiina, In tho dead level
Plains of Bengal, and more paitioularly iu tho lower provinces rice is greatly
,.:rowtt.and forms the staff of life. Wheat is grown universally aud profitably
r tl over Iftdia, so are sleo the potatoes, whieh generally fioucish Jmstin the
h'lU, and especially at Daijeoliug, whkh has given a name to a variety of
poiaio grown in the diewict. This variety (DarjeeUog potote) grows to a
good big aiae, is aheavy croper, aud closely resembles the Scotch Begent in
other partionlars. Indian oorn, Uuseed, mustard, beans, castor-oil plants,
and many other grain crops are also nsnally grown in India. Tho poppy
from whioh the opium ta obtained, ia under Government monopoly. Xb is
largely grown i'l Bebar, and the npimn i! mostly imported to Obtoa, which
adds a great portion fo the Government revenne. Tobaoeo U grown in most
of the disUots, and so ie oolten; but Aim latter is mostly eonfined to the Mila,
whilst the ferpiof genotoBy prefeiu a dump elimato and the eoil light candy,
Tbs Bhutan Hilfe are famous toi oottoo growieg, <kdetttto harbour is toll
of this cotton r whence it is shipped and sent to Maiieheitov^ aad tum into
cloth. '
Tho general ^fetbod f'*r getting ready a piece of land tor of th« etopa
is ^ery'almpfe and poor indeed. They pfeugh it with a wooden ptopghi
patted by two oaouf the forrows being tor f roei - rognler. ThaAipth aauatty
ploughed to abogt two inches, three iawhes gfoatoit* Theae
wtodott plottglia teiengular in shap«* aadwit to way
THii-kiiiJto'AQEicutToto. - * a 47
Sttirkod orlsi ISiMe plaits
itMi lilr^ a fi«ld t vbeo Oi^y Ww tbafivftt tomw^ of
a<mm.lKa|ttin»#^ iic^' shapa, tba aiii^ iiiiUd^ pt being tbroern
enonanida f bdfh aides of the
Oipted Id ltd inidd od both iddos of tho ohmet*
baokyhoveyi^dietathaytBay dtiveto the drii tfidowy they always leave
a spaoe iah|ildQgliad| oi* If the than he a very ^spm one he might juti ahim
it, hot h^ no meane plough it properly ; so soma of the ground is alwaya
left oDplokighed, howtver carefully the work might be efibeted. Then
if the iihd he a heavy one, they have Wooden mallete, and with these
hit ihe lumps of earth right and lefti and thus break tbem» Theif
comes the dperatien of rolling, and thus bmhlng the small lumps ef
earth as well ,ss tevellihg the ground. This eperaUon is done hy means of
an implement which yon can hardly call t^ler, because it is not a roller,
although applied for the Mme purpo'*e, but in fact it is a ladder, either
wooden or bamboo, pulled by two or more oxen, Two or three men get on
this, and thus partly by their weight and partly by the knCcikiug about
which the small lumps of earlh cet, they are brokep, and their object
attained. Then they collect the weeds and stubbles and burn them, and
spread the oah cn the held. Besides Ibis ash msuuie, if the land ho intended
for either tobacco or potato crop, they apply some dung also ; the quantity
of dung not exceeding ten or twelve boskets^full per acre, wMdh hardly
comee to one cart lo^. Thisdungyif it is for tobacco crop, is heaped in
different spots on tho land, and then when the p ants are jAanted, they heap
the dhng round them ; hut if, on the contrary I it {a for potato crop, it is,
appUed when the ridges ary made, the ridges being made by spade labour.
'J'he crops when ready are harvested with a aiokle, and after the usual
harvest (he crops ere stacked, not on any stack-stand, but on the ground.
Then comes the most interesting operation after harvesting, the ihVeshing.
This is done nsnaliy as follows The crop is laid on a piece of ground, in
a oironlar form, then six or seven oxen, as the siee of the piece of ground
may allow, are made to walk round and round on the crop ; thus the seeds
ure separated from the straw by tho trampling of the oxen, but not until
some time has elapsed. Then they have not got any winnowing maohme,
but they take the first opportunity which the wind might allow them for
this operation. Now all the operations are over, niz^ aowing, harvesting,
ihrosbing. and winnowing, and the produce ie now stored in a slore-houee.
from which it is taken to tie market, whenever there is one, and
sold.
The Indian farmera (oe 1 have entitled them previously) owe the return
of their capital, together with the latercst on it, not to their labour and
THE VALHE OF OOCOAMOT ESTATE FBOPBBiy,
T he following inquiry from n low-country planter boa been
lying by ns lor some timo In your roview of tho planting
enterprise of Ceylon yon give a valuation of the enUivutiou of the
island end take the value of coffee id bo 1(1130 per aero, tea £25, and
cocoanuts £60. Now iu this yon have taken, and very properly^ an
average value, throwing all the coffee In together. Po you consider
that £00 is a fair average value for coooanut estates per acre 1
May I ask on what you base your iiguTce for the product. I
ask because other planters besides myself knew little of
cocoanut culiivation ; and it twenty-0vo nuts per tree per
annum and seventy-nve trees to the acre ie oorrect or even
double that number of nuts, X can't see bow you got that high
value for au average.*’ Wo accept a yield of 25 nuts per treo
per annum and 75 tiees per acre as fairly representing the average
condition of cocoanut cultivation for the island, and still wo feel
inclined to adhere to our valuation of about He. dOO^eraore.
Our oorrespondeiit must remember, however, that tho valuation
is not based on the mercantile return, but on (iio actual value of
such property in the eyes of natives. Unlike coffee, cocoanut palms
have a permanent value iu tho estimation of pdoplo of Oeylon, and
they will not scruple to pay a long price for planted land without
giving much cousideratloa to the rate of interest the investment
will yield to them. Their outlay, too, is exceedingly low in culti¬
vation. So that if they get a return of 3 or 4 per oent., we suspect
they are satisfied. It is tho same to a great extent with house
pioperty. How few native landlords in Cmoinbo make 5 per cent,
on (heir capital. Iu enttiug down cocoanut palms for public
purposes, the value, we believe, is usually put at ten rupees a tree
apart from the land.-— Qhmver^
SUMAUH.
T £EE are at least seven different trees and plants called
Sumach.—-Chinese,Oommon, Pwarf, Poison, Sinoolh, Staghorn
and Venetian—all more or less useful for tanning leather. The
Smooth, RJm ylabra, is the best, having about twenty-six per cent,
tannic add. Dwarf, ffkus copallimt Ie next, having about
twenty-four per oent. of the tannic acid, os near as 1 can find out
{lyBlem of agrioulture, but to the natural fertility of the soil, which they
are igaoraotly exhaustmg ooDliDiially, and to the cheap wages of the
labourers, the wages not exceeding moro than threepence a day,
f have tried to explain eome facts in plain words, iboogh 1 doubt as to its
being so or not; and if tho facts are clearly put, my readers will at once
SCO that tho presont state of Indian agriculturo is distressing, and wants
Home improvements 1 have no doubt many of my reader*} have been
noticing for the past eight or nine yoais the serious distrossess in India,
(Hiker from tho uatural causes (as Balasore Hood) or from famiues. I
think some of the causes of famines are quite out of our power, whereas
Boraa lie with the peoplsi. In oonclusion, 1 have only to say that tho
l^rescut Condition of Indian Agriculture is very deplorable, and
improvements should be efi'eoted if India is to prosper, either to the Inerease
ot population or commeroe.
ICusiAB GAi^finnUA Nakayam, Jh.,
Of Kocch Behar.
—Journal of th$ Rational Indian Atoociaiiw.
MANUiUNG LAND WITH FOSSIL SHELLS.
T he PUloBophical TnmatHows rf the Boyal Society for 1744
record a very euccceefal Innovatiou in manuring. Near
The leaves are mostly used; some break off tho small green tips
with the leaves on, but the buyers do not pay as much for it if there
are many twige in it. It is best to gather only the grow leaves,
as they dry quicker and can be put away under cover or sacked for
market without as much danger of being Injured by storms if the
drying is in the open afr. To bring the best price it should be
very dry and of a bright green colour. Sumach grows In all the
old fields and around on most of the ditch banks. A good hand
will pick and dry in a bright day 75 to 150 pounds under tho
disadvantage of forcing his way throngh cat briem and brush. It
is ground here by wooden mills made for that puipose. If It is
dried in tlie sun it should bestirred and turned every few minutes,
or it will turn brown. It was sold last year at 65 cents, per 100
pounds, costing the millers about 75 cents, Tho year before it
cost the grinders 1 dol. 30 cents. About 1,400 tons wore Imught iu
Peterabmg in 1877. One firm iu cue day received 8,000 pounds.
1 have not learned how much was received this last year, but not
as much as the year before. The gathering begins as soon as corn
is laid by—about tho first of July—and it is kept up till frost, or
til] the leaves turn red. The greater part is gathered m August and
September bore, and mostly by the negro population* Lost year
it sold, aftei It liad boeu ground and sacke<l, at 50 dole, to 60 dels,
per ton for export. It is mostly used in tanning glove leather and
other finer leathers.—/. D., in Country Qentlcfnant U, S.
Woodbridge, in Suffolk, there were very extensive deposits of NATIVE OPIUM CHOP
fossil shells, consisting mainly, it is stated, of the common
whelk* The narrative oontinues in the following words:—
‘*The farmer of the ground has, it seems, laid the founda-
iioii of au ample fortune from them. He cdltented himself
in the old beaten track of the farmers until a happy accident
forced on him a hold experlmeot* He used to meqd hie cart¬
ways, When brokan up by harvest work^ with these shells; in
which busiueas his cart one day broke down, and threw the shells
out of the cart track into the cultivated part of the field. This
spot produced eo renmrkable a crop the next year that ho put
eome lo«4a on a portioular piece, kept the secret to himself an^
waited the eveuti T’hit Wl«l answering expectation, he directly^
took a lease of W large quantity of poor taud, at about 5f. the
acre, and haying manured it jteartily with these. «helle,^n about
throe years it turned tp so good an aoconut that he had 15a tho
aero proff^od to laho tho Iposo Out of hm hands.'* This ptoooduro
has heap eucoeaq^oHy Imitaiodi «a. many of our mdela ora aware,
In tha use of hoproUiea, 0|^ lhasii dung of animals, as manara*
These ooprolites are (sepkefoil^ abundant in Suffolk.
(JPVesi the Press Commissioner,'^
Report on the Paiivo Opium Crop in the Consular Distrietf coinprising
ike three prefeetuires of N»»y-po, Tai-ekow, and SkwMng,
UBING tlie past sessoti, osrefal and dlb'ireitt inquiry has been inati-
tnted, throngh scqasmtsnoei nmong Chioeae merchants, cffioials, sad
others, with s view towards obtaining more certain informstion on severat
pomta respecUng whioh Mr. IhUier, who wrote last BeaBon*8 repoit, eoald
do liiUe mere than speculate. Oar effotie to possess oursehea of moro
ceriain sttttiaticiof theort^havo piovsd fraitleis, and X am able bat to
furnish my own idea of its amount, founded cn the reports of psisons who
were all, mote of leu hiUreated In andsistating or overstating it | dealers
end others engaged in its tiransport and distribaUoD asserting it below
what they really knew it to be. hi order that the Belling price might bo
maiutoiued, ood the taxing oMoas blinded. While oMdials had little or no
certain iufonnation that lhay would impart to me, the people iate/estodm
the sale of Indian opium | Xoand prone to exaggerate the crop, with no
other view, that 1 eon dilcCver.tfaaotoaocountlorjtalowpriooasoom-
pared with fOroignepiamr and ns a cause for nuling at the Magiitrotoa fo^
thetr inertness end diirogord of the prohibitions against its eoltivation.
Une result of my inquiry, however, has b«eu to place beyond a doubt the
ol ao ililitafcotow •' «»!*<»** «* 0» «*'“«» “* «5*.
piMta M laMt tetf M mMh «g*ii> «t
in («#rti»B» ftw, »»« ttat »>>• W*« •#»«•* » ’**^^1^ ,
opiaa 'p««4w4f «itt tatottt «ot o»i>y W »*•*•• ** *** ^ )?»«>«♦ ■
U tot lONriMt i tt tafiw \mn fooad Hurt by J»eld»*. uumfroW^o*. art
dryiB*. it aeoBlrodobbltof (Uwor, and Jatohod, wbon i»t oB th» matlret,
00 oa^rtof a prloo ao wall to topay tha lottwat of tha ,
and U>a laliont ot»|ployad on It. Tfia TaVidiow p«»dnoo, aa «t Uo lia»to.
furo otma to thio market, in lt» raw aUM, aanltorated w.lh opirit,
wfiinolilh Mid 6lhdr soTwhwwwi to tUo extoot often of ?0 ,
coma to Biaat dliadTairtaga. Hia erode batnlng tail* of ftaaU opium
wUeh may be tolaralod ia odd waathar, ia lound at the MmmoBoamaub
ot the he^ of aamtnat by aU bat Uia loaaat daaa rf amokote axtremdj
Tto *«. li -blob growara .« to fro «i. Magldro^
ems I hare not boen able to asceriain, boyood that m avory loeal diatrict
a local ratohM beau dotarminod. by moaiio of which aRtoemant batwooo
m edtiyatora and tha rmmor. ia faollitatod. The war oontrihiitlon office
collaction ia d# caah a catty (botiyaon two and throe paiico par ^u“d )
In addition to tboea facto it may bo aainmed that tha onthoritjaa at
■M.cbow arc not taking upon thamaalroa to act at nought the tororn-
mant adicU agaioat the fnltivaaon of opium, without .onto nndemtod.ng.
tacit or dterwiie. having been arrived at with the piodnoial
at Hongrohow. Iwbo very probably, bring hard preaied by the Coutol
Oevoramout for remiltaneea, aoa how grooUy an inereaaad growth <>f
opiQia willf In ?i6wot the diminniicni to irhioh, of lat« year<i the Sh 0 n*el
crop hw been enf^eeted, benefit the provincial mennei.
At Tai-cbow the aeaeou wee a tety favourable one. Ap.irt from what
IS reottired for local cottaumptlon, the quantity that will be set down on
the market may be caloulatod at oveir 80.000 oittlas. Very little
of Ihia has aa yat come to Ning-po, and what baa oome haa been of thrt
usual watery kind, wbiob. after being boiled, filtered, and evaporated,
lca»«8 a large quantity of cinder in the pipe. The price haa fallen from
that reported laat year to below twenty dollar oonts. the taaU
In the Ning.po prefecture the poppioa did not thrive to well aa in the
country to the aouth of it. Late into the aoaaon there waa anew »ul
cold weather followed by nn unuaually bright apring. Though the plants
were tell and flowered well, the capanloa were smell and yielded poorly.
Tha quality of tUe Seaug-san ia better than it usually U and of a thicker
consistency I at Ning-po it haa found a ready sale at 20 to 26 cents, the tael.
The other districts of this, aud also those ot the Bheowhsiug prefecture
grow opium only for their own ooasnmption. Seldom, if evot» flo they
Bcnd any but to the market of the township.
Last year’s Tol-chow opinm, of good quality, has, during the winter aud
spring, commanded a price varying from $4 to $150 per catty.
At the preient relative prices of Patua and Malwa, Patua, which opium
ia generally considered the euperior as regards flavour, is cheaper than
the latter if the price be calculated by its iutoxicatlng qualitiosi Some
cause for ite not being more preferred by the smokers at the places auppUe i
from this port is, that they are already aupplied with the brass vessels for
converting the raw drug into the preparation for the pipe, and dr not care*
to replace them With the larger onos that ore neceaaary for the preparation of
Patua, Whereas, Malwa can bo prepared for the pipe in two or thrae-hours
wiUi but small loss in quantity, not more than 21 or 25 per cent, Patna
requires attention oouataubly tor at least thirty si« hoars. The oonteuta of
a ball ere taken and boiled with water for about twelve hours m an open brass
mn, till it booomos in such a state, tliat, on the water being evaporated,
igsofliah mass is left, the Burtaco of which being Scorched, a warn forms
Uieretm. This is removed and hardened over embers on a wire gridiron
The operation is continued till tlie opium in tho pan be exhausted, and twelve
to fltteon flat cakes be produoedv Tho opium ia this form is again macerated
in water, filtered, aud boiled f.»r swerai hours, slowly. A substauce of
treacly oousistenoy is the result. This lengthy preoesi and tho qualities
of tho prepared article boiug ao well known to consumers, appears to have
prevented, as yet, any aduUe ration. In those parts where Calcutta opium
is smoked, the preparation soetui to be generally done by persons who make
a business of it, sailing the product of their manufactures in small
quantitiee to suit purchasers. Here, I am told, Patua is only smoked by
the wealthy, and i-~ the larger smoking housos. In these parti smokers
seem to seek their eajo meof more iu the recesses of their private housea
than they do in the .vmtu of Chiao, where the consumere may be seeii to
congregate in tho public roome.
Tho scarcity of Malwa would lead one to suppose that Patna would supply
Its place. The reasou that it does so but slowly is that the custom of
of smok'Hg Malwa has become estabUshed. Malwa is easily prepared for
smoking, and tho Himpheity of Its preparation aMows ol its afliUteratiOB by
by native opium and other foreign sabatauoes. At a smoking home UO
juro charged for a mace of Patne^ while for the same wedght ot Malwas
G5 or 76 cash sufiioo. Patna is oonindered mu oh tho more poteqt of the two i
the habit of smoking Patna once formed, ea irioatiou is more difflenU# It is
thought to prodttoe iuseusibiUiy m»ro quickly, which is a defect, Chinese
b'iing desirous jratUer to prolong the stato that precedes it. MU said to bri
cool to the taste and heating tH,the Vitals,-^prod«cn*, '"»w fever* Malwa
ius a pungenpy thatiM^:|atiatoeitteaiepalatoof*:u*.,'.mr8,anddooseot
affect Uioif oonsttiiatio#80 injuriously. The vapour o£ £*Mna u dome.
The fumes of Malwa have more tenuity. Tha better oteli of^UP^um house
iteofo^ tithont teW
purohasers to ha euMfely
o|flhv4 Is obta* hed. frhilo t ^ ^ ^ ' what
T?h« tests by whloh the flda ityu|
ittSy bo called the water test Mid ihe fire ^ m
purity, l^qual parte of opium and hot
a b aas nau over Ignited ohecooal till the opium Ik •*??? dlHOl^f?* T®®
tb. pi«er tUB opium ii MHOhiMMa to ho .aultwotrf, ...
detarlormoa. Thl. ‘“k"T ^
otoo gondiB othet roipocts. otoo^* thu te«l boJly. I «»4 no
tub U inappliMblo to l*BlaiB ana Brimtu. Tho «io tert taBO^WBl to lU
drug having undergone preparation for the pipe# A drop b Ukeu oh
o,,dolBl*B*».(Kllofto«l hold to tho <Um. ot B BOlOll
buhblM, nrollo. «xd«»dB.U,hMd0B..
cpiBiB, . polo oprifilmloiiii.ou tho «tfooo.»Bda poouIi.riy robOoa«d
poBO< rBtin* odour i. givoB out. Drtg of thu ^uBllty Uw boon, >•*'
ultomoly rato. .od it U doubtful whothor it U *ow ptoouiaWo in China.
Tho next boot ahow » bright teddiih oblont; tho i^ioi nort. a duUot and
daikor hut, and with Infmiot Poniau a^ native, rix4oalh» of tboiOMtod
drop are omder. ,
TUe extent of country supplied with imported drug from this port has,
during the last year, owing to the action of this JhsWn officials, and to the
death last, June of the great farmer of inland dues, anJ their chief adywer,
Chen Yu .men, hoen frequently eactoachod on along ite northern limits by
thh Shanghai dealers.
Xgist year’s harvests wme uniformly good. This spring has proved a hue
season for silk, Ta coosoquenoo of the dearth in the north, ^ rice continues
high. The province is in a prosperous condition, and its inhabitants in a
porit on to afford themselves simple laxorios,
POI.ARI8COPIO TESTS OP CANE.
T he following report of Mr. Uedges* teats of sorghum were reoalved
too late for insertion iu our last
Editors^ Jmmal oj A^rie^turdo
TUres eamples from correspondent O. .M, tiohwars, Edwurdsvillo,
lUs. Date of planting, oulinre, &o., not given. First sample—
Stewart’s Hybrid oaue seed, all in tho milk*
Spoo. Or. 1.048, Pol. 6*78
Mixture cane „ .■ i, 1»047, „ 6*06
Early Amber t, » 1,061, „ 7'13
Temperature 88 1*2 deg Fahr,
July 81st,—Two samples from J. W, Russell, BpOiiesboro, Ark,
located Uigh on Boston Mouuiain. No* report of »oU or cultivation
received. Stewart’s Hybrid Spec. Gr. 1,052. Pul, 4*47 ; Early Amber
Bpeo. Gr. 1,060, Pol, 8*33, Tomperatore 88.
The appearauoe of tho above canoe was quite different in color,
showing a greater degrea of maturity end still lacking In that respect,
as 1 presume the next polarised of same lot will show.
Some explaueliou of these figures and terms may be useful lo those
not familiar with the tables and terms. Tha apoolfle gravity i hows
hL much heavier the juice is than weter, which
fwhloU scale Is most enmmou among oane-growers m this country),
count from 0 by ilccimals, juice that has a specific of 10 deg, B.
?s about the same ae that of 1,080. which Will be fooud.tfi;# good
i .b.
saoc^arioe m all oape U glucose and afterwards c«o sugar. If the
above figures represented pure oaue sugar present in the Jnbte and U
ooalil be all obtained without loss m manufacturing, fhe 633 would
I aivc Rome twelve ponnds sugar to the oue hundred potiiide juice Cwbioh
fa SboS eleven gallons juice), as all juloos of that rtohjess will weigh
I t '”y nine ponnds pgagallon. The polarlued is more etpoclaliy useful
L showlttx the telofive m-iriis of Hie rtHfereat vifletiei of these oancs
‘ “e wfth aSoi^ tha actual per cent, of eaUe iUgaV present.
' The quantity of oaiia rscelved, therefore, is too small to allow other
qualifioaiion tests tube made; but as Mr. Eohweres <»«• J*
forward, we shall soon bo favored with an ample supply. He b^* •«*««
: Lven or eight varleiles, all doing wall. He has also the Pearl till let
of flue growth, He -lnlorms mo that he is now putting ms works in
order, and will soon make his first experimental fluid tests, the results
uf which will be published to the Journal of Agrlouttufc. and taay be
of much value to new beglnnirg, os Mr. a. ttisy be oonMdered not only
' iolflTHifiopbutmatbeinaGoaUy oorrwt^amj what, ho fallu.to fMid out
5 with the esristenoe of cur expert, to haraiy worth bnowto^ ,
b that seemo^telt tfWe fine pvospeoti In no abundant groteib* flhcuW ft*
, saccharine o« Hwo abundant, ft will become a dfslrebte nrqmslt^**
* ro. ou^sibek' In most eectlpna Early Awhet ^d^te* ,
^ grew targe nnough, and although its jtiice U tiohj jtbb^e to
^ ol It.' M^t persons say : We need a nahn thite #111 ymiiU 280 gaUens
heavy syrup tq the nore—ou medium tpU Wltti goCd oa^ivntlun—tp
» rcttder us sitisfnctnry iciultf. ^ ; *
MwiiU
.
^ . , _ Ji^ 1^ ji tw»a<l-
fjit '
? tti «MiD« her*.
Titi3Hi(MV| tod «U1 out
«»»• y w ^y* ^«u. iia«« i.u«n AUHtinmi »»»» win «»*•
< IjbjH Mat.' U
d 04 t« ,jl»o 1 y OttHM wall. Tbe report
, ojt^tliwabpdUio^olFtMcroaall qtbv tbb ct^t^airjr iBafinBWHy {avorable.
1 io i^tnru mif |riito(a) thaqkB ta Umf9, ICwir^awli FeTRuaou
^ ib^Jarajiblaji wa gratmUoUBly a Bwail laiil far liroMlng iha joico
(m my poiairiMqpia tearr.
* • < I, A. HBIDGKR,
Cofi. SBCY. M. V, O4 G. A.
tm fttJSSUN COBIS BEETLE.
T HB Qlobfi laaruB from Odosaa that upwards of 12^000 machlues
are now engaged in South Bueeia in fho laak of extirpating the
corn-beetle. The molt popular machine 1» biuit of Hoftpo lni Soko-
niu'a invention, of which 5,000 are in use in tho pruvmuOM o£
Kharkoif, Pultova, and Ekaterinoe. The Zemstvo of Marianopol
voted last week 00,000 roubles towards the purchase of oom-boetlo
machines, and tho Zemstvo of Kharkoff 80*000 roubles. The
ravages of the peat are on the increase. The Odessa Veetnihs says
« A new visitation il telegraphed to us from Pultova. A number
of fields bearing upon them as fine a crop of wheat as a farmer
could desire, suddenly changed their appearance, and in a few
days presented an aspect of having been aabjocted to a dovostating
hailstonn. An inspection by a Government natur|ili8t showed
the cause to be tho ravagee of that dreaded Ctcuhmya destrucin,
or, as people call it, tho Uuesion fly. This pest, which caused such
teriiblo devaetation in Soulliern Biissia at the beginning of the
f treseut century, received the title of llossion fly b*oatt«« It was
magmed that the Hessian meroenarioo bad brought it with them
from America, where they tiad been engngeil in the War of Indepen¬
dence. Sobsequent iavostigation reveal, however, that it had
existed sometiiue before their advent. Still, tho name has always
stock the insect, and until now it has never appeared east of the
Russian frontier. The havoc it makes is so dreadful, and it multipues
with such amazing rapidity, that the authorities at Odessa have
despatched the well-known specialist, Professor Lindoiuann to
the spot.” * »
CORN BEETLE MACHINES.
I N a letter from Odessa a correspondent of the Oohs gives some
pariiculars of a public trial that has beoM taking place there
of machines for collecting and destroying corn beetles. The
investigation was carried on in tho presence of delegates of the pro¬
vincial assemblies of Kbersou, Pollava, Bessarabia, and Penza,
presided over by Professor Lendolnan, zoologist, of the now
Russian University. The number of competing inachiues was 18,
of which the majority were raoro successful in destroying the corn
than the beetles. After numerous experiments, three only were
selected as fulfilling tho oouditions imposed by the committee.
Wagner*! maohino, Yavoraky’s, and tho machine employed by tho
Od<Ssa Zemstvo. A trial then took place among these latter,
resulting in the preforonce of the committee being accorded to the
machine of Herr Wagner, which in its course liirongh a cornfield
(lestroved^O per cent of the beetles on the stalks. Wagners
machine is very simple. It consists of a largo comb, 81in, long,
tho tooth of which ore edged with bristles and covered with a metal
shade or elongated umbrello. The workmen, pushiug the appara-
tus before them, clear the beetles of the ears of corn. Under the
metal shade are two lathes, edged with bristles, which clean the
beetles off Uie keth aud transfer them into a 'fropden receptacle
beneath. One of Wagner’s machines, without difficulty, can oper¬
ate upon 20 or 30 acres of com a day. Great satisfactroij is
exoressed at its success, auu not without reason, as the whole
country is overrun with tho corn-beetle, and the pest enlarges its
ravages every day.
THE «NUISANCES” OF OLD ENGLAND.
A gentleman writing from Leamington, describes England
8S it is, and Mr. Mechi, writing from Essex, describes
England as ft might to bo. Under the lufiuenoe rf dopcaved taste,
selfish habits, wasteful accesses, and an unpatriotic indiffierefic 3
to tho ftttuto of our inoroasing population, Warwi^deshire, it
appears, has been allowed to fall into a state which |;^at least a
aiaohroniiia. It has gone to deep grass, to thick, bushy
SdSrewS, to forest trees everywhere casting Oiejr pernicious
in in dliecHons ^ styeartA meaudenng at tbeir wakeful
Sn In a wert to otoWhlfiEt*»«tban agricultural operations
iSd dVfShthow is too true that fiom spy
'modej^ate’eOihiiici
seen hut' tall trmhe^v an# di
obu^hUes their Id ; to , ho
----- ^ hedgerows, btiryidi Mellfdaout
oesnu aiid sight, ‘aud the
of some risiui groufiA the fiaiH of a winding stream, d or
a mansion. ^ Op strictly ^loihical prifmlptes, and to thh ;os|dhl^*
log. eye c| k Visitor straight irOm the Valley Of iheMUsissfppI, this
is a sin an# shame. As to the ^uajitHy of soil, surface raitifaH,
and sunshine absorbed and monopclixed, it is oeormooe. ^ An
ordinary .Parish belween two and three thoneand acres will often
contain thirty miles of road and lane, as many miles of river and
water courses two hundred miles of hedges, about hftH them
being also hedgorows^ihat is, containing talHrees,.which, after
all lopping ahd pdlHug, have good largo tops and roots to be come
upon everywhere about them. There are thousands of such
pariehes in the districts where property remains in many hands,
and where each dairy stauds, of ueoessity,' in the midst of its
hundred or two hundred aei’es. But when we reckon (ho
economical loss, we begin to respect the groans of our friend hailing
from Illinois or from our own Australia. Upon a modcu'ate
calculation of tho breadth of land taken up tlmse nuisances, as they
arc lu a ccilain s^nf^n, R is not too much to say that they deduct at
least ten pei coni., lium the prodiiotivc power of tho itapd, besides
thoir meohauioal inteifeieuoo with field operations. Even under
the humblest system of agiioulture they render abortive, and there-
fore destroy, labour, seed, manure, and are answerable for at least
halt the wear-and-tear of horse$<, men, impieiiumts, aud other gear.
It is at the turnings, not in the straight eourse, in iueipmlUies, not
in the open*and smooth ground, iliatiho team gets into difficulties.
It ia evident that a groat deal has to be pdiBheii oif the face of
Old England before it can competes sucoessfuDy with the new
cora-growmg countries. It is too heavily w^eightod fur the race.
MANDRINQ VVHKAT AT SOWING TIME.
TN your iwue of June 2SUi, Codoor w’mhw mo to give my mode of top.
A arosumg. I« my urliolea prooediug, I msiAtod on the ttooosaiiy
of such a couroe, and the soason approtichen for putting out Our wheat
crop,at which lime T lop-droM for the two-fold purpooe of getting a
goou wheat Cl op and a luro catch of grass to form a permanent sod. I do
not attempt to top-drese unless I have flue manure. As tho seaeou is past
for making mauure for this fall’s use ou wheat, I will not give my mode of
preparing it now, but will give details on this point in a future letter. My
remarks on top.dressiog for this crop will not benefit Codnor much if he him
used bis last wmUt’s stock of manure for other crops, and hue only
Bummer.made manure for this fall’s use. 1 wilt take for granted that last
winter’s manure has been carefully prepared and piled up, conveuient to
haul as soon as the wheat ground is plowed. I also take for granted that
tho rotatiou of corn, oats, nod wheat is praoticed, as here. Although I
do not regard this ne the best cloiuco for wheat, yet oireumstances seem to
force U8 into this rotatioji, and 1 will not now urge luy views against it.
As soon as the oat crop has been removedi or eveu while the shocks are in
the field and not in tho Iffio of the plow, I mark out my lauds seven or eight
steps wide, and back fiirvaw four rounds on each one ; then commence
hauling manure, and drop it in piles about fifteen feet apart, so that thirty
good two-horse loads will go over an aero when spread evenly. U is easier
hauling over iho field before the plowing » all done. Bo not fear that the
manure will waste any if pnt in sung heaps. After the manure is all out,
llaUb plowing the field jinmrdialely, and let it Ho nubil Nownig time The
longer the field reimdns after plowing, the better, os it will give time for
Die outs to sprout and grow before sowing. I always plow as soon as possi¬
ble, so AS til ^ot my wllout m by the first week in i^ptembor, or uot ktjsr
thttu the middle of the mouth, aud the ground should be plowed four weeks
previous if pohuihle. When tho ost stubbie is well turned under out ok
sight (which it S' Oulu be lU lUi easen), there will he no hlndrauee to
Mpieading and harrowing in the mauure. Spread evenly well out to the
dead furrow of each land, and before any hariowing h done. When one
land IS Bpicad, give it a brush with the harrow,and thou follow immediately
with the rellei or clod-crusher; then let it remaiu undistuibcd until tho
whole field bus bceu gone over a land at a time in this way. lliou harrow
thoroughly With A slautiug-toothed harrow, both ways if ueeessary, but do
not use a vertioaUtgoth harrow unless uiMvoidable,
As soon os tho field is well harrowed, roll down and drill in the wheat.
If the Ittud is cloddy, the roller Or clod-ci usher should bo used while the
harrowing is being done, so us to got the surface as fine as possible. The
crusher is best bo grind up tlie lumps. I pay great attention to fining the
surface lor all my crops. If the weaihor is dry wbeu wheat is drilled in, a
roller should be run over it after the drill. This will press tlie seed in and
hold moistuie. It also p'jiks the manure and soil together, so that the best
results are obtained from manure. Auy one not used to this mode of apply
ing manure, will wonder ^here all the bulk hat gune, as tho most of it will
bo hid from sight, and inootporated with the soil to the depth of three inches.
If the soil is good, "the crop U cure when other precautions are observed,
such AS leading dfl* all Bfitplutllrater, Ac. By this prooess, timotby sowed
ib the fall with wheat, will make a rank giowth aud leaseii the yield of graiu,
but will insure a gxaw croy^ and no failure, if seed enough Ims been used bo
give an even ostch. If a good wheat mop is very desirable, it is best to wait
until spring before Mwiitg the grass seed. Wfien clover can be sown also if
desired. X now adopt the latter course, aud do nol^l of a good wheat crop,
«od the gtftss comw nm MsOi
880
/'’'f '
.1 V,
-
THE
M^williilc wbf X mi a •]mtily^tooth lumow. U i« Imimii
wmk if ooif ^ 4 % iHl«vefyti«a 14 thitmtli ii|t
^ pffff tb« fdil»m4 mtfjyym on tbf nUfim t$ drum 4(mt 1 ^ tiu
itm by Ibf tfdiii ifi^ dtftribabkl* If mmuri it apifUf4 on tbo
tnr^ to tbi 4«Ptb o£ ibcmimbof, I oan work it all mtriy into tbo toil*
•0 tkat |ittl0 wo^Ul bo toon on top« It if not 10 with vtiUotl tootbi m in
pfi in g om^tbrn brim tko topi to tho foffooo^ and do not ent
tbom, bnt pw ooor and poak tfido tbo material we to mnob wiib fodnood
to flnenetf* {Tbe only mo 1 bavo for a eeriiea!«toetb barrow if to bring
olodf to tba tnrfaoe to that tbe •mootbinghavroWfoanottttbOoif aadtbo
toUer and emtbor break them, IsomeUmeego oTir eloddy ground wHh
tbe roU«r« wbiob bteaki up many lompi and preteea the root eren with the
inifaee. then 1 me a atanting-tooib barfow* wbiob will oat tbe inmpf
wbieb are be4M la, ibni giving the alantl ng teeth their beit bold. If any
remdin. tbe roller and omaber are again med. and then the imootbing
b^w to bnieb with* tbU mode wU) not diMppoint any ona having
pirilenee and penevOtanoe enongb tomake a goo d firmer. 1 may hereafter
gl?e eopte of my Tiewe in regard to different kinda of liarrewe.^P. &. ii.
in Amiru <7eatlMHm.
IHS*MDSACE^ OB PLANTAIN OBDBR.
'all end tbe^ ftjtMMNlf''-Irir ^iJs*^.
appearanen it ennnbibbie tie bN
become bntbone at too bmt^iuidi!
plant wm pointed not lo: mn wt.
Oemeron, tbe dnperiirieodent.
Mwpnia lutoeinatOi-^A email blent
now eommon about Medraigordenim ap
not Men It in flower. '
ClhtnUf ryeeiem or tiff ffVaneZHwn* bbewn^Hl^
Mff, ffl now found growing in many i#»deni abmt Vm^. And it ia
pettloularly diftlngoiebed for tbe fan^maned for^ tbe tree# tak$
the epreading of their leaven and Jh# faetgbt
A tree fu the IfadraeHoftloaUnrai'Oardtmr'N iH pTbtebt
ill flower ipatbe, end eome treee in the Oover oofe^i^en/
tdbOfiit
flat, and eligbtiy oonvex In tba npper»^nd eoneeve In the lower tide;
the lower edge abarp, and tbb tipper buif an htoh wtdbi Had ridged at
tbe edges. It ie covered with a tbkibieh rlud oontatalng a eanlne
toptb-i^pfdherdabell, allbla which there It a deep b5e eeilo|i)r
fobalapee in wbiob the feeds are embeded. The aeedff are flati oonoate^
oonveXf having one end eligbtiy tnrded In.
OHABOOAU
By JOHN BB0B9T. M.B., V.M, Burgeon Mejot, Madraa Army.
From tblf vthiable paper by Dr. Bbortt, we tabe a few mtraote.'-*
Ifmn Cbeeadlfbii (f7AiAfnf<i).«-Cpm|ttoniy aemed tbe ** Uattrittm
plaotalB." Xbia it a dwarf fpeeleti the plant grows robust and oompaot}
by some it li beUeved to have bean iutrodnoed from the Mauritlosi by
others from Obina. It Is met with In most distriots. 1 have leen It
in the Northern if well as In the most of tbe Sonthern distriots. Tbe
plaa^ eeblom exceeds five feet in height, fKqhently it is much under
thatbeigbt, very sturdy, with leave e overlaying each other closely; it
thrives well in thepleini ee well as in the hiHa np to a hetgbfc of c.000
metabovaseaJeval. livery productive, and produces an enormous
bUAOh of frntta when well grown, that pits or boles have to be dug to
•nable tha bunch to descend below tbe level of the soil ualojaied.
Bach fruit averages from T to 10 iaohas In length, is of uniform thick-
nesSfandrlpemofapeagreen color. The flesh or pulp bean straw
color, having a resemblanoe to the color and flavor of iUo red plantain.
11 Isswistand well tasted, tbe rind modsratelp thick.
ifnsa Uvtitei or iianilla .NsmyThe fruit of this species is smaU
resembling in general appearance that of tba Boatallt It Is not fit for
food, being fitted with leeda but Mr. Thompson, the Bupsrlntcndcnt of
theOovernot's Qaiden at QuUtdy* tells me that the fruit oontaius some
pulp which is sweet and well tasted. There are about half a doaen plants
growing at Dulndy, and the largest of these was 10 feet, but 1 believe it
nttoiBS from Bh to ^ feet in height. It yields tbe finest and best kind
of fibres which tbe natives do not utilise. A variety of this plalntainv
has bm imported into Bouthera India in consequence of its fibres. It
has not mat with gereral aeoeptanoe, as theiruit is considered wortbleBs
and not fit to eat. The ahseaoe of a machine, nod the want of intoritst
in tbe extraction of the fibres, cause it to be neglected.
Ifttfn Superha or BilD ytonfsin.—This is the wild plantain, an
ornamental and handsome plant when well grown. Tbe stem le formed
above soil and is exceedingly stout, strong, ami conical, exceeding 10
feet in circumference above tbe surface of the soil, where It is bulbous,
and 6 feet at the aummit immediately below the leaves. Leaves
S Blioledi but not sheatfng, U found in abundanoe about the bills In
ravaooore. Fulneys, South Genera, and other bill renges up to a
height of fi.OOO feet above sea-level. 1 brought a nutnic r of bulbs in
iB72 from tbe **Hahh" in South Oanara, and distributed them to
the Madras Horttooltoral Gardens, tba Lai Bagh, Bangalore, and
Introduced it on the Bhervaroy Hills, where 1 have at present a number
of plants, two of which are in fruit cow. In a couple of months, 1 hope
lo have an abundanoe of seeds for distribution.
Tbe plint atlalus n height of from 15 to 20 feet, and Is very hand¬
some and abowy. Tbe flower stem rises perpendloularly and then
curves down, tbe flower V)ud is large, much shorter and stouter than
that of the common plantato, having the shape and form of a balloch*s
heart, Tbe fruits form olusters around tbe pedunole like the ordinary
plantain, tbe berry is oblong and about tbe sise of a duck’s egg. Smooth
nnd slightly ridged, three oelled when ripe, nearly dry, having no
pulp and fllisd with aumeroof black seeds, about the siae of a small
marble each. It '1 propags^d from seed and suckers, the suckers are
rare and ocoaiional, and aiw not thrown op so plehiifully as lo the
ordinary plantnlo. I is met with now about many gardens in Madras.
Jf««i vWrn or Beti nLi^f 4 fn.««Tbis Is a tail plant, attaining some 20
foot in bslghb and proauelog a dark red ooiored and rather large siaed
trnit, averaging from 7 to lOioohes in leogth and of a uniform ihtok-
ness ; It Is a very fine fruit with a rich flavor and bottery coosistauoe.
The plant is readily dlstlngutihable from the dull red color that
pervades every pari, The fruit rlpeus of a ^lowfsh red end Is greally
appreciated ; generally Buropesns objeet ^its strong %*vor. It is
grown about Madras and along the Bameru Coast, and is largely
eultivatedinthevloluity of Madras, more especially at the village of
Toyaloro tor the Madras market, where it is always procurable. 1 bate
ahia seen it flourish at Combaoonom hi the Tanjore distrlot. The fruit
if gentfally eaten ripe end never cooked, ea it is considered too valuable
tor snob and la believed by the natives to poseem oooling
{wopertiee^ The Had it thick and fleshy, and the pulp bUkafigfatstMW
color, paonliegfiavovrana luscious taste, that is saiWjius/ ‘ ^
Mm ffnifft or Alff||fatoai>feafeto.<-«-A riogie young plant of this
ptolM if growli^ tn^lM Ml Bcgb, Ba^af^ie. It 1# si^ jio be the
By Bobbbt BABTsa, Dalkbitb Pabx.
T HB meDofuQtare of oharcosi forms an tinporUnt Item In the
annual foultoe pf a forester's duties. 1 am not aware; however,
U any attempt bai ever been made to find out which kind of wohd
produce! the beat obarooal for cocking purposes, The nsusl way in
making obarooal is simply to put the wood into the kiln or retort,
last as U oomes to baud, alt sorts b etng mixed together. There it also
considerable dlffsrenoe of opinion amongst foresters on Ibis point;
some holding chat oak is tbebesi, while othere are Squally certain that
bea«h i8 preferable and so on. With the view of beipfog to solve this
question. 1 lay berur« ynur readers tbe accompanying toble. which
has been cpmpllled from the tesuitsof axpefiments conducted here,
and which were especially entered upon to test lhesnb|eet, and carried
out with great eare in every detail.
Tbe two priooipai requisites in charcoal as a cooking agent are, first,
the time it takes to boil a given quantity, of water ; and, secondly,
how long it will keep that water at tbe bolUng*poiut.
All that U neoeseary Id the carrying out ef them cxperlmento U to
provide a small charcoal stove aadw tin kettle. Being thus furoiehed,
we begin by—
First.—Weighing outs qoarter-poiind of each kind of ebareoa).
Second.—Measure off a pint of water into the kettle, then set it on
tbe stove, and ignite the fire slmultaneonsly.
Third.—Mark the time which elapses until tbe water reaches the
boiling-point.
Fourth.—Note how long the water is kept boiling by the different
kinds of charcoal.
Before starUng the experiments, a fire must be lighted fn the etove,
and both it and the kettle tboro nghly b eatod, so as to give eash kind of
obarooal au equal ohauoe. When tbe experiments are prooeeding, tbe
fire oau be lighted each time by a few bits of live charcoal from tbe
preceding fire, being very care ful to eeleot them of equal else in each
mvtanee. Wlntn the water atope boiling, tbe etove must each rime be
cleared of all asbea By ruob a proeeie ae 1 havndescribed^ tbe figures
given in the ioltowfng tobte were obtained
Time taken
to bring the
water to the
botUngpoiut
Time dcrlog
wbiob tbe
water was
keptbolUug.
14 mtuates
so ttiutttea
18 H
46 „
18 »
<6 »»
W ..
11 «
44 »
43 „
le H
41 »
18 »
41 ^
IS H
40 „
38 „
to n
S8
40 „
37 >.
4a „
39 H
88 »
18
87 „
«
87
15 ’*
84 «
14 „
81
3 :
Kinds of Wood from
rdrot •»
Uawl ..
'''bora .»
liay Laurel
liljuob ..
Oftk
ChestUot
BaA.»,oo<l..
OodMT of Lobanou
Labornum
Yew
ft^moro
SnsSLxrnm
IntonM bolUag.
Modemte „
Intmse m
Very Ibteme „
MoMiate ,,
Moderate „
Moderate fohamd la a cetoit).
Very moderate (chanced la a kfiu).
Very moderate boUltig.
M(^ato „
Horubwtt
WyohBlm
The result obtained from Privet was 10 remarkable that Wn fwpeated
the trial, which only proved the high heating power of. ohamoal mada
from it, ill* i||aU of tka second trial hemg identijsal tbf first*
Timriiarooaiprodueed la a retort was found to bo to Miat
m#f Hi up ohMasotoaed kiln, as will be obsarved fbin jtbo viifit
g^ven in the tabto* The two aaiOpijM of fish whtofi wmfi sNMw
wysfaily tefted to prova ^
. ._.
‘tt6t^k»ot4stid^ »ii^iim,oAiiO0m.
Bwotatiou on
X. o« the dwden ^
exqeHlve Ofotxfliifc ol Il»« oold RWioa, wbicli
kl|^ A Aiittkiw olyottnA pliRtii it ia toti«!iot^rjr to flod tbi^t tbo
(jo^lttptil oif t£o rt^ediV P^Mtod groopi U fsitlj good. The
^piA^diam^ propoiM In ibg pi^vtodi raport havo beau
oat» Iba aaw ptkoa^iQudM baae raoaUed eonilderabla
gdditioi^ toi^ooitao^of platdta groaro tbaaafa. abd cbotlutta to
attA^ fjlaltorff, A br^ afcralgbt road from the tlVer entrabaa«gbdt
to tlM^iMa tiaiilabtrae oa the araat, the eraat at wbioU waa toag lala,
#ak oMdiaiiMd^ dttftttg tm 9^ voder Review. The low twanpy
in l|ha mtkitf At ibd bhatin treat vhiali baa bitberto baan one
Of tba moat aM<ihttir partt o< tha gardob, baa been partly laid out,
aod It if hoped lhaf| wben tbe daflgn baa beeo falJy oarriad ob^ it
trill preoant a graatly iraorovad appaaranoe. Obaugea have alio baeu
O^ada ib tba roadl tOVarda IhO oortb of the gardao, wblob hare bad
the eilaOt ot Opebittg to view a haoond banian trea oi very large alee.
Ma^ Other minorTmptotan&attta hare been efleoted In various parfe
of tna garden. '
Am Ordered leat j^ear, Ibe building In wbleh *the Herbarium and
Ohloe Ora bha bOtk euiavged and improved by tba Publie Worka
DOparittebtiOoai toalKOrdiafllOianl epaoe to preient tbeioverorowdlng
wblob bat bitberto ebllted. *
The'ek|ierlOianta wbiObbave baen'golagontor eoma yeara past In
ouitivkildg 10 tbe garden oartaia apeoial plants, are again found to have
bOaO mOitir 'nOaaooasafttl It la now deolslvaly shown that? tba ParA
rubber VUI not grow in Oaleutta. it is tberatore useleas oontloulng
tbe eaparimant any fartbar. TbeiO’mrd rubber, however, promises to
Ihrifo, and Dr. ILuig Is in hopes of being able before long to supply
seedlings for trial In virions parts of tbe country.
JpodMwa^ka cannot be grown to profit, thongh fopplles of young
planig oOntfnue to be Issued. Hhta will not tbrifo as a crop, but
two acres bate bean put noder plant to supply fresh stems to
intending oompeUtots lor the Qovernmenfc prise for n maoblue for
clearing that fibre.
A langa< quantity of JfsAoyuny seed was raeeired from Jsmatoai and
waa partly dis^ibnted and partly sown in tba garden. Tbe Koresb
Dsparlment base commenced mahogany onUivatlon In Chittagong,
and many aaedlings hare been eeut to the Assiatant Oonsertator there.
The rain trees« of wblob a quantity of teed Wes received from the
ilndia Office tbyee yeart ago, liowered during tbe year, and large
quantities bf seed and tdadliogs hate been distriboted, Tho sweet
suMleut Of this tree Is an esoellent food for cattle, and It may
become highly useful as a fodder«p)ant.
The Cai’ifb and tbe JWolygfi have been again found to be nnsoited
io tbe oUmate of Bengal, The plants of rrotapis pallida continue to
•tbrif e, but have not yet fiowared.
Tbe foriber experience gamed during the year In tbe process of
cropping clumps of bambwfi in tbe way recommeuded b> Mr. Boutledge
<has confirmed Dr. King in tbe opinion previously formed, of tbe
•uosnitahllity of tbe plan originally proposed by Ur. Boutledge. Mr.
•Boutledge^ bowever, is understood to have changed his plan, and to
‘base recommended that Iflitead of catling down nil the shoots of a
Uiamboo clump, only a few shoots staonid be aannally taken from
wach oinmp. Dr. King says that this Is tbb principle on which
bamboos bnve been nui in India from time immemorial, and that no
expetrlmsiiti ob its fenilbiUty are required. The value of the fibre
contained in tbe enooulent Shoots of bsmboo as a material for the
manniaoture of paper, can only be tested by practical paper-makers.
Bven aoeepting Mr. Itootiedge'S estimate of its valne; tbe qaestions
which Dr, King seyi should bo settled etc, whether oommerolal saooess
can be obtained (I) hy forming plantations of bamboos for the collec¬
tion of suocnlentshoots ; (2) by ootteoting the immature shoots of wild
bamboos in tbe forests, and carrying them to a paper factory, oi (3)
by fitting tip a floating paper-stock mill and moving it about on rivers
*by tbs banks of which bamboos naiurally abound.
The cannot be grown in this country so as to be a suuroe of
paper fibre, The samples of wiry grasses off tbe Crista coast which
Dr. .King sent to the .India Office, have been unfavourably reported
on by the .papeMnaJ^m lip‘Dobdon, to whom they were submitted for
opinion. Df, King does not seem to have yet examined tbe grass
*wbiob grows on tbs banks of tbe Adjaf and Damoodah, as was
•suggested to him in ibe Qovernment Besolutlons on bis reports for the
itwo previous years. As he is making further iDvestigations on the
eubleOt, Ibo Lleatenant-Oovemor will be glad to bear the result of
his inquiry Into the cnpabllity of tbe above grass to produce a paper-
fibre,
The interchange of plants and seeds has gone on steadily. The
thanks of Ooveimment doe are to Bir Joseph Hooker, of the Boyal
Carden. Kew, to tbe Dlieetors of tbe Cardens in Get loo, Mauritius,
and Anstraiiai ae well m to the Carden Colieotor, for the oonttibnlions
received front them during tbe year.
The thanks of CfoveromSot are also due to the getitlsmeu named io
parattapbllottheBwrtfor the large and valuable coUectioos of
dried plants presented by tbem to the Herbarium. ^
The brafiob Botanfeat Garden, which was established et Bungatoon
some yesn ngo has not been found a sneoess, bOiog prinoipalty to He
distatme iVom Datjeeliott a garden, has Iwtely been^ppsned at the
station of ]^}eelliig, whebe a suitable, plena presenteii
lor the. ^rpose by Air. W, l4ioyd,;anpldaud weIbknoVti rsstdent of
(he plami.^ This Ismd Is being, eleamd^^anili laid out under tbe
tnpefk^deaoial m Ja«ery^ab|qf thedlnohoan nantatbe-v
The tieiifefiant^dSbvetner onmives that it has nbt been the praeticn
bltbevtd in these Attnqal repbrui fo ' elate Ike egpondttore inenrved
daring Ike year ill maintaining the gardens, in fulnrs years a
ilateiHit iIkwW bn appended 111011111$ ike expendllnr# inearred In
tbe Calcutta and in the Xjiari^liog Oardena separately s alao iko
reosipts, if any. ‘ «
The Ueumnant-CoveranrihankhDr* King end bli itift fbf fkMf
useful lebours dating the year,
AanwioMloowuCii. sooiSity of inwa.
T HB usual MontM.i^ General MseUng wai held on Tbnrsday, Iko
2lst oT August 1872.
Baboo Pbabt Obabd Mhvba, in the ChtAt ,
The rroceedlngs of Ibe last meeting were read and bonjlimed-
Tbe fellowing gentlemen were elected membare^
Bajeh Muttobar Blog, Messrs. 0. F» Worsley, Thomas AndariOll*
0. B. Brookes, and B, D, M. Hooper.
The names 0 ! tbs following gentlemen were submitted fbr member*
ship j—
Tbe District Bngiaesr, Mosofferpor8,*<-proposed by the SeoreUryi
seconded by Dr. 8. Lyttcb.
F. D. Helsb, Biq., Manager, Bamoo Tea Estate, Chittagong,^proposed
by Mr. H. W. Barber, secondsd by tbe Seonetary.
Coomar Jnggul Sing of Ksiblpore, N.-W, P„—proposed by tbe
Secretary, seconded by Baboo P. C. itlMm,
Arthur O.Bhowers. Bsq., Noakaobsrra, Upper Assam, -•proposed by
Mr. St. O. A. Showers, seconded by tbe Secretary,
Dr. Vincent Biobi^nis, Ocatando,—proposed by the Secretary
seconded by Mr. J, S>. McLaohian,
Maharajah Coomar Hnrrendra Klshora Sing Bahadur,
Bettieh, Tirboot, atid Bajab Bam Button ChuckerbuUy, Hetampore.
COMTBIBUTXOHB.
An assortment of seeds of forest trees from the Andamsnf,—from
!£. IJ, Mill, Bsq,
A smatl collection of seeds from the Acclimatisation Booiety of
Queensland,—from L. A. Bemays, Esq., V.P,
Tbe following is extract of letter from Mr. Bernays respecting tbele
seeds j—
** Herewith 1 send you two paokegei of seeds, vie,, one oonlainiug
Emephadaete* mi^wdU and eellifk^, one of the most beautUui
of this beautifni lamUy. and AvieerinU effioinalis. This last is the wkila
mangrove which you may have. If not, however, 1 may say of ft that
though a tree ot littoral habit, it U capable of boiqg handsomely grodm
away from the tea. The second package conialtts AwatyjftvM rider.
ephUui^ and E, Jiarleyana. The first is ibe iron bark, the second a
newly diaoovered species of Inst year, found on dry ridges.’*
A smali packet of seed of ^UAtU» aynatiea, or wild rice ot North
America, described as splendid fodder grass lor swamps in Upper
India,—from Baron F, von Moeller,
A bag of Egyptian cotton seed,—from J. 0. Okapman, Baq., of
Alexandria. Available to members.
A sinaU oolleoiion of seeds ot os^ul trees from the Boyal Botafiio
Garden, Oaioutta,—from tbp SoperioteDdeni,
A ooiieotion ot Orchids and Ferns from Bylhet,—from 0. Kv Hudsoo.
Esq.
Oabdbh.
The Head Gardener’s monthly import was read as follows: —
••Weather seaaotiabio, but raiiifati rather di'fiolent ; work progressing
favourably in all direciJons. Layers, gooties, grafts, nearly finished.
Peaches yet remain io be Inarched, but our paucity of malees causae
the work to go nu but slowly. Of contrihutfous we have received e^s
of palms. oycMds, pendauns, k% from Mr. E. H. Man, of Port Blair, The
seeds from Queensland unfortunalely diod, Gloxiuia, Begoola, &o.,
from Sutton and Sous duly sown. Yaloable palm seeda from Mauvitiu
Botan 10 Garden. A!s<> a seleoitoQ of various trees, iuolmllng Birehefia
jevamoa from the U tyal Botanic Gatdeas, Howrah, The outlay in the
gardens daring the past month has beeu somewhat over tbe averege,
hut is fully compensated tor by (be extra cleanly state of tbe gardsn s
bowever I think we can reduce tbe establishment next month wUb
safety. 1 herewith forward a fiuwer of Hi&irsNs msa*finsfi#ii eoUerh
for laapeotiou. Wo have also received from Mr. Bull of Obelseo, two
cases of plants, which Inoludes a nice ootlecHon of Crotons, Dracaenas,
Dieffenbachias, Sco .; three plants only died out of a oonsfgiiment of 120
plants. They were sent Io Bull's Patent Oases, which seem to be very
suitable when combiued With careful packing. We have received •
uolleotion of Cryptograms and Orchids from Mr. Hudson of Bylhet,
Further and similar donations of such would be useful for distribution
and for specimens."
SiMatfABA Not.
In his letter advising despateb of the seeds above noted, Mr, Bernait,
Vtoo-Brosldent ot the QuM|Mlaod Aoclimetlsatfon Society, aUndes tn Ibe
particulars given in (be 14 k published number of this 8wlety*i Jooroal
regarding tbe Smghara nnt., He writes as follows :—** 1 with aUo (o
refer to Captain Pogson's notes on the Biogbara nut, because we have
sacceeded well In ifr^wiiig tfia species of fveym known a« T, Hoemie,
but have met with a difficulty in harvesting tbe crop. It appears to
u« to be an anof al plant, and seems to disappear, and tbe nuts to elnk
io the botiom before they are fit for gatberiog. There is, 1 think, an
importani future foi^ ibe;2*ru^<if In Australia, and we therefore want all
tbe iofoimatlnn posalbih about them. Caw you resolve my diflioalty, and
further aayi if Captain Pbgson proposes to aow^bis crops ann^Uy on
the wateri ec tApeets them to re-appear from sunkeo nuts f We nave not
got Ibe epepius known as Trapa bUpimsa^ hut should much ilka to hive
It." Tba BiKiretaty mentioned he had eeminuoicated with Captain Pogioa
on tbaiAbiaet.
sem »|a 06 b/Ut,m^h Law. tli«o o* LibXaSS?
MrIiij PlOllVttlA. 3Tj. filttMnnlM In
qa^ioD tonwM M enlr vkiMj davekiptd H»mwBiKMteiiS
t»,J>#tonr Kill iitB»w«n Parks, qatu oDiSted torthem WIiHa iS.
KSnM2X» "” “&•“'iSS a
^r«ol«4 to lb« leoreh for it b/ th« Jate J)f. Liodiev, bat I wm
Mn lookittg for it In tho'sirolt*. when .nit l #oniid^t?« J
OhlttMO gwdeo. Zaitoid of tbe oeuM iboote at the base of the fral? It
bjiMmJlpNwpplteofoboutei* oance. in weight oLf wK
crown, and aa (hero area great many m them, and themain^nift i/
; “^*‘^“**^»>agniaoe“?on
Applioatwhb ffoa Sabd oi* Pitabcolobium SamaB,
^jotatary meniloned Jhat he bad recently bad namerooe BDDli-
oatjoof from membare and olhefi (rota ratioue parte of (ho conntrr
i**** o*ttle*foddor-yialding tree, the &uanqo of Jamaloa^
® met‘b«w ottly partially, in oonerquoooe of aU
Tobaooo pbom Oooca Behab.
Read a leUor from Mesare, Olilauders. ArbuihnotfcOo.,enbt»IUiaa
for «*port and valoation some tobaooo grown and outed in Ooooh Behar
under the supenutendenoe of an eapert from Manilla, on which
Ihoeeri. Anderaoo, Wright & Oo. bad kindly made the following
remarks®
» We are In receipt of your favour of date, end havo oarefullv
Inspected the muateca of tobacco. These se^ru w^li cMirod and show a
hue rich leaf, but aa wa have eo often bari to point out when referrinir
to snob ronstere, there is no market for tUie style o( leaf. If the
expert who has prepared the tobacco can traneforiu the ieof imo
cigars that can he smoked, he will ftud a large consuniption for them,
bqt no one wants Indian loaf tobacco of this utamj). Baglish manu¬
facturers will not lake a present of U, as it won’t carry enough of
water, and ooutlnoatal buyers are just as well pleased with ordinary
natiee y/ooZa.” '
Letters were sabmltted—
From E, Buck, Esq,, reqaesUog, on behalf of a oorrospondent
partloutars in respect to the onitiyation of (be pineapple lu Philibeet
(Compiled with).
From the Sopenatondont of the Benares Jail, a sketch of the '* Benares
Jail Ploagh," with directions for its use, |
From the beeretary, Dtiparlmeut of Agriculture, Melbourne, retaru- i
ing thanks for a copy of the Inst published number of (he Joornal, voi, I
VJ., part L
From the Agent, E. 1. Railway, regrote he is unable to sauetiou the
free carriage of trees, &c., required to line pabllc toads at various
otatioos ou the line of Railway, !
ISDUN WlIBAT, j
Referring to (he blue-book recently published, cootnining a full |
**<^port by Dr. Forbes Watsou on ludian Wheat, the Secretary drew
(he atieutiou of the meeting to the s'eps taken by this boeialy.
many years ago (1813), regardlug this important staple, as shown !
in the volamiuoiH oerrsApondence and papers connecteil with the ! !
oaUivatioQ and produoUou of wheat in India us published lo Us ^
journal, vot. 111., old series. Ala> to the petitions sabseqneutly presented >'
to both Qouses of Parliamoni on the justice and expedienny of allow- t
iog the admission, into the poets of Great Britain, of wheat from this
country, on the same termb as had theu been conceded to wheat from i
Canada. The wheatof the Paujub was not then taken into coneidor-
aUon,botU was shown what hue varieties were raised in certain parts
of Xodia—espeoiilly the Central Proviaee8.--and that the establish- {
meot of an export trade from India lo oorn was even ihen ptegaanfj^' o
with advantages to the country, notwiihstanding the dithcultiei which n
then existed, but m< l of which have since been i amoved by the forma- IS
tionof railroads anu i ore rapid steam oommanicalion with Europe.
DfimOrMr N'T OF TITS WZLD SlLlC iNOUSTBY OP
INPZA. Q
The subject which next came under oonsidcration had reference to the
Wild silk induBlry of India, as embcHlIed In the supplement to the ^
Gazette of India of 2ud August. The Bcotciary called to the notice of
the meeting the (act that, as ui the case of wheat, the improvement of b<
the wild silks of India—Tussur, Erla, Mo<mgaU, and O^ert,—had
engaged the alteubion otthis Booloiy ai v.«rtoQS times for the' past forty ^
yean, as a rafarAnaR to itu Iranaaotintia ami intirnA.! wnMiM b
vt «iu« otm wviiu nuu iiue ul im Vila. KteariJ everj VOlUmO
Ih'omthat time, till reoemly, oontains nouees ou the wild silk worms
of India, ioolodlng several able papers by the leto Captain Thomas
Hatton of Mussoorre. The trials now making by Mr. Wardfo Md others
in the same direution are very.eucouraging towards iho dekilopuent of
an iodHstry which wDlprobably ere long become s ^'cat'tfflportincei
The Bacrolary placed on the table several Rowers of double Balsam of
many oulors, some very brilliant; raised in hit garden £|o|il iha Importsd
' ‘ diatributed (o n umvers at the eommenoe*
their faliare, after years of hs^f•
s la tiH) maaaw difltait b, the l£t«4 CaSiiiar
.1 p^tolag a at S^OOO gailto.
w duap nmeb, (ba IWw la a alaaa aai «li«a epAatto.;^^' feat fmfe
^ gnam, aai wo»a, aoniUtaaat part*,
1 , •• WotaltlMtoaaiM nnj tttoH, th«y oodM utMt it*' 6bj««
la Tie-. Tbey^ald tadeed epprsiah I. b, MaMplag agg
a loag time tbe fibre eepttaled h, aiaeblntry, bat »Itb aa (M to ika
>t “iVu •* ‘®» ®«oh bead laboar we* reaaind. to aliMt ibl* uatiaa
j ^tbepreperetou brmMhieer,, a iieelTteile* »t •Sertwal***^
. I” "BOeeee'/-bieb Meitateot tbeif fioanee* did Mt Mam at ]{»b
t ^emloaily they could not sneceed In removing from the hark fho Ylmld
r .Titfit?."•" 4Z toihi rtiSStb
* ..r ?* P"'*'**“>*^0 tWt the separation
of Uhre from dried rameh Is easier and more proatabte than tha^
from the green rameh plant. Thu only objections to tha drV iaiSlf
are that the resuKing Rbres are not eompletely white and that
- drying would be required during the greVr portion of the ywr®bJt
r European manafacturers do not oonslder the former of mneh oiiito.
quence, end thocost ofjbc latter is trifling because the woody DorUoas
' v”*®***?®” ** <«»ds being i/XauaSi
' y*** **i?i*'*j?i*'Moorrees invite the aid of the i^oantile com-
, moniiy to enable them to aUer their rameh mills for the dra teatCi
of preparatjjiu. Aocompatiying the circular are samples of rameb so
prepared. These showed oonduslvely that (be dry method Is (he onlv
mzt by which a praotjcal result could be obtained. ® ^
TaaOld Gt^rk Oak at Fulham Palace is believed to be
cue of the oldest, ea it undoubtedly is one of ilie finest
oork oak trees in the country. The flardnsr’s C’Aro/wfo in
giving ou excellent illustration of this unique old tree thus
desciibes itThe tree has passed its prime, having been planted
at Pullum, probably by Bishop Compton, more than 200 veara
feiiioc. At breast height tho tree girths about ten feet. It is a fine
specimen, but needs the support of ivyolad props. From the
accrue uumeroiisseodliuga ha VO been raised. The oork oak (O
mhr) is a native of Southern Europe apd Northern Africa, WhS
tbo iroo i.s about fifteen years old, its bark is removed by inol-
siotis ill BucU a maiiucr that no injury is doue to the tiee. ^ After
eight or nine years the pioccas can bo repeated. The outermost
laynis form the ‘malo oork,’ which ia of littio value, except in the
form of ‘ virgiu cork’. After their removal now oorfcy layers are
fonnad in the denuded bark, wiiioh constitute the female cork
I or cork of coiumoroe. TJie tree at Pal ham stands In the angle
betwoeii the palace and lUe newly erected chapel, on tlio walls of
which latter ivies of various kinds are placed, some of which have
made extraordinary giowth, ospooially the silver ivy/’—JoumaZ
of Fomtiy. _
Tub Smveyor-Qenoral of Natal reports that a tree of Eucalypim
ffkhulus, twenty-live years old, was recently cut down in that
colony (the species was introduced into the South African colonies
many years ago) which yielded 700 cubic feet of timber, and realigad
nearly £20 for fuel. Ho adds that clumps of Eucalyptus planted
in undrainod swamp lauds, at various clevatioos up to 4,000 feet
have been found to completely dry the space within reach of their
roots. The growth of tiinher m these situations is computed at
lAvolve tons per acre per annum, while tho annual groskth of Hi«
/ogetatiou which it superseded did not exceed 4 ton per acre.—
i7tti’d(bi3r’8 Magazine, __
TiiB Secretary of Stats has had his attention directed (o the
tecuhar propartlfls of the Sretimim gafacteiUndren or** Qovt itaa”
of Vflucaaala, which tt is thought may bo iotrodooed with advantage
into India. A supply of the seed of the trea has been obtain^ fr^
South VtaSrioa aud forwarded to India for experimental parposee*
OoLOirttjCi R. A. Moobb, Acting Ocnnttilisaryi.Qoueraf, reports to
Qoveroment that on receipt of instructioos to cultivate Borgkim
saeoharaHm at Hoonsur, an estimate was drawn op forolearlug
a pteOH of land and purohaeing the necessary impfemenls; but
this estimate was not sanctioned by Qovernment, and an alternative
scheme which bad been cnggeited of growing the sorghum at the
experimental (arm at Bangalore, tinder the lUperluteudanoe of Mr
Dameron, was adopted instead, floon after this It was determiaed to'
break ap the experimental farih at Bangalore, and the Ohief Oom-
missloaer of Mysore Intimated (hat In eouseqaenou the experlmeutat
oaltlratton of BerghAm taceharatum ooetd not be carried on at
Bangalore. Ooionet A, Drury, Agent for Remounts, reports that no
further experiments in (he daltivatton of sorgho, has beeniriad at
Oosioor. He^ adds t am, bowevor, convinesd tlial it will ifot
sueotod exoept Itt the rainy leosou^ or with irtigation, and that the land
auder Irrigation |u the depot farm oan be turned to more profit in
onliivatlue Lnoefne and other ttraiies.'«aeh aa daliiaa omiaR «Lni4 .rfe.&
MAea masi wiuco i omiamea ixom vaumtta; and am nnoiioec
think it will give a better return of greetfforagp Mum toe (mho to
dry leasou, as it does not re^olre the aaoie ampniii* of irriiatma.**
^ ikbiitl'l^ tiie tbem-
fltilm lbi^«r» puS to In Ohluft^ ao a maotiro, and imi a
|)0tijipi>;j^^tfio f hidk wori» otioli Mtrtietion to Uio tea-^loot
1?hOCld04uxiooitat6 tl}9 only tomedy
ot m^ir» for ^10
k Htw mo fbr whiskey I Planters sbonld note that oomspondents
ot the Oardmer'a Chrmkh have been aoknowledging the utility
of wbisky as an inseottclde. One of them, whoso grape^viues
had boon attaoked by mealy-bugi says, Being uowilling to spoil
the grsipes l|y ne|Dg any of the insecticides warranted to kill bug,
it oocarred to me that a dose of strong Scotch whisky might have
the desired effect without injuring the gravies further than ^oiling
the bloom ; and £ am glad to say that X found it most effectual,
worked in among the berries with a brush made of a few feathers.
It kills the vermin ai once.*' l!be two objeotioiis to the use of
Scotch whisky will occur to our readers at ono6,-*th6 expense,
and the great danger of the liquor finding its way down the
throats of those entrusted with its application to the trees.
Fbou a recent report of the Madras Agri-Hortloultural Society,
we see that the aoolimatiaation of the Persian date palm continues
to engage attention, and information on this question is anxiously
awaited. Utilising the cactus as a protector op saplings, has formed
the subject of some letters between the Deputy Conservator of
Forests and Mr. Thomas, the Acting Second Member of the
Board of Revenue; the opinion of the loriner offioiat being
adverse to the proposal of sowing seeds of quiok-growing fire>
wood and timber trees amongst cactus enclosures. ^ Mango and
lUupu seed ho believes will prove a failure under the experi¬
ment, but rooomraends thickets of vahm as more promising. Tlia
dwarf variety of wild !date is, he further thinks, a valuable aid to
tree conservancy, and he has, under this oonvicliou, gonevally
scattered seeds among them, when they happened to be close to
villages, and when the formation of village firewood tracks was
necessary. The success of tho experiment, the Deputy Conservator
tells 118 , was a strong argument in favour ot Mir. Thomas* plan.
The Horticulture Society's Committee seem to bo alive to the value
of the common acacia in its gum and bark capbililies : the seed
pods of the tree are not overlooked as an auxiliary food to sheep
and goats. _
Ws are glad tohea^ that the Carob tree QCeratonia Siliqm) in
which the Forest Conservator of tho Punjab takes so deep an
interest, is thriving in the Ajuioro districl. Brackish water should
not be applied to ii.-^Delhi Gazette,
The Secretary of State has had liis attention directed to the
peculiar properties of the Brosiinutn Galactoduiidioii*’ or Cow
Tree*'of Venezuela which it is thought may be introduced with
advantage into India. A supply of tho seed of tne tree has been
obtained from South America and forwarded to ludia for ozpeii-
lueutal purposes.—
Tee wheat grain is a fruit consisting of a seed and its cover¬
ings. All tho middle part of the grain is occupied by large, thin
cells, full of a powdery substance, which contaius iiouily all the
starch of the wheat Outside tho oontrai starchy luass is a single
row of squarish eetls, filled with a yellowish material, very liuh in
nitrogenous, that is, fiesh-formiug matter. Beyond this again
there are six thin ooa(B or coverings, containing much minural
matter, both of potash and phosphates. The outermost coat is of
but little value. The mill products of these coverings of five seed
are peculiarly rich iu nutriment, aud fine flour is robbed of a large
percentage of valuable and nutritious food. Middlings not only
contain more fibrin aud mineral matter than fine ilonr, but aUo
more fat. The fibrous matter, or outer coat, which is indigestible,
forma one-sixth of the bran, but not oue-liundredtb of tlie fine
flour. Wheat contains the greatest quantity of gluten aud the
smallest of starch ; rye, a niedmrai proportiou of both, while in
barley, oats, and corn the largest proportion of efcarch and the '
smallest of gluten are to be found. In practice 100 pounds of flour
will make from 183 to 137 pounds ot bread, a good average being
pounds ; hence a barrel of 190 pounds shoidd yield 200 one-
pound leaves.
Teb Canadian Government is inaugnrating a new policy in
regard to the Indians of the North-West. Fourteen schools of
farming are to be established there for tho purpose of instructing
the Red Man in agricultural pursuits, aud duly qualified persons
me already appointed to carry out the sobemo. Whatever the
nomadio Cree, SiouX, and Blaokfeot may prove to be os tdlers of
the soil, it is certain that they are admirably qualified to len * and
raise stock, and the rapid disappearauoe of the hufiato makes an
attempt of the kind desirable if not imperative*
An inquest was held by the Idverpool Coronet last week op the
body of u joiner, named John M’George, aged 09. Ihe
was tojthe effect that the deceased baa «l ms life been a healthy
and lemperate min, and that on Bouday night ho wont to bed af«
usual after hie tea,<>t%hfc)i he had taken a Rttl^ London lettuce;
On Monday momihWJbo tqpi^ed to be suffering ffom a eevere
bilione attack, imdhmked fO^dro at 9 o*oioek he appOeted
to be in a fit, and be died same afternoon.
examination pointed to the mOluslon that death wao P^hiarUy
the result of a^pplexy, whien was induced by the
opium containod iu the lettnoei and which would he dangerous to
an elderly person. The jury ^und that death had reaufted from
poison, but wb ether or not it was contained in the lettuce there
was not suffl cient evidenoeto show.
Of the Colorado beetle it might perhaps be said that, like another
aerial potentate, its^aots have not proved quite so bad as its reputa¬
tion. At all events, it has not exterminated the potato plant in
Auiortos, as the farmers feared ; and it has been kept under with¬
out the use of tho effective, if cirouitoua method of squeezing
between deal boards, recommended by the iugentous Oauadlau.
The insects now ravaging tho grain crops iu Rasteru Europe have
been ascertained to belong to the Oleonidm, a family of the weevils,
one species of which is so destmetivo to oom in granaries. They,
however, are more misobievous in tho grub stage then in their
perfect state, although some of tliem feed upon cereal products in
both. Those iu question, if mature, are probably not easily poisoned
by Paris green, aud too numerous aud too minute to bo reached
by the other appliances which have proved so successful in tho
case of their American congener. The swarms are immensely large,
and the people of tho province of Odessa believe that they aro
iucessautly thrown up by the sea, aud then rapidly spread lliem-
selvos over the fields, devouring everything before them. That
of course, is nonsense ; but they may be blown into the sea on
their way from the valley of the Danube, or some other place
whence they have been driven, perhaps, by the loug-oontiiiued
rains. Wherever they halt from they seem to be spreading, doubt¬
less by tho arrival oC fresh detoohinonta, for beetles, unlike aphides,
undergo a regular series of transformations.
GARDEN.
PBUIT IN CALIFORNIA.
I T makes one's mouth water to read the following;—* Wo are iu
receipt of two more cargoes of oranges from Tahiti, per Oretf-
hoittid and Caroline Medan, Here wo have 480,000 oranges thrown
upon a market already glutted with the same fruit of home product,
and selling, if at all, at very low figures. Apples (Red Afttrachau
and other early kiiidH), are now very plentiful aud cheap, tho same
boitig taken freely hy jolly-makers and bakers. Peaches of good
quality are becoming quite plentiful. Our market seotns to be flooded
with tho choicest of fruits and vegetables. Apricots are very
plentiful and cheap, and canners havo now commenoed upon them.
Cherries are very abundant, choice varieties selling cheaper than
ever befoio, enabling our local canners to put up a very much larger
quantity than heretofore, at tho prospect of having a largo surplua
of this fruit for the English market. Bcirios aro quite plentiful,
save strawberrips, the second crop of which does not come up to
expoctatioiiM. lUipborries are plentiful and cheap. Blackberries
proniiHO a lull crop yield. OiUTants are iu ^ood present supply,
but the crop is said to be a light one, pears, plum, green coriiH,
gouBeberriee, ciicuinbers, tomatoes, dec., can now be had iu quanti¬
ties.
The giape crop ia exceedingly promising, and wo will soon have
a pleiitiriil supply. Potatoes ol choice new ctop are a drug upon
thu market, ami the boat of them do not pay for marketing. Green
peas, asparagus, string beans, summer squash, okra, dbc., aro now
abuiidant aud cheap. Lemons and limes are in fair supply. Iu
fact there seems to bo a great abundance of everything this year,
and this will, perhaps, in a measure account for the general good
health everywhoio prevailing throughout} the State.’—Saa
*FranQiiCo Market Uevkw,
NATURAL IlfSTOUY NOTES PROM BURMAH.
The Z)(M'ean.—Tho Dorian is a largo capsular frnit with four
or five looulameul i, each contatning one sood which is covered
with a layer of pulp, the part eaten. The rind, as well as tUo
seeds, omits a strong odour of sulphide of methyl.
Dorian caterg say that tho excellency of the fruit consists in tho
succession of exquisite flavours experiencod in eating it. From
my owu experiments £ holievo this to be due to a reaction of the
nerves of taste, rmalogous to that of the retina, which causes the
images of objects to appear iu their ;complomoutary colours wiieu
the eye is saddenly shut.
• B. BOMAMS,
Govemmont High School, Bungocm,
FORESTRY.
W B itflire f^v'eral rapor^ oC fpmt o^ratlou fot' tiio
year ld77-7d| fmm wUioh some pro^teble i0formaf^<m may
be gleaned* Tbet lor the Horth-Weatem Prerinces and Ondh tells
na that the drta of reserved forests is now 3^473 square miles. In
the diatriot of Bebra Boon there is an area enolosed amonntiofr
to 563 sqnare miles, o£ which 449 are on the sub-range of the
Sewaliok Bills. The entire district is only 677* square miles in
extent, oonsequently 83 per cent, is under forOlit control. This is a
very heavy proportion, and ita effect has been to throw a large part
of the tinreserved land into the hands of monied natives, who will
only sell at fabutoua prices. A large part of this reserved laud is
■uitablo for tea, and it is a pity that this industry should be
checked in a locality where labour is so plentiful and cheap. Twelve
years ago purchases of tea land were made at Be. 54 per nerc,
and some' of the tea Gompaiiies now value their epare land at
lie. 130 per acre.
-.—
In the Coulrnl Provinces the reserve amounts to 2,548 square
milt's. In ail those reports, as in those of the oxperimontal and
model farms, great stress is laid on the principle of their paying.
This should be entirely a secondary consideration. Tho object a-s
wo take it, of these reserved forests, and of the oxistonce at all of
the Forest Department is to preserve such forosts as we have, and
to iucrejtee them if possible, and it does not follow that such a
scheme should pay now, it is expected to pay In an indirect manner
in after years, and we are just afraid that tho efforts made by
Conservators to please Qovernnient by presenting a favorable annual
balance shoot, may be prejndicing the future good sought to bo
derived from the labours of the department.
Tils report of the woik in the Ilydeiabad Assigned Districts tolls
us that the reserved forest area is 1,402 square miles. Sundry
experiments have been tried with new trees, tho department having
been sucoeaeful with the Eucalyptm ro^traia, Tho carob and
several species of the pine were also tried. Tho former was a
failure, and tim latter are apparently too young to report on, wo
should think that the climate of those districts was U< j hot for the
pine which flourishes best in colder regione.
Tuk area of reserve in Mysore is 442 square miles. The un¬
reserved forest bas not been surveyed, and no approximate guess is
made at its extent. Considerable attention is being bestowed
on tbe protection of those reserved forests from accidental or
incendiary fire, which soems to be a muob needed precaution.
The nett profits on the year's working seem to liavo amomited
to lis. 2,04,575, and the bulk of sales were of sandalwood.
Tot 0.o 4« ioitwt oi ij»
, ia tho Fot'est pi
This treoiha <t|lo m
India, besides proving
fot making dbors and wlMbwa, m . oo«Uy
. s3I, and is aa safe frpm tho aU|oJw tnoopibs, fi’ojna Jatgo
quantity of turpentine in it. TOs^fprdOt' Oxtegds to abetUi 89 #o^oi,
and is almost covered wiUi fffst olftOi Bmbexv tq.othor poiifoqSi as
the Deota range, there ate Deodat forests oxtexid{agio 40s(faatQ >
milca, but tho trees there are of various agech
In addition to the several distriot reports, the Oovorument of
India have issued a general review of the work dons by tbs depart-
meni, for whioh wo cuU a few partioulam. Tho msrved folhsst
amounts to 18,113 square miles, as against 17,835 in tho provibus
year, but we have no information as to tbe extent of tbs Unreserved
forests, cousequontly we do not know the total extent of forest
in the oonntry. This is doubtless being ascertained by means
of forest surveys. The Qaaucial resaUe, which are coOsideted as
not unfavorable ” show a total expenditure of Ks. 32,00,175, while
the revenue is Ks. 55,7G,14t, profit Us. 23,75,966. As we have
repeatedly said the hnaiiciai I'OsuUs of these soUemos should always
bo considered as qiiito of Hooondary importanco. The objects of the
depurtnieui are not commoroial, and if the eporatiou carried on
for the improvement of forest conservancy result in a profit, so
much the bettor, but this profit shoutd qot be looked for nor insisted
oil. ^ .
BBED-TIMB.
I ^
T he Law of Continuity in Nature is mdt$99 reproducllon. An
acorn .falls to the ground, germinates, and an oak is the result.
The tree withers and decays, but not before other acorns arc depo-
fl'ted, ultimatelv to grow into trees. There is thus continual cliango,
but never anniiiilatioii. Nature strictly preservea the law of con¬
tinuity. She must liavo everything in season. In the law of
continuity, Nature indioatea aeod-iiiue and harvest. Man, it is
true, may entertain notions on tho subject of seed-time ex-
podient enough, but none the less erroneous. Nature’s law of
continuity is infiilhble, and the cultivator ought always to bo
guided by this rule, when ho will find that the correct time foi
sowing Is just when Nature has perfected the seed and prepared it
for tho soil.
Ballinncourte. D. SYM SOOTl’.
In the Journal of For entry,
A MONSTER LOG.
R ecent issue «£ the Ulmmlppi Lumbornim says :-^Oa
Saturday last a log was cut at Hitchcock and Ingram's now
mill by the upright that was without a doubt about as iaige
as they make. It scaled 1,800 feet, and was moaaurod by Mr.
Toe Ooorg Heport is smallot than the others, and is all tho bettei
for tbat, we imagine too much time and money are expended on
these reports, which aie, some of them, of great bulk, that .if the
N.-VV. P.) extending to 145 pages foolscap* Doubtless they are useful
in disseminating useful information, but all this might bedoue much
more economically and m fewer words. Tlio area of reserve is 295
square miles, that of unreserved being as yet unmeasured. Tho
Conservator reports with apparent pleasure, the demand which
exists for timber, we should have thought that there was always a
pri./y lair domaud, and that tho Oeucienoy existed more in tho
supply. Tho income for all soiiices was Us. 1,01,015, and the
amouut expended Us. 3C,2G7, which sum does not include the
Conservator’s salary or tiavolhng allowaiioe. Out of this all that
was expended ou now planlaliMus was tbe iiisignlficaut sum of
Us. 1,050. _
Tub Ajmere Forest Report dooa not point to much good being
done. Tho rosorvoil area ia 100 square miles, tho income Ra. .3,002,
and the expenditnio Ua, 14,926, more than half of which latter
sum is made up of salaries and allowances. Under three thousand
rupees were siwiit on plantations, nud wo i eally do not see muolj^
that was done, save rMing grass and firewood, fining trcBpossors,
aud grantingi^wrw>a»£i8 ’’or grazing.
A OAnEFUL perusal of tiiOHe forest reports, leads to the conviotion
that more tune and labor are spent in ondoavoors to make the
department pay won*, tUau aie with the view of tho country benefit¬
ing ultimately by Ibe care wbicU siiould bo bestowed on growing
timber, and the atlcntion which ought to be given to the important
woik of exteudiMg the forests in all direotious. This Utter is
iiegieoted simply because it would entail expense mid bring no
income for sometime. _
Tbe graxing of cattle is a mistake. Tho Ajmere Report tells ua
that the sum o£ Us. 6M was realised from ihissouice, but who can
tell us of tUo amount of damage tbeso animals did to tke young
))lantatioiM.
I Ilitcbcock across tlio end and found to be live feet and nine
inohos, and twelve feel long. It came with a laft of logs for John
MoQraw & Co., but it SHeim that when they got this one in thwir
big mill, they hud a bigger ihiiig in tho shape of a saw log iliaii
they could handle, aud they run it back into the river, where it
iiiially toiind Us way to Hitchcock and Ingram’s mi 11^ and after
considerable work was got inside, and finally converted into four
inch plank, futii of wliich wore three feet and eight inches wide
aud twelve feet lung, without a knot or fiaw ia them.
A BURIED FOREST,
A n iiiteroRiing geological discovery has been lately annonuced,
which was made by Dr. Moesta, the Geological Director
oL Marburg, in tbe course of some extensive explorations in
tlu iioighbouvliood of Rotenburg on the Fulda, in Hesse
Oatsel. I'rom his invostigutiuuH Dr. Moesta has cnine to the
coucUisiou that an oak wood lies buried in that portion of tho
valluy ot the Fulda, at about a depth of from six to nine foot
bolo ^ * he surface. This wood flourished at a very remote period
of the earth’s existence. Explorations carried ou in tbe bed of the
Fulda have brought to light sevoral of tlie trees. It is estimated
that between 1200 and .300 trees aro embedded in the river-bed
between Horsfcld aud Melsungeu (aboutfiOmiles), which would
warrant the expectation that at least ten times that number aro
to be found in tbe soil of ibo adjoining valley. The greater
number of the trees dtecoveied were iu good preservation.; but
owing to the action of the water IhTougltunnuuibered ages they have
become tlioroughly black m colour. They have alec become very
hard and close, so that they would be excellent material for
carving and ornamental cabinet-work. Some of the trees are of
groat size ; one taken out of a gravelly poniou of blie bed opposite
tho village of Baumbacb, and Hince sent to the Geological Museum
at Bariin was &9ft, long, nearly 5ft. in diameter near the root, and
about 38in. at tUutop, so Hint its solid contents are about 830 cMci
feet. Evonlarger specimens liavo been fouinl. ft is reported that
tke fiitixigs of the Geological Musehua at Marhiurilf ora
!C|Q(K»g*P9CtO{M
a« tho^ bu^{«i oiik» a tpeaiaa still
#(ms ? Wo»r^
' V^^tUEPOBBSTS OFFIMLAEJ)*
r\(Mtlh PBBUi ftiics tbst the produQSOt tbeforsstsia Finland
^ supplies iiBors ibaa ons-balf oC the total export ot the ooTiQtry« it
is therefotfi appsrottt ot what infinite importance the proper btiahand-
log ot them most he to the wettare of the Grand Duohf* It Is estimated
that 61 per oont. of the total snpeifietal area of the country or, in other
wordB» fil3,73fi square kilottfa> are ooTored with timber; nnfortanarely,
however^ these %orfnoaa resonrces have tneoh deteriorated duriug the
last fifty years. 1'he system of setting fire to the trees, in order to oloar
the ground, is eUll praotisedi in tnany disttiota of the country on a largo
Bcala, and the oonfiugrations thus originatiug aometimee aisume great
proportions; new laws and regulations, hotvever, lately put in force,
have contributed la some measure to modify the evil. Another oauea
of ruin to the forests is the system of buruitig the pine trees to Obtaiu
tar, and the third cause lathe anonaideBtructiou of millions of young
trees hewn down for the purpose of mahiug palisades round the build¬
ings and fields.
According to the report of a oommisBlou lately appointed to make an
approximate ealeulatiou of the Government furcsls, it appears that no
less than 754,000,000 oublo feet of wood are actually absorbed >u
Finland annually, without taking into account the quantity consumed
in the town, nor that exported from the country. *it must, however,
he admitted that^this state of things has somewhat improved since (he
means of oommndioution have progressed, and {ho value of timber
advanced to a price which it never previously coramauded ; this lust-
mentioned ciroumstanoe has, however, unfortunately, been the moans
ot inducing the forest owners^ templed by the high prices, to dispose of
their property to the saw'mill proprietors, whose interest nahiruliy lies
111 taking out of the forests as muoh as possible, without respeot to the
age or size of the trees. This quoslion is at present engaging public
attention ns well as t6lt of the Government, and, doubtless, if it is not
discontinued, measures will be adopted to put a stop to this wholesale
deatiuotion of timber,
The researches lately instituted to ascertain the time nooessary for
development of trees in various parts of (he country show the following
results. In the aontli ot Finland, Cl-30 latitude, the pine forests in
good soil yield budding timber in GO yonra ; on middling soil, iii 80
years, and on indi^Eereut soil, in 100 years. To be suitaoie for vawing
purposes, the pine tree requires to at tarn Uie age of 100 to 110 years,
lu the oaiddie districts of Finland the growth of timber m twenty years
lunger under like oircurnstance*!. Iiastiy, In the northern districts the
pine trees require from 120 to 180 years to develop themselves so far as
to be servici-able (or biiTIding timber, aud 180 to 230 years before they
can be UHod for sawing purposes.
Notwithstnndmg the ouormous abuse of limber previously alluded to,
Fiiilacd is a country still rich in forests, fur which she has to thank, in
the brat instance, a must propitious climate, and a auu particularly
favourable io the growth of limber; and, iti (he S'^coud, to the
fact that tiiore than oiie>hnlf of tho suifaco of the toresis h the
property, aud under the control of the Crown, lu fuob the Crown
forcets, after dediiotuig the territory occupied by lake, oud uiornssos,
cover a superficial area of 131,600 pquaro kilometroH, the greater pai I
of which lies in tho northern districts of Iho coualry. Tho aduilmstta'
non of the forests is entrusted to a directorule, whose scat, is in
Helsingfors, and who has under its control eleven forcsl chiefs, and a
groat iiumboT of inidcp^ofUcials. It is not many years eitico tho cutting
of timber was accomplished by the paasauts, during the winter months,
by means of the hand-saw, and now we find largo saw mills, In veil by
both steam and water power, at the estuaries of all the great rivers,
and ut tho various waterfalls throughout the country. At preaent, tho
saw-mill proprietors prefer parchasiug their slock from private partnis
tiUbrr than from Government; but, douhtleH>«, this will soon oUntiKs,
since the Crown has determined (o spend a large amount of money m
clearing the water conrsea aroniid their forests, and in every way
improving the moans of transit and floating.— of ArU ,/inu'nal.
MINEllALOGY.
D UHING tbo year ceitniti investigations were made in Biitiph
Htirinah into tho subjoct of coal, which Ima lopoatodly been
found in the country, but. never of siiflioiontly good quality to
warrant the niiooial being worked, again some has been found
by a paity searching for polrolcuiii, the qaality is fair an it has
been tested on ttic railway, bub the situation precludes tho
working of it profitably. _
Tub petroleum trade is slowly moving on^ and very little more
will or can bo fiouo till Ibo price of the American article nsoa.
This latter is now so cheap tbi^b it is actually more prolitnblo
to import it than to woik the native avticlo.
IdMKbXuNB of vonsiderabio value has beou found in soviral
diatiioU IIS Kyotik-Fhyoo, Bassoni, TUuyetmyo, ami Amliprbt. An
attempt has been made to work the tui luincfl of Mainwoon,
but tho results have not been «uch as are likely to encourage
tmthor opcratiotis. ^ __
tkes OS said 1^^ found in four taluks of ibo Bangalore'district,
five tafuks of' Kokr> #ud one of Toomkoor distiict. Iron also
abounds in sight taluks of Heigar ditislon, as well as m the Mysore
district of the Ashtfigram ditriSon, The number of the wines la
officially recorded as over 20U» and furttaoos for tbs wandlgoturo
of the metal as over 1,300* aud average annual yield as over
35,0^ mannda. Two seers of gold are reported to have been
obtained in one year in the Betmangaia taluk of the Klolar district,
here the alluvial soil U washed for finding the article. Gold
dust is also occasionally found in the washiugs caused by
the moiisooii rains from the Hemagiri hills in the Hulyiudurga
taluk of the Nundidroog. The washers used to realize about
4 aunae per day.—l?anyo/ore Speckitm
v ■ ..
Oan Punjab contemporary says that another attempt to esiablisti
an iron industry is to be mado in Birmoor. The preliminary
accounts of tho oouoorn are most ilonrishing. It is aimouiicod
that the inagneiio ore may be found in large quanliiioe wUbiti a
very limited area. Specimens of it sent to Rug land for analysis
have been pronounced equal in quality to the best Swedish iron.
So tho Rngiish Superintendent of the Sinnoor Works escpecls to
manufacture about fifty tons a week. And we are told that
Government will be leady to buy quantities of the new article even
at prices above those which rule in the legular market. It is not
the first tiruo that ironworks have been started iu the Fun jab and
failed. Considering, too, iho iinmonse qnaulity of fuel that will
bo required at the works, it is difficult to see how tho eiitet prise
can bo cotiduoiod on its proposed scale for many years, except at
the cost of disaiforestiiig the entire Hfate of Birmoor.
FAOIB ABOUT COAL.
M b. MAUUY, lu a late iiombor of the Popnlar Seknee Mointhltf,
In an article entitled “ Black Dinmomts,'* presenls some
hitorestitig facts on the subject of coals. Ho sa^sTho popalalion
of the United States is about 40,000,000, and lu 1877 60,000,000
tons of ooal wore produoed, one-fourth ot which, if applied to inauu-
fnetnring, &a,, would do as mnoli work as our entire population,
supposlug them all to be able-bodied men, in tbreo hundred and
fifty days, lie adds ; The coal at the engine wilt averase abont four
dollars a ton, while the price of unskilled maunal labonr can be
pat down at one dollar a day. Applying Ibeve fisnros, we see (hat
tho work in the first case would have coat 60,000,000 dols.; while
In the latter, wore it even possible to employ so many men, the
labour bill would have been 14,000,000,000 dole. I Mr, Maury states
that the first tliecuveiy of cuai in America was in IDiuola lu 1877
over 21,000,000 tone of antbraoite ooal were produced. The first
Lehigh autbraoUe sent to Philadelphia In ISO,') was considered
worthless, aud brokm up aod used for macadamir.mg purposes. Coal
is of vegetable origin. Wherever vegetable tissue is heaped up and
accamulaled lu bogs, coal can be seen in varlons stages of forroatloii.
Wherovor the woody matter Is surrounded by moisture and in favour¬
able poeidou for Slow dseoin posit ion, It is transformed into a dark
combustible compound called *' peat,*' and as it grows harder and
more olmuged it is called "lignite." The oldest peat bogs in Furope have,
I at or near tho bottom, thin layers of haril, blaok matter (hat noither
fxamuiattou by the eye nor analysis by Che chemist oau (Ustiiiguish
froiAi (ruH ooal, an 1 whioh, thorofuio, must be true coal. Mr. Maury
al»<j g»vi‘8 tho following (able, showing tho area of coal fields in square
mill 8 m different oountries
C )untrios
Aroiia of ooal
field in
rcicz'Htage
of total
United States ..
sqiiaic miles.
192,UoO
ai ea.
73 «5
NoVrt Stjuilil ...
... lU.OOO
non
Giont llritim ...
... 11,900
4 60
Nphiii
Fruuc(?
... a.ooo
1*20
... 1,800
ti’70
l,80't
0 Ui
Au*xtria ... •••
1700
0*70
Belgium
Ha
ChiU, Australia, India, Churn, ilio.
... 28,000
ll*U0
Arrangemeiitfl are being made (o heat the UIfy of New York
mil (Iu the cooking for (he iuhabitaiUs by aUam, luriiisbed through
pipes ftom opiitial distributing points in different parts of the oity.
The plan is the Hams as that m UHe ui the city of Lockport, N.Y.,
which IS givtog entire aatfBfnct 10(1, an I reduces cost of warming houses
and cooking foud very uia tcrially,
UEPORT ON THE ALPHA GOLD MINE IN
HOUTU-EAST WYNAAD.
Dated DamUhf iha IS'tk February tS7i),
From—II. Bnouon Smvfh, Esq., Mining Engineer,
To—J. 11. QARsriN, Fisq., AcUug Secretary to Govttnment of Mailraf'i
Itcvonue Dcpaituieut.
rYEFEkRING to the paper, dated lOlh January 1879, No. 42, whoroui I
am instrucced by the Govornmont to ascertain bow it is that, not*
witliHtandiug the j^resenoo of considorablo quauUlies of gold m the tmU
at the Mpha Mine and to the extent rAported by mo. tho opeiatiziiw h.ivc*
uot proved SttOceeSfal, and rspeeially whether ibis' w»jit aaccem b.js
arisen from any peenliar dtifKcultiee m separating the gold from the niAint
at thi ,4 imrticnUr spot, or ftom the cost of labor or fuel or irom other re.inoi s
within or beyond the oontrul of the mine* proprietors,’ I now do mysdf tim
honor to submit the following report for the comiidorabiou o£ his Grace the
G ovornor In Council.
356
PmmxRAEt.
Imm^difttolj on rooeipt of tbo inttfootiom abovo rofonodl to» in^ aa
by tho Govantnient, t ooTnmu^ieaUd with tbo Diroetora of
Alpha Company and aoogbt ponniaton to make a oarelai eiamioatloa of tho
uinOf and at the iamo Umo 1 a«ked a number of queetione mpectiog the
operatione of t]bo Company.
SnbecqdenUy 1 wrote to the Uecrotariee and Traaearera in Madras request*
ing them tofumish eneh information reapeoUng the work done in the past
as Uiey eould supply.
The Directors very promptly furnished papers relating to the expendi¬
ture of moticya. the quantities of quarts raised andctho results, and ihoy
replied to some of the questions asked by inej and 1 would wish to reoord
my appreciaiioti of tho assistanee afforded by them, by Messrs, Parry &
Go.* and by Mr. Withers who atone time had the niauagoment
of the works under what is known as The Pcinoc of Wales Quarts Keef
' Gold Frospeetkig Company,'^ a Company which held and worked the Alpha
Mine on tribute tor a brief period.
Though necessarily from tho nature of the duties which 1 have had to
clisoliarge since 1 came to this district, I was woll acquainted with the
mine and the machinery of the Alpha Company, I hare since the receipt of
instruolions nigdc a further careful oxaminution of the laud held by them,
the leefs, and the works erected for the purpose of reduciug the auriferous
quarts*
Tub Ahea UeabTbd to tub Alpha CowraNV.
1 have not been able to obtain a plan or a snfficionfc description of the
boundaries of the area granted to the Alpha Company. The extent is
said to be fifteen aorca* but on tho map of the Ouchterlony Valley, and
three Amsboms of South-Bast Wynoad tho aiea marked “ Alpha Company’*
exceeds one hundred acres.
The lines of demarcation as pointed out to me on the ground seem to
embrace a larger area than fifteen cores.
Tho boundaries aic thus described in the prospectus of the Company x—
A block of fifteen acres bounded on tho west and south by two large
streams, and on tho east and north by four domarcation stones.
As my report deals principally with only go much of the main reef as is
known to be within the area granted to the Company, the question of boun.
dories need not bo iutther referred to.
Thk Quaetz Veins.
The principal quarts vein intersecting the land is ih.it known as the
**8kuU Beef.'* It appears at the surface at Tarious points between
** Wright's Level” and the northern boundary of the Comiauy’s area, and
is traooable further northward for a great distance. Wright's Level is ou
the eastern slope of Uio range that forms the wostern rim of tho basin
draiued by the Oatcoor I’oya, aud is distant thirty chiuus from the Alpha
mill.
‘ Tho country is iutorseefced by streams trending to the Carcoor Poya, and
there are low and high hill, some very ateep, but nearly all with smooth
contours.
At Wright’s Level the vein is from four to five feet in thickness near iLo
surface* aud seven feet six inches at a depth of thiity feet. Its strike f ir
a distance of more than one chaiu is nearly north aud south, and the dip
is east at an angle of 30^ to 40®',
Tho quartz in eome parts of the vein is lamiuated, the laminic hf'iog from
two to four inches and more in thickness, and they arc nearly parallel to
the lino of strike. These are orossod by other linos transverse to tho dip
and strike, and tbero are in places thin veins ot talcoso clay onttiag the
reef transversely. There is also solid iroti.fieo nearly white quaiU. Near
the surlace tho stone, when broken out, in seen to be highly ieirugiuous
aud IS colored yellow, bright red, and bluinh purple. Much of the quarts
is oavoruotts, houey-combed, or mico-eaten, and tho associated miuorals
near the upper part of the vein are Umomto aud other oxyda of iron duo
to iho decomposition ot iron pyrites which are found iu eonmdcrable quau.
iiUes In the deeper levels. Sulphur is also sceo ucoasionally in cavities.
I have not seen any sulphide of antimony or any of tho ores of lead.
Borthward, twelve chains from Wright’s Level, an adit made by native
miners has been re-oponod by me, aud the Uiickness of the roof at this
point is four feet; the strike is nearly north aud south, aud the dip is nearly
tluo east at an angle at the outcrop of 45®^ and at a depth of tweuty«four
feet 60c* noarly-
A section taken from '.o middle of this roof shows massive white nearly
iroQ-free quartz. It is ferru^ nouv and cavernous near the. hanging wall and
foot-wall.
At the large excavation f’om wliioli the reef derives it tianie about
Iweuty.two chains north of Wright's Level, the vein la thick ; at the fuf-o
ii is not less than fourteen feet from the hanging wall to what appears to be
a '* horse,” the exteut of which bn*^ not been ascertamod. The total thick,
ucas of the reef at this point is not known. The geueial oharaetor* of the
stone is siuiilai to that at Wright’s Level, but there is much iiioi'o Balphu-*.
It is not dilfiCult to find rather Urge quantities of oleau sulphur in the
cavities. Hei e also there is an abseuoe of thoae mioerals that are mco.t
dcti'imotttal to amalgamation. Thestiihouf the reof is N. W., and
the deep TO^B.at an angle of 13®* to 60% but the dip nowhere is
iinifortn*
About four chains and fifty*siA linlqi north-westerly fro > i vtcavation
iho r«>«f IS SKaio seen un the bondy-roiid whore it intursuj low hill.
Hue tho dip IS N> h, at au auglo of 40% aud the thivkucsa ^as well us
BHOffii'rf'gKT.. ,,,
«aa be ebaetfed ia si» Mt, On
outcrop is ag^ft fofind, and ii If of ft
which runs at ihetbot of thibi)]. €b4)biiid|'^rai4iontlM^
fikull Beef thareara thin fetmghikms yelnt nsitUiqiDg numayohi aubn of
‘ fron»p 5 'rites dfoontpoting into limiisite tthfoli m said lo b# Idglil^r AntifiMr*
ous. The **casiog” of the reef througbofit It ganasally^ * yooM eah^
There Is anoUier reef within Iba bouadaviei pofiitad ohk to m^» Vlflt of
Wright’s Level and one near the Alpha Bnngilow. ^eBhei of has
been opened by tho Company.
THg Mures.
Now that the thick and high grase is burnt on many of the ri^lgeeA it is
comparatively easy to follow the outorops of the xeefe ahd to discover old
native workings. Since thie report was eommeneed, 1 havl exomilnod very
extensive native workings south end west of Wright's Level ^uite on the
edge of the gbdt, Ite ridge southward of the Alpha workings has been
sluiced on both sides, and a channel has been Out in the valley about five
fort in width and eight feet in depth for a length of more than three
hundred yards, There are also numerous subsidiary email chauneis and
deep and large cxoavatione. On following the main channel downwards
(it commences at the outcrop of the reef at Wright's Level) in a direction
g®* south of west a strong vein of quarts is found nearly three hundred aud
fifty yards from the Alpha workings. Cue shaft has been' sunk here, but
the reef has not been excavated. It appears to have a strike of N. 80'’ W.,
and IB probably a ooniiunaiion'of that which crops out in the jungle on the
fiirtlier side of a stream trending towards the ghdt. The eiistenee of these
native workinj^s and the reef referred to is, I am informed, unknown to
the proprietors of the Alpha Mmo. Burrounding the recent excavation at
Wright's Level, there are other native workinga evidently very ancient.
There are several shallow pits and small exoavations ; and heaps of broken
quartz are to* be seen all along the aUiko of the reef. At cme place,
between Wright’s Level and the Skull, there is a shaliow pit commonioat-
utg with on aperture like a ehimney in which it is ^irobahle the quartz
was roasted.
Near tho Skull and for some distanoe northwards the workings are numer-
ous, and at the Sknll itself there ie mi excavation, the full extent of which
cannot be ascertained as the roof hae fallen ; as far as it can bo examined, it
shows a width at the entrance of twenty-nine links, a breadth at the
broadest part of fifty-three links ; and it measures seventy-five links to the
mouth of a drive which cannot, be followed until some expcnditiure is incurred
in oloarmg it and eecuiing it. The height of the excavation from ftow
to roof is tweiity.five links. There ore vertical shafts oommunioatini{ with
this exoavatioa which no doubt were suuk long tho adit was com¬
menced. Tho amount of work done on the reef is oonclnsive proof that the
native mmere found gold in quantities suiBcient to rciunnerato them. They
appear to have dag into the soft casing and taken etone fiom the footwall,
but they did not coufioo their operaUons to this part of the reef. They
followed tho run of gold wherever they were able to do so.
According to the information 1 have been able to obtain, it appears that
tho Alpha Company commenced their mining operations by quarrying
stone in the old native workings at the Skull, where tliey took out about
one hundred ions of quartz, Subsequently they quarried atone near
Wright's Level, aud then the adit named Wright’s bievol was driven for a
length of about twenty feet.
At a point a little more than ninety feet eastward of Wright's Level and
twenty-five lent below it an adit foiiy-two feet in length, five feet in width,
und six feet m height was driven to cat the reel, and the reef it now seen
lo the “face” whore a hole has been suuk in qoaitz to the depth of five
feet. Tho Company or tho Tributers also put down a shaft east of but
quite near Wright’s Level, lb was sunk lo the depth of forty feet wheie
tho teof was struck, aud it is said good stone was got from the bottom,
further north waid, but still within a few yards of Wright's Level, a shaft
e iS sunk to (he depth of sixteen feet and an adit was driven, cutting tho
tSi.ift about five feet from tho bottom. This is known as Harris’ Tannel.”
the slop© of the range towards the ghdt,and about three hundred aud
till'I y feet oast of “ llariis* Tunnel,** another edit was driven evidently
loi the purpose of cutting the reef. U has been continued for a distance
of over fifiy feet. It is not timbered, and near tlie mouth there is a fall
of i arth. It has intersected a small vein of quartz. It is nearly on the
sam^. level as the other adit below Wright’s Level. A ehallow pit was sunk
souti oJ the large ©xoavation at Wright’s Level with, I am informed, good
lesuUs.
Another shaft now filled in and completely covered with broken quarts
was sunk on the dip a few feet eonth of Wright's Level, It was fourteen
feet in depth and a diivo was put away for a disfance of fourteen feet. It ie
stated that nch stone waa got in the shaft and drive. Subsequently rioli
stone was broken out, it is eoid, at the aorth-westem corner of the excava¬
tion.
TL. exMntioii *t Wright’. lb it «p|iean at prewot, i. right, f«ot
in length, twtotj-two ten in bra.dth, ud trom t.u to fifto«n fwt la dapth
N«r tbs .xciiTStion at tha Skull and .bout foartswi ftet b«low it .was
nMivt walking, were te-apanad b, tho»i who had llieiaanageoentaftbe
mine.. What a knontt as ••Binny’a Lerri” ia ritiiatad»bttia diitanoa
northward ot the SknU. The rwf wan cat hate about Iweut, taatlrwn the
entriwab 8UI1 ftirtlwi narthwktd ia “ityui’g j,
twenty-fly* yttda Jtom the battery. A commoBeeineBt only w*g made with
Ihia work. InJaed it may ha datoribed aa a hole from wbiab btakan aWta-
llia reaiilta ot mtiw labor-waa carried »w*y*to the hatterj. Amndit
, not hf w<ir)» ^Mrioi'dHm About
ifc ^ utta^ttakou
ifaftt ana^t^ in <iWibUti«« wt« taken an^ crnoiioa
bjf Cbtatpatoy and Tnbnteca from tka Skulk from the exoaTatiun
afe W^ijjlI^'eiftTet* apd from ahaUow |At« :and ahott adita near Wdgkfc’a
XioWk and that leved adllv were driven at variotta poinba and taro ahaftn
ennk'ar^ob, even wkero tho roof was etrntk, wtrt, for msona probably
knbwnl to the' Managers, dt scon tinned. These works, the seven adits and
the tffo shafts were nnprodaotive, and it would ho diffieuU to disoorer wliy
they were undertaken at all. Having regard to the position of the battt^ry
nothing wak to be gained hi' making adits east of Wright*s Level.
It is probaj^lo that the Company expended some moneys la other similar,
works not kndirn to me, 2 have, however, made every effort to asooi tom
thefaeto. ^
YixtJ) ov Gou) VROM Quarts;.
lb will be apparent from the stotements already made that Utile has been
done to develops the reef within the boundaries of tho Alpha Company^
area or to detormino its value. The apparently purposoless scratoUinga on
Uie Surface and the useless expenditure of moneys in driving short adils and
sinking shallow pits have noteeon had the result of proving Uio character
ol the reef except at one or two points. It is however, evident, from the
chsraoter and eitcnt of the native workings and from experimeuti luaac
in the laboratory, that tho stone in some places is highly aunferous.
The yields obtained by myself have been as follows :—
WBioET^sLxvvn. oa. dwts. gra. ,
1. Ho gold visiblo in tho stone at the *
rate of ... ... 0 11 6'0 per ton of 3,240 lb
2. No gold visible in the stone ... 2 16 VO
3. A little gold to be seen ... 56 13 10 5 ,* „ ,,
4. Gold visible in the stone ...204 11 16 7 „ „
Large blocks of q^ttz were broken out at tho spot wlio> e the stone giving;
theso results was obtained ; and in several of thos^i gold was visible. In one
or two iostanoos loose gold was found in oavitiev ; ami indeed som t of tU<4
quartz was so rich that if portions of it had been tested tho yields would
have ocoaeioned excitement amongst persona not acquainted with quarU
mining, and utiheedfal of the cautions and siatemeuta which would
necessarily have accompanied the report of any such yields. Aocording to
the jndgineat of those well able to form an opinion, some of the qnarU from
the reef near Wright’s Level would have yielded at tho rate of l.UOO o». nr
more per ton. The value of tlie reef however ctiunct be niOiisured by such
results. Whore Uiis quartz wnq ohtainod, the vem is about four feet in
thickness ; siuJthe heaviest gnhi la fnuad mostly in the upper putt of the
vein, as it is now exposed, and uear the footwall. throughout u thiekuess
of two feet only. It is to be followed downwards »cros«i thelinn of dip for
A distnuce of sixty iect, where there is good stone showing gold near tho
footwall. Quarto with pyrites obtained from tho ndit holow Wright's
Level, and not on this run of gold, gave at the rate of only 3 dwts. 33*01 g's.
per ton.
At tho face of the largo excavation at the Sknll, a vertical seotion of the
reef was taken, and tho results for the several parts wore aa follows
Bate prii Tox.
0 11 6*0 per ton of 3.240 lb
2 16 V6 ..
66 13 195 ,* „
1, One foot in thiokuest (hanging wall)
2, Three feot in thickness
oz. dwts, gra.
3. Four feet in IhioknesB.. ... 0 1 2 30
4. Fivefeet In thickness... ... o 2 2*21
5. Six inches in thickness ... ... 0 0 4*25
Northward of the excavation and within a fow yards of it the run of gold
is found, and quarto from that portion yielded at the rate of I oz. 4 dwts.
6 grs. potion.
Mr. W. King, B.A., the Deputy Buporintondent of the Geological Snrvey
of India, estimated from preliminary ornshings made by him that the yield
per ton of the reefs in this district would bo 7 dwts., and ho refers to the
results obialnod by the Tributora who woiked at Wright’s Levol, uto.,
11 dwts. and 17 dwts. per ton.
In the table attached to Mr. King’s report in the Records of iho Oeoloci^cnl
Purvey of fn Jia (No« 3—167$, Vol. XI.) it is stated that 769it tons crushed
by the Alpha Company gave an average yield of 2dwta. 9grs. per ton.
One large paroel included in this return yielded only I dwt. 17 gra. per ton,
but attotber parcel—6k tous—treated at the Wynaad FrospeoUng Company’s
works, yielded 19 dwts. $2 gn. por ton.
In a report, dated 2nd Aprik!t$75, Mr. King writes as follows
** Among the lodes detailed above [reforriug to a table] the Skull Ueef
abont to be mined by tbe Alpha Company was tried most carefully by seven
paiM^s of quarto obtained from one eToss..cvit through the reef where it is
15 feet wide. There was no gold visible in the aample wbioh gave the
propQrtioti of 25*9S dWts. to the ton. This rich proportion of gold is ^om a
bond laminated quarto sbout 2 feet thick, within a ooupla of feet oi the
footwall or uudemide of the reef. The average proportion from tbii two-
feet band would be 32*6$ dwts., or taking the 10th, t2lh, and 13to feot of
the 15.feet erosiieQt, &om each of which I have sampleB, we get a proportion
of 16 dwto. for what ippmn to be ike richest part of this reef. The work
was doae by band atid dry omshing/^
Ink paii||jhleli eptlttod i^otd Fibspscting in tho Wynaad *' a table is
giveu, wHtob pui^i^ to bp an vxtoaotfrosLav«pOTtma«Ie by Mr, King.
Kosults,
1
2 dwts. to ton.
1st foot,
2*5 dwto. to ton.
None.
3rd foot.
5th foot.
5*13 dwts. to ton.
7tb foot.
lUlh foou
19*14 dwts. to ioa.
I2th foot.
25*93 dwts. to ton.
Idlb fool.
The expenmento were made on quarto token from the BkuU Beef, and they
el's as fullows i—
Avvearancr, Colob, Ac.
Compact, coarse texture, lumlnaied, white j
oolov ... ... ...
Still white iu color but staim;(l with tor*
rngiuQUs matter ...
Whitiimi duoolored with iion
Whitish, discolored with iron, good color
In diah-hoai. iu amalgamatioa ...
Smi white but ferruginous maUer
Highly colored, red aud brown, ferruginous
ueilular with while iron pyrites: gold
visible ... ... ...
Highly colored, red and brown, washed
and amalgamated m my presouee by
Mr. Withers; gold not visible ...
Iu a priut >d report made by Mr. It. Liudon to the Direc^jprs of the Alpha
Company there ate results of trials na follows
oz, dwts. gra.
Quarto from Wright’s Level, picked specimens ... 25 13 0
Quartz from Wnght’a Level, picked piuoee without
gold visiblo ... ... ... 11 13 0
Quarts from Bkull working ... 0 C 16
It would be altogethor iuyndioioua to attempv to give au average from the
above results; but they are suflicient to provf^ that the reef within the
bouudaries of tbe Alpha Company’s area i*i iu somo parts highly auriferoin,
and, having regard also to tho largo extent of uuttvu workings, that its
chuactor is such as to justify a Mining Company in opeuiug it thoroughly
with a View to the erection of woiks for treating tho quarto.
Tur MaonTNBttY and Works.
The machiiiciy cuusiats of a ba'tery of Ofteen stomps, lu three gronpa of
five and n fourteen horse-power steam-engine having a tubular boiler aiul
a fire-box lonstructod to burn coal. It was intended that this engine should
drive also a pulverizor and a circnlar saw, both of which can bo oonneotod
with the engine and are under the same roof as that which covers the stamps
and the engine. The starapi, including the shanks and discs, are said to
weigh abont 3k nwt. each, but they appear to bo very much heavier.
Motion is given to tho stamps by oami attached to a shaft. The coffers in
whioh the stampers work have in front of tUom only (and not at the baok)
perforated iron plates with 125 holes to tho square inch. Thoie arc threo
copper plates, four feet six iuohos in width—one is seventeen inches in
length, one three feet cloven inches, and the lowest twenty inohes.
Theso are divided by ripples. Tbe angle of iudination of the platog
is from 3® to 8i®, but they are not oven. They bulge a little in some
places. Tho tables arc from ion feet eight inches to twonty-six feet
in length, each group of stamps having tables of different lengtlis;
each table is in three p.artitious, seventeen inches in width; tho atigls of
moUnatiou of the tables is llic blankets were nine feet in length, and
only nine feet in length of tho tables wore covered with blankets. The
tailings ran through lauudors to catchpUs.
A small furnace for roasting the tailings, a retorting furnaoe and kilns
for roasting the qxiaito piovious to crushing, oomplete tho list of appliauco^
at tbe mill.
Tlie lu formation I have received fuiolslK'S a luelancboly history of tlie
various attempts to work the machinery. When it was erected it is said, it
worked very well, that is tossy, the machinery moved awoothly, but it
never crushed any such quantities of stone as ought to Lave boeu crushed.
One day obout eight tons of slnno were crushed ; but Uio Alpha Company
crashed, at tho best of times, only seven ions iu twenty-four boars, and
even this rate would not be maiutalued. It was found impossible to move
the stamps, the pulverizer and the circttlat saw at the same time. The
engine, it is stated, w.is worked at a pronsuro of OOlh., but it was never
possible to keep up steam. It usually took three hours to get up steam.
No firewood was stored. It was cat green, and even old wood that was
gathered was often quite wet.
Tbe present condition of tho batteiy and tables is, of eouwe, worse than
it was when they were erected, Tho woother and use have injured thorn ;
and one of the Mauagera m order to re-arrange the tables of tho middlo
bableiy, according to his ideas, cut away one of the main bed-logi, and
since that was done ihc vibration has been so great, with the machinery tu
motion, as to shake tho tables to pieoes. The wood of the tables is
ehrunkcTi and warped , there are numerouH apertures tbrongU which water,
quicksilver, and amalgam could escape; and 1 urn told that 85lb. of
quicksilver were found under mio tablo. The fall from tbe coffers is oot
on to the plates; there Is a space of over an inch between the plates and
the edge of the coffers, and even now the course wbioh tbo water aud
tailings took as they escaped through this aperture is plainly to be mcu
under tbe iabka, The fastenings, too, are bad; (be nuts and washers
below the ooffkrs do not cover the boles in tbe plates for the bolts, and the
meroary and amalgam fell through tbe Spaces thus exposed. Some of the
arma of the drum for the belt oonuecUng the engme with the pulveriser are
brokm, owing, it is supposed, to Iboir ba>iDg.bcou screwed up t-xi tightly.
888 THE INDIAN AtedHLI^filST:. Octtibcr 1,
Tbe palvortser if idia U huve reduced the taitiaf;# to « fine powder^ \mi
the quickeilver ** floured owing to the iron pyritee not bring pwpurly
roasted.
About W cwt, of taiUnga” couid bo ground by Uii« maobitto in a day.
Owing to the eondition of the maohlnery I would noldeem itprndontto
put the pulvedaer in njotlou. It is to be noted that the taps Ihrongh which
tbe quicksilver or amalgam flows from the pulveriser are made of brass.
They are now nearly entirely eaten away.
Tiis TncaxMBRT ov xhe QuaaTss and thb Eeeux.m
From information fomished by the Directors, it afpears ttiat mining
Operations were commeneod by the Alpha Company in February 1875, aud
ceased in March 1870, and that the total quantity of quarts treated from
iir«t to last was 779^ tons. The time oooupied in crushing and treating this
quantity was seven months, inolnding stoppages. The gold obtained
weighed 91 os. 12 dwts. 28 grsM being at tbe rate of 2 dwtv. 8 tB grs. nearly
per ton. This is inolusive of six tons and'O-half which woru treated at the
Wynaad Prospecting Company’s works for tbe Alpha Company, a td which,
as already stated, yielded at the rate of 19 dwts. 22 grs. per ton. The
average cost of raising quarts was Ke. 2 per ton ; the average cost of
conveying the stone to the mill was ISo. 1>8 per ton, and tho average coat
of crushing Bo. 1-13 per ton. The total cost of rasing and crushiug
quarts is stated to havo been Us. 2,971-9.
To these must ho added the following items as given in the statomeiits
furnished by the DirectorsFirewood (estimated) Rs. O') (per week) ;
timbering in the mine, Bs. 150 ^ blaiting.powdor. Us. 700 ; aud quioksilvor
(quantity used not known), Us. 8,000. Tho cost of supervision is set down
at Rs. 2,884 for seven months only. The machinery is stated to have cost
Kfl. 25,0(10, and tbe erecting of it about Its. 1,800. The oonstniotiou of
roads GOit Us. 796-7-7.
The aggregate of these sums, inoluding interest ou tlic cnpital invested,
Bhows that the qnsrts, for raislug, treating, supervision, stories, dc., must
havo cost more than Rs, 16 per ton or, to put the matter in another way, that
the gold was obtained at an expense of Rs, 127 per oonce.
Tho oalanoe sheet of tho Alpha Company, piopared by the SecretariOH and
Treasurers (copy hereto marked A*) shows that the sums expondod in
preliminary expenses were Ks. 8,703-4*5, and iu supervision, management
Ac., Us. H,075'll<9; and tho only point in tho statement that is really
important is the relatively small sum expended in actual minii^f operations,
which under tlio head of ^‘hfining, Felling, and .Storage" i ^ sot down as
Us. 11,327*0-10. Tho value of thi* gold got, the result of ihi.>ac operatious.
is stated at Rs. 3,037.0.3.
The stone tvonUd at the Wynaad I’lospcctiug '‘'ompany'd woiks, six tons
au'l-a-lialf,was got from tho reef at Wrigiit’s Level, uml i( cost for eiukiog
tho shafts and raising Us. 70-10 ; for breaking Its 3>10 ; tor oouveyance
to the works Ba. 21 ; and for crusliing Rs. G5—total R.'i. IG0<1.
The gold got sold for Us. 2D7.G-3. The stone tie.'itnd by the Alpha
Company at their works was not roasted before beiiv scut to the null; but
the ^Miiiiiugs" collected ui the settling pits were roasted in a itiruaee and
I?round in tho pulverizer. 1 havo nub beou infoimod uv to th i result oi tUv ;
treatraont of Uie tailings. i
The stoue crushed for the Alpha Company at tho Wyuiad Prospecting
Company’s works was roasted bofoie being orushud.
** Ttie Fnnce of Wales Quait/. Keel! Gold Froapecting Cnmiititiy" took
poascssiou of tho Alpha Works on the Ist Juno 1877 under nti agroc^mont
wtlii the Alpha Company. They commenced mining opurulions on the 17tU
August 1877, and continued to miiio with soiiiu lutorroptions uiiul the
cud of February 1878. Tho pccunuiy results o( tins adventure are shown
in e kalanoo sheet hereto maiked U * The ;nlue of iLo gold ,^ot, iijclud-
iDg specimens, is stated at Us, 8,13.’-10-S.
Copies of tlie ropotia furnished by the Manager, as woll as several papeis
relating to this Company's proceedings, have been placed lU my haud^ for
perusal by uuc of Die propnotor.,, aud 1 gather tbe following lauts from
them j—
QUAUTZ ChUSUtD AMI» Tukatkd.
AvBUAi.it Yimn rittt Ton.
Tons, oz, dwts grs,
Wright’s Love) Mf
Skull Beef G3
• ... ... .. 0 2 18 6
Skult lleef i .„ ... .,02 6
Wright's Level fi ... ... o 11 19
Do. 6o ... 0 19 12 *5
Do. 1U4 ... ... ... 0 14 21‘34
Do. 2 ... ... 0 8 0
Tho nvoToge yield per ton from those p.vrools was 10 dwta. 12 grs. nearly.
Pieces of quatta couUimng p>.ld were sold tor B"* 1,251*4. The
specimens' containing g.dd got from the parcel of 184 ions Ate said to have
boon sold foi Bs. 920, and it may be asttUmod tU >t the stone was
very »ch.
There as not uiaeb mloimatiou to ho oUaiued as tn the mode of treat*
nient pursued by tbe Alpha Company, but it stated thnt the stamper-boxes
were ehsrged with qumkailver, not largely, and that they relied mdaly ou
thsir oopperplAtss and ripples for saving the gold. They used S^iam
fttiialgatn very freely. •
The Manager ot the Prince of Wales Tribute Corup.i .. h .g furuiahed
many details respecting the modeof ireatiug tlie quaiU wlieq.,t||ttj|isitlts
• Rot Ptthlishedi
of the opmtions were appotently to Aotte extedt ssfcisfiwtofy to the thw
holders.
Kilns were built, and the stone before being lenti to the mUt ws« toeeled.
Wood woe placed in the kilns and tbe stone tbeteon end the rok^iig
W«i contlnaed for forty-eight hours.
He infbnos m e that a emsU quantity of qpiokeUver was put in tbe eoflbrt,
two or three times a day seoordlng to the eiUmAted mbbest ihe stone.
On Uie oopperpiAtes 2j^ peroentot eodium emnlgam w*e nsed with the
quiekaiiver, aud in the pulveriser as nuioh as 8 per oent. Still tbe qaioksUver
floured.”
Blenkets of the ordinary kiod were nsed, and the length covered by the
blankets was nine feet. They were wosh^ every half hoqr. It seems that
all the tables were for this length covered with bluuketo and the Water wae
allowed to spread itself over the whole.
Water was conveyed to tbe mill through troughs which discharged into a
tank, and an iron pipe, fed from the tank, was fixed in front of the battery.
To this were attached smaller pipes provided with taps, two to each battery
and when the supply was snffloient the water must have entered tbe ooifora
with great force. Tim flow, however, was net even, the smaller pipes were
often choked with gress, and owing to tbe troughs or boxes being badly
made and improperly placed, tbe water esooped and sometimes (here was
nob sufilcieut for tbe tables.
The stone was broken by hand befoic being seat to the mill, at a cost of
nine annas per ton.
The feeding was very irregular. It happened not seldom that so much
quarts was put into a coffer as to stop tho action of the stamper, aud at other
iiiiiee the ooffo was not fe^ and the disc struck upon and injured the cam.
Oil from the machinery often dropped ou the plates and it found its way
also mto the coffers.
Tailings escaped from the catebpits.
T!ie stone treated, as already mentioned, must have been rich. In one
'* (‘Uaning up '* of a stamp.box coarse pieces of gold WMc found weighing
f told 6 grs. to .3 dwts., aud of these about thirty were ebtsined ; uue piece
\ve*}£bed about 7^ dwts.
Causks or Failurfj.
The first important step takeu by the Alpha Company was to erect
niachtnery, and subsequently they made atteinpta under the advice of various
Mansgora to open their main reef. As stated in anolbei part of this report
they first quarried stone at the native workings on tbe northern extension
of the reef, and subecquently at the southorn portion of it, but no sucoossfnl
effort was made to mine systematically, The.re was consequently
unnecessary coet mcuired iu getting sloiie, and great c stmoouvoyi gilio
tbe null.
There was no stom-break mg iiiaphiue aithe mill the stone was broken
by band. Thera was uo selMeeding app.irttns ’ Uie feeding was irregular;
and the platform u» which the qnarlz Was ddivoied was not partitioned
off from the stampers and engine. The dust rose somotiuies lu clouds
and fell on the bearcis, injuring them aud rendering necessary a large
tupply of oil, Ac., for lubricating the van us parts of the nuohinery,
some of which often dropped ou the plates, thus making efiectivo aiual-
gama tion mipossible, even if theiehad not bt en other dotiimental influences
m opoiation.
A groat erioc was committed by the Tribute Company in roasting the
quartz iu kiluv before sending it to the mill. Nearly all the quartz iu
tho reef is iitpro or loss pyritous, and the peroeutago of iron pyrite.s,
jii Hcvotal s actions probably varies from 0 1 or less to 5 per cent,, aud
when this id placi'd iu u kiln in the manuor described elsewhere in this
icport it is idip idMhle to oxydise the sulphur. The fusible lower aul*
phidi'S coat the gold aud prevent its amalgamation with mercury. The
roasted stoue 1 have seen mi DevaUh is often a slag, and any gold iu it
I'mst bo " glazed.”
Sodium amalgam appears to have beeu used in oxoessive quantitioi
T IS amalgam has all tho valuable propei4ies ascribed to it by the patentee,
M^. William Crookes, F.R.S,; but tho utmost care aud caution are
ue essaiy in using it in tne extraction of gold aud silver. A very tninule
qui-utity ot sodium amalgam added to quicksilver has the effect of render¬
ing themoial more mobile and mote '* eager” for gold, and theiefore
it id the more likoly to escape fiom the mill and carry the tioe gold with
it in ''' .d the lippLs are propoily arranged and other precautions takeu.
ft was a mistake to put quicksilver iu the coffers. The uudocomposed
pyrites, reduced to powder, would accumulate in Uie coffers and cause tlie
“ sickening '* and ” flouring ” of the mei'CM^, The metal bre.ikmg up
into minute globules or adhering to the powde^d pyrites would be oarriei.1
away.
If no quicksilver biuf been put in the cotters the copperplates might have
boon disj^nsed with.
Thoiaclinaliou of the tables was excessive. Instead of i in 10 they
shoald bare been not more then 1 iu U or 1 m 19.
The water from the battery (ofteu msuffioiontd was allowed to spread itself
over tbe whole extent of the tables, whereas, as (here was not suffioiant
wateri but un ler any ciroamstances, it should have been so regnlatod as to
carry the taillugs evenly over the blankets. And the length of the hleuket-
ing, nine ftot, was not euough.. I have been informed that iron pyrites fiotn
the Alpha Mill wtM token out of the bed of the stream quite,2Q0 yards away,
and that It Was found \o yield 1 oz. to the ton, \
Baddies wets not used for conoenttiting the tailmgeyaitd a large ,propor*
tion of the Stott sent to the furnacn muNr Iiava nnMBiaiAii m9 nuBirfiw
Qi^tofaer 1,. 181*9.
INDIAN AGRICULTURIST,
f
359
Th«fiini«ftvbS^ m1miUby the Tiibuten is uosalUble for ireAtioj?
pyiitsi.
Tbs stsi^mi^iigiQAWiui never oqoal to the doty required of iU Oae of
fot^ bone-power would be needed to drive the stempsra end keep ia motion
the pcdverieeri foUj charged, and the atw. The Alpha Company and the
Tribntere are said to have crushed 1,102 tone of quai^ in dftoen moAths ; if
the maobinet-y had been effeetive, and if the works had been ekilfuily
managed, at least 11.000 tons should have been tednoed in fifteen months.
During the whole period that the works were in operation, when only au
average of 2'8 tons were crashed per dUm, the espenses of managemeut,
deadworb. were rnnnuig on as well as interest on tho capibai invested,
and it is not a matter for wonder that doing only one*teath of the work that
ought to hav^ been done the two adventures wore not remuneralive.
The greatest credit it appears tome is duo. however, to the projecbois for
their spirit and enterprise. They failed beeanie they did nob first of all
oommenoe to mine, and because they bad not appliances for saving gold.
BOW Ttia OrBfUTrosn snouu) nn CoNDvorno.
A run of gold in the mMin reef is found at Wright's Lord, and this has
been followed for a distanco of sixty feet. I would advise that in the first
instance this run should be followed still further on the underlie^-ssy—if the
good stone oontmues—for lOO feet or 150 feet *, that tho shaft should bo
well and safely timbered, and that ekids should be put in so that the
quarts might be brought to grase with facility. It may be assumed
judging from the stone already taken out, thit ihe^quarts from this shaft
would yield a fair proportion of gold.
This preliminary work, but productive, wo aid •indicate* the best sito for
a main adit, and that will bo found at a point on the slope of Iho ghdt
oastwaid of Wright’s Level.
This main adit running west should be driven at a low level so os to
intersect the reef at a considerable depth below the outcrop on the ridgo.
From this adit and other cross-cuts the reef could be mined economically.
It could bo stopped from different levels quite up to the surface. A
Bite for the battery oonid be fouud near the mouth of the main adit. All
these undertakings and all arrangoinents conueotod with them should be
well considered, and the objects in view should be to open the mine on
Q good plan, and to raise a large qnantity of stone which from oaroful
assays should ahow such a yield per ton as would jnotify tho erection of
machinery.
1 recommend that water.power be employed for driving the machinery',
either an ovei'-shot wheel or a turbine*
1 regret to say that 1 am not suflioiently acquainted with the laws or
regulnlioua in force iif JlndU under which water may be diverted, but
it would be no doubt practicable to arrange for the divec<iioa of water
from the slroam near the Wynaad Prospecting Company’s works,
rerhops reservoirs would iiave to be constiucted for storing Water.
The relative cost of using steam and water in this distuct cannot bo
fairly oslimated by mo, as I am ignorant at what cost fuel could be go
if proper arrofrotuouts wore mado for procuring it in large quantities, hut
lu units elsewhere the proportions are—lor water about 1*2, and for
eleam 2'1.
There is not much at the Alpha Mill that could be used m any newodven-
tiiro. ’J he stamps could be made available, and the cofters seem to be
uiiiDjotod and might again be set up { but in my humble opinion it would
be more economics! to procure u new plant furnished with all the best
sp]>liance8 than to patch up the machinery at tlio Alpha.
All patent contrivances that have not been proved to be of value by a
lengthened experience shonld be rejected, and only those adopted that are
known to have yielded good results and now find a place in the best cou-
duoted niiues.
As well as a battery there would be required
(a).*—A stone*breakbg macUmo, The smaller pieces of quartz would
be separated from the larger and sent direct to Ihoblampa and
the latter to the stoue-breabing machine.
(5).-«-A aelf-feeding hopper.
(c) .—A buddle for concentrating the ** tailings" which are saved m the
icttUng bones,
(d) .«»An inclined reverberatory furnace fo r roasting tLc *' tailings."
This would consist of a fire-box, hearth, Ac., and should be On
the plan of some of those that have given the best results in
Viotoria.
The qnsiia should be erusbod taw. Quicksilver should not be used in the
ooffeis t and eoppsv platforms are likely to cause a loss of amalgam, and I
do not reoommend tiiat thsyr should be employed. Bipples and blanket-
etrakes will do the work more efieotually. The tables should be twenty feet
or more in length, and about fourteen inches in breadth for each stamp-
head *, the fall should be about one in sixloco (if a good supply of water is
maintained), and they should be covered with closely woven green baiso.
Expevienoo would of course lead to some modifioalioni in the
arrangements, but it would not be difilcult to adjust the length and fa. of
the tables so as to meet any couditious that might arise*
fiUMXtABY.
I have eadeavouTid to indicate as briefly as possible the causes which
prevented the Alpha Company from obtaining profitable resnlts from theit
adventure. 1 am satitfied that their maobinety and appliances are such
as to makp it impossible to save the geld even if the best aeientlfic and
teohnloal^ovila^e waa brought to bear on the operatious. The one fact
that nll*iiid fOtowsd to ftU on thi copporplates and to get into
the coffers is Buffioient to show what the state of affairs was vfhen the best
results were obtaiood,
Tlie main ri»e£ within the area held by the Alpha Company is nearly
2,000 feet in len«tU ; It is from 4 to 14 feet (at least) in thickness ; in one
part the quarts is of extraordinary L'ictmesa ; and otUev parts have yielded
well.
Kative miners have picked what must have been aurifevoas quartz all
along the outcrop, and at tho ♦'Sknli" their eioavatious ate exteniive.
The position of the reef and the formatioa of the ground both offer
facilities for ecouotmoal miuiog.
It appe rs that the yields of gold have been for 7704 tons ol qunrU 2 dwts.
0 grs., and for 522 60 tons, 10 dwts. 12 grs., and the gold was got, as I have
shown, under the most disadvantageoua cirenmstanoos.
These results may be compared with some ope rations m AnsirdUa.
The oompilatiou of mineral statUtios was oommeneed in Victoria in 1860,
and from I860 to 1870 (inolusive) information has been obtained respecting
tliQ results of the treatment of 13,402,915 tons of quartz, and the returns
show an average yield of U dwts 0'30 grs. per Ion. The average yield of gold
from 1,011,808 ions crushed in Victoria during thoyoar iS7(i was 10 dwts
l3‘48 gra, per tuu. •
The Black Mill Company at Ballaarat crushed 283,550 ions, which yiolde<t
an average of 2 dwts. 23 grs. pot ton and the dividends paid amounted to
£23,900. It is staled that tho machinery costa £t0,03l, and that the com¬
pany paid £24,235 for claims" (i, c., land on which to mine).
Other Companies have treated large quantities of qnavtz yielding averages
per ton of 2 dwts. 13*4 grs.; 3 dwts. 6*01 grs.; 3 dwts. 7*89 grs.; and 8 dwts.
18'53 grs., and liavo paid dividends.
Tho prices paid by tho Alpha Company afid Tributere for labor, fov
timber, and for firewood are no criteria to guide mo in estimating tho costs
of mining at Devalah, Under skilful inanagameut Cf^rraugemonts would be
made for procuring all necoi^Bary supplies at tho muiimnin cost, but m
desultory operatious tho maximuin cost as a matter of course has to be
paid.
In reply to the quostions in the paper, dated lOtu January 1879, No. 4?|
1 can safely say that the wont of success of the Alpha Company has not
arisen from any peculiar difiiculties in separating the gold from tho matrix,
and I cannot believe tho cost of lobor or fuel would be so great here os
injuriously to alT ot mining pursuits.
In this repot11 have omitted all details that appeared to ino not necessary
to the full elucidutiou of the questions with which 1 was instruoted to deal.
AV«.—The late Mauagor of tbo Piimo of Wales Tiibulo Company stvtcs
iliat the wages paid fur uatiie labor were from four to five atinas per diem ;
tho cost of fuel was Ks 3 per ton ; the coat of dvilUng in hard rock was fouC
annas per foot, and in soft ruck two annas per foot; and the cost of driving
such adits as are seen here varmd from six annas to Us. 3 per foot.
The Cost of carrying stone from the " tikull " to the battery was six
auiiiis per tou, aud the cost of carting stone from Wright’s Levol to tiiO
battery was thictoeu auuus per tou.
flautcrii’
T he Umloi-yocrotary to the Qovernuient of India has forwarded
tons a comiuiiuication on a sainplo of Puorli toa which has
boon received ibrough tho good ofticos of the lato Commander-iu-
Chief of Yuniiai), Tang Yil ko. This tea is said to bo highly
piized “at tho Court of Pekin, and ia also esteemed by tho
“ Chinese gouorally for its invigorating properties.”
The sample has been placed in tho Economic Museum, and the
Government promises to make known sundry further information
on this Bubjoot which her Majesty's Consul at Shanghai has boon
asked to obtain, if possible.
Thd prospects of tho season do not improve, true the weather
is better tliaii it was earlier in tho season, and larger quantities
are now being made, but the ruling prices in the market are so
low, that tho year pioraiaes very badly as to dividends, aud we
do not see much hope for a change, until Indian tea is sold at
homo, puie aud unmr ed, and judged on Us own merits.
Tubs quantity of tea exported from China and Japan to Great
Britain this year from tho ooiuinonceuient of tho season to the lUh
August, was 80,387,8831b., ascompored with 103,435,U71b, exported
111 the coriesponding period of last year. To America the quantity
ebipped this year was 22,078,2661b., whilst last year 12,7il,2601b,
only were exported.
In a piivate letter reoeiiily roceivod in Calcutta from an Anglo*
Indian now in Australia, the writer expresses his regret that indiau
traders have not realised what a splendid fiold is open to them ni
the colonies. He says There is a peculiarity about the
merohants here^ f«»., they don’t like to go out of a beaten track*
TUey hAV6 alwaya (for iflAUnoo) had tea from OUina^ #iid ooatiuoa
to get it thence, although it ia vile 1 ha«o not had a oup
of good tea ainoe I ^have beau here. They know that fndia o»n
eupply better tea ihao the refuae from China, v^Uich comes here,
but they won’t got it, beoauee they have never got it. But If
any firm in Calcutta were to send out a few thQuMand pounds,
they v^ould aoou bo convinced that it wm appreciated here, and
would prefer coosigttiug at least: a portion of their stock to
Australia. The wretched stuiT that cornea from China selU here
(wholesale) at la, Pel, to 2s. Cd, per lb., after* paying duty at
U(l, per lb. Coffee is 3a 6d. per lb., and if disposml of in lots
of 1 and 2 inaunds, would realise more, as the grocers sell it
masted and ground, which means an extensive admixture of
cliicory, or eomethiug worse.’’
A oonaKSPOKDKNT of a London oIosb journal says that, with Uio
solo exception of 1870, for the past twelve years, Uluua tea has been
poured into England between July and October at prices resalting
in an average ntinnai loss of from XGOO.OCK) to £700,000, but the
present seasoi^ has never been equiillod in this respoct since the
ports w'ere opened, A trade conducted on principles ho reckloss as
these, redacts to the groat disadvantage of those engaged in the
Indian tea business; and prices oscillate in a way most vexatious
to the steady trailer, and compel him to accept furthor risks in an
enterprise which is sufiloieDtly anxious and doubtful at the best
of times, it appears that at the tiegiiming of the {n'esent season
a combioation of mercliante was formed at Hankow for the pm-
pose of depriving the Chinese sellers of the enUi'e command of
the market which they have hitherto had. li was agreed mutually
that 110 teas should be offered for, either diroctly or ludircclly,
nnlit a later date than usual, aud that no teas shonhl be shipped to
Loildon on native account before the specified date. This scheiuo
seems to have been successful at Fcochow, some grades having
been obtained at prices 40 per cent, btdow those paid last seasCii.
But at Hankow the arrangements proved a dead failure, and the
buying broke away into independent compelitiou and soon
beoauie wild and rapid. The future bodes no good to the
speculators for tlio iiondon market, which had boon nursed to
liiLunessat the early part of the year, shows a decline of us
much as 20 per cent, sinoo the first arrivals*
“ An Old Darjeeling Planter writes In an account of tea
plauUug in Darjeeling, extiactod in the Stateainm of Uth August,
it is slated that plantations in (he Darjeeling terai, give as muck
Its ton mauuds of green leaf per acio. Tins is uu obvious mistake,
and forty maunds of green leaf or Leu maund^ ot made tea must
bo what is iutouded. A tair oulturu in (ho lulls would be about
four juaunds of liiadn tea per acre, 1 myself have made sixteen
hundred maunds ojf 320 acres, or five maunds pei acre, in a
hill garden of average elevation aud within exceptionally favorable
circumstances, and I have known one thousand maunds of tea to
have been umdu off a one hundred aero garden in the terui.
TEA ON THE NEILaHEUKIEB.
rntiA inauuUcture is in fuM swiUi;, atul lei^t comes in sg ploulifally
JL and lu sach regular quantitn^s, that the Unng oslabUshment is
kept day aud night at work. We iiupo (hn price of tea at bouie wUl prove
remuasralivo hereafter. The depression in the tea market has caased
a jiioiis and somewhat uu warranted I'epreciation of tea propgrty on
these IuIIb, Those, however, who have given the maunfactare tho
proper oaie and uitontion have not had reason (o despond, though they
also would like to see the Indian article accepted at its real value.
JAVA AND JAPAN TEA.
fT^UB tea ciop nt 3»iva in 1878 is estimated, atj G,900,0001b,, of
• 1 - whioh 4,700,0001 b. went to lioUonl, and the remamdei cbiefty to
England, though 070,0001b. were shipped to AiutralU. It is difflcult
to make out the actual import of Java tea into Ku^;laud, us a gieat deal
is transhipped to th‘ country from Holland, and our otUoul reiarus
only give Ohms and In dan *eua separately. In 1878 8,707,2351b. of tea
were imported into the jfuted Kingdom from countries other than China
or India, but ibis may iiiuinda a good deal of China tea sent ludireotly
■u well M J.p»n aud J»v» teiw. Tb» impotta ot Jut. l«» Into Loodou
lu 1878 wero «lioi»n b, the Broker*' oi«nt»r* to be 8,883,9^ , <md
tbi8.uo doubt, praoti0»lly r«pre*enH th* outtre iniporl Into Ibe United
KiuBdom, Ill the flint .11 monthe ol thi.yeertlie iniporte ol J»f» tea
Into Ijondon Wire 1.351,OOOIb., agsmsl 837,00018. last year. 'iUe deli¬
veries had not qtuia increased in projMiftion, as the stock ,hau risen
from'841,OOUlb. lu 1,028.0001b. It is a pity that (he Java Plantwd oau-
tiot give their teas more strength, for they already prepare the leaf
VMW well, while the fiavour is fair. They should imitate the Assam
Plautere’ processes* The imports of Japan tea luio London in 1878
were under 300,0001b*—a small proportion £oi the largest tea-market in
the world to receive, oat of a croii supposed to yield alwut 40,OOC,WOlb.
a year The reason of oottrSo that the uncoloui.; > r ■ lea of Japan
IS uusnited to this market, where we appreoialo un, .u-u »«and strengrh
ttioro ttmu a fine delicate ffavour. The Japanese, as n* well knuwu. have
tor some yeafs past been expeiimoutioK wUh a view tp the EnglwU
that*, and'this OB^lU mu to bC difficult for u-. mgetitous a people,-
iVi'dttoa MarhUit JStevleWi
TEA^mhu m mm mmY. ;
. (8P«fA pf Ikdia
L A3T month we noted the fact that li^rA Barlow^ ihe
Oommlssioaer, had at Kotagbofry ^oai^ra^bd the worldng of
eertalo new tea machloery by steam power*! Wahave now Ibe pfeMnre
toprsseat to our readers a Josojiptloa ol! that ^sachlperi*
These estates, lying In the eastern extremity o( the hflla about 10
miles beyond Kotinfhsrry, the property ot Bit. Thomas Gl. Hill, ot Lon¬
don, comprise about 1,000 acres fore8tUhd,nt whMaboitt TOOI^kve
already been opened up, and ate now lioder enttlvatloik In tan, Ooffs*,
aud oinohona ; by far the largest portion, howevert-^nvet 4$0*maten bqiog
under the former prodnot. A hall-sised Jaeksoo's patent teavrolliog
maohloe, driven by steam power, has heenat work fpe upwardflof di
years, and gave every satUfactlon ; but the yield last ysar.bfvihg
greatly increased, It was found, not only the machine, but those lu
charge of it, wero too heavily taxed, about 113,000tb* tea having
been turned out, which represents the large quantity of 452>OO0tb. green
leaf which passed through the maobltte. Sometimes as much as 4,OU0lb.
green leaf (l.OOOtb. dry tea) were lu a day brquglit to the factory to be
roiled off! In (he machine, and'Cu kttoh ooeasioos it seldom stupp^day
or night. To oope with this lucreaie, Messrs. W. Sc J. Jaekson* the
inventors of tea maohinery, ahoot two years ago, hrooght outa muoh
Improved rolling machine, and one of which, a Jaoksoo’s sifting
machine, and a saw-mi|l, were sent oat wttk a 10-horse power horuontal
engiae to drive them. Great diffiealty was expertehCeo in obtaining a
oouveyance of |ut&oient strength to oarXy the latter np the ghAts and
on to the estate, the boiler weighing about 8B tons, the engine near i.
After oousiderabie delay a trolly, admirably suited to the work required
of it, was obtained from Mossre, Btanei h: Oo.« and pn this the most
oiimbersome parts of the machinery (the engine and boiler) were brought
up* These were duly set in position, end the rolling end eiftiug
raaohCoes laid down opposite on beams built into a masonry ffoor.
iff^iisrs. Jackson’s new rolling tuachine (the one just erected) differs
chiefly from tueir original Invention in that not only the upper
rolling box, but also the lower table, supported by four spiral springs,
and lying on a strong iron frame, is driven direct and works in two
grooves uuderneatb it. The upper rolling box, by a very ingenious
arrangement of ‘'levelled cogs” and a side crank rod, works back¬
wards and forwards on two horizontal slide bars at only half the
speed at which the lower (able moves, thus seouriog a very powerful
roll, end at the same time a twisting motion. The maobine is again'
covered with a large upper table on which ibe man In charge is
stationed. An oval out in the centre ot this admits of the leaf to be
rolled being pushed into the rolling-box through the feed-fonnel, aud
as soon as full, a wooden plug is tuserted ayd bolted down. The
machine is then set in motion at 60 revolutions per minute, and as
the leaf gets rolled, aud oonscquently oooupies less apace, by means
ot an ingenious arrangement of steel rods with grooved wheels at
each end, oouploii with a strong iron chain working reverse ways,
aud again to which another set of chaius are attached and fixed to
the lower iron frame, all worked by aside wheel, the lower rolling
table is gradually brought up agaiust the rolllog-box, (be pressure
increasing as the spiral springs become contracted. The maoUme
holds IGOib. leaf, which is perfectly rolled in 20 minutes, at (he
cud ot which time it is discharged through a trap door in the centre
ot ihe roUiug table on to a largo tray pushed in underneath on roUere
to receive it. The maohioe is driven direct from the main orank
abaft of the ongine by means o£ drums and belting.
The sitting maobine, also one of Messrs. Jackson's inventions, is
a simple long iron frame, divided into six paces, each ooiitaintag a
ftievc to be lifted out at pleasure. The frame is fitted underneath
with three tni funneis (two solves to one funnel) Into which the
Hifted tea falls, and, by the mpLion of the maohiue which worke ai
high speed backwards and forwards, is shaken out into a tin box placed
iiudernuath lo receive lt,^iS(/'tUk of India Observer,
COFFEE.
C OFFEE in Madras does not seem to prosper so well as iu Oeylon.
lu the Koport issued by the .Madras GovernmeDt on 22nd
July 1879, referring to the results of cultivation iu 1876-77, wo
find that the average outturn was 2681b. per acre. This seems very
lo V, c jtimating the beau to bo worth 80 shiliiuge per owt.,* this
represoulH a total gross iucoiue of £9-11 per acre. There are
16,736 ooffeo plantations, having an area of 49,404 acres of mature
plants^ and 15,711 acres of jiuiuatiire. The cost of cultivatiou por
acre is put down at £14-14, showing the absurdity of a depart-
meut which knows uothicig absolutely of the subject, ooliectiug
statistics, and utterly uuablo to tell whetUertliereturns are correct
or not. ' _
ExTmtVs experiments have' lately been canted on with a
view to arriving at a proper understanding of tho causes of the
coffee leaf diseases, aud various remedies have been proposed
and tried, but it does not seem to have oocurred to Mr. Morris
wlio Qouduoted the last great inquiry with iU resultant experi¬
ment, that the disease might not be a leaf disease at
all. It seems to us that it is a root disease, oaussd as much
as anything else by poverty of soil* The potatpe disease shows
itself most markedly ou the loaf and hauliiQLi but It is neverthe¬
less a root disease, aud wo feel sure that a genera^ etopt to
improve the plant-food on which tlie«coffee ft^ds, wuiiKresult
iu a graduQl diminution of leaf disease.
h tse tom AGBiouimisT. • sei
tJoituKiicuti pro 8 p« 6 tft tiAnnot Ikd «o $£loomy in Oejlon m wo
liAVo been l«d to «iippO80. A OoioUfti^ piiper tolls us that halt of
an eatate, was told tho other d«y fhr i^s* l}d 0 , 000 y the whole place
having been bought some jreart ago (ov Ba l,SO|000« while a half
ahare att ettate in Hapatale was reoently told at the rate of
Be. 1,800 per acre. ^
, A.cotHEspoNDtiirt' writes You are quite correct in etakiug that
this industry (coffee) is falling off. The iuteMigeut planters of
tndia and Ceylon ought, as you say, to produce the best coffee in
the world, aud so they do. But the reason why the ouiti vatiou does
not extend in Southern India, which inoludes the principal coffee-
growing districts, is the obstructive policy of the Madras Govoni'
meat, whfch persistently refuses to give a X^abour Act; to withdraw
the existing vexatious restrictioua ou the sale of euttable land;
to make a railroad from the west coast to Mysore through the
Wyuaad, which is also necessary for future famine preveuliou ; or
to establish a telegraph line of comuiumcatiou with the markets.
Here is au instance of blind infatuation. An industry which is
one of the principal sources of revenue and which might be trebled
by judicious management, dwindling away, because the Govern-
ineiit chooses to retain in its own clutches thousands of acres
of land which do not pay a fraction to tiie State ; will not grant
a Labour Act to protect the capital invested and better the con¬
dition of the cooly ; will not eatablish the* easy comrnunication
wiUi the ports which, had it existed duriug^the last famine, would
have saved tons of thousands of lives, and would in all human pro¬
bability prevent the recutronoe of tlieso horrors.. U will scarcely
be credited that the cost of transport^ from tho plantations to
(ho port for shipping, a distance of sixty miles, is more than
the freight to Bugland. The oonsequenco of all this is that there
arc no new openings; old estates are dying out foi'want of culti¬
vation, and planters are chucking up in disgust. Coffee production
may drag cut a weary life as long as the present valuable estates
exist, but must eventually disappear, like everything else, if not
lenewed. There is plenty of capital and plenty of energy ready
to be expended in the cultivation of coffee, and it rests solely
with the Government whether or not this most necessary aiticle
of commerce shall be doubled in production, or disappear altogether
from among tho exports of India.
The planters have addressed the Supreme Government on the
subject, aud proprietors and merchants in England are in commu¬
nication with Xiord Salisbury.
The judgment iu favour of the defendant in the Attapadi case
will throw open ^ large extent of land suitable for coffee, which
has already been applied for, and will now be placed under culti¬
vation, and should the Government withdraw its injudicious
obstructioDB to the sale of Crown lands in the Wynaad and consult
its own interests and (he publio good by favourably considering
the planters' appeal, thousands of acres' of now profitless jungle
would iu a very few laeasoiis bo covered with valuable pJaiitatious.
PARASITE OF TTIE COFFEE PLANT.
A FBBNOn paper says:—“ It would seem as though all
(he plants from which man derives nutriment are
destined to be victimised by various parasites. According
to Dr. .lobert, (he coffee tree is tlireatened in Brazil with
complete destruction, just as the vine is iu France. His
observations woro made at Cantegallo, in tho Provinooof Rio do
Janeiro, and elsewhere. It is the most vigorous coffee plants,
seven to ten years old, that aie attacked by preference. They grow
yellow, arideto long die. On pulling them up, one finds their roots
covered with uodo.sUies or knots resembling those on the roots of
piiylloxarised vines. These knots contain cysts, in which are
enclosed small nematoid worms, about ^ mm. when fully developed
Dr. Jobert estimates that one coffee plant may be attacked by 3,
millons of these parasites.
LIBERIAN COFFEE.
L iberian Coffee is now cultivated pretty extensively iu the
warmer parts of the island. This species, though by no
means exempt from the attacks of the BemilHct docs not appear
at present to suffer so seriously from it as does tho ordinary ooffoe,
audit is believed that the cultivation of the Liberian coffee will
prove to be a profitable one, and especially so if moans can be dis¬
covered to check the leaf disease iu good time. The few plants
wo have of it uuder onliivatiou in this garden, produce fruit copi-
otwly aud nearly continuously, .the beverage it furnishes is very
highly flaveured, and to those who have tasted it, is generally
pronounced agreeable. This bids fair to be an excellent suhstilute
to the villagers for their own native coffee, so much of which
unfortunatmy has nearly died out. With the stnotiou o! Govern¬
ment a oOrtsidetable nnmber of plants and seeds of the Liberian
coffee have been distributed free Of charge, to the native villages.
A hope has been expressed that some species or varieties of
coffee, grown iu tho West Indies, may prove able to escape the
aitacksTof the and it has been considered very desir¬
able tifat the sttbjeot b^experlmentally investigated iu the gmxleus
of this wUbllshmknt and elsewhere, by the aid of specimens which,
his Excellency has kindly offered to procure from the authorities
of the respective oouutriea where those coffees are now largely and
successfully cuUivated.^Cki^fon litpoH on JBotmit Qardws*
Cli^CHONA.
W E observe from a return furnished by the Madras Govern*
merit that four plots of dnehom sncctnc&rahave been rooted
up, ou account of injury done by a hailstorm, and that their placo
was to be filled in with cmc/ioaa officinalis,
A Lokhon firm write as follows to a Colombo merchant regard¬
ing tho preparation of cinchona bark for the home market ;—“We
have been making inquiries on the subject of scraping the troes
mentioned iu a former letter. The solution of the problem lies
with your planters, for we can only give, so to say, a trade opinion,
tiiougli aomo of the people we have consulted have long made
cinchona bark a study. Tito scrapings wo have seen have been
decidedly rich in alkaloid, and (ho question is whether tho second
growth will bo equally good. This we imagine tlioro has not been
timo to aitswor, but it isau all-important point, and if you could
send us even a few ounces of this second growth, after tho scraping,
we would bavo it analysed. An impresstoti exists hero that the
tree would not stand the scraping aud that tho second growth
would rather be of the fibrous nature of the innermost bark Toft ou
the tree, than of the gummy quality taken off. Tho main thing
for you is to find some substitute for moss, so ns to adopt Mr.
Mclvor's process almost at any cost, for the so-called renewed
Wynaad bark fetches the highest pi Ice of all. Could not coir fibre
be used ? This is tho more important, as a gooil article generally
maintains its value, especially one so difiioult to work as bark, aud
with the rapidly increasing production of common red bark this
should be thought of."
VALUABLE INFORMATION REGARDING
CINCHONA.
TO THE EDITOTl OF THE CEYLON ODSEEVEU.
Deah Sir, —Boparatiou of different sizes and qualities of
cinchona baik is not requisite. I called at Messrs. Jvnkin and
Phillips' last Deoembev aud had a long conversation on tho subject
of cinchona. The most important items of practical use 1
gained were these
All the paicels offered for sale requlro to bo analysed to obtain
tlio trno value but as tho buyers oannot go to tho trouble of ajialys^
iug small parcels, they will only bay them with a safe mArgiOf
arnl it is a fact that small paicels do not realize m proportion to
largo ones. Again, as it is a question of analysis and net o/
appearancCf tho separation of largo from small bark is unnecessary^
an the buyer crushes tho sample to a powder before analysing it
I was advised to pack it altogether in good Calcutta bags aud
not ill cases. 1 saw what appeared to bo a coffee bag in the sale
room, and was informed it was just the thing. It may bo
ioteresting to your readers to know thal, iu Mr. Phillips' opinion,
tho 'prodiiotion of oiiichona in Ceylon cannot bo carried to too
great au extent—I am, dear sir, youis tiuly,
IlENUY Walter.
Boaconsfield, Rockwana, 28th July.
[We and our readers aro much iudohled to Mr. Walker for tho
intoimatiori afforded. Messrs. Jeukln aud Phillips arc right, and
Mr. J. E. Ilowatd fully agrees with them ; Cinchona cannot bo
oveiclone, in this country at least. Wo should think no paokago
can be better than those we saw on the Nilgiris, and which we
recommended a firm here to obtain through Messrs. Arbutbnot & Co.
of Madras, cit otherwise. They aro bales, not bags, of doable gunny,
with tar botweou tho folds, calculated to hold about 1021b., the
2lb, extra being for analysts.— Ed. C» 0,
AVHITE-ANTS ATTACKING CINCHONA.
A PLANTER wrote to us {Ceylon Observer') some time ago
I send a bottle containing a number of small insects; do
you know what they arc ? They were found by me ou one of my
ciuohoua succirubra fields. Being attracted by the peculiat
appearance o£ the havk of one of the tvees, I examined it closely,
and found a narrow strip all round the stem about | luoh from
the ground, cracked, aud apparently dried up. I gave the tree a
pull, and to my surprise it snapped right through at the part
inenlieuod, and the stump left iu tho ground was swarming witli,
lUo insects rofened to. I foiiud that they had complete^
under(wlried the tree, as it were, by eating away all the wood,
right across, leaving the bark only, which supported tJie tree ; they
then had evidently made their way up tho stem by eatmg out
small passages. The insects evidently gamed adniiUanoe undqr-
grouilu, from the juiuls of tho rootM, whtoh were in sonic places
decayed, the roota themselves being perfootly heaUh/t X found
362
THE IKDM
two ot lliofre Ueoa cioeo boiiiJo wh attacM with theao losoetst
111 avA tli^ on'1 of stetu ^ndaiuiiiip and root(f of one of theiia; if
you would like to boo thoOi 1 auall be Bflad to eoiul iboui dowu/’
Tbo lusecte referred to ate identified by Afr. Stariiforth GVoon ^
** wbitO'Onte of a my lar^e kind.'^ Our oorreepOudeut should
llieeilort of pursifia oil, on which another planter reported to us
many roontbe ago a^ follows The trees that were manured
with paraffin oil, in proportion of one wine glass full to a booket
of water, and about a measure applied to the trees, pouring a little
round the stem and the rest round the roots, are showing very
ftwftrably, 1 aUi' sure it keeps away the little blank ants that
support tlie black bog, if tliey do not bring it, aud'is obnoxious to
the grub that feeds on tbo coffee roots.^
TOBACCO.
INDIAN TOBACCO.
fntIjS coltivatloD of tobacco in India Is one of lbs subjects tbat has
•L recently bewi attracting attention, and there is good reason to
hope that in a few }eara tobacco may occupy ns prominent a position
in our export list as do tea, coffee, and indigo at present. At
Ghaaipnr on the Ganges, Gorernntent has ostablisbed an experimental
farm, 800 acres in extent, which, so far, is proving fairly saocessfiil.
An Ameiloan planter from Virginia bus been ompleyed to superior
tend tbo curing of the leaf when it comes into the factory, Mr. CVud
dDrins bis ludioa toor visited (be faim, and was told (bat the soil is
aotuafly better than that of Virginia, and that the crop is mnob heavier,
the American expert being ot opinion tbat tobaoco as good as the
best Virginian growth may in a short time bo produced in ffengal.
It OAQ be grown there at a cost ot six pence per pound ; it sells m
India for the equivalent of two shillings, and ns the produce per acre
ttiijoauts to beeweeu 700 and 800 pounds, the profit yielded by the
experiment is very satisfactory. Gbssipar to iauco is now weU>kuowa
ovor the North'Weat as being as goo>l, If not better, than most of tbo
imported deocriptiuns. Madras grown tobacco is irroirievably injured
i*y careless curing and had growing, but now tbat Qoverament
aliention has been directed to the industry, it U to ba hoped that in
tbo Bouthern Presidency as well as iu Bengal, some systematic
attempt will be made to induce the ryot to bestow more care at least
to the soteoUon and growth of the plant, lu addition to i>ncli care,
ull tbat iv required is the estabtlHbmeut: at suitable oentrei^ of one
or two curing estabiiebrneuts under skilled supenntenderKo with a
system of money advances t) the ouicivator, similai* to that under
which ophim is grown on Uovorumunt account m [hmgal, Australia
is one of tbc markota which ludian tobacco ought command,
Indeed, even the present coorso cht^rooti, would at un'*>» find a ready
eixld ibetc were it not (bat the system under which lbs duties are
cuileoted brings '*Tnchis” under the same headir.^ ou ^ the same
charges as the finest manufnctiirod Havonuas. Caloiitiu already
^exports course unmanufactured tobacco to Spam an I tbe South of
^liiurope, and the tiade in time will probably mcreaso. Germany fs
cuo n£ (be largest buyers of the weed iu the world. Of the
entire crop of 200,000 bogRlioada of Kentucky t{>ba''oo, more than
a half goes to the Viiterlatid. while tbo entire Maryland cro|> of IIO.OOU
hogHbeads goes to the eamo country as does uuu-liuLf of that giowu
in Virginia.—//(iwAtfy Ciazifitr.
SERiCOhtHkE.
TOBACCO IMPROVES TUB SOIL.
i Oh'TEN read avlicloB about tobacco ImprovoriaUiog laud. Ki5w 1
wish to ask the question, do?^ tobacco eurloh land I lu other
wordf do farms iuoreaeo iu fertility by the luisiug of tobacco on (bum '/
1 claim. Ves—by every sucoessful farmer.
In the first place, to prove that it is exhauntivo to the soil more (ban
most other crops, is sumothiug more than to make the bare assorlion.
Give os the analysts of one ton ot tobucco (1 acie) and UX) btishelH of
corn and 6 tons of stalks, or 10 iMit^Uels of oats and 2 tons of straw, or
the average of any other crop p’^r acre, and that will prove by theory
which is the mosiexUausiivo i but let ns take a leMf>»n from exponcnco.
Let 08, for iosUinoe, laU three pieces ot land. Piinoh the saino. put one
to corn, ojue to ouls, and one to tobacco. Thou let U6 seed rhem down
in the fall, and 1 think experience will prove that tbo grass after the
tobacco plant will be much heavier and uoutiuuo so longer than after
the other crops.
1 know, as for os my experumcc goes, thoro is Uv; crop that leaves
the land io as high a sta' < of fertility as tobacco. Iliad (he only
trouble is that grain and }. ar'f a|>t to grow too iieavy upon it, but
not so ofteo ladian corn as uafn. I suppose any heavy crop is exbaua*
tlve to the soil, but 1 think tobacco is the least so of any crop I cau
raise.
Does not the thorough oulUvation that tobacco gets in midsummer
draw from ilie atmosphere proper ties that you do not get from many
other crops ? 1 think farms about here are more productive tbaii'they
were before tobacco was raised. 1 know on my owh place 1 oaed to
cut less than In tone of hay ; uow I average from 40 to 50. Bo with
most of the tobacco raisers in this section; (bo products of tho farOCB
have increased some 50, some 00, anJ tome au nuudrad fold. That Is
the way we are “exhaftetiug*’our land—'by waking two bladts of,grass
grow where there used to be but one.
Certain it is tbat the raising of any crop siiocossfuUy on the same
litt'oe of laud would exhaust o>:iy(in properties vt
crop calls for ; iholrefore 1 Ijelieve in a rotation of crop'). Mi anaiyjtls
of different oropeper average yield per acre, would be very Inierestiug
as roll as instructive to formers, Is not some one prepated to git* ua'
the A Mmeettadt '
SILK IN qPRPfSFORfi
A GOHKKBFONPESTT has luruifked notes
regarding the sllk^iodnetry in th« Gaidas^a dSsIriot. This
dustry, he states, has deoHned somewhat since the death of
Mr, Halsey, and several persons who would have been slltugrowms hod
that gentleman lived, have failed to keep silk woimi Sraniof <m*
oouragement and help in the way of advauoas 0;f eggs, ifioney. &o. Tito
present season hae moreover been an nnfavqiifabla non; 10 some Iti^r
staooes all the silk^worms of a sUk-grower base dMd op^.apd iho ylaid
has not been generally more thgo half that of atiavejia|e ssnaon. This
mortality is ascribed by the natives to the eff^ of ihe.wititor drought
on the leaves ot the mulberry trees, but ili is ibore probably aue lo the
lateness of tiie season at which the eggs are batobed* The price ootaiuea
for the cocoons is about Bi. 80 per maund for iiupierped oocoone. ao4 at
this rate there is a fair marketj one native gentleman atHmritsur alone
having, It is said, purchased Bs. 10,000 worth last year, and he has
sent men into the district again this year to eflaet purehaeee. An agent
of a Bradford firm has also beea making pretto exteniire purehaiest
and It Is probable that he will buy the Into Mr, Halsey'# fllature at
Bujanpur, and rear eilk-worms io the neighbourhood. Tfio silk Industry
of tbo Gurdaspore and Esngra districts is one of ooosiderahle interest
and importance ; and at present when it may be said to be languish¬
ing, every effort should be mads by the looal authorities to foster
and increase it. The extensive purohasss alluded to will, no doubt,
liave a good effect; probhbiy muoh better thau any system ot ooooou
exhlbitfons. and distributions ot prises would have prodUoedi though
it is understood that thes^will he oontlnued.-«P(cnesr«
SILK-PROD^NG^BOMBYOES.
M U. ALFBGD WAlLLY has communicated some notes to the
JBat(nmU»jiiUt on the^eproduobiou of certain tilk-produciog bom*
bync4 in a state of confinement, which bear upon his oommunication
pnuicul la the Jaurml for June 0th last Cp.062)
'i‘ho two spooies—Aftttcur Peruyi and Ahmio f^nf^^^O'-’pair very
readily ; bitt with most other spoeieg pairing is the exception rather
than the rale. Why sbonld Pernyi and Cynthia pair very readily in
anf eitnation, and moat other species only accidentally ? In a state of
Nature certain species are reproduced to a far greater extent than others.
When in a state of coofiaement the moths of exotic or even native
species sufft^r from Several ouuaes—want of room, air, moiflture, ltd. With
respect to native spaoles, the cages ooutaiuiag the moths may beplooed in
the open air, and moisture may be supplied by watering the cages or plac*
ing wet sponges in them; but exotic speoies, if treated iu the same manner,
may have to suffer from another cause—the olimatic difference between
their native conutry and tbat of Bngland, or any o>ber northern oonniry.
Hence the difficulty of obtaining fertile eggs, especially of exotic
species, even supposing that male and female moths emerge simulta-
ueously, which is not often the oaeo unless a large number of pupso be
kept, lu the middle of July 1 had at one time twelve fresh Atlas moths,
male and female, throe of which were of the grant raoe, yet I could not
obtain a single pairing. Previously I had ohtaiued a pairing with two
of the smaller species ot Atlas, With about fifty cocoons of Pyrif X
only obtained three or four pairings.
I'knne persons think that it they have a few pupm of one species they
me certain to obtain fertile eggs. This is a great misiake, although the
tbmg is not impossible. Now, with respect to the time and duration of
Uio pairiug of the species mentioned In my notes, Propiathea moths I
f<>aud lu pair in the afternoon, or early in the evening ; most other
Species, very muoh later. The pairing of Yama.I^a^ mil Preamthea
m very short; that ot Pernyi and Cynthia is of very long duration ;
that of Cecropia is long also. The pairing of Polyphemut with some
moths is vary short; with others, it lasts from about 10 or 11 o’clock
in the evouing till next morning. The pairing of my Atlas moths
lasted from about 10 or U o'clock in the evening till seven o'clock v.M.
of the fullowiug lay. Of four pairings of .Aeftas two wereof
short duration, from about two o'clock in the morning tilt about fire
(three hours) ; the last two from (be same time till about seven v.M.
the following day. The average quantity of fertile eggs obtained from
the fmr pairiugs was about the same from oat^h female, the duralloti
of th ^ pairing having bad no effect, that 1 could detect, upon the quality
or qu Mitity of fertile eggs; and it was the same with respect to the
fertile eggs obtained from Polyphemus.
L h>ive kept about forty pupas of JSndrmis v^frsieolera, with (be
ob,iect of obtaining fertile eggs. Ooty twenty moibs emerged—eevtni-
to»n malos and three females. The first two females did not pair , the
third iQtuule did pair for a considerable time, but died without taying a
single JS. i^nrsicolora moths em«^rged from the begtutiiog of March
till the h.u of April.
Moths of AUaens Meylei all emerged from the 5th till the 20th of June!
seven males made their appeoranoe first. Babsequentiy 1 obtained iavon
fine females, which I placed with equally fine males io eeven separate
ages ; but I regret to say 1 could not observe any ot tho eouples ineoitUt
A llpyUi is a vory wild species, resembling tnahopeand habits S.YaokO^
Mai The eggs are simitar, but eomewhat larger than those ot M, Pernyi
From the fact of my having been unable to detect any poitiog ot 4,
UoyUi, it does not follow that the egg# I have obtained wiU be stOrii#.
tht) pairing taking place sometimes very early in the moriiiai, at l« the
case with Aaiica JSehne, and tasting bat a very short iiine, X may, there
fore, yet hope tbat many of the egg# wiM be fertile.
Of OahynUi 1 hare just received tweDty.Jour eggs, bpt only
three lent# have, as yet hatched; these refused h eat ohestnut and oak,
aod have died, The other eggs, which seem in good condKioUi trUl
verv likely hatob; if so, I ihteud tryiug other food-plants.
The tong and sevafe winter we have bod seems to have affeoted my,
pupm ot fbe different speoiss of Lepideptera, and hae delayed the
emergence of the moUksftir several weeks. In all pcoMiiry it ha«>paosed
the death of msny of the early spring speeles, euoh as AjaAmnis vm^
cehrett Jhylid Jhg, dttaeue Spinif and otbert<—/ewHLil.
THE
VvV
INBIM AGEIOULTPEIST.
A MONTHLY
JOURNAL OF WDIAN AGRICULTURE, MINERALOGY, AND STATISTICS.
VOL. IV.] CALCUTTA: SATURDAY, 1 st NOVEMBER 1879, [No. 11.
NOTICE.
COBKISPONDENCE.
The Inman AaRiouiiTuwsT mil he supplied to all SohooU and
Mkeimtmes in at half ^prke.
E. KNIGHT.
Oftlcttttft, let Fob. 1876.
CONTENTS: ^
Faob.
COBKXS1>OND«NCS<»
The Nilk^worm .803
Leaf Difleaaa aod the differ, v.
ODoo between Maonred and
Unmanared Coffee—a FrsotL
col qaestioD .t, ... ... 303
Praetiool Hiota on Culture and
Barkiug ...
... 361
The Date Tree...
... 364
The ludian Olive ...
... 364
The Palmyra Palm ...
... 863
The Keeping of Tea ...
... 365
Reona Laxurians
... 365
A New Fibre. •
^.4 86o
Kotegurh Notes ...
... 365
Lbaoino AXTlCtittS—
Agency for Tea Compiles
... 866
The true eause of Agrioaltuml
Distress
... 369
Phospbaiio Msuoros
... 379
Agnoulturol Tcachiug
for
ludia..
... 732
The Bvueace of Agriculture
... 378
M. Montolar's method of Agri-
culture os steep lands
... 374
BoiTORiAii Nom
... 375
ConUUNlCATlCS AND 8 bLKCT£»«*
Carolina Paddy.
... 877
Native Agriculture m Jaffba 877
Opium ..
... 877
A few advantages of the use
of Lime ...
... 878
Tropical Caltufcs ...
... 378
Chicory..
... 389
Farina ... .
... 380
Balt with other Mauuros
... 380
Common Salt ae a farm manure 831
The Cultivation of Booaomio
Plante b South Auatialia ... 331 |
Tea, Ooffeoi and Chooolate ... 388 ;
AtanUaHemp.* ... 833 .
Petroleum from the Cae plan .. 834 '
Pa OB.
Abyasiman" Tube*wotts ... 835
Wattle Bark; its Oulturo and
Conservation .386
Agri-Horticultural Society o£
India .337
Gahoen-*
Treatment for young Fruit
Trees. ». 833
Fruit growing by small Far¬
mers . 888
The war with. Cabbage Tests 338
FottEfltaY.-
Notes .888
Minhbaloov—
Gold Prospects ... ... 889
Metal pri^uction m Ger¬
many .«• .. .889
Authraoilo Coni Fiolds ... 339
Mineral Statislics .. ... 399
Thb Planjeks’ Ctazhixu-'
Tba—
The TeaPlank.390
CoWBE—
Indian Coffee.. ... 891
Commorcial Pweport.801
Coffee preiuiralion: iuo ob¬
jection to Bising and Divi'l-
ing Small Lota .892
Disease m bbe Brazilian Coffee
Plantations. ... 392
Clirri'HOifA—
Notes . M» 392
Ciuohona cuUivalion inTra-
vancore .. 5f93
Sbiwcultubk—
Notes. 393
Silk Culture in the Nortu-
West.393
The AiUathus and its Silk¬
worm .893
ADTBBTiesMiaiTS .394
NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS,
Our Vort^eepandetUs and Contributors will greaUg oblige us
if they will take the iroubU, where the retuhis of oulUvation are
stated by ihm in Indian and maeures, to give their
Ei^lieh eguivalentSf either in the textf tn parenthesiSf or iu a"^
jfbot-note. Tfw bijgfult in parUcular varies •moh in the dif
frmt ErovinoeSf thoA if i$" abiMd'tMy necessary to give the
Englieh vedm ef U in cdl It ikould U a great reform
ifl^ Qo^rnm^ Ueelf ^aUowd tfii $m$ omec in edt the
THE SILE-WOBM.
TO TUH EDITOR,
8ia,—Though 1 have roared silk-worma now and again (or tho lost
ten years m the Punjab^ 1 havo never had on opportunity to try
roBUlts from feeding with the Chinn and FhilUpine Island mulberry.
As 1 have done bo this year, 1 write the results. Though 1 had only two
oimoes of eggs, yet the greater part were addledf and X had not more
than a few hundred worms, 1 however did not lose a single one from
disease or otherwise. I hope neat year to try the experiment on a
much more extended scale, when 1 hope more facts will come to light
os to failures from want of proper treatment and the disorders these
creatures are subject to. 1 hear in Nurpur and other dislrlots. and
oven in the Maharajah of Cashmere's territory, that a great number of
worms had died, probably from bod treatment, and also from wanton
destruction under the false notion rf their being diseased. With proper
ventilation, oleonliness. and a due regard to warmtli and light (when
the season is unusually rainy), 1 think success ought to be certain. I
think the diseases attributed to ooustitutional degeneracy are ex¬
aggerated. 1 always tried the worms in ibetr early age in baskets^
and when half grown, transferred them to natlvo oharyoifg, the
excrements of the worms falling below, bat the worms of themselves
(when the leaf branches are piled on, so as to a admit ventilation)
climb op to air and light, only going below when moulting, The
feeding of worms from indigenous mulbarry yields from seven to eight
thousand cocoons to the seer; the yield from foreign mulberry feeding
was 4,200 coooooB to the seer, so that the outturn was Joublo. The
cocoons are also well formed, large, and closed groined; there will
be a yield of six ounces of reeled silk to the seer of cocoons, 1 have also
for some years been experimenting on the wild sltk-worms Aniher^ea
l)aphia, which feeds on the ** her’* tree. I hope before 1 have done
to bring these under domesticaUon : 1 have but paired them once, but
next time T shall have eggs home reared. The silk from these is vary
good, but the ooooone require boiling for several hours before admitting
of reeling. A solvent is needed, which 1 hope to arrive at. 1 find 624
dry cocoons of this Tuesa make a seer. The moths will only couple
at night, and they have to bo put In a way so os not to feel Oonflue*
meut, but at the same time kept from straying away by Bight.
Now that the sbawl trade has lust public notice, and the Oashmereee
have a poor prospect before them, it is much to be wished that more
atteutlou was given to sericulture so os to give employment to these
people in British territories. They soon take to the indastty,
W. J, B.
LEAF DISEASE AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
MANURED AND UNMANURED COFFEEA
PRACTICAL QUESTION.
( 2*0 thf} JSditor of the Ceylon^Observer.)
Bib,—O offeo manured early la the sooih-west moasoon not only
makes new wood, but the old branches exhibit grand and luxurtant
foliage, and perhapa alongaide unmanaredjeoflee with any crop gets
• shuok* and covered with the red spores of leaf disease in Its third stage.
Acoordlng to Mr. Morris, the disease enters the leaf and feeds tberem in
the wet weathsr, rl^wns and throws out the spores about this time of the
year, ^hy does the disease already in the loaf, show in the unmanured
coffeeand net on the manured irees, although It must bu present to the
saute extent In both t . U there, u unsthome out whether the tree is
manured ot not.
FLANm
86 *
THE INDIAN AQRimTOIST,
PBAOTlOAIi BI»X8 ON OULTUBK AND
BARKINO.
to tBM loiroA Of va» omoa O^sskvsb.
Si^-Yonr ooirreapondebt '«4 BBbiwrvs la CttwadBA,*' wrHloa
uadet thii liMdlng* li, 1 bare not a doabt, quite eorreet when he eayi
thele ie not lauoh fear of the produce of thlt loiaU island ever glattiDg
the Diarhet I do not beliere the present high prloee will leatt but if
Ceylon aende good eexed berk to the market, ^it wUl he maoy years
hef0M there la maeh rddoetlbn In its «aloe.
The prieee now aeenrad for Ceylon hark ehoatd not ha eoneldered by
a lotkg way the maxlnittiiBy tor it Is a Caot that within the lest nine or
twelve inoQthe haik off what shonld not be oalled treesi hnt planti*
fliiite lie trey to Ootottboto be shipped. I have myselt-^ind 1 know of
a greet many othere«we«b off the btenohes of oue and two-year old
plaote which hae fefhhed itofiSd. toonesihfllltig perlb. Tbiepays*
for thaooet of leouriog the hark Ie very little* Yoo send half«a«dosen
oooliee wltt| knlvee to ent off two to four hranobes from eaob tree. At
4 o^olooh they carry these tb the store; neat morning one woman will
take the bark off all the iwlgt brought by the sis coolies. Thera is no
doobt that yon get better treee and sabbOth atemi by keeping the treee
tree of tho heavy lower braoobei, and at the eame time yen get the
hark ok these twige to sell. 1 have often thought lately that the very
low pride eoiae tbipmente of berk have Cetobed mtghi make people
Who intended inveetlng in Oioobooa think, the bark was not eo valuable
after nil t but no one except Ibe prodnoera knowa what rnbblak has gone
to Ibe market to obtain only from Sd, to U, per tb. Large quantitlea
of hark of tble description finds it.way into the Lindon market; there¬
fore the average price taken from present ehlpmeots can*! be taken aa
a maxlmnm. or anything approaoklng it, compared to what we should
gel when Ceylon aends bark to the market from a forest of trees five,
lU, and seven years old. Agents m Colombo ebon Id get from the
owner a description of the bark they send from the estates . small twigs,
about half tbe ilee of a pencil, are barked, and this is shipped home.
Book berk cannot poaslbly oontain more thau a particle of the
properties of qainine. Stem bark of a Otiuhoni^ i§i Uallr tree two
years old will eall for 3i. 6d. per Ib. (1 have seouced Ibis price), and tbe
twigs of the same tree lOA to Is. these ere gom) prices. At the same
time I hope when tbe prtoe of Osy Ion bark la quoted again in your paper,
Vou will be able to let ns know how old the trees were, and whether they
were ball dead or alive 1 Many wiU not believe that os high oa a«. b4. has
been aeoured for bark from trees that have been pull I out by the toule
(dead, to elear for eupplying), and have been left tor ifnmths in tbe hot
iuo end rain on tbe ground. You would fancy (here was nothing in the
dry stick I uerertheless It sold for the above price. At the eame time
1 cannot help thinking these experiments will do a great deal ot
barm to this fine cinchona-growing island, unless the pubilo are
informed of the reason of these very low dguras It rests with the
agents to get the Intormatioo. They should give euoh Informatiou
to tbepnblio when il is their lateution to publish aooount eales,
if such aoopuQt sales hae oinohooa quoted at from 8d. to Is. the lb .
no good stem bark.eitber from or Sttooirubra has ever felobed
such a low price.
1 have often thought of writing regarumg the way oinehoria clearinge
are planted. 1 am of opinion that OJhithMhi at iiiet go*cfl are toe elose,
3X8, they should for the Arat two years or eo lie pleated 6 X 6 or 5 X 8;
the plants will have better stems. 1 should after two years plant
In between, to that tbe last planting would oome In for barking two years
after tbe first: tbla gives time for good nurseries between the first
and second planting. I think It Is a pity oinchona planters still
try to get treee from onttiogs. How mtny are now alive of tbe
luililbaSofruttingesold from Hakgela. 1 believe Hakgala eold between
fonr and five million plants grown from cuttings between 1870 and 1876;
had onaiourih of IbHW ffvod, them woold be fine oleatfnga t > be aeen at
present,are there af 7 alHhete phmm olive? 1 think not I I leel
acre this acoonnU for the large patakas that have died, of whieh are
referred to by yonr oorrespondent ** On TSfi Bf&tiA*'
QUININB.
THE BATE TREE.
TO TBB SDtTpn Off TBB TlMfeg OV tMPta.
0. W;* eaanott be aware that the date has been thoroughly
aeOlltoktiUed In Sind for years past, and )n most plaoeSk notably
Ilbtee, on the baaki of the lodua. Upper Sind, grows to perfeetton. The
frnit^lmeh, moist, and dry—being equal to tbe beet Imported from
Arablii The aailree have a |radUloo that the tnv prang ap from tbe
aeede of tfie detee eoniumed by tbe lavadiog armtoi MAounder (Aiexaa*
der), dates as they allegSk foiwiog the prtoeipal potiion of the food of
that aimy.
Tbe two grows fWoly Irosttkl send iff both tho WIginhniindA lee*
ported frolti as also from shooil* This laUir modo of ohltem R kitdom
lecorted to. and only la tho OiM of tho rarw varlstlen tho itiioral
ijiotttodbWng,wlionasomMartikoo vip i gowoliilrittA for Ww to
give hla lahourore tbelf mlddly mikl of Iho ffUMt datOe ho can
prooOte, it being oatoii and tho icoAi seottomd aithky follow fbolr
avoealiODSi
Tho troo grows at the rate of about 18 loohoi a year, hears In seven or
eight, the fruUJmproving with the age of tho tree, Thoprodnceof
the commoner OMoriplIona soMe on the tree at BofgO at Ba 8 por
tree, while tho finer eorto range from Bo, i to Hi. A
From tho fact of the date tree bmngoomom to ill Stfia, hot miAoom-
lOg to the greatest pertedfion at Borosi t oonolade that it not only
requires a very dry climate, hut also a peooliar soli, snob as that ot the
date groves at Roree,—loam and sand.
It 18 my opinion that south ot Bind Ibe date will never oome to any¬
thing but the stented Mndttorei or toddy tree* 1 hnvm however, had
seme very fine dntee off a tree In the oompoundof an Arab JemndaT nt
Uydrabad, Deoono. bat tbnt tree. M lav M1 oig leacfii Is the only one
in the place.
Bxcepfe now and again in Karraohee» the date tree is never tapped for
its juice.
SOmDBB.
Hydrabad; Deeoaq,
.Mi l i ij ..
THE INDIAN OLIVE.
TO thb fipiros or tub liADfiAS mail.
Sib,—-A s you were pleased to publish my letter regarding tbe wild
olive t.ree ot IndiA I write you a few lines il you think the subject
worth a little more speoe. My reason for doing so is beOnuee tho
JiangoM ffassfw still oontinues to urge the eultivaHon of this tree as
a sure xneeui of adding immensely to tbe revenue of British Dnrme, deal*
log out a sly bsokhanded rap at the oflloere ot tbe Forest Department,
•Imply beoense (hey have not found out tbe valne of this tree, and by U
added one more Item ot revenae to tbe ineolveut exchequer of Ibe
Government, not thinking (or a moment that these unfortunateo oeo •
not get labour enough for tbe legltimnte work that they are bonnd to
eooomplish. and eecure money enough even for that, But as Devoee
oil ” from America sells ohenper in Rangoon than tbe ornde eoTth-oll of
this plaoe, according to the own showing la Its Issna ot tbe
nth August 1877, so will the production end value of tbs olive-oil of
Burma be to that of India, if the oil nt any time should be manufio-
(nied largely for export to England and other metkets. What, then,
will be tbe benefit to Burma under such cohditions 7 Of course oapi-
tahste are at liberty to invest anywhere, but is it not likely that they
will take into account the immense difference of having to Import
labour Cron India at a rninous cost, besides the prohibitory and penal
oondHions that tbe Government impose on employers of snob labour, aa
compared with what they could do in India with tbe greatest easei
getting labourers just when wanted, and at a very moderate rate.
India has an extonelve network of roads and an immense amount of
labour, and when Burma is able to stand on an equality with It in this
respect, she may then strive to work out a loaroe of tevenna In under*
takinge of this sort. But when will that time oome ? An In^olveat
Government has taken to killing the goose In every bode find oomer
where one ie to be found, so good-bye to golden egge for a generatlmi or
two.
In tbe /nfiraft AyHoulfuHsf of 1st Augnet, a native eorreepoadent
'otere very fully into the valne and usee of all parte af the tram though
le acknowledges in the first instance, that be is not await of anything
Lko spirits being manntnotnred from the fiower ea itated tay mfi, This
be ought easily to be able to find out from neighbouring dfitftfite, and ne
th .tojfwy of the Tamils nod the mswoA of Bengal and Orliie filO «ton
and the eame, he or anyone else will eaefiy get a ready MlWfir to any
inquiry loa this head. If tha tree grows on the marglo of a river in
whioh thera are fish, and you went sport there, elt owiBifitmh bang¬
ing over tbe nver when the tree is in flower, and you will see the fleb
rise up, open moathed, to eetoh tbe flower as It goto spififihig dowfi !hom
tbe tree. The wfitor in tbe river at that time of the yeaf Is elear, eo
that tbe fish is phle tosee and he ready to rise open moothed to oiiteh the
flower. At tble tlfim lha ** Ohoraoher/* n pers^ of tha oulliTitliiig clato
In Wynaad, AH ot whom om epleadid bowmao^ may ho oeett toated on an
ovarhioglng braneh, how in hand, nod tbe moment the fleh Is above the
water, tbe arrow le sent into it; and whan tha man thinks ha baa
anoogh. ha oomaa down, and gees laoklmg lor thO fleh, trhtoh niw
easily louoA to otoh arrow hae a thin Una tied to the and <o( Horn
86 to 40 Inehea to length) a plaoe ol sefa pith heinf attaahed
to the other find ol the etrfag, whiab toil Oa ahaat ftfitotog ffhfirO
the flih hiiatot aflfihor, Tha wMtaittllto
miyifit a <At tfi«9|$tt ^ MiuSm. M
««ll Mitt t>»l«b ii;4^ 1^ ProvlWM. Wlw twA IIi#.
iaA. o| i ^ ’uw 19
or «teo bj lb* fUJM» «b^ito
from am toxtam m «(M^,fiitb li^w4i<Uj fm tl. Tbe
wtimr itijbtt iiml to mokb Ibo oil Mff»r ooliiMttf {^u^omo, it muii
amt bo tmitod in oow<4img| ana aetor l<erttti ilooaib it, U !• thoii at
fof ti«o» If tail li tbo nnif w^f. 1 woodor lo wbot oataat tbo Soglitb
pablio woald potroaloe it, ooltaa kept in m bUmfal • Mpb» of igao-
vaooe, oa the oorry«eatiog portloo of Bofopeaat.imtt o|bfri are with
refitd to fbo maoiier ia wl^eb Mie tonntiio or eatrOo Jl tmaN
it feta ioto %h$ the prooem batog the boilfog of tbeeai^e
in a «iter| n^atmol im«.^iiag, 1!*bia ia oied in all mriea made
in the Ifadraa l*raeldeooF, aa wall aa for all tbo prepamiaoBi of the
enfry-powdar mannfaotnrtd for home and axpottaiiioii. In Bengal
the root doee not undergo tbia prooera ; thap nae the unbottod root)
hat to anp one from Ifadrai eaeh oorrlea bare a atrong nanaaoua
flafonr. It la onlp the paateof Ihe raw aort that the beUea of India
mb deer their bodlei after batitinf in iltee or tankp and it la onlp
(be nnboilid root timf^tbe meeabanti ihtp to Bnropa.
to mp prarioai latter I atated that Kraaaa and Italp make two-
thitda of ihatr eoHMlled o11fa-oU from the gingelly aeed of Indie,
Would it not then be better, or more pvoflteble, to menalaotoM it in
Indie to on equal itandard. iberebp finding more emplopment for
the people, gettlag more velna from eooh produog, end ‘hering the
oU-oake for oattlo or mannva f Thera ia no donbt bat that the illapey
oil wonid be moat faloabie elao in the meanfeotare of eoapa.
Bangoon*' OBBBBYBB.
the” PALMYRA PALM.
mklag with ptbefahif lad^da* dimfeti fw, I apd aea4 pfm
a amali lample of the mpMi Ifter^.
MUBB mm um4m^
Qhowtoprne Tee ITaotorp 1 1
Almorpi^j^piaon, 14th Opt, ld79^ {
NpT8,?«We ahell be happ 7 tp ah 9 «r,the.d|bm to anp onfu^o,, f, A*
1) 1 II I. . i | i|ii > i )i ii '*» i w« i
KOTBGORH NOTES.
8^B^-Tbe weatber baa been faronrebip darlbg l!i*^ ppion^b,
Thera wpp a alight falltfbpU on tb« 30tbftb^ I
aq unpreeedentad c^qrrenoa—or at all ereiite, a mp mm onh-rduflpg
thia month. The be aaid to hem Woken pp eWnl the Hjnh
uC the antumnpl aq«liipf,^i.a. tha29fd. The mprniiifa a^ gopemllg
bright, though the afternpana are c1op4p« BowerW, tl)Wo. la
inn to dry the graaa after it hai bean out, preparatmy to ill being
made up Into bundles and garnered, and to aisltt the millele and pttleei
to ripen.
The following ia a oomparatlre table of the peat fire aeiiOBe >-
1870. 1 1876.
1877.
---<
1878.
1878.
1
Hally day’*.. .. '
..
*.
1
BAloy ,. .. til 1 IS
6
A
8
V«v]r wet 1 Damp end
month; moiot; plongh-
plcngUins, .wg aun
hay-moktug, making retard
dm., retardsd, od. huttabt
kor the mU|(ui
4 pulse orojM
Dry. Hny
abundaot.
pry;Uio«gli
not more than
enttKiiently so
molfltmie o(
previous
ttoixh.
lag£^r
mfidp*.
Si!i,*«-Wf hare been naked if It ia poaalbla to aioartain the number
of f Wmprn palm imae within a radina of ten mUaa of Oalonitn. Oan
yon naifit na t
IfAOEBWAH k CO.
Oalonttn; laiOfitober, IS79*
THE KEEPING OF TEA.
6iB,—Willyonkiod1yiQ^oun me whether tea, if packed in aoldered
ahaebiaad oaaea, will deteriorate if iept for any lenyth 0t lAm ? Alao,
whether paoking '* tea in fin" doea it aoy barm 1
JOHN E.S,TOUNG,
Fenaharat Peermeir, 30th September 1870.
REANA LUXURIANS.
fpoor iwne of let inatant, a eorreipondent aaka for aeeda
of the Taoilnta (Eaann luauriam), I have « large qnantity for
diatrlbation-<*^raiU—and will be happy to aond a packet to any
applicant* Mp aeeda nra from plante grown lait pear at Pennakonda,
in fiellarp fiiatiiot, from n tew aaade nbtained In Oaiontte,
H* BOSS,
Madrna Olril Serrice,
Qootp,l9th Septembef 1879.
A NiiW FIBRE.
^Eirdl m littdhtg goa by tCKdip^a poet a pamal eontafning mmplei
qf flWe |ife9»f«^ bp, me ffom n plant grown on tbii eitate^
0 mppla iethe fibre rea^ for the market nnhatoheled.
A V H Mun8 fibre aftM hatabeling,
B H u tow taken out of A In hatebeliog ; It baa not been
wldppad.
I^ttxiwtlmtnti Ifinfi mp.&bm laetrongerthea^hatof Bhea, and for
imik BAdWtTmUaf i think U M wnmaqiad. If pon will j^ke the trouble
a tbriad to .atae of No. B ooUqd, pon will gat a reiy
ta|^ idea ^ lie itfengtb.
I hqm mat Miaplaa to diBerent partial in order to get eome Idea of
Ml Bngliih filfie, and It the mporti am tafoarahle, X ahaU make a trial
aUpmontofvalMMtme iloppapa^how 1 do not oonaidet it of
qgp, I hWlh»f?t^ get the fibre into n pnip.
I^l^,he^«)|d W.hffur year opinion q! tbtfibra, and forfahort
mqijQe ^ the fibm la ^oni 11 hqnmtlp yon oan write fatohrably
el'lt.''
I,ah^lmaatiqn (haU^.p^t.^ l^nd^ qn mp mq, and that
the oaMUty X epfilf IhtthtF W moW^P A ttneitioaot eepltai., Im
wo4tlf^*ome b| the fibre tatp mnthW h Tbi^blpAmdo loom, td
fbr lwAO^^ bt of tnine for
Light winds; alight thunder and lightening; bright mornings oloedy
aftarneona; aun sets ooeaaionally very faeoiitifol; atmosphere brilliant
and clear ainoe the last third of the mooth; dewy momfoga during the
last week.
The tbeunoxttoier (Fahraobalt) hung in an open rerandah W, eapaet;
areragea in the morning, 67<’ in the eyaniag*^highaat 70*,
lowest 60*
The spaduc of the Arum fpooktum is now a brilliani eoarlet* The
akireUa la lu fiowar, and will be fit for gathering iowarda the
end of the month, just balora the aeed arrlvea at matority. A
fine tall grass (vein, Ka^l) beleoilng to the N. 0, 4^|wriilsm'«»8edga
family-—is in flower, Itie panicle presenting a vary fine appeafanee;
It grows in dumps, the atoms reaching 8 to 7 feet high ; spme Cyporiaytat
(the roots) are good for food, ofchorsare used as bilter and (oolic remcdlsa,
others are aromatio; pot bay lug identified this pna, 1 do not know what
its use map be. Patpra m fipwer at hagitmiog qi the month, fruji
formed towards the end, ready for gaUiering neat moplh ; the seeds are
nsod iu aathmatio oomplaiata, and the learea are applied to boils find
ulcers. A a Artloiisia (yen, Ckamhri) ia in flower; the joioa from the
leaves fthey reaomhte those of the Chryiantkemum) is given tp core par*
ache; it must not be coufouodeJ with the JO>buih, whieh, al a litl/a
distance, it resembles. Ground orchids and terns in plenty, Mjiohifplmm
daisy in profusion.
Cbnkore are now beginning to come Into the onltivaied fields to pick
up the Mcds of grain.
Monkeys are on their automoal tour, devasiailog the crops of the
villagea to a great extent. These animals pass up in spring nod down
in aatomn, but whiibar they go in summer and wintar no one knowa.
Ooooons of n wild ailk-worm (varo, Thryu) are now found fittoobed
to stalks of grass aud sUruba. Tba natives balleve them to ooma from
beaveo, aud to be the temaina of ahootlng stars, No nao ip mnda nl
them here, but in neighbour log districts they gre ground op and applied
to sores.
The villagers are now busy giyiag thuh fialda the firqt plooglng for
the entumo sowings, as they always like (0 turn pp Ihe xarth
at least fitteen to twenty days before they aow their ppedr^O pi tp let
the atmosphere permeate the ground. lYbpn Mmssa^is SOffi next mQpGi,
then the fields reoelve thcix second plpnghlfig. The WPtoMS, ttf ^ihe
present aeaion has retarded their operation tbUyeaO cqnnot
be done in wet ground, tbeagitk aljtprwafds bpppj^qg the
passing and repaesing of the cattle apd drlyarav In evjpirp dlracj^ltm la
heard the shoot of the ploughmen eoconragipg their iM^Uqoka to
continued activity, and the reapcoslve grunts of the bnlioeks na their
tails reoeive an extra twist, doubtliew qbieoliqg to ll^e
ceedings. The villageN are also preparing their ipfmnrf bttgipf, for
which pnrpcae they cut the leaves and young boughs of trees, m^ tham
in altemnte lapera with tbalr cattle maonre, and fa this maimer donhia
the mannrial prodnoe of their oattle; tbay like the min tolpfi npoo
tbeaaheapiionito wahhtbe manurial frpperdae ipto Ike ktoltornfid
poimg bougbi to enable H to tborongblp fermenti and semeke Ihf ukole
366
THE INDIAN AGRICDtTDBIST.
Nov«(iilteF it 1379.
o&« mksa for tbilr In «p»ir« ttoiftent#
m ftico eoHeotlug thetr winter store of firewood, which th«y
gUotr tiodcr the esves ot thetr hoaios, gn ag to hare H hacdj wbenthe
toow is ou the groood. todlao^oora (nro« JTdMi
a millet; Panmm wiliaoeim (rero* and ties
(ver». JEalok, white kind; ifnm, red kM) are n^ow htiog harrested^
The fooli ot the viltagere* huts are quite gay with • layer ot
Iadiaa*oora spread oat to dry betore being ilireihed oat; their
appearaooe reminds one ot the apricot geason, when the apriootg are
also spread out In tbo same way to be dried before being stored for
Inture oonsamptioo* 4oolh8r crop, Paspa^m Aer^hievlainn (rern,
Ko4&h^ JTsdfvt) is nearly ripe; after a heavy shower the stalks fait over,
ond ooosiderabie loss to the villagers would euane did they not take the
earliest opportanliy ot straightening the stalks and binding them
in sheaves ot ton or a doaen together; in this manner they remain
standing, and the grains can then ripen properiji
Qrass is now being oat, drie^l, and stored for winter use; the bill
hiystack Is iiotbiog more than a oolleotion of bandies 160 to 200 In
number, piled round a pole about IS feet high ; the heap slopes
upwards, and ends iu one bundle staok on the top ot the pole. The grass
is usaally mit by women, who oat about aixieen bundles in a day ; boys
and men carry it away from 10 to 12 single handfuls (vern.
make a buudle (vern. F\da)t and fifteen bandies make a cooly's load ;
it is sold at 120 to 180 bundles per rapeo. The aatumu harvest prooiisos
to be a very good one, so this will make up for the partial loss ot the
wheat and barley crops. Wheat and barley seed are very difficult to
obtain, and the bunneabs and others areesaoting high terms from such
of the oalti vators as are obliged to borrow. Food-graius are atill dear,—
wheat 7 seers pet rapea ground, 8 seers ungrouud ; rloe 5 seers table ;
7 seers coatee ; Indiun-^ooiu 10 seers ground, 12 soera nagroond,
We are fairly into the UU ot the leaf,*’ apple and aprieot trees aro
the first to shed tbeir leaves, the colours of the former being rluli
brown, of the latter yellow and red, after them come horse ohostnut and
walnut, both with lighUbrown leavoa.
. ... ,r,
Oold-^heiMicdfinch
Hill Ht Ci*7v^m ‘ > ? v ’ ^ >
Hbbby< 'i ^ ^ C \> ■
Xiark fincb« v . ^ ^ ^v,'
Magiido,Himalayan,' ^ ,
Owlet, targe , . , ,
Pigmy owlet (tyfawn), ' " : - T , '
Pigeon, whith-tsettied (eoU ^
Uoso-h«aded fifioh. * ' ' ^
Bobia magpie. , j > . <
Book pipit, Himalayan. ' > ....
Boiler (vern. miUnt), In the Batl^ valley.
.Red wattled plover.
Spotted fork tall (vein. UalHMUkt,) ^wlains;
Stalling, Indian (in the autumn).
Sparrow-hawk, Indian (in the valisy,)
Xree-oreeper, Himalayan.
Tit shrike.
Thrush, whlla-neoked, laughing (winter bird).
„ Himalayan, spotted breasted,
„ YeUow*billed whistling (vern. JCati XUetr),
„ Streaked babbling (vern, Bhakfa)^
Wagtail.
Woodohat, white-breasted, blue {SygepUw
Woodcock {Soolapaoo ruftlenla),
Woodpeokor, Bafous*bellied, pled {Byp^pwm hgpet*ythmif)*
Woodpecker, Roaly-brcasted, green {0eeimi syumunAtu^),
Wood owl,
Wren, 'white-throalod, Indian.
FIy*catoher, while browed, blue {JUuthapula superciliaris)^
„ Virditer,
Thrush, whLte^hroated, laaghtng iOai’nlaas atlyiiUrh)t in winter,
,, plain.backed, inoontaiu vutHHina),
One day iu this month the natives hold a *' bullook and oow
festival,” the bullooks have tboir horns ornamented with garlands of
flowers, and receive a special alio wanes of salt, also some wheaten
cakes ; the cows have their foreheads anoinfed wi:b oil, receive a
apeoial allowance of salt, also some wboaten oakee, bat their borus
are not ornamented with flowers. On the day of the festival tbo
poorer villagers are fed at the expense ot their richer brethrou, Tbo
festival is actually the commencement of the operations for the
autumnal plougUioge and sowings.
The narolssus is in flower, unprecedentiy esiiy. Jews' cherries
(by some called Prince of Wales' ohlllies) in fruit; ainlas, dwarf ohry-
eantbemums, dahlias, petunias, dwarf petunias, asters, roses, fusobias,
phlox, stoki, convolvulus, myrtle, mignonette, Afrioau marigolds, oafinry
creeper, Ice., &e„ in great profaslou. Tea plant in flower.
Potatoes are now boiug dug up owing to the spring drought, the out*
tarn and sieemnob smaller than,usual. Tomatos.nuoamhers, pompkins,
beet, broad boauf, peas, kuoUkhol, all yielding well. That giant pump,
kin already alluded to, is in shape oblong, and tneasures 27 inches iu
its longest diameter and 24 inches in its shortest diameter ; when it is
weighed 1 will let you know the result.
G. ?. P.
Kotegurh, September 30lh, 1870.
My brother*In-law, Mr. Ben. Bebsob, Oudh Forest Department,
a capital shikari>nd ornHhologUt, who is up here on leave, has given
me the following list of birds obtamable in this neighbourhood, all of
whloh he has shot at diflerent times on former visits. He has promised
to ampUfy the list one of tbese days, when he can find the time to go
thtoogh his ooUectlon ot specimens
Ash-backed shrike.
Bulbul, black, Himalayan (Sypsitetes psaroUen),
Brown-backed ground dove.
Blaek-tbroatod iaugbing Urnsb,
Baiiting, BimatayivJ (vern. Mine^),
Brown^fronted woodpecker (Piam i^nmi/roNje),
Ofimson-headed black woodpecker—(higher ridges).
Oiiprifftnfcus nriaffm (Indian night jar).
Oommon night jar (Capri iwUm)*
Changeable white eagle. .
Oookoo.
Ottokoo, Buropean (Ci^eutm
Ouokoo, Himalayan, pled,
jxTSS:
OrojrUM-wMbler.
Ofdlt btobat rfrans). ’, ^
OmtOagliM#
Sttilian llpilluitttpt.
CALCUTTA, NOVJSMBMJ2 1st, 1879.
agency poll TEA COMPANIES.
I T would bo a tliousond pities if the tea industry of India
were to bo smothered out of existence by difficulties being
placed in its way. That there have been difficulties—aye
and serious ones too—cannot bo disputed. In the earlier
stages of its oxistonco up till now—for they are hot yet
removed—the industry has been cramped by oppressive
measures of Government relating to the imported eooly. That
grievance has been of such long standing that planteTS and
owners have become quite accustomed to it, and would almost
think that pomothing were radically wanting if it wore
suddenly withdrawn. It is now, however, on the fair way of
righting itself gradually, by means of the new opening to
! Assam, by help of the Northern Bengal State Bailway, which
will doubtless help the Daijeellng people too, when it has got
into comfortable Working order. The labour difficulty in
Sylhet and Oachar is nearly at on end, as so 'many of the
original coolies hare settled down in those districts that what
mnr nbw be called the local population hee increased amazingly,
and the introduction of the proposed railway lo Hymensing,
and which will certainly bo conHnued to Oadiar hy way
of Sylhet somo day, will complete tliis detltekenco. So
far as the other tea districts are concerned, "with the
exception of Assam, the labour difficulty may be paid ncfjt
to have arisen. From time to time gHoTanoee have heen
prominently brought tC the Itront, carefully aired, afid qtdetly
forgotten. 3ome of them may have been rekl, find perhaps as
many imaginary, but there is one wldch has come to the
froxit fiomh shbirt time a^, afid ill lUcelp to rmnahi theie uxrlH
it Is^ fidjuflted some wfiyi<-«we refer to the cost of
geuerMly- 8»0ni^ Jias lately been smd abpjtt
mrnmfiMPi * 367
propmitie$|lQ|^wil a« to
liftTo to wy will teofolo rrfor
iQOJro4oy%iigot^ an4aire«^^^^ |)tokor my
beiodwec^yl^ghtinto
9%or!^Oiiti;fMino doubt that tea is passing tbrougli a oriels
atihe pteseatmiaont This crisis has been silently opproseli*
i»gy<«; erne years j we have seen It oonung slowly oa, but
nutil lately we have done very little to avert perhaps
because wo have failed to approidate those causes wMdi were
pushing it forwi&d > to its dtatax. That elimas: has dmost
been reached, aud when passed will most probably lead to
better days dtanever for tea* ^But il no steps be taken to
remove the causet of those reourring crises, we must make up
our miada to face another la a few years, and now that compe*
tition is stronger than it was formerly, we may look for that
prospective colh^ at a shorter interval than prevailed
between the last two. The first great crisis through which
tea passed was from 1865 to 1868. Prior to the former date
the industry was (^uite in its infancy, and tHe property of
planters to a large extent consisted of young tea, on account
of which the most extravagant notions of pro^t existed, which
were used ns a warrant for the indnlgenco of unlimited and
utterly inexcusable expenditure. This coupled with a general
want of experience on the part of all concerned, brought about
the crisis referred to, a wiser experience was the resnit of that
and the planting interest recommenced operations (in many
cases) on a very much improved principle, a better class of
managora was obtained, and considerably lower salaries pre¬
vailed, and from that point up till 187G the tea industry steadily
progressed, as will bo seen from a glance at the following
table per Bs. 100 paid up,—
DtiCt *
Sept.
Oct,
Deo
I April lAii?.
Oct, Sopt,
1S6S.
♦870.
1872.
1873.
|1874.
jl875.
1870. 1879.
Aaiam Oo.» hd. ...
76 ■'
100
205
200
200 1 200
350 350
l^ctnaal t'o,, Ld.
60
60
r>9
84
87
1 97
1 82 58
lUHoaih Co., Ld,
65
48
172
iro
178
I'^O
2(i0 ISO
IMIuoff Co , Ld.
Dehrft^oon Co,, Ld,,.,
26
19
49
82
80
! 7^
' 08 67
3
6
89
76
72
1 hi
HI 73
Uurruug Co., Ld,
liittBtora ('iiioli«r('o., Ld
S3
28 ]'
67
C2
69
76
[ 76 ft)
75
106
145
140
160
185
Mft , 101
Kasl India Go., Ld. ...
18
2C '
76
7t>
73
85
76 ’ f>7
Monachsrra Co., Ld....
25
27 i
&6
70
77
OJ
76 ' C'i
Muttttck Co.. Ld
.21
02;
80
86 ,
40
5)
70 1 6)
Now Mirtuol Oo., Ld...
1 107
2o0 !
423
410
607 ,
800
71)0 I 633
ISoom Co., lid.
25
u
DO
65
82
90
97 ; 90
Avars (res...
1 44
56 1
119
124 1
186 '
1 108
163 ^ 139
The fall in value of shares since 1876 has not been so great
os one would have been led to expect, simply because in spite
of the low prices obtained for teas and the low dividends paid,
shareholders wore generally alive to the fact that these
drawbacks wore only temporary, and that their scrip was in the
majority of oases a valuable property. Now with regard to
the earlier crisis, we have seen what was the predisposing
oausot wchavo also aeenhow that cause was removed, and how
in cofiaequence, tea again commenced an upward march; we are
noiv at the turning point of another, and it behoves us to
^ook for the cause of this as well. We have no hesitation
in saying that the agent is at the bottom of it all, but we
must not bft supposed to be here impngning the honesty or
ooOipetettoe of the agent personally, far from it $ perhaps it
might express our ideas on the subject better were we to
use the term. ** system of agency.” This is, the cause of the ^
evil, as m, shall now eadeavqur to show, la the first place
if the agent wore all ihot oonld possibly be desired, hp is not
requited^ta his present form. The manager on the garden
has really the wwk to^ do, to him the shareholders Itve
entrusted iheu^ Inihrestsj, and in posamg we. have no hesitation
in statingt os the result ol^ somewhat lengthened experience,
that they could not >enhmst couwns .to better hptds,
an tea mjmagcrjlsn gentled works hard
for hit employers* intemV and who it well worthy of the
tmit repoieditt Uiu, * Sat it will ho sold that he eanuot
attend to certain work that can only bo done in Calcutta $ very
true, and here an agent of $mHC klud is necessary* As we
write ir!e>have lying before us the annual repoHs of five
companies, in whose accounts the agents* fccii aro separately
recorded,—rather an unusual occurrence we may note in
passing,—and from these it appears thet largo sums are paid
for agency, for instance—
Bknath Tm Go,, Ld.*
...Hi. 4,fl00
Durrupg Tea. Co,, Ld.
... „ 4,300
Indlstt Tea Caabar, L-k
... 4,000
LebongTea Oo., Ld.
••• •». ti C,000
Tukvftt Tea Oo., Ld.
... „ 3,400
These sums divided by the number of ft), of tea made, shows
that agency fees cost as near as may bo four pies per lb., and
this is the bare foe, and does not include the incidental charges
and commissions. A note in a contemporary the other day
mentions these as ** 2| per cent, on tbo gross proceeds of the
crop, 5 per cent, on purchases of stores, 10 per cent, interest
on advances which aro absolutely safe, 2 J p^r cent, on largest
amount at debit, &c.” Assuming those chargon to be sub-
stanlittlly correct, and wo arc not prepared to dispute them,
shareholders will see what tlieir agency costs thorn. When all
these sums come to bo examined,—wo le.avc out meantimo
the interest on advances,—^aiid when with this total the
amoCnt of Directors’fees is included, the giand total will bo
equal to about one anna per lb. on tho ioa made, and this
be it noticed is a calculation esmeerning companies whoso
outturn is largo ; on smaller companies tho system is simply
ruinous, falling much heavier rufa. It is no ("Ccuso for this
state of olTuirs, that the agent frequently advances large sums
of money to gardens ; veiy I* u<», but when they do so, they
take exceedingly safe security, and charge interest in the
usual way, so that need act be nrged as an excuse. That is
n banking trunsiielion, and being e-oniplote in itself, there is
no necessity for mixing it up with cousideiulions of agency.
Th‘*r6 aro othm* two points from which W'c can look ut this
cxpendittiro. Fmt, it absorbs •.'iilG per ceul. of the dividend,
and stcondf if tho money to bpent—the aveiago of theso
five compaiiics being Ks. -l/lOO per annum—were iitiliiscd in
extensiouB, it would suffice to plant bom 20 to 2o acres of
now tea every year, without any call on tbo shareholders
being nccossaiy.
Tho agents having no interest in the garden beyond Iho
safety of whatever advances they may linvc niado and their
commissions, are jieibaps qu>tc unintonlloiially doing their
best to destroy those propeUi^ s. At tho present moment tho
managers of gauleiis arc not mukmg the best teas they could
make, they arc not making tbo class of they ddfiirc to
make, but they aro largely manufacturing maphif; teas to
order; tons which are a builesquo on tea-making, and that
are not by any moans what the Indian article should bo, but
they are wbut the agents want. Mr. IJaildoit in his pam¬
phlet ** Tea ill Assam,” says (p. 7,) “ Flavoury aromatic tea
“is not wanted from India. Sufficient of this roaches the
“homo market from Chin a ulmobt every weok. Good solid
“streuglh is required in Indian teas, and if men who under-
“stand their woik, aro put m cbiugo of factories, I see no
“reason why pioprietors need fear the results of their
“ investments,” am again (p. oo) “ tho old plan of * psuiniug*
“ is, 1 believe, a Cliinese one, but planters in Assam are fust
“ giving it up. Tho reason for panning is to tone down (ho
“ harsh rough fiavour of tho tea, ho as to make it mellow to
“tbo palate, Now, as I said befoio, sufficient tasty aromatic
“ toa reacbes tUo homo market from China, without it being
“necessary to increase the .‘ilocL by importations from India,
“ considering that teas from this couwtry aro invariably used
“for Btrongtiioning the China aiticle, rough malty strength
required, and if such is sent, no complaint
will be medo I fantcy^ unless indeed Inditm tea is di^ank
alone^ sad then a HUle panning is not out of p)see,**
'^be Euiiiot is etidentlj c^nite inoapable of disoertllfig Ifio
fact that in so writing ho is, against his own oohYietkmii
recommending bad tea to be made. What he says really
amounts to this, we don’t want dtie delicate teas» bat strong
pungent coarse sorts, that we may do what we can to help the
China manufacturer to soil his weak insCpid rabbUb, and all
this the agent sanctions, because ho is too short-sighted to
see ahead, and because the system secures him his commis¬
sion in tlie moaniime. In obedience to borne diotatiou, these
orders are sent up-country, and the bitter, pungent, rasping
leas are sent to Calcuiia to bo forwarded to the London
market for mixing with, and aiding the deficiency of, China
teas, whereas it is an incontrorertiblo fact that if Indian teas
are to suCcced In creoting for themselrcs a market at homo, it
most be by tbeir being superior to tbo China teas in all
respects. The public who like good tea, do not object to pay a
fair price, but in paying this good price, they must have a good
article. This will never happen while the boisiering up of
China rubbish goes on. If the agents’ commission were on
the profits, and not on Uie gross outturn, he would very soon
SCO this in its true light. And is there no romody for all this,
wo have not thus probed the wound without having a remedy
to propose. The disease is deeply rooted and has taken u
strong grip of the conBiitution, and a drastic remedy is
necessary. It will not do to inodify its effects, the disease
must bo rooted out entirely, and wo propose to attempt this.
We suggest then the complete abolition of the present
system of agency, aud that the Tea Companies, public and
X>rivato, should be their own agents here. Thiti, carried out
literally, would be a manifest absurdity, as it would not pay
for each garden to have a separate aud independent agency.
It must be done on the joint-stock principle. Let us take
the Cachar and Bylhot disirlol, and sketch out u x>lan to see
how it would work. There is an annual proiluctioii in these
districts of about 12 millions of lb., but ns many of the
gardens are so bound up in the accounts of their agents,
that they could not join any movement of this sort, we wul
suppose that one-half of the companies and private owners
join. This would represent an annual iirodiice of six million
pounds which would pass through the agency’s hands. Tak¬
ing 801b. to go to u chest on the average, we would thus
have about 7i),000 diesis per annum. Tbo agency would
receive these, if instructions had been sent to have them
sold here, arrangcmenls would be made accordingly ; if on the
other hand they were to go to Loudon, they would bo care¬
fully Been to, covered with gunny if such were ordered, and
shipped according to instrnclions; if necessary they would be
drawn against, and the amount passed to credit of, that parti¬
cular company’s account, if sold in Calcutta, the proceeds
would of course be similarly treated. Thus tlie work would
goon, aud for this part of the woik a very small establishment
would bo neoess^iT, As during the busy season from ten to
twelve thousand ch sU would be arriving at the Agency’s Office
juonthiy, there is a t ’'cosou why the sales should not bo con¬
ducted there, aud by the Agency’s officers. This of course
might bo an after consideration. Kow let us look at stores.
J)y the mere fact of the manager of the agency requiring
each largo bupplies, ho would bo able to make' the best
arrangements as to quality and price, and on this item,
and on that of the sale of tea, all agent’s commissions'
should be 9uh We come now to tlie keeping of the
conatituents’accounts, Well, that need not bo such a difficult
matter after all. There ^are some tea agCTits h^e who have
about 200 gardens' in their charge, and for of these they
must keep a separate account, and surely the ogency could
keep inch as well. The acoounttot would keep a ledger
aeoeunt for eadr'gafddh ell
would ho ehowfi, all eioiei'
debited, as Well is idl eapeaeaelaeiiN^iod^ w fWNMe al
saleswouldbe duly oradiled,
charged imiuftt ft fisihiag ^
mission; at the end of each meuttb a atateaiet^ wdold bft Mde
up of such exponseft as coidd be cbftifedk^dadt^
gsrdene, speh as office rent, salaries of Bhixbpeaiu fin# haUvW
establishment, #e., and this sitm would debited to eadi
company’s aceount in the propoiiioii of ^
represmiied by the oompany. These etpeimei need^ not
exceed altogether the sum of He* 3,500 monthly, which sum
would include all usually ^presented by ** Seorotaly^l idbw*
ance” as well as Directors’fees,” and would also embrace
Agents’ commission/* ** oomnusalon on stor^ purchased,”
and erery ting else in that line, end os it would be the monthly
oxx>enditure of property represented by about 00,000 acres,
it would not amount to more than two annas per acre per
month, or to look on it as a charge on each lb. of tea, it would
amount ta about one pie per th. per, aiinam> instead of one
anna, as is entailed by the present arrangement. The tbtal
saving in that half of Cachar and Sylhet would bo about
Ils. 350)000 per annum,—a sum that may make all the difference
in the world between profit and loss.
The only difficulty in tbo way is the directorate, which is
an entirely useless appendage as at present conducted. Wo
propose then that a joint directorate should be appointsd for
the purpose of controlling this agency principally, and would
suggest that as many companies and gardens as possible
should select the same gentleman here to represent them, os
their director, to avoid making the board unwieldy, and that
hia duty will bo to look after bis company’s interest in so far,
that ho will see to the shareholders’ instructions being carried
out by the manager and the agent. The united corporate direo-
torate shall only work together in regulating the work of the
agency, and in seeing that everything is economically carried
out. They will appoint say three of their number to visit the
agency regularly aud confer with the manager. Their duty
will also consist in examining all vouchors and in {daciug their
initials against each entry thus vouched for in the separate
accounts, so that when the independent auditor appears on the
scene, he will only have a question of accounts to settle. It
must be distinctly understood that these directors are not to
be nam^ke-wastef but men who will really devote such portions
of their time as may be required, to doing their duty by their
several companies. To say that yon could not get men to
do this work unless they were very highly remunerated, is
to brand mankind as utterly selfish, and if such an opinion
; is held, it is a powerful argument to the abolition of the
. present system of share directorates. The dlreotors would
meet on the agency premises.
This agency will require fands, doubtless a small sum will
be necessary, but only to the extent of two or three montlis’
cxpimses, aud that should be, provided hj the oonstitnent
members, and need not be a serious drain upon the funda
of auy company, Dy^and-bye ne Uie system gets into
working order, it might, and would be, advisable to establish
a similar agency, on a smaller scale in London, when it
should be the aim of the ageney to sell teas to purchasers
without the intervention of ^ddlemen of any sort.
Itmay be said that this whole soheme la an interfereneo
with private trade, but there does not aeem to be afty objeotioa
to that, and besides these are times when it behoVes the tea
industry to make ft mighty efifort to recover itself fstm the
slou^ of dei^Oftd into which it^ has allowed itself to drilfk
Itegariidag ^ eom^eotioft which exists ^ at present
between the oomi^es and their n^aneglBg agentifond asore-
tallies, there dew net sews »heh dilUftitt in ^
'ts^ ,889
of iMlii|'-<^»^ nikm••mifr i» good,
iMt^wor boTiog to bioid bimiHdf lioad o^d foot
to Ow wo nnder prasoot ftjrwgw^
' V .M < ■ ! IIj IImi. . ^ i
tROB 04U8B OF AflaiOUWURAL
DISTRESS, ^
Mr, Hope’tf Daodtu Agrlooltoriatu* BeH^C Bill in
X A reoeint iaciue, we pelnted out tliet Uio curse ol the country
ie to be found in the rigorous aud vigf^rotts retenue eyetem
which mekes it* e heinous offenoe on the pert of the local
oBoers teeuggeet suspensions or remiiieiotts in years of scarcity,
not in the mohey^^dcr who enables the coltitrator to tideofor
his difficulties, U is this system, we said, which turns scarcity
into famine $ which impo^sriehes the peasantry and depopulates
the country ; which is the great damniog vice of British rule.
If any proof of tliis were needed, it would be found abundantly
in two recently published State papera<--(he Report on tho
Administration of the Bombay Presideooy for 1877-78, and the
Report of the Allahabad Board of Revenue on the Revenue
Administration of the North-Western Provinces for the year
ending 30th September 1878. Both Bombay and the North-
West suBered severely from famine during the period, embraced
in these reports. Yet the laud revenue demauh was rigorously
exacted from the peasantry in both provinces. Tho con-
sickwatione by which this harsh and unwise course of action
was justided are explained in the reports mentioned above.
In Bombay the total land revenue demand of the nine famine-
stricken districts arnonnted to nearly a million and a half
sterling ; and almost the whole of this sum was collected. The
remissions sanctioned by the Government amounted to
£25,&61, or less than 2 per cent, of the total demand, Sir Richard
Temple thus defends his action in this matter
« The qnestlon of what should be the policy of Oovernment with
regard to Ibis, tbe chief branch of the public revenue, was oUe which
presented itself early In the famine. Leniency In one district, where
the distress sod injury suffered by the cultivators might have been
really considerable, Is weirknown to be tbe signal for those else-
where, in plaoss soaroely touched by tbe famine, to withhold pay¬
ment of revenue, In the hope of obtoining a similar coooesilon. it
was clear, therefore, that Oovernment, however generously disposed
towards those really deserving of conslderatloo, could not prudently
bold out auy hopes of remfssiont being given to these ontlt (he
time for actually realising tbe early instalments, which fell due in
January iu most of tbs districts, had arrived. In the meantime
tbe minute sepervislon and inspection of their charges by district
officers bid been the means of fnrnlebiug Oorernment with detailed
and (rttstworthy iuformation regarding tbe condition of tbe land¬
holders, and the real amount of damage sustidned by them. In
tom parts of ih§ oan^trff this damage was very heavy ; amounting
virtually to tho lees of the whole eeason*e oropt In other distrfots
tbe failure had been only partial, feaviny, perkaptt enough for ih«
suhtiUenoe the ecoupant and his family. Then, again, the pit-
vions oondition of the agricultaial classes in respect to solvecoy
varied, as was remarked iu an earlier portion of tbia chapter, in
different Uiatriots^ and with It their power to bear losses incident to
their ooottpation. Tbe assessment of the Government eharga on the
land is fixed aecording to the system in foiee in tbie preildeacy
atn rate that metMeallewaoco for any, hut the extreme^ vitiations
ol the leaeoUi and on. the principle that the charge tbopld be suob
aa will allow one harvest to balance another, there was also
the further considtraticn that recent ia^uiriet bad shown Govern-
ment that in a good part of the dtstriois to whiuh the failure
occurred, the condition of the peeplt was not speh as to jnstify
tbe beUef that the aUandooment of auy part of tho fitate demand
would tend to alleviate the dietreia of the agrioolturat oiasses.
Upon these oonsldetationi Government determined that rewnue
should he foregone to aa small an amount as possible. Oolleotions I
were ordered to be made as usual from all sooh as could pay, without
pauperising thsmseiwa} the eoHeetion of the aeseesamnt doe tsom
pereonawW were merely’temporarily embarrassed, was to be eus*
pended lor the season^. and remiselon allowed only to such were'
cleerly anahle to papt etther then ox 4n fnkre.'* ^
The italios iu the above pahsftj^ gre cure, ^rite extrant. is
long, hut we have thought M tb aBbUr Bin Bfbhavd; Temple to
exj^laifi, in his oUrn tfordls, the obhdidhrdtloiig upon
Bombay Goyerfimeat*^eri^ the pvexioiiff ^uptloisof ^Ootern*
ment of India, of coarse*^^termlued to exact the land revenue
rigorously fmm the peMntky in the famino-strlcken diairicb.
Sir Richard hiinsolt admijte that in some parts of the coantry
tho whole season^a crop had been a total failure, aud that ^
I other parti, perhaps enough had been left for the aubsUUnce of
the cultivator and his family. Moreover, Sir Richard could, not
deny “ the impoverished condition of the oul^vatiug classes in
the central portions of the famine area'*-«that is to say, tho
districts for which Mr. Hope's Beocan AgricuHarista' Relief Bill
is intended. Yet Oovernment determined to forego revenue to
as smalt an amount a9 possible. When this determination of
Government became known to local officers, they naturally did
not veiituro to reconuneud remissions and suspensions to any
great extent, for fear of iaourriog its displeasare. District
officers knew that heavy suspensions would lead ultimately to
roiniesious, and they saw no ground to believe that remissions
would ‘ bo accepted by Goverumout. . There was, therefore,
nothing for them but to do what was done—wring the utter¬
most farlliing from tho impoverished peasantry. That tho
oollection of the land revenue greatly increased tiio sufferings
of the people from the fumiiio cannot be denied. It would be
interesting to know whal portion of the indebtedness of tlie
peasantry in tho districts of Booua, Sattara, Alimodnuggur, and
Bhulapore was caused by tbe merciless cullecliou of the assess¬
ment during the late fumine in Doiabay. The cultivators who
had enough left for tiie subsifttence of themselves and their
families, might, if the State landlord had not been so hard,
have tided over tUoir difficulties without resisting the money-*
lender. It is needless to say that the harsh oourao of aoUcii
followed by Government, has involved the vast majority of
ciiltivato«’s in the famine-striokeu districts of Bombay in hope¬
less embarrassments.
We next come to the North-Western Provinces. Sir George
Oouper, iu reviewing the Reporii of the Allahabad Board of
Revenue on the Revenue Admiuistration of the North-Western
Provinces for 1877-78, describes the character of the agrioulturai
season of that year In these words
*' The year 1877-78 was iu every way a oalaiaitoas oue for these
proviaess. The khari/ was generally a failure from drought, A
providential fall of rain lu October 1877. euablod the cultivators to
sow the rabl over au area muoh lancair tUau U usually under ouHiva-
(lou la tbe cold soasou ; but (he unilmity rain m the muutUs from
FaiirSary to May developed rust arid blight, iviiioh greatly dim In fsb.
eJ the produce; where the crops escaped blight, the grain was light
owing to the prevatenee of high hot winds : hall storm, of unusnal
severity and extent did great damage in many rMiages, aad much
giain when collected on the threshing-floors was injured by damp."
In short, the net result of tho agrioulturai season of 1877-78,
to use the language of tho Allahabad Board of Revenue, was
a general failure of the kharif crop, followed by an iiidifforenfe
mhL'* When tho, question of tlio realiaation of the k^usrif kkl$
first oamo before the local Govornmout, Sir George Oouper
lepreseuted to tho Govoruiaent of India that the oollootioti of
tho asaesament, in the face of the total failure of the autumn
crops, would **ruiu the mass of reveiiue-payem.” But the
Supreme Govermneut pointed out «that it would be a direct
encouragement of untlirift if the deinmia were even to be
suspended on any great scale"; and the confident expectation
was expressed that the groat bulk of the autumn iustalmeut
would be collected at the ordinary season, and that suspension
would be granted only in cases whero tliey were absolutely
necessary;’ It should nob be forgotten that the letter from
tire Secretary to the Oovormnent of lodia, expressing those
views, woe written on the -Ith of October—before *'a pro¬
vidential fall of raifl’* in that month had secured the raH
sowings. The fate of the spring crops was indeed trembling
in the balance when tho Supremo Goverameut expressed the
confident expecfcaliou that tlio great bulk of tbe autumn instal¬
ment would be ooUooted at tho ordinary season." On receiving
iustruotions from the Government of India, Sir George Oouper
addressed his famous letter of the 10th October 1877, to the
Board of Revenue about suspension of the land revenue demaml
for the kharif hist$ lu cousequeuoe of the failure of tlio crops.
It ww explaioed that ** the demands on Government for funds
are at times so presstug that it is Jmpossiiile to authorise a
gORoral suspeasioUi imr, great as the failure of crops ia seme
lias is « n^aiiura o( this
Str deo'rifa Ooiifrw 4iraoted asamM^TS wllf
capttalisis, wlii |iat« other “ol mi &bSo.
whofio tinaala have sav^ a portion o« X\ti\v arope, and ^Stterally
all who aan pay wp, should Uo reeiuNiS to do so/ ♦ » ' • ♦ ,
Oft titO otlior hftodf suepeneiuu tnaat bo grautod to thpSo t^ho
could not be mftdS to pay up without foduoing ihhm to sooh
straits a« would render thoiTi unable to incur the ueboBBUty
expenditure on the cultivation of llieir lands in the cold
season.” The Board of llev'ouue informed district otRoers that
in viow' of the pronuse of a good spring harvest afforded by
the late rains, propoeate of reinission of revenue would be
proraature j that those landliolders will be oxouaod from tho
payment of the li^hanf Mtf 9 at Urn presonbed dales, who can
satisfy tho Government demand only by rooourao lo the monoy-
le oder; ** and that so much of the ant innn instalment as would
aatiefted from
the proau of the rabl. Armed with those instniotions, distrmt
olTicWfl, aft might be ospecteJ, made every possible effort to
realise ibo Government demand ; and the conseflUGnce was that
in tho North-Western Provinces Us. 1,85,00,000 was realised out
of ft total Ihirif demand of Ha. 2,14,90,000 ; and in Oudh
118.52 81,474 was colloctod out of otoial demand of H'l. 0.5,21,480.
The uuroaliaod balances amounted to nbout 32| lakhs. ‘*Th6
balances,” remarks Sir George Couper, «ropresent the amount
that was swspeaded." Tho Lieutenaut-Goyenior is obliged to
mlinit: Thif much of thu inoney paid into iU State treasury
lu landlords iOMhorrotvedfrom money-lenders; the great increase^
in the number of documents rogUtered would tend to show, ana
jjtohably the difflcuUy of iMig over the hard times in the cold
weather of was aggravated^' Yet the Board of Uevenue
bud distiiicay told district onicers that those landhoUlers wdl
be eteeased from the payment of ike hhaHf hists at the prescribed
dates who can satisfy the Government demand only by recourse to
the moneydrnder:' Mr. Auckland Colvin, lat« Oolleotor of
liiinour, and now in the sorvico of the Khedive of Egypt, says
thatiuspiioofthe relief afforded by the siwpeiiBiOn of half of
the hharif demand in his district, » money had to be borrowed
cu a large scale at a liigli rate of interest, and much jewellery
was sold or pawned. Ilegistorcd deeds show a very heavy
inoreaso, and so do Irausfeis of property. A calamity such as
that of 1877-78, paitial though I't was, guts a district. Em¬
barrassments have boon renewed or created, which in too many
cases will never ho cleared off. Add to this the mortality and
the emigration, and wo eUall find, as tho famine clears away,
a population reduced, greatly impoverished, disheartened, and
dialocfttod ; a proprietary loaded with fresh debt; and,
oreutunlly, an iuorsuse iu tUo Irauntet o£ land ifo.ii tli* ngri-
ouUural l« tlie iioii-ngriouUuval clM8. Thnt U our prownt
iwpect nud proapeot. Suapenaioii o£ Uud ravenno leawna tho
dutraw>,b«touu only i.iitigala it." £l ia impoaaiblo to expraaa
girongor wurda lUuii llieso lli-< miaohief cauaed by Iho
ligoroua oolloolion o£ tlio kharif hi»t iu lUo North-Waalarn
I’rovittoou iu J 877-78. , , . .
The beuofft of remissions in oases of destruction of crops is
uuuaasliouable. Wo aUauld cartainly l.aar le» o£ lUe inouey.
lender if oui revenue syKtom were not so ligid. As tho laW
HOW aUnda, couaidetatiou h aUowu only when exoaptionnl
oalamilioa attact paviioular IruoU. Whoii tUe crops bare
beondOBlroyodbyliuilor (loods, aud tUo cultivators ate tUroateu-
od witU ruin,4?to«ilrt oetion ia taken uudor seotioii 25 o£ Aot
XVllI ot 1873. lit «»«»“ “ remiHsion o£ revonue is
emutsd- aud Uie .ondhtilder thus relievad is mads to give
rimilar rslisf to liU ic.>«uls. But tlio prJuoiplo embodied iu
seotion 23 ol Aot XVIII o£ 1873 cauiiot he applied where tbe
crops have failed from dtougUt. . TUie dialiuolion is altogrtUsr
illogical and invidious. The diffieroaos in tiie mauner of lUs
tuUi of tUs f uHivalor should not elsad in the way of gtBBling
him reliet I£ his rents aro forgi.ou when his orojw have bssn
destroyed by hail or floods, lharo is no reason why a similar
I*® *'''*'*
failed £«« drought. TUo question is a most important one.
The ooadltion of «» agricultural class iu India cannot be
improved without making n»»teiial altsrntioueh. -f et^timsyetem
of Und roToaoe, M regards both assessment .m.l oOlleotiim."-
5{<)t<nnon,
'cttUivatlofi.; The mm ^
rocka formloft the earth’s and
scattered, by the physical, ohejii<^V agiooie^^ntifteasii^g^y
at work. Phosphates occur in
mica-slate, and other metamorphl^i'i^k)*. $faV#ttr&ee, layoWiotised
ores have frequently a deposit ot pKospUafe lead Of mu
ors). The fractured and other iitffhees of.olay-sHe are often over¬
laid with phosphate of alumina. It is present, in varying quantities
in limestone. Apatite^ a mineral phosphate ol ^me, ia loupd in
great abundance in Sombrero, Navassa, and Aruba,4n thel^lliunriheen
Sea, and iu St. Martin in the ^Yest Indies. In Norway it ooenrs in
the fissures of syeuiUo granito. CoproUtei, the fossil bones and ^nng
of exiluot animals, contain a large percentage of phosphatosi, and
are quarried for agrloultoval purposes ia several parts of Engiand,
France, and South OaroHiia, These rocks formed iuto soil, supply
phosphates lo plants. Plants store them Up in their seeds iu large
quantities. Animals which feed on these seeds and other parts of
plants gather up \n their bodies large qnanUties of phosphates,
ohiciiy iu the bones. Piiosphoroue is also an essential ingredient
of brain and nervdtlssue, and it ia discharged from the system iu
a soluble form in the urine, and in att iusolublo iu the solid
excremouis ; hence the value of guano which is the solid excrements
of sea birds accumulated for years, and subjected to more or less
weathering influences in almost rainless districts. There is a per-
oeptiblo increase of ph qspharous m the urine of a ui m who has
tuuoh bfttin-work, compared with one whose tissues are used up in
manual labour. Here is another instanoe of ” the great round of
Nature." I’liysioal soience knows nothing o£ annihilation, nothing
of loss; the very suu-beams of the geologic post are stored up in
coal to brighten aud warm the winter darkness of to-day, and to
feed the machiuery, by means of which man is changing the face
of the world, and harnessing tho forces of Nature to the Triumph
Oar" of civilization.
llie two chief sources of phosphates for agrIouUural purposes
ai‘e tho bones of animals and the mtnoral phosphates already
ohumeratod.
Bones came first into general uso when gltention had been called
to their marked effects on the exhausted pasture lauds of
Cheshire. Lands used for feeding cattle for many years could not
fail in the end to be all but drained of their soluble phosphates.
The phosphates contained in the milk, and in the building up of
the bo ny frame-work of young animals were carried off the land ;
and only a firaclional part returned in their dung. It has bOen
estimated that about a pound ot phosphate of lime is contained in
from25lo 30 gallons ot milk, aud the drain on land every year for
each cow is about 80 pounds of bone. The effect of the application
of bones lo land rendered almost storilo by a prooess'of this sort, was
very marked. Bonds were first employed in the form of half inch
bones,”—'that is, they were broken in pieces sufficiently small tb^paM
through a seive with meshes hall an inch sqnaro. In order to
shorten the inlorval between the app lioation of bones and their
offoct on the sojil, the bones were further reduced < iuoiae aud
appUed as bone-dust. Btill further to hasten their aoUoa on land
defi^ent iu phosphorus, bones worefemented,—that is, half inch
bones were placed in a heap, moistened with water, and excluded
from contact with the air by covering them up with earth or saw-
In eight or ten days they had become softened, and when
appUed to land, speedily became friable, aud in this way were
more Intimately mingled with the Soil The dismioal ohahges
that took place in this process of fermeulation we shall notice pre¬
sently. This method of applying bones pontinued up to the year
that year, Xilebig at uio^eetUiigof tho British Association,
toade ptthlio h» mothoi^ treating hones w4h sotphwic acid,
by means of which the phosphates oontaiaed in bone were
rendefed Immsdlatoly available for plant-food, wItUont waiting
for the sbw ftCiioa ol .the oarboa^dioxide in soils to render ttjem
soluble, Thoittiw PjJbo^w of Bristol was present at the, mssating,
andhbtedU#^#4tnloid .hll method and discovery,
to, Bristol wUh and began the manufafi4«r«. o| whM hss
since been knownds super-phosphate o^lime.
wSSi ;.t : ...
'U& ' ;..
M«jirMii« #..
IglghM.^
y^.,* jy ^ **• iJijS weight i>f boihe Mo»let$ *>« phosphate
l*IS#aUoOme «* 9 | ol lime, aod that> generalj^ speaking,
*” “* OJO wastoiniog hall is niA^a «p of or-
^ .M* 9*15 gaoio matter yi^ding chiefy
isiwa rt. ... ammonia and carbon dipxide and
• KJo^ water. 'Wten the organic matter baa
* lilt. , 4 . *>«oo remoyed by barniog or bpijing, the
oboiS^aSo^^^SSil^^ residue eonWo* !«»*» 70 to 80 per
ammonia. cent, ol phosphate pi lime.
when land is manured with bones, the changes that take place,
Shortly etated, are as follows; The carbon dioxide—one of the
constant prf^uots, of decay and disintegration, always being
liberated in the soil and carried down through it in rain water-
acts on the lime phosphate of the bone, and produces calcic
carbonate (Oa CO^.) and bl-calcio phosphate (Caj Hj, Pg Qg).
The phosphate cfliitajioed in bone is a tri-calcio one^ and the action
of car'bon>dioxi(]e on^ it may be thus illustrated—
Trl-calolc) . (Owbon) . ^ 4 .- _ ( Bl-OftlQ«a I j. *< Ualoic oar.
phtaieiliiml ^ idtoxutej ^ wawr « J phosphate) ^ I Donate*
Oflg Pi 0, + 00a + Hjo « Cg Hi P* Oi *• OaCOi
Tbe formation of this bi-oalofc phosphate in the soil is n matter
of slow accomplishment, and when 'produced, it is rendered
gradually soluble in water by the further notion of carbon dioxide,
and so carried into the tissues of growing plants to build up their
structure. The interval of time between the application of bone
and the slow action of the carbon dioxide and water contained in
the soil, was a period extending from a few months, to perhaps
yeaie, and depended on the form in which bones were applied,
halMnob, boue>du 8 t, or fermented ; and tbe vigour with which the
natural agente acted on them. The practical usefuluess of
Liebig’s discovery oouslsled in this, that by making use of a
stronger agent, snlpliuric acid, instead of Nature’s agent, caibon
dioxide, the solubility ot bone phosphates could be efEectod at
once, witbottl waiting for the tedious action of Nature’s forces, lu
addiiiun to this, the phosphate produced was readily solublo In
water, and was at the moment of its appUoatiou to the sol)
available as plant-food. The reaction may ho illustrated by the
following equation,—
SI'S;) +
Ca Pj 0, +.Q b; s oj - Cft h; p; o. + 2 o» s o*-
That is, instead of an insoluble phosphate containing three
equivalents of lime slowly acted ou by carbon dioxide, a highly
soluble phospiiate c^)utaiaiog one equivalent only—the other two
being replaced by water—was produced almost at once. Two
years' after Liebig’s discovery, 1842, J. B. Lawes was able to
demonstrate that this same readily soluble mono-calcic phosphate
obtained from bones, and hitherto solely manufactured from them,
could be obtained from minerals oontalniug phosphate of lime.
'This was kuown by the name of mineral euper-phosphate to
distinguish It from super^phosphate manufactured from bones
alone. At the present day super-phosphates of lime are largely
manufactured, which oontalu a mixture of these two phosphates,
animal (bone) and mitiaral. In a mixture of this sort, the cost
of produoUou, and hence the market price of phosphates is con¬
siderably red need, While their value as plant-foods are of a very
high oharaeter. Indeed, on certain soils and under certain
concUUons, probably better roeuUs may be obtained from a mineral
soper»phosjdiate, than from a more costly bone super-phosphate.
It should be noted that super-phosphates mannfaotnved from
bone,—known Sn the market as dissmved bonei',—always oontalu
a variable peroentage of ammonlai from one and a half to two
pet cent. ' Thii percentage of ammonia is derived from the
peZaMas of the bonb. Bone ash, burned bone, the refuse of
sugar refindrlss and soap works, have nearly all tbe organio uSatter
burned out of them (and when odiployed,ln the manufacture of
sups^pbofpbatis ol- JUmO^ yield only' traoes of ammonia on
analysis, unless It bas bekn added in the process ol manufacturing.
Theprsibttoe of gelatine In raw boni hlMsrs the aotidn of the
sulphnrle icidi Imd produoei^ a p«Ui^ iMidW suited Ibr scaiisir^
£ 6 . 16 , wd bauM M ; #Wrnta^«&«
largely in the maniifsoture of mmeral sn'pef<*pd^pifgii^ 0
high as i612 per tqo, while Peruvian guano direot frqm the
importers* etorea sold at £l 2 ' 5 .
On light sandy soils, where it is desirable to add phosphates,
bone is the most economical form in whioh to apply it. lu thie
way tbe phosphate contained in the bone is slowly liberated and
used up gradually by the crops. Were phosphates adddd in a
highly soluble form, tbe drst heavy rains would wash them out of
the soil into the drains and thus produce great loss. Where Ume
is preseut, even in ooniparative small quantfttes, the highly
soluble phosphate applied in the manufactured snannre is
gradually changed into the less soluble form produoed ' by the
natural action of water and carbon dioxide on bonee. The
phosphates are thus retained a longer time in tbe soil ; they can¬
not bo so readily washed oat by rains, atid as a consequence their
good effects are spread over a longer period.
Tbe belief that phosphates are being over-maanfaetaredt—^thol
is, as high a percentage of soluble phosphates are produced as the
materiale employed are capable of produoiag,—has found expression
on more than one oocosiou. The oouversion of the ph^phates
by ixeaus of sulphuric sold (Liobig’s process), into highly soluble
moQO-oaloio phosphate, does not only, as wo have already noticed,
render them liable to being washed out of tlie soli before they have
in any peroeptibla degree iuiluenood the crop ; but Si has besn
observed that the character of iho vegetation, under certain con¬
ditions, is of a less healthy desoriptiou than that invariably pro¬
duced by the slow disintegration of bone under the milder iuflaottoes
of natural agencies. It has been pointed out by P rofessor Tanner,
thatUie bi-oalcio phosphate produced by the forces of Nature an
decomposing bones in tito soil may be produced artidpialty by
employing one-haU the quantity only ot sulphuric netd, at pro*
sent used to produce the highly soluble mono-oaloio phosphate.
This latter phosphate, for the reasons already shortly notioed, hi
believed, all things ooneidered, to be tbe most desirable. Manu¬
factured phosphates that have stood for some time, are frequently
found to have ohauged in character to this extent, that the aaiue
sample whioh at first analysis yielded S5 per cent, solttble phos¬
phate, will latterly give only perhaps 20 per oenfc. This seeming
deterioration is due to the fact that, owing to the presence of bone-
dust, some of the soluble mano-oalcio phosphate has parted with
one of its equivalents of water, and taken up from the finely
pulverized bone a oorrespondiug equivalent of Ume, thus inoreas-
ing tbe bt-caloio, and dimtoishiug the mono-caloio, phosphate.
Now, as chemists have hitherto calculated tha values of euper-
phosphates on the amount of soluble phosphate only, tbe ekssifoia*
value of such a changed phosphate would be less and lesi^ a» the
mono-calcic phosphate disappeared aud the bi-oaioio increased. It
is a fact capable, we ihiuk, of demonstration, that such rsilucsd
super-phosphates as they are colled, are to reality of more value
as plant-foods, and better suited as fertillxers than the original
unreduced manure ; they are more lasting,—.that is, their effects are
spread over a longer interval, and there is less likelihood of their
disappearing from the soil after heavy ralo.
The method of oitimaiing and selling manures by what is called
the mi( is probably as fair a one as could be devised, and
is in pretty gouoral use. MTe beliavo with Mr. Tattlock, B’.O.S,,
that** it does not come within an analytlo chemist's province to ffx
the money value of the article which he analysis.” We repro-
dooedhisletteriufie June number of our issue, page X8b^ With
the distinction between price and value we shill not be tempted
at present to enter. Manures, like every other marketable commo¬
dity, are subject to the finotuations of supply and demand ; and
it may be stffBoieut for our preseut purpose If we define price as
the money valae of a commodity agreed on in open market between
buyer and seller, ^e analytic oliemiat may, and very effectively
does, point *Ql>>tenpes in manures are to the
agriottlthldii^, iheif pffos can only fie fixed fairly in the open
markit.
' ' ' ' ' '
ni]b>tU»wA »; H'^''’w^r^7',
1wijU!(i^««ttair‘itt'^^ ®f,*«>***•'
fnjt (i»* »i^ of tl»o ortJolo. «j>a poioMit^o fe
^ jmbmBM*■«(• pnmt moterioUjr iflooto tbo pti«. Motto
mU ‘ f7|bm now in pretty general use oonsiett, ip tMa. ttot
pho*plni|e(>,40t,are bought MdsoU at a rate per unit agreed on
by buyer and seller. For inetanoe, If a phoe{diate contain 26 per
oenie toltiblft) 10 per cent, losoluble, «ad e^y 2 per cent of
iflaindtilBt lliea tbe prioo per uuit per of eat^ of tfaeee ie a
matter of conataiit fluotuation, acoordiog to the atate of tlie
market.
If aoluble phoaphate were iiold at 5 per cent, a onifc, then the
price of 25 per cent, would bo 25x5»^£6-5 per ton. If ammonia
sold at 41 per niiiti then in (be case given the price of 2 per cent.,
that iay £2 would require to be added, and eo wUb the inaoluble
pboapbate wbetbor bi-caIc!o or trboaloio.
Pboaplvttio guano, or phoeplio-guano, hae been offered in the
market aa a aubstitute for guano. In reality it ia not guano at all,
but a highly concentrated super-phoapbate containing about 26 per
cent, of bi-calcic phosphate, and about 4 per cent, of ammonia,
the other bulkieat factor being anlphate of lime,—calcic aulphate.
All plants require phosphates, but all aoila do not yield them m like
proportions. The clay soils of Suffolk, though at one time under
dairy farms, are still rich in phosp hates, and the appliostion of bone
to these leads produces little effect on their fertility, All
perennial plants, such as grasaes, owing to their well-developed
roots, are able to draw from a large mass of soil sulSoient
phospbatea and other plant-focdi, at the very beginning of the
♦* growing eeason.’* Grass-lands can be improved by the application
cl bonea, only when there is a deficiency of phosphates in the soil.
IjB P/l may be unproductive because of the absence of other plant-
foods, which may be essential for the building up of certain crops.
Phosphates applied in this case would be followed by no approoiablo
gain in fertility, until the deficient plant-foods wore supplied.
If deficiency of phosphates is the cause of decreased productiveness
in grass-lands, the appUoation of calcine or crushed bones will
have a speedy effect on the weight and quality of the crops. It is
ill their application to ** root’* crops, and notably turnips, that
phosphates have produced some of their most marked effects.
The seed of the turnip is a small one, and it is put into the soil at
that season of the year in Britain when the heat is greatest and
growth is most rapid. If the rootlets do not at once meet with
a concentrated supply of phosphates, however abundant the olhc;
plant-foods may be, the plants will not be able to assimilate them
with that rapidity which will carry the crop beyond the stage
whan it is most liable to attacks of insects, and ultimately insure
a heavy crop. Tho usual method of applying phosphates to
turnips is one-half with ths seed,, and the other half after
** thinning.”
Ths wide appUciation of phosphates as manures, and the
njportmice which their manufacture is asatiming as a branch of
industry, may be gathered from the fact, that the yearly outlay on
these manures alone has been recently estimated in Britain to
amount to nearly three millions sterling.
.I .
AGRICULTURE TISAOHING FOR INDIA.
I T has become fashionable in certain quarters to pooh-pooh and
sneer at much of the earnest work that has been attempted
here in India for ii o advaaoement of agrioulturo.
Borne men are supp^ sed to be born with a sot of ideas which
seeme to swve then torn till the end of their lives' chapter,
without the trouble of any further additions. Other men have
their ideas put into them with the morning paper, they are
always found echoing the popular or fashionable orsod, whatever
it may bo; and have a marked facility of agreeing • with tho
last speaker. Those who care to think for themselvea, and have
Uie hardihood to ruffle the self-complaoonoy of their follows,
by suggeiiriQB Ibat such and such a sohomo might bo followed
out vitb advantage, are met with all sorts of objections, such
as, You pan^t do it, it is not in accordance with the, estabUshod
order; of tbiagO here“ij is not enjoined in Hcripltoto; H will
never saoosed; it produce ruin and anarchy.^' Yhen, after
povhapi tome moMiara of snoooM has followed the reptobatod
eejtodwatittinitiinsnM
are somerimes ti^ai^ With:
The amount of ignorance aud( Mf which pcm
for knowledge end ogperienoe,0^;(hinge, ugr^^^ ampng»t
certain Indian oflioiala and ottie^ Who are suppoi«d to hate
had tho training and education eif gOntlemen, is a aUfo ludi-
catiou that whatever trnprovemenls may ultiin|t#ly be brought
about in Indian ogriouHure, will have to he aoeomplished
not only in tho face of the of the ryoi asdhla
hard down-trodden lot in life ; but in spite of the gUh
talking and authoritative tone of men who at some period of
their career have come in contact with the results of some
imperfectly performed experiment; and whose opinion regarding ^
(he case iu point is of less value, even than the ryot who
told the oaperlmenter that Europeans could sci teach Indians
sgriculture, that in fact the teaching power was all the other
way.
There are men in India who will grandly tell you that tho
cure for India’s agricultural ills can be stated in one word—
“ water.” They Say irrigate the country, then famines will
disappear, and ‘‘halcyon” days of prosperity and plenty will
be the tot of India. Hydrophobites are not so pertinaciously
self-assertive recently, perhaps, as they have been. Irrigation no
doubt is useful; it has in years of deficient rainfall proved a
bleselng ; and where irrigation canals follow and oouuect the
great natural lines of water-drainage and the water is suitable
for the crops, they may, iu the Jong run, prove profitable
investments oommeroially; but it has been shown by the
head of the lately abolished “cteetora” department that the
injudicious use of water produces more mischief to the land than
the want of U. Ttie copious application of water to land no
doubt increases the outcome of crop for a timo; but unless
provision is made to return to the soil the plant-foods taken
fiom it in moro than usually heavy 'crops, the last state of
that soil will be worst than the first. The truth seems to be
that there is no one panacea for the agricultural ills of India.
Schemes of improvement may follow many seemingly divergent
lines which nevertheless may all tend in the same general
direction.
We have on moie occasions than one in thoso columns advo¬
cated the establishment of Agricultural OoUeges in Bengal and
other parts of India. The principles that underlie the acienoo
of agriculture are of universal applicatiou, and are imperatively
necessary to be known and understood by those who would be
successful cultivators, in any part of the earth’s surface, whether
the climate be temperate or torrid, aud no matter what the
crops may be. Here in India, where many milltone of lives depend
directly on the products of the soil, aud where the failure of
a single year’s crop produces widespread, unspeakable misery,
and the loss of millions of lives, it seems to us that one of
the most urgent duties of the Government is, by every means at
its disposal, to scatter widely over the land inforination of a
suitably simple and accurate description, wbioh in any way
may tend to build up more rational ideas regarding the soil and
ts treatment. Information of this sort it seems to us should find
its way not only into every primary school, iu some .suoh form as
that of Uie ” First Lesson in the Science of Agriculture, issued under
thw authority of the Department of AgricuUuro and Oonuneroe,
N.-W. Froviuoesand Oudh”; but a judioiouely arranged system
of scholarship, connecting tho primary schools with the '* lUodel
Farms” of jthe distriot, and these again with tlie AgriouL
tural OoUeges of. the presidenoies, would secure that the Uke-
liost lads in every district who would avail themmlves of
these sohofarshipb, would be thoroughly embued with ideas and
methods of a perfectly practical character, which they would
carry back with them to the oocupation of their fatbersi and
in time reproduce in their own practice.
It is not at all necessary that the agricultnral Gaining should
be carried on to that point where the student should be taught to
analyse soils, imures, and feeding siiuffs, or even that “Ifodel
Farms” should hate a well appmntedlaboratory« It apgiMri to tw,
howevosi that tho Ittttdimutal prtottplei tmdsrlying iftt latlimol
, .., 4''^" oWAiipgly U «h<^: ko^iioas,
W w4ii!^ iwpwt^taint
«Qd4et«i^^^ii ,o£ fch» ipaiOiirde* ftud j^ri&Aii of the >oU, and
tho wOftitIk ol tliei««lH?fttor.‘
THE SCIENCE OF AGRIOCMHItB.
* CQnmmkaiid.
TT i» nowt wa Bappoaa, onivarttally admittad thdt agrioaltara, in
A oTd«r to be prograaaka and pro0table, unit be condnoted on
acientidG principles. To aUain tl\le end, and to meet the demands
of an mcreasiog population, tbe United States Government has
, for a long time included a Department of Agrionlture, the main
object of which is the introduction of all the prodnotions of the
earth that oan be grown in any part of the country, and to
eneonrage by every means that diversity of production which is
at once the safety and the wealth of the nation." From the
Prefatory Report of the Oornmisaioner of Agriculture for 1878, we
learn that experiments were made during last season on the growth
of different varieties of sugarcane. As far as the expefiments go,
a variety of cane from Jamaica, called tlio Balangore^ is shown
to bo worthy of extensive introduction and trial. The (|ttention
of the Commissioner has, however, of late been nioio espocialiy
given to the question of producing large supplies of sugar from
sorghum aud maixe. lie procured as much as possible of the pure
well-cured seed of a variety of sorghum called theMinnesota
Iflarly Amber,'* aud distributed the same in every Congressional
district in the United States. The results of this distribution
have been most favourable, aud the variety hhs yielded eveiywhere
a large amount of rioh saooharine joioo, which, under proper
treatment, gives excellent sugar and syrup, the yield being from
120 to 250 gallons of heavy syrup to the acre. It is proposed
another season to make experiments with the different varieties of
raaiae and sorghum, and to asoertaiu the different modes of
cultivation, and the stage of growth at which the productlou of
sugar is at its maximum, in order that with as little delay an
possible the country may bo prepared with all necessary data to
enter intelligently upon this new industry.
The great drawback to the work of the department seems to be
the want Of a larger ohomical laboratory, with a suflicient
appropriation to meet the expense uC the additional force that will
be necessary to carry forward investigations on a larger scale than
the present laboratory and appliances will permit. With the
facilities of the existing laboratory much information which
skilful ohomical analysis can only determine is, remarks the
Oommissioner, necessarily withheld from the farmer and the
manufacturer. The report contain* extracts from letters from
prominent agricuHarista in the United States, all of whom testify
to the fact that the agricultural interests of the country would bo
greatly advanced by a more thorough analysis than has yet been
made of the grains, grassos, and edible roots, in order to determine
the exaot value of each in the production of milk, beef, and fibre
or muscalar power.
The English Government would do well to follow the lead
of the Amerioan Government, by establishing experimental
agriottltura) statioBS in various parts of the kingdom, with properly
famished laboratories and experienced chemists. It is impossible
to overestimate the benefits to agriculture in Engtaud resulting
from the scientific experiments made on a large practical scale by
Messrs. Lawoe and Gilbert at Bothamstead, but we contend that
such work ought not be left entirely to private enterprise.
In the preface to the English tranelation of his Lectures on
Chemical Mannres at the Experimental Field at Vincennes,
M. ^Geqrges Ville remarks, that it is important that both England
and Francb fthonld be alive to the fact that the agricultural crisis
from wbioh both countries are now sufiering, as well as th^ ^ore
serious troubles which threaten civilised nations, are only the
prelude to the economic etruggle between the Did World, bound
in the trammels of tradition^ Mad the New World, pressing
onward free and unrestrained Jn the path of pt ogreps*
At <a period when the means bf eom^iqatlon hed not reaohod
the development which (fidy have irinoo aoqfiired^ home
marketo em qfu^ets let agtieoilsxri
But at the pS^awnk Wd and
transport, farmere ard hompete in Odif i
with ait the world. In order Ibit the struggle wa^; 1
and remunerative, it is absolutely neceissry that cro^ of eiiy
kind should be increased to their utmost ^saible libilt.' 'EiS
traditions of the past are not aufBeient for the necessities of the
present Wo want more rapid, more eotmomieah and mow
powerful processes. The agriculturist Used to divide the land into
two nearly equal parts, fitting one aside for grazing pnrposeib
for growing forage plants, and reserving the other for cereal
crops, which was equal to asserting that in order to grow oereafi,
there must be meadow laud, cattle, and manure.
The object o( the farmer, then, should be not to produce manure,
but to manuie his land more abundantly than formerly. No
matter what may be the material bo employs, whether it may be
farmyard or chemical manures, used either together or separately,
he must somehow or other give book to the soil a larger amount
of fertilising material than that lost by the growth of the crop#:
In Iho cultivation of the soil, increaso of production depepda less
on the worker and ou iho quality of iho tools which he employs,
than upon tho quantity of fertilisln g materials which he has at
his disposal. According to M« Ville the only way to do this is to
employ chomical manures, and to prove hie aasertiou, to show
that with ohomical manures large crops may bo quickly obtained
fioiu tho most barren lauds, he refers among others to an experi¬
ment carried out by M. Poosard, President of the Agricultural
Committee of Omey in Champagne, ou a piece of waste land in
one of the most barron districts of a proverbially barren portion
of that province. M. Ponsard manured oqe-half of the ground
with about 32 tons of farmyard manure per acre, and the other
with about half a ton of chomioal per acre. With the farm
manure he obtained 14 bushels of wheat, whereas with chemical
manure the land yielded about $0 bushels, there being a loss of
£19 in the former case, and again of £17 in the latter.
Similar experiments have been made with Imet-root, potatoes,
sugarcane, &c., and in each case the resnlts have been in favour
of the obemioal manure. In fact, by varying tiie quantity of the
ingredients onteriog iuto tho composition of chemical manure, so
as to suit the requirements of each olsas of plants, the work of
vegetation may bo regulated almost like a maoliiue, the useful¬
ness of which is in proportion to the fuel it consumes. The first
point is to discover tho degree of lichness of the natural soil,
and then to ascertain tho dominant constituent of each plant.
Plants are divided into throe categories,—jirsf, those in which
nitiogeiious matter is the dominant constituent, such as cereals,
hemp, colza, beet-root, and general garden stuif. The second
group, in which calcic phosphate preponderates, comprises maize,
sugarcatio, .Teritsalem ‘ artichokes, turnips, and sorghum. The
third group includes legumfhous plants, sucli as clover^ sainfoin,
lucerne, potatoes, and vines, aud in these potash is the dominant
iugredieult
Now what M, Ville terms ** normal manures*' contain ealoio
phosphate, potash, lime, and nitrogenous matter, differing only in
the respective proportions of these four eubstanoee. By varying
therefore, ilieir relative proportion according to the necesaitiea of
the particular plants for which they are required, the principle of
dominant constituents can be applied to every possible oonditiou
wbioh may arise, thereby meeting the requirements aud advancing
the interests of every deaoriplion of farming.
It is not necessary to restore to tho soil weight for weight,
constituent for constituent, all that is taken from it, but the four
constituents named above are essential, and must always be added.
Analyses of farmyard manure show that it ooutains the four oon-
BtltuentB which it U essential to restore to the soil, but it also
contains carbon, hydrogen, aud oxygen; edeo sodiccbloride,
magnesia, soda, silica, ferric oxide, Ac., all of which are abmidantly
ooutainod in the pooreat soils, aud which do not therefore increase
the value of manure. Farmyard manure therefore owes all its
efficacy to the four essential eonstituents mentioned above, But
we have just shown that each of these oonetituents with regard to
tbe three others fulfils functions that are in tarn subordinate or
predomfuani, acoc^diog to the nature of the plants to be grown;
with fermygfd matmte, however, there is no possible division, its
oomporitloh eiumot be varied. The only alternative, then, is to
H‘k5f'4 V'. 1- ‘ ( } 'i' ,'■> ' ^ K *7 t ^ i'' '\V<A V
i( i f'!‘r'ff‘T’*Tfj.iii^ fr iff !tn;-ti,1 1 1,»,■'( (
^ ioo»t itt
only abottt lor^efeU
Xlmr
:\®' X
l4m#
wtleAeijl
ISIB* per im
... m
**k $8 M
To placo iha land uodor Uio i^oper oonKitlonn lor h\g\i onlilva*
tiotoithoamonilt oftlio^UlisiogtitbstoaoeiQ th« farmjrOrd mnouVe
lanit be at tealt doubled by meane o£ cbemfoal matmreey and In
thaoaie of each patUeular plant it ie neoeesary to conoentrate that
obemfoel agent which ie especially favoitrablo to ita growth. It
must alio be lemembered! that otle<*thtrd ot the nitrogen is Lost to
thb Kdt bn acooimt of the decomposition which the manure must
0ret undergo before it oati exardsedti action. M. Yilfe strongly
•deooates the foundation of experimental fields. They are, he
afllntti, tife only reliabie method of ascertaining with certainty the
composIHoii of the soil with respect to the requirements of
agricaitttie. A piece of land should, if possible, be selected which,
fa Its physical nature and degree of fertility, represents the
average quality of the land that is to be cultivated. For a
neWljMirorkOd farm the field should consist of twenty plots, each
containing about four poles, arranged in two parallel rows of ten
plots eadi. The first row should be devoted to the cultivation of
Wheat, and tlie second to that of beet-root or potatoes, according
to fhe cUmato and the wants of the district. The wheat fumisUet*
indieations of the richness of the superficial layers of the soil, nuit
thelMMIt^rdotof ttie deeper layers. Full instructions are given
reepscHSg thOmanuHog of the several plots. M. Ville also gives
diredtioits for establishing experimental fields for agricultural
coilegee, societies, and for elementary schools. For the latter the
plots should be about eleven yards square. By oarTylng out the
advocated system of manuring, it will be oouclusivoly established
thatib is poseibln to farm without using farmyard manure; that
a manure can be, and js composed, which more than takes its place,
and that the action of animal manure is intensified by the addition
of chenueal manure.
M. MONTOLAR’S METHOD OF AORICULTURE
ON STEEP LANDS.
{Communtcakd.)
II.
W EEN opening an estate on (he steep lands of the hilly
countries of India and Oeylon, the first consideration for
men of sxperieuoe is to select the best forest land.
The selection being made, the operatton generally carried out is
the dssk’UCk'on of the forest trees by felling and burning, and to
\ lant coffee or tea, &tf., afterwards, it certainly appears that a soil
which has given food to several generations of large forest trees,
should be able to feed such ehruhs as coffee or tea for a long time, j
Unfbrtnnately practically it is not the case; but why not ? ’
How is it that after a lew years, a virgin soil on steep land which
has been planted with coffee, requires to bo manured expensively.
Did the fomb trees (now cut down and burnt) require any
manure t Not only the forest trees did not require manure, but
they were producing, by themselves, manure much more than
they required, and Isaying year after year more or less
aconmulation of it, which was the Bpwgiom humua of ibo forest
land, the production of a great many ceuturies 1
It is that tpmigiout aecumtUaiion which ooustitutes the richness
of the soil of forest land.
ItisbyitUat aocumolatien that the rainfall is retained, and
percolates gently thronghthe soil and sub-soil of the forest, and
it Is thdt vary pmolation which renovates the internal moisture”
of the toil, and keeps it in a negative eUctrioal conditto&*’«<"by
which condition ;oiily foreets propagate themselves for genere-
tiohiuolm^entty.
natural condition (made by a powerful Fro»
vidence)!^ arkfiolal m^ans, and within a few ye am splelkdtd
forest will die nht' * ^
Fbr msUttCe, Miierk eatMy the **epongiouB noonihitlation^
Aha ImmoB^ of a forest, at once the rainfhlf tilt eseope
ekcrementiUoiia/deil^^ ^ ^
soifiotent renoeafsii miiiw^ ip U Wm
ac{d%, by which the soil loe«i| ^sg^ by'de|^aformer
** negative electrical ocndlricn/^kiM^tm^' IO the aperitive electri¬
cal oonditioit” so hufavoorabls to Vegefittlbn.
Therefore if larga f«rest trees anfEer much, and b# brought
to the verge of min and death by be|i^ deprived (intirely df their
natural spongious caver and fertllhger,** phxiUsn workii%g dnete^
lands will then easily understand how fAradi like ooffed <w tea
suffer still more, fpr many reasons, when they are deprived, ^ by
the washing away of the solV* of , their ** natural protector and
fertlljaer”*—the humus of the land. It is true, that with the view
of preventing the wash of their land ” some planters use drat'ni.
Unfortunately these drains, as ihsy are used by planters, do much
more harm than good to the plants under caltivation on steep
lands. Indeed, tlm dralne as they are used by some, act; as
artificial channels to carry out of the fields tire heavy rain
which falls on the land.
Every time th|t iliere is a heavy fall of rain on an estate
situated on steep load, at otice the rain goes to the drains, and
hence to the ravines, which discharge themselves into the stream or
river below the estate. I
When the drains of an estate perform the above work welt,-*t.e,
turn out of the laud every heavy rainfall,—the planter considers that
his estate is in good condition, as his drains are in perfect order,
when on the contrary, acting as they do, they are often the
min of his undertaking.
Indeed, the true theory of „ drainage on steep lands is often
entirely misunderstood by planters, because the rain^^water should
drain through the soil first by percolation, and thus only go to the
drains by the natural process of filtration.
The rain-water should never be allowed io run qff at OQoe
from the surface of the laud to the drains, for many reasons of
very great importance.
The rainfall on the contrary should be made to percolate (and
not to run off at once, and often very rapidly), and then to filter
to tho drains, naturally in many soils, and artificially in some
exceptional cases.
As we have seen above, it is of the highest importance
that the rainfall, which is tho '' natural irrigation” afforded by
Nature to steep lauds of hilly countries, should not escape rapidly
ont of the land, but gently, because in its rapid escape more or
less of the best arable soil of the land is carried away out of the
estate, and the land besides is deprived of renewed moisture
through the soil,—a thing of very great importance lor the
maintenance of the ^‘negative electrical condition of the eoil,”
It is important to consider that the physical oiroumstanoes and
conditions of the lands of the low countries are not similar to
those of the upper hilly countries. In the low countries, the great
question for the agrioultarisb is to get rid of any excess of
** pSimanent moisture in the soil,” because permanent moisture
soon engenders infectious acidity in the soil, which converts the
condition of the soil from negative” to ** positive.'^
Hence good drains, as much as possible, are the things widoh
are required in the lands of the low countries, because the reten-
ion of ^ moisture generally is not required there, and often it is
thu excess of moUture which is to be avoided.
On steep lands of the upper countries the retention of the rain¬
fall (which is the natural irrigation afforded to the land) is on
contrary greatly necessary. But that retentldn has not been
understood, and besides has afforded up to this tlnb an enormous
difficulty in practice, and hence Us escape has bMn oonst^e^ as
the best means of avoiding difficulties amounting to imp^iibillty
on account of ex^ndlture.
Of course, if we have no moans to retain the rain which fells
on steep lands of the upper countries situated at 2,000 to fi,Q 00
feet elevaiioB above i^e see leveh then its escape is a forced
condition«^whleh is, a great pity, because as water does hot
natiiridiy rah pp<hlll, but oh till contrary runs dps^ hpw,
tben^ is It ppiiihle to ffet it up agido, wto It hie gone dbwn 2 , 0 ^
to 5,000 feet bdow the lands under caltivation:
pm^«l%;^iMlj^al pir^Um ol ^ itt<ttldfil%i cim
kQ<^ ftiii^itii ili« r09oibi«mtfn^of MCHred.
WfrJtfiallly^rfte^faend to tho oorofal^ttoDtSon of tbo 0ordrD<^
ment of fodio* tbo pampihliol of M. Moiitolaron tliat aabject of great
importance^'^Tho fimloe la lodia! Its oauses^ remedies, and oure.**
Here is tUe vieer of a soieotist speoialiet, well-kooera to the
plantiogoommtulitjr of Oeyioop lor hie aooarate Maalyaes,
If, Hooiohtf Isesidflotly tbarongbfy^lmpireated OUb tbe good to be
derited lioiti breakieg ap ib« soil mud mii^i it well. By this meaiiSi
io addUtoo to eQtariii$t a belter oireaUtlon olair, he will aoeemplisb a
better distribotlon oC tbe lartiHeing salts la tbe earth, bringing them
nearer the plant rootlets, and so diminlsbiug tbe straggle for ealstenoe
• on the coffee tree,. If Montolar luooeed In doing this by hie system
of terraoiog and forkingTln gpod soil to the rooti^ without causing more
than tbe present amount of wash oo tbe one baud, or stagnant water on
tbe other, be wiilhave deserved woU of the colony,
** His aim, getting as. muob of the rain as possible to filter ibrodgU
tbe soU Ctbe true tbeoiry ol drainage) aui] as little as possible to run off
the surface, is tboru'ugUly soienlific, Bain oobtaini appreciable
quantities of ammonia and nitric acid, which 1 ssppoie are what 61 ,
Moatclar refers to, by the use of tbe term* ffaid eleotrlo,* tbe latter of
which is certainly produced by eleottioity. These, tbongb present in
exceedingly minute proportions, are known to exert a most important
nfiuenoe on plant life, being the only combinations of nitrogen which
plants are known to assimilate.
** The soil attracts aud retains for the nourishmsnt of the plant the
ammonia in the rain. The nitric acid combines with lime, but is not
so completely retained*. Hence, as If, Pellet says, nitrate of calolum
IS a desoen^og salt, Tbe largest proportion of these two forms of
nitrogen Is always present at the beginning of showers and after dry
weather, and of course, when they fall upon an open absorbent soil, are ,
sated from being washed at once intp the drains,
** If wash can be prevented by some snob system as If. Montolar is
devoting himself to, it w^uU enable the planters to get the full beuettt
ol snob an excellent manure as aaperphoephate of lime, containing
a large proportion ot soluble pbospbates. The tact of tbe
coffee tree deriving a large proportion of Us nourlshmeut from the
upper ten inchea of soil would seem to oouititute climbing salts, like
Buperphoapbate of lime as peculiarly ooffee manarea With a freely
absorbent soil, the soluble portion would descend at first with tbe
rain, and when fair weather retnraed, would rise o ice more to tbe
roots. But even 00 tbo present system of .ouUlvation, superphosphate
must be considered a most valuable manure, because a large proportion
of the soluble phosphate is enabled, by its solubility, to permeate tbe
soil very completely, where it is precipitated again in the insoluble
condition, but in a state of minuteness of division, which no mechanical
processofgrtndlag or crushing can approach. Its stimulating effect is
no objection, as it can be easily dilatod with less active subatanoes when
found to force tbo trees too muob. indaed, its stimulating properties
can be regntated in the prooesa o( manuCaoture, by adding a larger or
smaller quantity of sulphuric acid, aud thus converting a larger or
smaller proportiou of the phosphate tn^o the soluble form. The more
economical plai^ however, is for the planter to purchase a welled Is-
solved manttre,-*:i,s*,otte in wbioh there is the highest percentge of solnbte
phosphate which he ean mix with a certain proportion of bone dust, the
lattea giving insoluble or slowly soluble phosphates* The chemist oau.
not state whatproportious will be found best iu practice. It is this
practical kobwled^, gained uy careful observations, which ooustitutes
tbedifferdhee between hiiexperiCQCod aud an inexperienced planter.
** If M. Mohtelar bad done uothlng else, he bat, at least, given expres.*
Sion to an idea which has been in many minds, vis.*; that the specific
for leaf diaease to smaller estates and higher eultivalilo 0 »—is„ the ettate
must be smaller then the plantar may have capitaUo cultivate highly.
Itis aetartUuglact that notouly is the total produce of the estate
dimliUBhiitg, bull ae 1 have beeu lulormed^the percentage ot alee No. 1
in the outturn la dimlutohlog also. Bxoeptional seasons would, no
doubt, produee small^if beans, just as the ears ot corn are badly filled
dtttieg a cold sommet In Bngland ; but when this happens ysar after
year, It certainly points to a dlmiulehsd amount ol ayallabls ptsill ^.>od
in tbe soil. This it must bs remsmbeesd is but impsrfeotiy disclosed
by soil emtiysis, as we eannol iotiiai* the slow sfilyent process ol Hature
in tbe laboratory. Were'wh toait^pl to dd so, an enafysis would take
years instead ot days to perform* Xisi tbehoise tree have plenty, but
nop too mvmhoi its ej»|wofWlato food iupp$ied>U, and lot the ground
btt kept In Vgood condition ot porosity, Iho infitkatloh ol WMer
aud eirculation ol alr^ and let the earth about the roots be pertcdtoeliy
' sttUbd to opsore a ^ ‘ '
points' iilmtfi "by M, itot
jntolltfeot^ptimtor.weu^imfli^^t^n^^ ioakal|ii..{| ;
have prereatsd hto laboor 11. ,
aoQomplishss this phystoatiy and ^giMkOlhUy ^ wiijktoot .prudSKd^^'
opposite esil of Btandiqg water, tbk> be. will nfi4oabted1y« to blji pin
Oolombo, Uth danoary IS^O,
Let planters work properiy their land, «o' as to U'yold Han
** positivo eleotrloal oonJlition,” and hite 1t|a a ** nogdtireoleOtl^loa!
condition by the means explulued by Hdtlibi^. M^ntc&r^ afxdthb
Coffee Batatee wilt soon rocoter irom tlielr mfstbrtttne*
EDITORIAL NOTES*
---------
W jBhare before us the Aonnal Beport Of the fioynl Botattio
Garden, Calcutta^ for tlm year 1878*79, lirom whiOIt il iqlpetrg
that experimeuta have been made with a oariOiy of econobtapUmta^
in many iusiauoee with marked auooeas. Tihe BrfisrHOa Ibbber
(Hcven hrazilUmu} doee not seem to thrive, and ihie ^ig ike
lose to be regrotted, because oar own indigenous rubber (Ft'eus
eJmiica\ succeeds so well, and is so easily propagated. Heit|w
has ipecacuanha been a 'sucoess, but the greatest progre^, hee
been made in new fodder plant experiments, the JPf
having seeded a second time. This admitted of fi liberal
distribution of seed. During tho year 9,695 plants were received
iu tho garden, and 22,771 distributed.
So long as wo continue to cultivate the opfum pUnt, there is
I 00 reason why we should not get the most we cau per acre. It
seems, however, that we do not obtain anything like the outturn
we ought. We reproduce an interesting article from the
Qatot^ on this subject. It is from the pen of Qaptain PngsOti,
who has done so much for Indian agriouliare, Aud we beg.to
direct tho attention of the proper authorities to the eegslble
remarks contained in the article.
Thu Madras Government do not seem to have been aucoossful
with Bamieh cotton. Tins is unfortunaie, as the Bamieh is a
good variety.
SnvjsaAi. inetruclive experiments have bosn made in Madras wifli
Carolina paddy ; it is foiiud not to succeed well, the only reason
militating against its sucoees licing, that it baa a deep ^ap root, and
lliie cannot find its way tbtough the soil, owing to the rery
piimilive methode of cnUivalion adopted iu India. It would
doubtless be a valuable addition to^ our food crops from ihie
very obstacle which is apparently operating against it, for from
its long taproot it will not be so dependent on a water-sdpp^,
as is the indigenous surface-feeding variety.
Tub land under cotton in the Madras Prestdtmoy for the three
years—1876-77, 1877-78, and l878-79-has been 1,646,389, 926,116,
and 1,105.736 acres respectively, and for the last yesi^ the outturn
has amounted to 491b. cleaned cotton per acre. This is vwy low,
when wo consider that tho Aiueiioan produce is 3001b. per acre, and'
it does not say much for the future of the cotton iudusky In India*
Wa have received an interesting pamphlet entitled ** Irrigutton
andOommuual Labour in the Madras Presidenoy**’ by Mr. A.T.
Arundel, Madras Civil Service, It is an important couUibution
to the Irrigation question. It appears that the system of village
or Communal Labour has fallen very much into disuetude, and
the author advocates Its resumption for many good reasons which
he gives, among which are, that the system is toss otgeotionable
to the people than the raising of taxes for the purpose, and
that it costs less. T.te subject is worthy of careful consideration,
TfiJD report for the year 1878-79 of the operations of tbs Model
Farm, Nagpore, baa reached ns, and we notice that much
work has been done and' the results carefully recorded. Iu the
operations of a Model Farm, one does not always look for absolutely
successful reeulta, ibo' very namb esuperkmial forbids this
expectation, and th^fore we are not surprised *to find the
outturn now and agiun very low ; for instancy we are (old that
tbe average outturn of tor grain over 21 acres was only '
per aor<^ while the gross value of the same was Bs. 9. Forty*
in «miy4||lM4l|^ilQ^i miigninni Mto amags^ 13
buib^ ^ lino l^mly '^Hj^riwdntal p(Wtioxi« of tboliiria ; mc^
mmwtldbpi^ r^ttlto W 6 r 4 obtafoedr M for loeitanood&Olb* w)io«t
per «cr», ^al to IS) busUels, this bdog llie reeoH of 4 odp
p)ottg1jii^70ii4'maiitirlog. Co tbe i^hole m do not oodsider tbe
reeolte ik ot atl eiiiefftctorjv and cao find ootbiog is the report
which oeii juitlfy the up^heep of the Model Farm*
■I ,-.-,__ i.
Wh here beoti fevoored .witli e copy of the ** Proepeotoe of the
^ Bef ode AgrlcuUurel Show, ** to be held ou the laet three days of tbie
year ) and oouaidering that Major Nutt is Preaideot of the Com-
miitee, aud remembering his saeoeea at Bongadf Kattiawar, in
FMyrnaiy, we look forward to a good moeting at Daroda. A large
etttn of money fa to be dietdbuted id priaes, wbieh are offered for
evoty cohoei^abJe aiifele usallly eonoeoied with faimiog opera-
iioQS^ from horses and cattle down to foyls and fruits of all
sorts} aor afe the operatfona of faming neglected, as we observe
prleeaaw offered lOr the best implemeiiis and for the beet results
in ploaghing.
TfiS rats have again begun to breed in the Dharwar dietriot,
and thredten to overrun the country once more. Government
has hot, however, relaxed the war that has been waged against
these pests, and we must hope that future operations will be
as Encoesstul ns those of the past, Neatly eleven million rats
have already been accounted for in Ibe Bombay Presidency.
Grope ill the Southern Mahratta country are looking very well, |
but more rain is now required in the Eastern districts. The
really trying time, however, when the dry east winds begin, has
not yet set in. In KhaudeiHh aud towards Oawnpore the
giugelly seed crop has been considerably damaged by heavy
rains.
Tex special organs of the tea trade concur in taking a
sanguine view of the position of the tea market, which is eaid
to show eigne of a speedy general advance of prioee, the move-
iiient being traceable to a strong export demand for common
tea. Importers have also changed their tactice and helped to
strengthen valnes. The latest advices from China indicate that
supplies of Northern teas will prove short of last season, a
Htoppage of arrivals fiom the districts having been caused by
the diseatisfection of native dealers with the prices lately
obtained. A large quantity of conimoii loaf is also being taken
off the Ohiua market for overland transit to Uussia. Another
authmity considers the prices may advance if, as is estimated,
the supply from China should prove to be from 20,0j0,0001b. |
to 30,000,00011). below that of last year, but adds that an
improvement in the rates obtainable on this side would induce
an imtnediate inotsase of shipments from Ohiua, and that
meanwhile large stocks, which will have to be sold at no distant
'late, are held by importers.
TaxpossibiUly of a resumption by India of tbeexpoit of wheat
ou a scale similar to what we witnessed three years ago, is being
discussed by those iuterested in the trade in England. The position
of this commodity and the prospects of the market are soon
explained. The consumption of wheat and ilour in the United
Kingdom is supposed to be about 450,000 quarters weekly, or
at the rate of 23,^,000 quarters a year. Ibis believed that notone^
half of this was contributed by homo growth, which was far bebw
an average, and England actually imported last yoar twelve
million quarters of vheat and neatly three millions more in the
shspe of ffoun In fact, the deliveries from the farmers during
the season were reokoned at only some ten millions quarters. But
this year the crops are incomparably worse, and the mostsauguiue
do not look for a yield of wheat more thanvtwo-thirds Of that of
1878, say, eight millions quarters at the outsidii* Thus 16,000,000
quarters of foreign wheat are wanted to meet that dehciehey alone.
But in addition all other oereale are short, and the potato crop is
threatened with uttec ruin. NoW, hitherto the United States
have been the main source of supply, but no more than 800,000
quarters tnmith is being imported thence, aud after America there
is otily Snssi^ and the remote East to look to. laaoU of
the Bussion supply is neodbd for France and t.. McMterranean,
for Italy also has short hfwveets, and whst Auetralia, Chill, and
TtttnMu Bntirciaft fisii Send IS but trlflitiffi aIt Maibiit tow
'' prices. ^ ^ 'k. eihlmoib^
produce' wiB' b«xhlj»ped.: "
all Europe will, be adjvo | the)!^^xs ^
aud India too. , ^ : ^ ^ "
Wx note that the total area of toed under tea culiivwUou In ihe
Bajshahye and Gooch Behar division during 1878 was $4,^ acres,
showing an ittcreaso of 221 acres over the previous year, and
the quantity of tea manufactured was about 7,535,980ih., or
2,200,000!h. in excese of the outturn 6f 1877. At the end of the
year under report, 29 gardens had been opened In Julplgoree and
144 in Darjeeling. The Government Cinchona plantatious, which
cover more than 2,000 acros, yielded 250)O001h ol bark daring
tiie year, and a profit of about half a lakh was obtained on the
operations of ihe season. Of the outturn of febrifuge manu¬
factured from the bark, 5,50015. were supplied to Goventmeut
medical depCts in the three presidenolea, and ths rest Was sold to
the public. Gunny bags are manufactured in most districts of the
division* During Uie year the mills of the Serajgonge Jute Com¬
pany turned out lfl0,000 maunds of gunuy,or20,QOO maunds more
than ill the previous year* The bogs are sold for the country trade
and fur espOrtatiom to Egypt and Australia. In Jttlpigoree and
Darjeeling two Nepaulose worked eomo copper and iron mines with
moderate success. _
Althotioq prospects of good crops being reaped in Western
India during the ensuing season are at pmseut favourable, we
regret to loaru that there are some portions of the Poona aud
fiholapore oollectorales where the ryots are again threatened with
a plague of insects. In some parts of the Presidency also the
cultivators, from long successive failures, appear to have lost heart,
and do not care to sow their lands at all. Especially is this the
case in those districts where forest denudation has been too long
permitted, and whore the hills are now left barren and bare, aud
incapable of performing their proper function of storing the water
brought by the annual monsoon. In such districts the heavy rains
run off as soon as they fall, aud in a few days the country is left
as dry and as arid as if there had been no moisture at alt. ** The
general public has little idea,’* says the Bombay GatetU^ of the
extent to which forest denudation has been carried on during recent
years, for in many places ihoie are whole ranges of hills upon
which hardly a blade of grass fiuds subsietanco that only a scoiu
of years ago were covered with vegetation and valuable woods.’*
It 18 satisfactory to learn that under a recent order it has been
decided that all hill and mountain lands of the Presidency, the
occupancy of which has been relinquished, shall at once be thrown
into forests, and that hereafter such lauds shall not be given to
oultivatiou. As to hill lands that are occupied, Government has
wisely ordered that they should be purchased whenever praotioable.
8oeb farmers, whose land is exposed to sweeping winds, have
tried the sowing of one bushel of oats with their winter
grain as a protectiou to that against ihe excessive cold and
exposure. The oats grow up much more rapidly than the wheat, and
iielp to shade and protect it. When killing frosts occur, the Oats
perish^ but in falling, still cover the wheat with their mantle of
ttraw, and the protection reiumns through the winter, shelteiliig
tiie wheat-roots. The little that is drawn from the soil by the oats
ir returned to it by their decay, aud the benefit to the wheat is
apparfnt wheu growth begins iu the spring.—Aprkjuftofiif.
CoLONm. Olootx aimounoes that he has received a letter from the
Hoo’ble Edward Atkinson, an eminent American poBtioal econo¬
mist, which contains the impoilant news that a simple method of
converting cotton seed Into a nutritive article of food has been
discovered* Mr. Atkinson says If you can obtain light naptha,
or gasoline, in India, you may do good to the poor classes by
leaching the kernel of cottomseed with it. It removes all the oil,
which can then be separated from the uoptba in a very pure state;
u^t, dry off the kernel with hot steam^ and you have a sweet and
a Very nutiittooe foe4 I suppose they have huUing-machines in
ladia. The hoBs make good paper. 1 expect to see opr crop of
cotton-ieed worth half as much as , the crop of cotton,” Colonel
Olooitlms w^t^^^ ^or par^ulam as to theprpotos Aud
fnachkerv reauiiedi « .
)f^)^rooe«dfbKflY§oor(1«a l>*p«riyii«ii^ dated
X 13tli ApvH 1871^. No, £87^ iim Botrd fipfoaftd a& opioloa tuat it w«i
HOI advlfiblt tit Oom&&ieoti to take exp«&li7« liepg to foioo (be ouUi-
^alioa of OaroUoa^vloe, bot that H might be oooiiiiaeii at tbe farm, and
et^tlfatora sap|»Ued with aeed irhen a deeira wmi expreased to obtain
ir^ on pa^rment.
The Oovergment decided that no'farther atepe other than thoee lodi^
ca(ed by the Board woald be taken for the present* but desired fuller
report on tbe point by Vr. Bobertion and Oolleetors interested.
Beporti were aeoordtogly for from tlie OoHeetors ol Obingleput,
Neiiore^ North AroOt, Betlary, TAnfore. Ootmbatore, Malahar, and from
the Boperintendent of Qorernment JEVinus. These have now beeu
teoeived and wMI beeubmltted for the information of aoveromeot.
It will be seen that most Oolleotora are of opinion that no further
experiments are called for, bat 3£r. Whiteside is anxious to go on with
tbetDi at bis previous experience woe very satisfactory, and Mr. Hops,
the Head Asifstans of fiellary, also expresses a desire topersoualiy
condnot an experlmeot, ^
lllnitratiog his sumstiou a referrnoe to casnarliia topee lu the
nelghbooihood of Madras, Mr. Price remarks that tu his opinion (he I
only way to forward suohsobeniei is for Oovoixnaent, 'or sotne enrMr.
prising Buropeau, to grow wbat it is desired in introduce beside
the crops of tbe natives, and to let them see what the advnniagtts
of the prod cots really are, and still farther, that It bttogs in i>eiter
products than what they (bemselves raise.
In the present state of demonstration of (he advsniages of Carolina
paddy the Board doubt whether tb« euterprfRiiut European will oe
forthcoming, but (hey fully concur with Mr. Prion in considering thut
It IS the only form in which any further expftritnents should. b‘i
proeecuted. Tolerably extensive cultivation of the crop in one localii;
tinder carefully selected saperintandence will load to inuoti hatter
resaUs in (he long run, than widespread experimeniH under tbe super,
vision of the District Officers who may happen to be at hand.
They may also remark that the reports now reoeivod iudioale that ns
yet nothing whatever has been attained in tbe way of Inducing tho
ryots to adopt tbe oultivalion of Ouroliua paddy, an I that the demand
for seed on payment will be nbsoiatoly mL
They are further of opinion that Carolina paddy having a deep
taproot Is not suited, to ordinary paddy lauds and will flourish only in
A deep and light sandy soil without asabstratuia of oiay**weIl drained
soli in which it will not be subjeoc to be wttteidogged.—ATadras
Mhe7iavm, __
NATIVE AQUICUtTUflE IN JAFFNA.
(Jaffna Morning Star,)
T hose who Uavc seen bow agricnituro is carried on in Europe
or America have, wo know, often denonticed the very piimi-
tivc ways of this ait an practised iu Jailna. It is strange indeed to
aco that the JaEanose-^who have in liioir course of civilisation so
much adopted the ways and means of the countries of tho West
•—take 00 pains to improve their mode of agriculture, the gieat
object of which is to raise on any given space tho groutoHt (piantity
of vegetation, consistently with a duo regard to the quality of tho
produoo. In this asiu many other affairs of life wo think the
riaturo of all Eastern nations is such that they requii-e somebody
to lead thorn and put them to work out the improvements. Wo are
glad to know that one or two Jaffna young men have been fortunate
enough to be admitted into tho Madras Agricultural College.
In order that agiicalture or tillage be suooesafui, aside from tho
naioral or artiffoial oonvemences of irrigation, soil, and climate,
it is generally admitted that three things slionld be done to
the land. They are, pishing^ mmuring^ and weeding in
their widest senses. Native ploughing more than auYthiug else
seems to be the thing complained of by those foreign friends who
know, if they know at all, about agricullure. It is deep ploughing,
as deep as the Surface soil may safely admit of, if not a littlo of
subsoil ploughing here and there, that is reqniied iu J&ffna wo
believe. Our ploughs simply sciatch the suituco of the ground
and do nothing to retain moisture is what we have been repeatedfy
told of. Wears glad to extract hero from the 7V»e A'eica, a piece
relating to the first turning of the sod in a viliagu iu Madura with
a foreign plough, .. ..
tbe nose, a boy to puirmb hoh)ind» and a mao to attsml the plough.
At the next etpSHtoShIthabtuiime thb qialstef ai»4 uralked In
the furrow and (wtuefiy uM^dA ft)me attempts the
end, and we dismissed the bojT to, puutdu By, tliis^oto
began to look at the work dene m well as us, and wem au' autoti'e*
lion at the depth and breadth of Bie furrovVs and ihe WAAthe
plough covered up the weeds, iind wished to (ako of the
plough handles. At the last trial Uds morning, the driver was
dispensed with, the oxen's nose ropes lengthened and tied to tbe
plough handle, and the oxen came aronudat the pud of the<^ furrow
in deiiaooe or aU the anceslry of Blindu plowmen and oxen. , My
bauriy man then corjtinued the pjengliiug alone tilt he had finished
the plot marked out, a full half acre. TUe work ia not very hard
for good oxen; and moreover they have gone oontrary to trodUlon.
It IS a pleasure to see land so neatly and evenly’^turned. I am
having an A harrow made, wliich I hope to try upon the same
ground.'*
In this Ominaction wo are glad to know that a foreign {flougli
(we do not know wheilier it is an English, Amoricau. or a Swiss
one) has been received Uds month in Jaffna by a gentiaman, who
lias tho object, wo think, of influencing natives to a better way of
modelled to meet ilie practical wants of ludian farmers in point
oi ebeaphess, iigbiness, and ease of drafr. Tlie results of liis expen*
ment with it at Handayasalai, Mr. Howland narrates in a uoto this
morning ^*-*** Tho fim time 1 tried itj the ground proved too dry.
The next time I bt|d4Q i^eotato«s^elkd. criticism, and the
oxen ftigktsned as well as the wotlctoe^ onlookers knew it
would* never work ; one man wo«tla;k*e needed to i^nll tho oxen by
as to hinder II Jafluaman possoestiig a moderate farm of a 100 or
2()0 lacimms of paddy or varego culture from buyingih If we
remember aright the prices of the Sadsa ploughs kept for sale at
the Baidapet Fawn of the Madras Hovernnieiit range between
Ks. 16 and Its. 60.
OPIUM.
C 'tEHTAlN members of Parliameat, who take as interest in Indian affaire,
have annually something to say on the eubjeot of the pceearicss natur
of tbe Opium Hevonne, wbioh it is feared would vaaiih altogether if the
Cbiuese took it into their heads toperfrem what may fairly beoafiedtwo
impossibilities. Tho first being the oulttvatiou of iiie poppy end the
manufacture of opium on so large a scale as to render the opium of India
unsaleable. Tbe second is the absolute abandonment of the use and abusce
of opium by the entire Chinese nation. Now tf this was all w« in India had
to apprehend, it might safely be predicted that oat Opium Bevsnite was
safe for ceptnnes to come. But unfortunately the real uod great danger
hes, and has lain for years, at our very threshold, 1 allud« to tbe stlsut aud
gradual exhauBtionof the soil of the poppy distiiotaftom consiaut cultiva¬
tion ol the poppy plsut.
Thesutreuder of £200,000 of tUecottou duties hasoouvulsed Calcutta,Madras,
and Bombay, and enabled numerous members of Fartlainent to*say very
bitter things about India aud lU finances. But not a word has been said
either in England or India, about (he very heavy and serious losses' already
susiainoJ by the failure and deterierailou of tho poppy or .p. If the inform¬
ation to hand U to be relied upon, lUon it must be admitted that during
the year 1877-78, tho poppy crop of Uie district of Sarnu was affected by
poppy bhgbt, and brought about a loss of twonly-scvcn lakhs and fifty.two
Uiousaud rupees, and as the loss during 1878>7d in the same district amoonts
to liitoap IfAhs and sevettty.five thousand rupees, we are forced to arHvo at
the conclusion thnt forty-three Islche and twenty-seven thousaud rupees (at
par <CIB2,700) have boeu lost to the Stile torough bad husbandry.
The question naturally arises,—What is to become of the Opium Bevenuo
if these losses (more or less) are repeatod annuXlly in the six great opium
districts north of tho Ganges,—namoly Baruu, Ohnpm, Bettlab, llotihari,
Tirlioot, aud Hujipnr.
The head of tho Opium Department, and the nutuerouv aotivei trttelligeat,
end zealous officers under hm orders, cahuot he blamad tor tha present
state of affairs. The Agtioultural Department being dekmeti if relieved
from any icsponsibility. real or imaginary ^ aud it is of no ua» trying over
spilt milk, the ryot and aemindar must be taken lu hand, and all future
poppy cultivation be carried on in a proper and sotonUfio mannev. -
Tbe system of caltnre which in thlrty.sev6u years has pfodneed the
results under review, is thus set forth by Mr, W. B. Jehnsea of Fatna, and
appears iu detail in O’Shnttgbnessy'a Bengal Dispensatory, pp. 748, 740.
« A beegah of good lartd requires about three seers of teed, if not required
<* to bo resown, and yields to tbe ryot fifteen seers of opium. At the
• preaenl price paid for it by the H C., Co.’a Ba. 8-10. this gives Oo,’s Ha fif-d.
“ Five maunde of seed at the average bssaar rate of 25 seers pet rupee
bring eight rupees. The leaves are alto bought for filling up the eheaU
•• in packing, at f lur annas per mannd. The petals are formed into masaea
« sad paid foe at firstqaaUty lls, 10 per manud* seeond quality at 8a. 7 ;
*• third quality at Us. 5» produce say Us. 15, so that the total value of
« a good beegah of opinm land ia Oo.*s Be. 8P, wMih the stalks lor firewood,
exehisive of other orops lu the year.
“Tlieqnatttity of opium paid for in Sarah iu 1840 was 8,507 maunds 18
“seers 16i chlttook|i.'>
AsrsgatdaouliiiM.Mf. Johasou states 4-« The poppy requires x good,
« rich, dark M wMl prepared with manure. The sowiags sommeoce
»^earivlnHovetober. Theday thefleod*ie sown tho land is woU watered,
a Thfi^Umt soon (fooota up, and whoa about SIX inches high, it ia thiaued
,878
A FEW ADVAETAWi^ THE '
**«iUlf!r«tdkdsitlitktti^tir«Uivit*r^ tlio 4i|^iitl0ii Ai« 9 mh 1|^ ilpi
^ m{Mi !i fioiulivaed ,* U gtnmg wioii$, il h di80ont{fifi«4 for
*' to ^ MOV pUmtk ddWs.”
^ii wtM iMOd Irc^tjon wm diftwn from rrelk* 004 ibo ofuumre .iirft
•op^o4 ^ jtim nroti^ oottlo^
Tho roiditftlite^QOiAted with ovoo tbo radimeoU of Mieotide Agriofttiurei
miit Aoi !|ill Ho obtOtvo tbftt wbUot oa tuUsOowA ^oontity oovd«ag
^MlOft 4^ ioto tbo poppj^ fioldi of plo^oror^ pArtle^ of ^fodOoo wm
, oorofollpi’ofodMt fVom 18W«70 to t97B47t qaa&tity of opiom*
pr^doM'Hb darali oO tbd aviini^ ppr Wga^ tr&s ii^ra ii and 14 obfttbekai
or^j^ctMxtbi of A ie&r^ i|^4 tbll qOaUti^y dlvldod by etgbt (the ^ oumbor^ of
4* Avb Hm tbm» obi^oka and (b^qi^rte^ tolas;
and If tb»s qaiatiliy )» 4oduetod from Aftosn iieers< Ibe rgto of production cf
opiniii ptr bosgab fu 1940, tUs dUforonee, nine sesrs twelve cMtMks and
.. onaav^^oiiM tolae (glpiiie 990J reprisente tbe average aaniMl loss
•OjltiibBed tiy bu»baAdiy> by wbich expreseiou is meaut^ assiduoasly
owbeystiaC tbe lOMr .A^at by drewiog tbe same crop fpoppy) aQoually oa the
some piete of oMfed Imd, aodnct retarulag efoa a leaf, Acwer. petal, or
stalk «f tbei^ot raii^ to Uie ground t and secood, by sowing as soon as
tbeiabm eon:ttueBoe,g^ eropsaod anytiiiog^se, oa tbe Undjusr auffidmtlif
wuifinred to proilnod a Crop of poppy, and so removii^ therefrom ufartb«iv
an4 iaigor eopply of minor^ miLter«»^t an onnoe of Wbiob is likely to be
restoied to the soiL Mr. Johnson baa told ns that this system was oarried
on in bis time i ,an^ Mr, Tytler, tite Sub-Deputy Opinm Agent )u
obarge^tbotiarnn Op^um ^triot« inppU** infoimation wbiob gives os
iLe practieal reaulte of poppy onlUvation on Uus plan.
o In W1*7% Ibe 8anm poppy crop was suddenlyidestroyed by blight of
the most vimlent type, A first olasa crop was on the groond, but without
warning in ten days it was entirely destroyed by the devastating action
of the poppy monid. About tbe^be^ning of February 1879, the cattirators
expool^ a fbll crop, and Mr. Tytler himself estimated the promised outium ’
at' not Issa'tbaii seven tituiisand m^iutula, or abeat six seers and four
oMttnelli'Psr beegab.'* Ttsa reader will realise the intensity of the diSAStsr
wbeniils ktiewfitbat only 1,489 manuds remained." In the present ymir
<1978), Mr, Heftier bas obtained about 9,148maunds, or atmost exuoUy one-
ha^oftbe total onttam of bia anb^divtsion in a prosperous year.
^e lOBg-Oontinuad drought destroyed one portion of the poppy crop, aud
but for Mr. Tytler*s system of well-irngation it would have been alQioHt
imp^bla to hope for any kind of poppy crop.
The extent to which bad husbandry was carried by the puppy onltivator,
is proved by the itetement published in tbe •FeyfiSAman, by its oorrespon-
dent C. J, W, D., thatA considerable part of this yearns crop failed
beoauseit wae grown foom the blighted seed of 1977*79.'*
In 1970.77 we are told 49,071 beegabsof land were andor poppy otiUivatiou
in Serun, end pioduCad matmds 7,20f of opium. I'be average yield per
beegah being six and a quarter soars. In 1971-72 the land under poppy
measured 49.099 beeghas, the yield of opium was maunds 4,429. and the
average yield per besgah was three seers and eleven ohittaoks. Compare this
with the yield in 1840, of fifteen seers, and we have n loss saffieituiDy
siariltag to demand attention.
In 1977-79 the expenditure under the head of opium is pub den^n in the
Bu^et aoQOuuts at £2,091,SfiO, and the income or revenue at £9,l92,7'^« 1
and, as fully two hundred and forty lakhs of rupees must have been laid
out inopmmisdvauoeB to onUivators, the income should have bees^very much
greater* The foot of its not being so, proves oonolusively that the system
of poppy, oaltivation hitherto pursued must be abandoned if tho Opium
Bevenne is considered, of sufiioient importance to bo properly sufervisod
and peungnentiy maintained.
In 1999-701 foresaw the necessity of plaoing a cheep and efiletBnt manure j
lor the poppy plant at the disposal of those oonoemed, but with the exoep-
tion of a Boropean gontietnan who held some land in Oudh, no other
person wasted a thought on "poppy manure," and how to make it for
general use, This gentleman cnltivated the poppy, manured tho laud as
directed, and obutiued therefrom exactly double the quantity of vhry
superior first class opinm that be would have done under the old and tlme^
honored eystem. Tho oomparetive experiments, very earefuUy cbnduot by
him# demonstveted that one boegah.of land, manured aooordmg to my plan,
gave jtwice . the quantity oi oplpp than that obtained from the patue extent
of land not so mapoied* The details and results ot all tbe expenmeuts
were printed in a f>amph^ t, and copies were sent 4o the authorities* Mi.——
waa very shortly after puecd in charge of aOovernment model form, whero
poppy was not grown, and his valuable personal kuowledge aud experience
was got rid of. X received a copy of tl^ pamphlet aud seat it os u presout
to IheUbcaryol tho Agit-UorU cuditoral tioefoty,
The opium produced hi me at Simla, and sent to tie Agri*QorUcultaral
society, waa analysed by order, by Doctor Msctlor« and was found to oontaln
seven per cent, of morphia, whUst the best Qoverutnent opiiun contpmed
only three ond-a-bidt; and there the matter ended.
1 cottM eestiy submit an inexpensive and emoieut plan of operations'to
prevent IttHhet derangement of the Opium Aevenue. But oouttosy demands
that the mtieeiri of the Opium Department ehould have t^^^ortuniry
affgided thnw aC plaoing poppy cnltiiie on a aeUifoetory V
d. i FOGiaoif.
ihm Owf^foi Awi»i ^878. ^^ ‘
T HB of to^ao of llmoaroBo mhByfii4»o gmt,
that it in -Almoet io eriomorfito tbo wholo o£
them* Their efeofo ma^ bo deedri^neb^l^
meohanloah aod ha being on ^ 0 '
organic constituonta of the anti, ^e Althwing M Ulma aa a
Buinmai^ of the pf^mclpal be»«ft|a,
"i* A large produce of cereal orppa of ai^rtOr ^pa^^ This
is especially the 01 ^ with wbeait, wbic^ beMinea Ifainiper okinned
and yields more flour. The peas grown upon limed laade are
better boitere, ..
" 2. Upon deep alluvial, and clay eolla it inofeasea the otoy of
potatoes and renders them less waxy* Sprinkled over potatoes in
the store heap it preserves them, and when riddled over the out
sets, it wonderfully increases their fertility*
" 3. Iiime eradfeatee the flngor and toe diseaee in tujn]lpi,and
gives great souaduess and more nutritive iquaUties to the bulto.
"4. It gives, when applied to hieadoW lands, a larger produce
of nutritious grasses, and checks foot«rot in sheep dopastnrod upon
them. Xt also exterminates beat, as wSU as coarse and sour graeses,
destroys oouch grkss, aud acts powerfully upon the rye grasses.
"5, Upon arable land it destroys Uie corn-marigold and weeds
of various kinds. •»
"0. It rapidly deooinposes vegetable matter, producing a large
amount of food for plants in the form of oarbonio acid gas.
"7. Xt destroys or neutralises the acids to the soils, hence its
adaptability to our soils.
"8. It acts powerfully upon some of the inorgonio parts of
soils, ospecialiy on the sulphate of iron found in peaty soils, and
suipliaies of magnesia ana alumina.
" 9. It proves fatal to worms and slugs, and the larvm of lu-
juiious insects, though favourable to the growth of shell bearers.
TROPIOAL CULTURES.
F rom the last ofiSoial report of Mr. W. Prudie, tbe GovernmeDt Botanist
of Trinidad, we extract the following intoresting notes on the ouUare
of various tropical economic plants and trees
^Hyarcanes.—To the oolleciion of these formed in 1879, three other
remarkable varieties have been added, and are now in sufTioieut quantity to
be ofiiBred for diitributiou. They are named provisionally ** Caledonia,
Queen," " Green Salangore," and " Violet Salangore."
No. 1| Caledonian (^en Cane, is a pale or greenish purple oane, close
jointed and extremely vigorous. The leaves are remarkably broad, and their
bases ate nearly destitute of the setie or " cowitoh " common to most canes.
This oane is Said to attain enormous dimensions in the Bast, and to be one
of the most sacchariferous. Thq short joint is a feature which is gene,
rally considered objeotioDablo—accompanied as it ttsually is by
great hardness of cauo tissue, lu this reapecc, however, tbe Cale¬
donian Queen Oane is an exception, and the ready way m which both
lengthof joint and diameter of cane is affected by manure—the natural
soil at 8t. Ann's being of tho poorest-* indicates great variability of habiti
and suggests gigantic growth under the iuflaence of rich alluvial.
No, 2, tbe ^reen Salangwe, is so named from its retaining a giean
colour on the cane much longer than usual, rithough when fully ripe the
colour of the oane is yellow, but not BO bright a yellow as that of a well
ripened Otolieito. ^is variety is tho freest growing of all &e varieties in
tho gatfdens, except the giant Claret Oane, and its erect habit is even more
^riking than in that variety. Both in respect of length of joint and
• iiametAr of oane it is equal to it—thus being tbe largest yellow oan e grown
, ,ero. lha fo liage is large and heavy ae in Nos. 1 aud 8 and fi of the former
e>ries. btttoompletely dariduoua, so that tbe oparatlon of '^trariiing" is
with it reduced to a minimumi The most striking feature in this oane,
besides the siae, is the broad white rim just below each joint.
. 3, the Viahi Salangore^ has tho habit of erect growth more strongly
developed than is seen in any other of the canes enumerated, as it is
distinotly the longest jointed aud tallest, with a full average diamefov of
caue. The leaves are long and narrow as oomparod with the weH-knowu
^ Otobeite*
The remarkably erect habit ot growth in these two' tialangores is a
character whioh, considering the influences most conducive to a highly
eacchuine joke and large yield of sqgat per acre, is of importance, i^d oa
this account it if deemed desirable that they should he brought into notioe
if only fox experiment.
Itisgenmally admitted that the successbl sugar cultivajbion of the fatnm
wiU mainly depend ,«ii gmiapreaiea yield of su^v on weight of cane, just
M lh« heet-loQt cnUiis^tioii ban heeotno an Acfoblfobod foduetiy of iinmeoiW
Impoitoace mMMy .hr ^ Mi^99«9dylridof eugarpfo Wwe%Mofi!o^
, bfonl^abeMtimtmtir kyfoebrovedtillage imdiiM the
propagatiott ofteotoXin this ease by seedh which wweofowid li> cmitain
meet iMriitfifie ^99^*^ valuable jrooto Ac itfiih «U the
AGRIOULTOBIST.
379
41; WbM tliem4^fDl» of tU ground^
ftl drcm(i»u6i M a UttJe ten^ieig to .i«dfeo t^o oott pt gfttheriog
(m^ of ^ixiOf$^f^mo|)|y obsetVB^ fi^ on afO|F4r eitalo i« <^it cmiet
iwd<^r9for«qDjoyl7^fuU «ttoU|^^ ood oir, iir» ^oltow aod
w^efo^a canes l^ng 0^ .i$'%ppf tbs gronndi and
ll^ai Pf tiglit and ais by tbeix 4root OomyauiOMi are green
sad d4d<jillbt iu »bgar« The erect or decuttibeot yoetores of the caue
are in ft jttossme deyeiident on sail end the kind of eulture they are treated
to^ espeohdly when yOnog» hut under any cizennwtahoii ^Winked diepoiktou
to maiotam an erect kshit of growth isanobTioas adrantage in respect of
the sogae yield* ^
It is ghnsmlly^idmittod that a yield of three hogsheads per acre is a
paOsitnom yield—aa^ of rare attaipmeatj a larger yield is ipareely thought
of»-*4vett 4s p possibility, yet ii is a !»pt ^ a |ield of 2| or d hogsbe^s
is atti^oed f4^pin de\ds io|i^h{^ ft ver^ lafge portion of the oanes are trailing,
ibatis to iay,|^eehhiid'd(Aolont ^e Quosllon naturjally arises
as to what the yistd would be if alUuch oaoes j[being erect, and therefore
rich in aggar) were np to a high ieoel yield. In this view it is not didlcult
to imagine a yield of 4f or 6 hogsheads per aore*
It. would be highly igstructlva and d.oubUe8S enoonraglog—iu the face of
beet-root eudheas^if every planter, judguig bitnself to have a pLoos capable
ef yielding dk or 8 hogsheads per aoie^ were to test Uie saccharine couteuts
of one of his best (most erect and }eUow) ounes, end that of one of his worst
(most deonmbent and green) canes of such field, then estimate the yiold per
acie by this best and this worst respectively, from the calculated weight of
cane on the ground, Such a tost seems to be one of "^le first steps towards
incieasing the percentage of Sugar to weight of cane, and of course tlxo
yield per aero, in the mn»noY jtbat has been accomplished in such remarkable
degree with the boeUroot, knd like which there is no reason why sugaroaue
yield should not be doubled in a few years.
'With regard to the several vsneties-of sugarcane already iutroduced
from the Hast, as well as the three varieties now newly brought into notice,
there has not been So far any opportunity or proper uieaus for testing their
speoific audiudividual eharaeteristios in respect of their habit of growth
and sugar yield under extended cultivation. It is moat desirable that all
the more promising kinds should be fairly tested, and their individual and
distinctive features determined. To do this it is iudispeusable that each
vaiicty be kept and treated separately, aud experience has shown that it is
H mistake for one person to deal with more than one variety when experi¬
ment is deUrmiuod on. However lOteUigent and eueigetic the aupoiiuteu-
deuce, it is next to impoastble, wUh tho assistance usually available, to
maintain, or even to plouta volKctl^,u of sugacoanesi of several varieties
without getting them mixed, lieaides, ten or twelve siools grown uuder
fair averopd condittons of the estate, are all that ia required to aoooiupUsU
a full and satisfactory experiment. Such stools placed not less than eight
feet apait in a single row and kept free of any other plants, will furnish
reliable mateiial for ana ysi» end data for estimating } icld per acre.
Coffee.-^Ao. extended nursery ouUivatiou of oofibo in the Uotanio Gardens
includes the varieties lAberiau, Meuuda, Hybrid Moka, Uoka, and Axabica
(Creole) in large quantitios; and vaaeties Natrowdeaf, Eden, Moka Uetsiel,
and Eeugal iu sutaller quantities,
Tho varieties mentioned have already been described, but it is desirable
to mention that iu respect of the Hybrid Moka aud the two loading dava
variolies, Monudn ftnd Harrow-loaf, their churaoier of remarkable vigour and
fcaitfuloeas has received further nonfirmatiou iu the progress tiioy have
made during the past year. The progress ot the Liberian ooilooaodils signs
of fruitfulness are equally satiefootory. The eUte of tbo larger plauU mdicatea
that shade will be scarcely, if nt oil, necessary for them tu ordinary good soil
in watered valleys aud moist or swampy laud..
It shuuld be distinctly understood, however, that Liberian coffee is uo
to be l^ked upon im a complete mb$Mut$ for Arabics, Moka, or other
vaiicties of coffee, as imsgiacd by some, except, that Je tp say, m low,
swampy# or what is known ae “heavy bottom'Maud, oi; very rich soil, m
which ordmiur if grown, would not be fruitAU, but whore the Liberian
coffsa would be at home.
Uberian ooflee is thus specially valuable aa an adyuuct for either swampy
laud Pv poor moist valley or plain land, It is more particularly valnabl(,
for planting <kbout Cacao estates, where the' land being moist ouough and
tbo aspoLt suitable for cacao the laud ia stitf or poor. It is also obviously
well adapted for growing amongst oncao trCes where they have become
worn ou^ and irregular. . , . < .
As on indication of the valae of Liberian coffee under cuUivatitm, tt is
deemed demrable to mention some of the computed resaltaof tho prospectivo
operations in Ubwia of the “Uberian goropany" lately regwtei'ed in
London. The price lately lealised there for the usual roughly prepared
soniplea is stated, tO be lOBa Cd. per owt. Tho trees are estimated to stand
40tf to thovacre, <.c., about 12ft, apart j aud those trees are celibated to
yield al a mlnimutn (at five or six years old) btOlb. uoffee per octe. Tb^
trees are stated to grow 20ft. to Suit, high when not pruned.
(howyrs nwrf trlew of tho fruit trade that is certain to dovetoj|<
us soon as direct ateamers ruh fsghlafly between this bdaud aul
Europe and Am^rica^ the outtf^on of orangmitiki limes on sm dl properties,
os as 4i|kilimiy\or4s on Ihfge onesi ch^l^bdi regaiidsd^asdcBCireiogMio
best of those vrho, a it4bi4 ptospenty W ^hs ’ialba*
7 (ig^'' 4 lThik it to he k^ejl by an ogiieuil^fid^prodtieotiSTaidkd ai '
'poidWe* ‘ '
A largo supply of plants hag > been,, Obtained of the Irae Portugal (not
Mandarin) or silver orange, St; Michaels, and the best seleo cd nSiivo
oranges. Sample boxes of fhesp latter, oranges sent to London in 1877
were pronouced superior to any met |vltb in the English market for JulCiUestt
and fulness of flavour, cxgepiing some soqt at tbo same time from ftrmsit,
and which were taken to be of the aamu varli4y.
It would appear that the uvorage qu^tity of oranges ordlnaTlly given
by full or ueariy^fiiU-girCwn trees fs not gonerally known. 1^ is therCCoro
deemed destreble to uivo the results of obaervatious made on four orange
trees in Uie BoUoio Garden daring tbe last six years. ';nii«ie give a ICwest
average of 600 oranges each tre« as Mte annual crop. This result has this
3 oar had coufinnatiou In ibe foot that trees of average siae ia the Betmout
quwtov have yielded over ocaugo# each. Buck tce«a la culMvatlau
would Stand S&fU apart, and thus 65 to 70 trees per acre. These wouU
give a crop of 82,600 oranges, which at ts. per box (100), would reoMseff 81.5
per acre.
The samples sent to London in 1877 were valued at 8#, per bos j those
from B.asil sold at I Is. per box. Further, it was advised that with proper
aod systematic packing the value would be considerably increased.
A most importaot and encouraging featCre in the Jprjnidad f*ud
Biamlisn) orange crop is tkatjis a rale it comes in fally eight weeks before
the Mediterranean crop, i,e,, August, uud therefore for that time would
supply the Loudon market when barest* There are soaaonv, hCwoviir. suoh
as that of I860 and last -year (1878), when the oranges ripen Lite, i.e* lu
October, and aio thvierore not available for despatch to the Lpudim niarkut
till it is also beings applied from the Mediterranoau. The character of the
fiuit too, as a late crop,is watery and deficient lu flavour uttLil,asit were,the
fruit IB over tipe fov exportation. The leasou for this is, however, easy to
explain and easy to audersland j aud happily tbo occurrence of a " late “
oroit oau bo prevented, so that by orange culuvaliou iu Trinidad the
Engliih market eould always be supplied from August to October.
The naturo and disposition of the orange tree [in this island] is to make
its grand anuual ilowsring iu February or March (It does flower wholly
or iu part then, howsoever dry the weather may be), aud if tho weather bo
showery aud thus favourable for the growth of the youuc; fruit which
follows tbo flowers, tbeao develop rapidly and give tho carly->-August and
Beptombor—crop. If however the weather in March and April bo severely
and oouCmuoasly dry, Uie youi^ fruits following the February or Marohflowot-
ing fail aud dropoff, thus arresting tbo expauding energy ot tree, until
tho lecurreuco of rain in May or even dune, when a seocud crop of lloweri
is produced, audia followed by the fruii, which dovelopsiufco a)ats—October
aud Hovembev—crop. This happened lost year. The remedy to this Uie
ciop IB iciigation at the time of, or soon after, Uie first fiowetiug lu
February or March. It will not be absolutely necessary to irrigate evciy
year, but having the moons, a heavy early crop could always bo scoured.
An objection to orange and lime cultivation fa commonly raised in tho
ciTec) that the trees got blighted, or dio out suddenly m a manner that
never happened “ formerly;*’ and iu 186!) it was generally remarked
that oranges aud limes were killed oat.” All tboso stMtomentu ato basoJ
on foots, bat Ihe cause aud effect are not nuderstood in respect ot
them.
Haring a run of six or eight favourable years, oranges aud limes spring
up mall dueotions, and acoordiug bo bite custom ot the country are loft to
grow, some in bad soil—often mere gravel or sand—some in low moist
places, others lu raisoi aud dry. The groat majurity thrive till the
occurrence of au extra severe dry season, when those happening to be in the
poor or ” high uiiu dry ” land ^e suddenly. Meanwhile, others moia or less
luvoured arc propoitiou<jtoiy injured, aud at length some fail victLins to
blight always iii attendance on trees of fading hoaULi—wkfitUev troui
diought otauy other cause.
The great iasUnce of the destruclivouess of the blight oommouly cited
is the disappeaiauoe along the grand Eostora and tho Bantu groiB roads
of the limes winch, formerly planted as hedge plastSi lined these reads
almost ooutiuuCttsly. It will be remembered, however, that years ego these
limes were pUntod in almost new soil, that ever since the roadside eanals
have been gradually deepeoiug and widening, and the banks in whioh the
limes at first grew so well have long ago beeu scraped aud drained iuto
dry and barreu gravel heaps. Ho wonder that Idle Ume trees, first becoming
sickly and bligUtsd, suddenly disappeared on the oocurrence of a season
suchasthatof 1862.
That this view is correot, and tliab there is no evidonoa in this occasional
disappearance of the trees by drought or blight, that the climate and general
coudiuous of theoouMtiy are not highly iavourablo fur the caltivatiou of
ilia orange family on a largo scale, is sufficiently proved by the numerous
instances of wonderful \ igour and frnibfulness m trees over 5i) years old
lu the very same disiriebs in which Ume trees aie said—aud truly—to have
died put*
Lime aud Qiauge trees are corlainly ftoiougst the fruit tre^s be which tho
eoiiditions ef climate and eoil Pt this isiand ate ordinarily most favourable*
The perfeotKin of eeudfttoxu. Caveumtble to the oultivation of the orange
family ou an extended Beale is found* • however, in the Montserrat
quarter.
Limes are ftl present to be most profitably nUlised iu the manufsoture of
lime-juioei but their great and welUknown supei-nnity over any other
variety ef U(he er lembn wouM Tsudkir them a epecinhfy lu the fftbjUbU
mafkek os they are aheaJy lu the American— once arraugementts were aia..e
f Ot theif.ifftiumtBSiofi by eteamers.
OHIOORY. ^
A OOORDIRR tb MnuAt re|>are of the toiand Botontto Oom.
tttialcHMf#, ibt oolfifaticm of obtoory )a %h» l^atted S^agdom
makes ao progreiSi lbs qnanU^y prodqeed ia tbteooafliry bearing bait a
small prpportioo to that imported from abroad) on aoooant of the
oheapsr tite atwliioh (be root oau be oalthaUd fa some foreign coon-
iriee and the ohaunei felande. With relereaoe to coffee end ehlcory,
the PilDClpalof the Iiaboratory further writes.—<* Owing to the ease
with which roesled vegetable matter can bo (repored eo as to reeemble
eoffee in appearance, aUbeUlotea for*or adaiteratiojia of, it are of some*
what frequent oocarreoce, The eubitauco most reee&tty detected as an
adaUerant isdate<«tORes, wblch, after being roaited and ground, form
•neh an imitation of coffee as would, wben mixed therewith, readily
deceive the general publio. The very worthlessooso of thie enbetauce
it a reason why it would not be llbely to be dateoted by the consumer
wben mixed with coffee, for, having no decided obaraotec of its own,
It note limply as » diluent of the coffee. With hot water it yields en
eitraot of very low spuoific gravity, and ooiitainiug only a atuali
quantity ml ooiocting matter and sugar. The early deteotlon nud
suppression of this mode of aduUeratiug coffee were effected in
Gooiequenea of information seul by a supervisor at Liverpool, that
many tons of date-etouee, a rofuso from a manufacture of spirite
at one of the dlslUlerlea there, and which had up to that time been
oonsidered uselese, were beiog bought by foreign genttemaa to be sent
to Menoheeter, and believed to ^ intended as an adulterant of coffeet
Tholuquiry made led to the diaoovery that a manufactory had been etarti^
ed in Manchester for the preparation of * Melltotine coffee,* a oompouud
in about equal proportions of coffee, ohlohory, and date-stones, giuce
the close of the fluauoial year a seieiire haa been there ma<le of about
seven tons of the * Melilotiue coffee,* and of the prepared data.stoues.
The manufactory had barely got into workiug order, ami very litile of
the * Melliotioe coffee* had been sent into oousumptlon. Of ume 8ampl^>«
examined under this bead during the year, two have couitsted ol
* Ohioorcue* a compound of ohlcf^ry, cocoa, and orauge-bfirnes; oue
of * Ooffeetina,* a mixture of coffee, chicory, end roasted figs; one of
*Mochara coffee’ (roasted ffgM); two of date^etoues; and three of |
gesaiae coffee and chicory.”—Cf<y/<7n i
. . i
FAWNA. I
W HEAT is the piiuce of graiue. It ooutainS not only starob and
other constituents common to all grains, but a large per cent, ot
gluten—the plastic principle of grain. So it yields a larger amount ot
noutishmont than any other ot the oereals. AnimaU who live on grain
composed largely ot Blotch arc not well nourUUuJ, do not tbnve well
and long on starch aloue, hut live nul fioutisU .vhoi\ gluten is contaiued
m oonelderable quantity. They do butter smU wU ui they can get for
food a mixture of all the ooustituentsof the grains. Theie cuustitueutb
exist in all, but not in the same proportions. Maisj coutaina more
oil, wheat more glutcxi, Some grains ounUin oumpArativcly
oil or gluten. Oatmeal is obtamed by kiln-drying the oats and ivmuv
iugtho outer skin. Its fioar is coarser than wheat ffour. Its taste is
peculiar, and not always liked. The BootcU oatmeal is coarser Uian
the Eughsb, and IS more highly valued. Barley is very little used in
making bread, Pearl barley is the gram depuved of it) husk, roimdsd
and polished by attrition, Patent barley is pearl harluy ground to thi
stale of ffour. Barley contains but very little gluten in a free state,
Its plastic matter is albumen and casein. It cannot be made into
VQSiculated bread, but a bread is formnd of it by mtxmg wheat ffour
with barley meal. It is less digestibm, less palatable, and less nutrUious
than wheateu bread. Barley water, so useful as a nutriiUe and
demulcent drink in elekuess, is pieparod from pearl barley. Barley
under the inffueuoe of warmth and moisture, germinates, and tivu
growth of the sprouts being checked by exposing the grain to boat hi
a kiln, if called malt, it uontains diastase, (bat converts the starch
into dextrine and sugar. The malt, luiusod in hot water, yields sweei
wort, rich m sugar, and used fur making beer. Ujre in foi m somewhat
reiemWlea wheat. The centre is starchy, aud the grain ocntaius some
gluten, and so way bo made Into vesiouiated bread. It U ihe itaple
food of some sections of the earth, in which wheat will not grow It
has nearly the nutrlticue value of wheat. Its brown colour and acid
taste, tender B of much lose value. Its relaxiug effect upou the food
canal renders it useful lu .eoustipatiou, MaiAo exists in mauy varieties.
Pop«*aora has the .^euubar quatity, ou exposure to strong hsat, of turn¬
ing inside-ont. A 1 the varieties, deprived of Us hull and broken, or
coarsely ground, am KUOwu as h)miuy-BAUip, or grits, which is boiled
aud eaten like rice. It contains but little gluten aud eo ie not fitted
for bread, unless wiih wheat or rye. The brown bread of the Eastern
States is a mixture of wheal,maias, aud rye meal. Maiee meat ia made
into a porridge or mush. Haiae has a peouimr flavour, much dlsUked
by children. It contains a large amount of fat-fonulng matter, so
that ou keeping for some time aui exposed to the warm air, ft acquires
a rancid taste. It coutalns a large pstoeu'age of Starch, and A small
one of plastic, fatty, aud mineral matter, aud so is not a natrltioue
article of diet. To obtain a suffioieut amount ot nutriment a very
UuM quantity must be eaten. Biarch, eaten with plastic artiolei, as
muk meat, and cheese, promotes growth aud strength. It i| easily
digestod and is a proper aiimeut in disorders ot the iittmnee, gspeolally
In dlatrbmaaad oysentery. Bice ffour of ib^ ft Maly So mhoh
adulterated, that for tbe^eick or for the v.i,. nee, it needed iuM
form of Soar, ihoold be ground at home* Boiung itoe is so apt to
lemove what.tUfcle:pla«ao matter UeoiitMs thatstMiqaag U the M
way ot cooking
' .salt
I N resuming the gubjeot ot <f OMmbff feU waIVtfm
we propose to give jproxni^fto to the 1a||Aida^^ In
oonjunotiou or oomhinaiion with USme. The euggsaliofi id a ^|tnral
Topic” tost week, that aa appUoation of Mt and liM pro¬
bably be aooompanled with great beMt to thh wkflat oeop in those
districts which had suffered most merely ffOm rust, was held
iuBtiffed by the results of many analyse of soils made hf the late
br. Macadam, those analyses having proved that hme was
notably deffoient in cur best agricuitural eofls. In the iama phtoe
the explanation afforded by Bertholiet, Way. and VoeUiker was
also recited of the action of salt in etrongthoning and brightening
the straw of wiieat and barley, and thus enabling thsm to pass
unscathed thtough the ordeal which would otherwiio have resoifed
in their destruction by rust; we seed not. therefore, aav more ou
this branch Of the subject at persent. There lie nothing new in
tho Apidieaton of either lime or salt, or of both together to the
soil, the practice is a time-honoured one, and was more In vOgue
formerly in the old country than since drainage has been generSly
adopted for wet land. Drain first and Ume after, Is however tbo
proper ootirso of action ; by liming wet land before it is drained
half the power of the lime is wasted. Lime itself is, perhaps,
of the greatest vaIoo in altering the meohanloal condition of clays
and in opening up their great stores of fertilising elements to the
crops. Oq light soils it should be sparingly used, and it must not
bo frequently repeated ;8Uoh laud very soon gets tired of lime, for
each suQoeBstvQ application of Hme reduces still further the quantity
of organic matter in the soil. Mr. C. Johnson, whose essay on
salt has*already been referred to and quoted from, found that heavy
clay and peat soils required the largest proportions of lime ; he
has used it at the rate of 25 bushels per acre on light soils and up
to 100 bushels per acie, but never more than that, on clays, lu
England it is said never to be need in large quantities, oxoepting lu
improving peat mosses, where l,00ObuBhelB have sometimes been
applied with good effect. In Sootiaud up to 300 basbels are some¬
times used upon farm lauds, and in Ireland siiit larger proportions,
time and poat, in the proportion of one part of the former to three
of the latter, wore found highly effective in growing a iurmp crop,
'he poat is reduced by tho action of the clover to a finely divided
state, and rendered partially soluble by the notion of tho lime, aud
a most powerful dressing foi young clov«rfi, This, it is said, ia
• ''plaiuable (aiuongs^ olh ) iiy Ihe tact that the peat om-
oyed being saturated with . .o.uiiou c/f sulphate of iron, the liino
converted it into sulph '.e of lime, which is a cunsvituent or direct
” *d of clover. lilxpL^ noM-j light soila with two parts of Uuio
t ouc »1 'salt ill a di. aUo '.vd ty romain for tliroo
jutlis ui a dry plai o b.d ; . used, weio equally siiccoSMful.
All applioal' of from 40 to 50 biiehels per aero prodiictid a crop
ot“ luniipH fully eqnalto the crop roBuUiug from a dresKing of 20
cubio yards of farmyard coiupost, aud on auothcr oxperiinoni oquul
to the crop fiom an ordinaly fall manuring with the compost lu
lefeieuce to mixing iimo with a compoHUhea|), the authority
already oil does not lecommcud it. There is nothing to bo
gained by tho piuclice, but much harm may be done; ” the natural
well-regulated formonlatiou of tho duug effects all that the Ume can
da, and in a better nianiier; for the Jiiue dissolves, and to a oou-
siderablo extont doooinposos the finer and richer portions of the
compost, and it coitaiiily remlers the straw and other coarser por¬
tions of the ui'ituire diier aud more difilcult to dissolve in the soil.
The praoiiod, tlieroCore, seems worse than useless.” It ehould bo
understood tliat lime is soon cariieddowniiito the soil ; 11b. of hmo
is dissolved by 4801b of water; the rain, therefore, always convoys
it from tho surface downwards. The praotioo of ploaghCng in this,
however, is approved by *aany, and recommended to some extent by
the authority referred to. light soils, if it is possible to obtain
any ditch or pond mud to mix with the lime, far better efiSeota
will be produced than from Ituie alone. Bolls of that Ascription
have often been ruined by a long course of Itinhig, and wo
are of opinion that it would be easy so.to ruin a great 'many of the
lighter soils of this country. We' have been treating ohiefly of
iiioO alone, but we must revert now to recorded experiences of
applications of hme with bsU. Whilst the duty remained on salt
m Britain, S'^a-water was employed to slack lime; but it was
partially boiled duwu in order to obtain a suitable proportion of
salt. As residents near salt lakes may desire to make such use of
the water, we note that 3,000 gallotie, reduced by boiling to 000
gallons, will slack 04 bushels of lime ; the above quantity of water
reproaente about 7001b. of salt, a quantity sufficient for two aoroe.
“Every farmer,” observes Mr. Johiisou, speaking of England, “has
it in his power, even in the meet inland Bitnatioo, to proouro
this most excellent manure 'for the use of his farm, by means of a
mixture of two parts of time with one of salt, andi suffering it to
remain inoorporated in a shady plaoo, or oovered with sods for two
or three months, a plan which X suggested some years since.
p.*$2, 3rd ediuon.) ^By this process % gradual
aeoompositlon takes place ; muriate of lime aud soda are formed,
the whole mbM apeedlly beopmes euorusted with alkali* There
ie anMar advaotogp to be derived from the adoption of this
Moess of soda,-'?visk, that the mnriate of
lime is M tho most. deliquescing or moMturo^absorbing
subBtanoes with which we are aoquhlntpd j and % eoasequenoe
lAGRIOtLTtmiSI?.
381
tiha of. ih.^'''«ua hfui t»
lot^ar teijbQdAaae oa it than U wi^ld oibafvrjsa U«ve.'*
B^rtmaut^ tQQ mixluro of it«|it ^ too should attoud
cii^tiy to ttiO and e(»p«oi^l/ pHoald not uao it boforo
dooompoifitto token plae^^ It i^ow bo'allowed to lie for
two Dt ibn»b;\monthe as dirooted, aud then lie applied at the rate
o£ frp4 3i0 tb 60 bushels per aore, either by broadcastlug if, or
mtxing|it ijNritU earth and epreading
COMMON SALT AS A FAJRM MANURE.
T HB rocont aolion of the Kyueton Agricaltaial Society had
given prbminenoe to the subject of the uao and vuiuo of aalt
in lartn husbandry. Its ntility as a condiment will i>e (^ueBtioned
by few stockowusrsi but on the committees of some of tUe agri*
cultural societies are fhrmers whose experiouces have net led them
to attach as high a value to the use of salt in wheat husbandry
as others havedouo. That contradictory notions are held regarding
tile value of salt cannot be deemed surprising by any one who is
capable of realising the fact that salt is •^'^'^ady proseat in greater
or less quantity in nearly ail soils, and lha. .dts diiler so greatly in
constitution as to render very difficult the task of obtaining oorroot
and definite answers to any questions which the farmer may put
to thorn. Tlis inutility of adding salt to land already surcharged
therewith should need no demonstration. i4Vro Imist bo a
great deal of land in this country that would not be bonetited by
dressings of salt, besides the laud situated noar tUo sea coast. A
very simple analysis of the soils witbiu two or Ibreo uiiUs of auy
of the ealt lakes in the interor world piubau';/ show that a furtbor
addition of salt to those soils would ha {.mpoilIuouR, and that to
the extout of being injurious, ft id quite poesibl^ also that farmers
who have arrived at au opinion adverise to the\aliie and utility
of salt have heeu putliiig the question to land wbicli. being of a
reliuitive characlei, has not paitod with the saline applic.itiuns
already eiiUui'ted to it. Dressings of lime oft rejieatod not o^ly
fail to elicit nioreased yields, but uctuallv iiijuro (culain ilo8(”‘Ip-
tioiiB, of soil unless well suppoitod alpo with faimyaid manure, 't
is necessary, therefoie, to know before tc*.»mijii!ig to apply as
a manure, wliothcr the bind ititoudod to .ecoive ii has need cl' ''b
Htnikulant or not. i.neo' ' ,r detiinin'id that salt ' ^
doaes in Uioes a mort ^
smnewliat Javj' doHcs,
in po^nlivel, hi.<iiodr
ti marine oban * uy s oxporiin' j
laining from on <i»vo giains of pe. •'e and
wrUsr, prove tins. In. > 0 ^* lions '
Vi j;« 4' 's ib^ p u / *'u 0 3ii . «( o 11
ho.M'f uf. lieu 1. .'iiii,v-3fcopt those in
t li ;'*s . in tb j Noliitiori ol nno gu ‘i
Ai; tbo plaiilB lu pure lAiu-wa'.e-
.iS h btc in u
' '^8 not
J ».1U(
’ he
' \d
lu
hut
'»f
on
vV of
^hno
a leer
grains
'. • uve'
\.....niiod lo Iivo
1. was lurtbei
pioN cd that in a weak solution ol wit i vie ve^,, uilcd winch died
in wimple water. Salt, ’ ways Mi. C’Vnov t W. .Tohuhon, londeis
earth inoie capable of ah''Thing h * .m ie;ure of the unnonpliere—
n propel ty of tbs first impoi tance (especially i AustraliiO, since
those sods which absorb the gieateat piopoition of moisture
from the atmospliero arc always the most valuable to the culti¬
vator.’' Of its inilueuco upon the wheat crop the same authoiily
Days i—“ Salt, it should bo reioomberod, raro/t/ cuunes the wheal
]&nt to grm larger or taller^ bat it fiUtt up the ear betler^ and bi mgs
the weaker plants forward, Mr. ISiuolair informs uh that * Halt
appears to lessen tbo produce of straw and inciease the weight
of graiu,’ Of his own oxporieuoe Mr. Johnson adds * I Imvo
never been able in my oxpeiiments, imt* in any 1 have witnessed
(with salt alone), to observo any increased quantity of straw,
oven in esses where there was iiicroased produce by means of
salt of six bushels of wheat per acre.’” In rofereuce to the amount
of dressiog and the nature of the soil on which his experiments
were conducted, he says “ The salt should he applied some timo
l^fore sowing tho seed, not less than 10 and not more than 20
bushels per aore.” The following statement of tho result of some
trials in 1820, on a light gravelly 8 \mI, will show how impurlant
may be the result to the country at large by iis judicious applica-
tion^
Butli. lb.
Ko. 1. doil without any manure for four years, gave per
more ••• ,, **• , **•
No. 2. Boil manured with etabla duug to previous crop
(potfttoea), gave per acre ... ...
No. 3, fioU wifcli five bushels ot salt per aoio, and no
other UMmure for four yoai a
13
2(i
26
36
62
12
To this Mr, Johnson, in his Essay on Salt,” adds the testimony
of “ A Bain Essex Former.” 'Hie soil,” says Mr. damesli^liialUB,
of Panfieldj that 1 described to you to be rather of a Icese
hollow desorlption, had a diessing of salt in November after
the wheat wka sowut about' 14 or 16 bushels per acre, 'IL
predated at Ibe rate of about six bufdibla per acre more than that
which waa not dreased, ami it iqay be etaWd to bo £1 per load of
40 btiahela better \n qdbiity” Thia taprovemepfc in duality is
conspicuous^ noted' id must of the rblpons furnished to Mr.
Johoaou. oxperimenW applioattoiiis- w;here the quantity
of eaU was gradually iuhiMOd in orddrtc»> determine at what point
it oeaied fcolbe beaefioH to plttmpnMa Ofid quaUty ul to grMn
were maintained even whefi to yield began to show areduetton in
quantity, A Mr. Legrand, who experimented on barley, found
its effocts gradually advanced up to IG bushels per acre, and ffom
theuoe as gradually diminished to 40 bushels, at whiob poiiit
vegetation was stopped. As a sweetonor and improver of grads
land, salt is highly 8p<»kon of by many, Mr. Collyns, of Kenton,
Devon, reporting in 1826 on some farms that ho had viaUed, and in
which salt had been used, is found a fine verdant pasturage in what
used to bo coarse and rushy meadows, Ou the same farm,
whero 10 bushels an acre was the regular yield of wheat,
the yield was first eraisod by a dressing of 10 bushels of
Halt per acre, to 36 bushels, and in the next yeav, after
being similarly dressed, 140 bags of potatoes wore produced
per acre* Another dressing of 10 bushels of salt to the same land
appears to liavo been an omdoso, for he had not more than 20
bushels of wheat per acre, but the quality was very aupenor
iudoed, and tho root of clover in it very fine and luxuriant.’^
It is tlius possible that the luxuriance of the clover was
also a partial cause of the lighter yield of wheat. The same
experimenter oiids every field 1 have salted 1 find the grass
very much superior to any produced before the use of salt.” A
large number of experiments in potato*growing made by Mr*
Johnson, and others by tho Bev. Edward Cartwright^ show that
salt was especially useful ns a manure for that crop on the soils
in question. 'J'he soil which uiimnuured gave 120 bushels of
potatoes per acriq gave after 20 bushels of salt in September, 102
bushels of potatofm ; 20 loads of manure gave 219 bushels,
20 loads of inuniire and 20 bushels of salt advanced the
yield to 234 bushels ; 40 bushels of salt alone gavo 192|
ImsbelH, and the same quantity of salt witii 20 loads of manure
244 bushels of potatoes per sore. The llev. Mr. Cartwright, who
tried ten different msumos for potutous, found salt superior to all,
except salt and 8oi>t; this loixturo had a most romarkablo effect
i)oth on potatoes cud on canots. The subject of salt and its
judicious 1180 wiM be f*jond by ilio^o of our readers who have
never enterUiuod if, by no .neaus us uuimportaut as many would
ha*'o (horn believe. Silt is as oondiicivo to the health of a groat
variety of vogotaliun uh to animal life, 'rho subjeut will be early
•uHumed in those coluiiius,—
TUB
CULTIVATION OF ECONOMIO DLANTS IN
ISOUTH AUSTRALIA.
IT'F.'JM Hr. Schoiubiirgli’rt n^port oa iUc progress and condition of the
Boianio (iaiden mil Coveruinout pUotations at Adehddo. .Soalh
<\ i^rnfia, a good idea of the capuijilitiCB of the colony for the eviltiralioa
I *)> plants oC economic value luiiy be obtaino3, Tba inlroductiouinto
i?el p.trt8 ot the worJd of plants producuig fodder for cattle has occupied
atUotiuii f'f j'lto, not oiilv in tins fouiifry for tlio purpose of oultivs-
iLton m luilia ami th’li«t it nopowa, in Aust-'tilia. Fodtler
plants genri a iy, wUctlifT gi.u-r'Cd or utUetwifto. hare been tried iti
fAper'raontal gfonmla m houih AuL<tialifl. and though tho lust summer w.is
iho hottest and dnost that bad been known m (ho colouy tcv snuie tiiSK*,
It \a Hitiisfactory lo Irani that cevond kinds wilbslood the cflccte of the
dronglit. Chief amoURet thi'so was fVnicwm sfwctahite, DnriBg the hottest
time tho pUutjj grow vigoioualy, and not a blade wsb injured by the heat
and iiroUKht. Dr .ScUomburgk thinks it caimot be loo highly recomiuended
notalouc o-sUio best Bamincr gra^s, but also a$ a proleelion against the
spread of uro by sowing a htrip li* or 10 loot broad aroand wheat crops,
nndas thia glass IS in its (inost condition when tho whoat lipena, P would
check any Jhe coming from outward, and after tho wheat is reaped there
roinoius a splendid crop of lood for oatble and cheap. As 6 grow* only
in summer, it is valuable for hot and dry climates. I'his grass is said to be
inoic easily propagated from roots than from seed, as every httle bit grows
readily, and produces lu the hrst year plants lit for Uiie, and as it extends
rtipidljr, aud by vigamm growth, it isdiili cult to get rid of it oat of tho
ground. The cocksfoot grass (DactyUr gloiiieraH) x» also a valuable
fodder grarn. very productive in cousequencu of the rapidity with which
ite leaves grow after being eaten or cut, and poasessiug considerable
nuttiiive qualities for (attenlng purposes, i& vrell worth a place amongst
Oullivated grasses. Oi the created dog^s bail (Cynosurui crUiatus), Dr.
Bchomburgk says:—"'All the domoaticaled animals, parb'calorly sheep,
are fond of the rooi-loave s, which are produced in abundanoo. From its
forming a close leaf, and having dno foUagC, it may be sown on lawns;
tho drought ha.s uo effect upon it.” The hard fesQuo grass {Fmtuca
dut'ifieevJa) is classed as one of the beat grasses introdneed into Australia*
It seema to thrive in a variety of aoils, and from the fineneas and bright
green colour of its foliage in summer, is strongly reoommeuded for extended
oulivatlon. CatUe aio extremely fond of it, aud it eudores well the
summer heat. Of broom graaBaa, ISiomuit tnermiaand HAongi^ohm oro
both rich and extremely putritious, ranking amongst the beat of iutroduood
grassos* The bastard millet grass {PugaUm difatefurs),although a native
of firasil. kvopo green throughout the year and affords a fine food crop
Sacchmuiib c^UftdHeum ia also strongly tcoonmicudod for its uutritiaus
qualities,.and its capabilities of eodnritig extreme drought. jPenftnmpi
jSwbrtafum end f*. ItWHi^oliuw both prove to Iw exoolJfnt grasses ia dry
lands* pfoduioiiiig good pasture and good hsy, and consequently of high
value as fodder plants* tomcnloxUfn, sUhough a native of the
uopitSi appears to endure the droogUt sad heat of 8aatb AusUalioi AU
Lli« 6w\Mn iMittiiire <[^lUie« for foUonift^ pOrpoie*. Of (U
woll.li^owii Ibttfttd halt giroao (Aira cooiipftoiaa) Dk. BchomVoirgk toy#
9f AJUiougli m ratltler coorw Ifrm, Umiag Urge it otando mr
irottght ttttOoiiitaoOly mit \ not tligbioft «f tbo Itoat and dryam
B Oboorvabh on tbia gratt} and oo doobt oatUo rtiU become need to it."
Atl the ebore kiode withstood the eifoeta of the nnnselly diy emamer in
Addeido remarkabiy welh ao that they are eondderod well adapted for
ixtendve eultiyatioa in the oolony. Br. Sohomborgb further eayi :*-«** 1
lave giren my opid(m and advice in former reportSy and again mention
batit Uimpoeeible toatoetc rnaa with arliflcial gram, on acoonnt of the
ergo extent of p&ttoral land, and of ibe inanperable difSonUy atieing from
dimete and dronght^ to whioU some patta of the oolooyi eapeelally the
lorih, are often subjected, so that the aquatter must depend on natire
;;raaaeB for his atoeb, and the only resonrcc for him is to encottrage the
yrowth of theae. 1 fcAe my advfco will never he heeded, bub Uie teSttli from
(vanton deetmotipu of graases from conataot grazing will aoon be ehown by
beirdisappi^araaoet which must foUowi By the praeUce of grazing the
lame land throughout the year, and over stocking the gra(iaer» eepeoially
^uo nals agd other herbs, are prevented from inanring theif reproduction
From seed, aoifaB the aheep crop very cloaelyk even the perennial herba
nuafc sneetmb."
Moat of the bettor klnda of native Anatralian grasses have no teudenoy
iO form a eloeo tnrf, and as they moatly grow in toaBot^B) are more easily
iaton out of the ground and destroyed. It is appafent that the atookholder
cunst depend on tko native grasses, and it is therefore to his advantage to
moourage their growth. To carry (hia out the runa should be divided up ;
mnnally one of these divisions should not bo grazed to allow of replacing
d)o paatorage* The grasses should grow unmolested—flower, ripen, and
matter thOir seeds, so as to ensure their reprodocUoD. 6uoh a systeivi of
rotation would improve the growth of pasture. By the preaent system
if grazing iho runs constantly throughout the year, much injury is done
.0 Uio native herbage, whilst every enoauragemont is given to the growth
)f noxious weeds, which the sheep will not touch, except when pressed by
rreat huufpsr, and so these obooxiotts herbs wilt gradually iuorease, and
.ho better verdure must more and more give way every year, the grasses
dying out ono kind after another, ssveral apecies, it is said, having been
t|utte lost; and the increase of noxlons weeds soems to be proved by the
fart that, during tho last few years, larger numbera of sheep have been
poisoned than formerly. Not only lias the fertility of the land been
tjxhauated from mattention to the waminge of aoience, but diseaaos—
laht^all and red ruat—climaiioal disasters, such as drought and frost,
become more provaleni* It is also true that the task of introdnoiog any
ni‘W economic plant, and with it probably a now induatry, is not an easy
cine. We may know all about the stTucluro oi such a plant, its life,
its distribution, and its culture, but for our pavliciilar put post, re must
also know its oatnra) enemies, besides which tbjte is the ^ntporiant question,
will the onltivationbf sncliaplaot pay commercially, when we have to
compete against other oouutnes where wages range lower; and, again, how
long will it bo before we can detive a profit from its culture. It ta no
wonder that many shrink from tho exporiment rather than wait fur Iho
I apse of years before a profit can be retui'Oed. The formor is too mnclt
used to the growing of cereals which, no doubt, gives the quickest returns,
and, till now, baa retarded the caUivation of auoh plants aa require a
ongor Umu before a profit can be obtained.
The new fodder plant, known as the ” TeosinieFucli/mita (Ueana
a native of South America, has been inttodneed into South
Anstraha, amongst moat of our other colonial poHsesslons. Aa ita specific
iiaiuoiudu des, it is very luxuriant in growth, enormously prolific, easily
VTOpagatod, and its atoms are very tender, and much realised by cattle,
poaaessing great fuUeniug properties. Though it is only qnitc recently that
the Kuchlima has attracted so much oUention, its value hs a fodder plant has
been known for some time. In 1872 M Darien de Malsunnenve wrote as
follows 1 —It is a very large graminoo us perennial, and very rich fodder
plant,'* for which purpose he obusiders It haa ho rival. ISaoh of the plants
in tho Boideauz.gardvn8 threw out about 100 sbools three metres long,
The tondoc stems ooniain a large quanlity of saccharine matter, and it is
estimated that each plant would supply food for two head of cattle for 24
hours. Reporting on this plant in 1873, M. Bosslgnao says that in
Guatemala it grew in a temin ate zone bolter than in very warm climates*
It has been found that it grows ' ^ost I'mriantly in new moist sotl. Cattle
fed on it fattened rapidly. The ; i«nt is easiiy propagated by cnitings* In
Mauritius, where it has been introduced, Bple^d resnlts have already been
attained from its cultivatian* A few aoeds sown in dry soil pr^ueed
enough fodder for two horses a day. The plant can be Cut down, and ia
speedily replaced oy young ahoote. In New Caledonia, the Attc/ihmM
IS strongly recommended as a luxuriantly growing plant, and its qnnUfloa*
tlotts as a fodder pUnl described in terms of Uio highest praise*
Br. Bchomburgk's expetience of Itiis plant lu Adelaide is given in the
fullowiiig words .‘—“X received the seed in July last, and sowed it at ohoe
IQ boxes ; it soon germinated, and tho young ptoots showed at onCB a
luxuriitfb devutopmenfc, As 1 feared, iho season was net far advanoed .
euoagh to tfuit them te the open ground, they were planted in 44nclv
and kept In a skeltered place uma the middle of Septeiabet, v,'h Jt hlpflji'i
huudfodVere planted ia'Gte expetimBntAl ground of the park, the suU beli% ^
tolerably good, having only beau dug. The cold weather checked their
grortthin the cciamcncemcnt, but when tho warm weather In, ih
Ootebori theif dsveiepmmit h*s bf«i inrprifinfii N4twnhii^a«dy«g that
after planting, i^i^liave a|v«'h^'n* vNdeti^, «n'^
dryness of the fhaBott,' thote grovlth' tt''IvlipWini' The m wt ^
Bsone, in throwing not iaph a nueib nr 0f elem#)i ie dlfb predemkeiii ^ w
plants. The plants do uqt, M yet (end «f W
•lightest effect from the in^hrioni 4rOU^ Uisi: lee^ «jM*
hcalHiy green, while tho bUdeS' of all 'ihb oljiet kata lAlfefbd
materially, aud are bumli. It asemxf .tkak thi, ibrnnaa' regi^feft'tiia
cultivaiion as maize and aorghttm. Tho need ihoutd noli Ite plkifted before
September. Due regard being paid id Itl enoi^otte dgitetb^llty they
■bould be planted at leant four feet apa|rt* It Wopid be promatuve to
predict; os yet that the tleana is adapted to our (Auatakltiui) eUmate io as
to become a profitable summer fbdder. \Them ia also, andt^r
point, via, will the plant produce aeedi, aUd Will it flpeii idth ki, luw^ttgb
the plant i« a perennial and will' last for yelrs. I] a,m & iibpii' thai ^ tie
plant will turn out a great acqnteitton to our Bnnilhar 'foddef tdattb^ The
plant is liable to be mlabaken for maize or serdhhte* which tt eloie^y'
resembles, and to which it irclcMly allied, and, llto tnaine, It beam male
fiowers at tho extremity of the stems, whilat the female fioWora apjpeaa on
the atoms "
Of the mnoh advertised prickly eomfrey avpsrrtemm), Dr.
Sohombnrgk gives it aa bit opinion that, ajL least to the South Australfau
plains, the plant la of little or no use. It hu beUp phihted indilbfent bcIIB
and slbuationa, and Buffered much from the drought* The htkt aaddVjmeat of
the country aoem to bo^oo much for it, Ddring »he wintw mouths, however,
the plants made very aatislhctery growth, and produeod some fino leaves,
but la the month of Octeiber the loavei began alj^y to inffer, sboWhig the
effect of the warm weather, and dried Up before any of the grasses, giving
not ibe slightest promise of being capable of produciOg 80 to 100 tons per
acre per anndtu, the estimated pioduco of the plains not amounting even to
one ton pet acre. However prolific ibe prickly oom:firey may be In some
climates, it seems not to to bo auited to the hot, dry aeaions of Anatralla*
In View of (he probable esbauabion of the supply of esparto from Algeiia
and Spain, it U satisfactory te learn, oo the authority of Dr. Bohomburgk*
that Uiere is every prospect of the plant succeeding in South Auairalie,
Under the head of medical plants we learn that a great demand has arisen
in South Australia for Phyiotaeea d^candra, which is freely used in the
hommopaihic treatment of diphtheria, a great number of children, it is aaid,
having bean saved from death by the influence of the plant.
A bfaucii of cultivation that prom laes to become of very great importance
m South Australia ia the eystematio growth of perfume plants. Of tho
magnitadc of the commercial aspect of* the perfumery trade, we are
leminded that British India and Europe consumes about 150,000 gallons
of handkerchief pexfume yearly, and tlie English levenua ftom eMu»de>
cologne alone is about AfiiOOO a year ; that the total revenue from imported
perfumes is estimated at about £40,000* and that ono groat perfume
distillery at Cannes uses yearly about 10 i,00t*Bi. vf acacia fiowors f Acacia
/hrnesvana), 140,G0(ilb* of rose petals, 82,00ulh* of jasmine blossoms,
fiOfOOOlb. of tuberose, besides a great many other fragrant plants.
Dr. Bobomburgk says " Most of the fiowers which provide the material for
pe'fi«msa grow most luxuriantly with us, viz. mignonette, Bwoet vetboiia,
jahmine,rose, laveuder. Acacia fame shna, heliotrope, roseiuai'y, peppermint
violets, wallflower, knrcl, orange, and the awoot scooted geranium. 1 miy
say that these plants thrive probably in greater perfection here than in any
other part of the world. No doubt South Australia ahould be a perfume-
producing country. Wo see flourishing here some of tho most valuablo
scout plants, and even some of our native plants will yi£d a valuable soeoti
but two things are needed to enoourags the enterprise. iPifat, if the scent
IS manufactured in Bouih Australia, freedom of the Still, so aa to liceuse
disUlliug in vesselB of loss than twenty-five gallons eapaoity, aud secondly,
the bond Ada advertisement of a capitalist mautttaotover that be will 'buy
any quantify of specified flewees, leaves, roots, or plants, at a markctgMe
price, then some farmers might be tempted to plant a tew aoreC Of iaVen^sr'
or mini ; another, geraniums or rosemary ; another, jaemine ; whilst
plantattous id hedgerowa, or bthevwiso of rosea, caSsia, together with
contributions of gardens, would lay tho foundation of an export trade*
Then it must also be noted that what ever the value which plauts yield in
fiowers, ft uit, leaves, and stems, it is increased threefold under manufac¬
ture, and this maaulaioture again consumea other local produce oaUed late
existence .‘v )S such as ohve aud other oikh tete, alkaties, wheateh flour,
oolouring maiter, pottery, and glass-ware, which combine to make the
farmer and the mounfactarer coutribnt e largely ti the thilnteiumee of the
popiilatiou and the wealth of perfante^produciDg counirleSi" Dr.
tichomburgk further points out the profits Iikefy to accrue teook au extended
cultivation of seeut-besring pUuta as against the cost of land in ISuglaud^
acres of which in certain locailttes areunder cute ivaiion of peppermint
lavender, and other well-known plants ot the tame class. The ffitiure of
these crops, or more particularly these On the farms of GraiH, Cannes,
and Ntei^ would He a serious disaster to this branch ot obrnmefoe, the
imp<«teaee of whieh may be proved from the fact tiiat a number of a well-
kncwu perfumery house in Ikmd'^street has thought it worth his Wiifle to
viHt Australia for the purpose of encouraging this bKauoh oleulture*
Eegardlujs tbcmhoftfactete of the perfumes, au opinion is expressed which
will #0 doubt bo fnjilyoudoraed by practical men at hope, that it is
', fiosdvieable te prepare them au the colony \ this work would of aouirie be
piaehmoxael9toctealfydi^inthi'B Country, at the sama tim«f*khe ple^
might go ihrohghaome 'miaipulation, ot paithd pb^ratiaa* soAs lomdttee
theif hti& Mid Thepateem4oftitiaeiid«imrto
tIS' 'AGRICtILTtIRfe
883
#£ ijia4{9i» <044 <p«#p#4) ia
H 4. w|i»iMjboxy toQitd
fldoh prodUM# 0^ dHaocm Locoa oU^itM beea
btfodoatioii a^Bd^o e&firgy and
)iW4ii1iH7^d*priTrftte|(4|i0am«nrby wlinm UU liO|»ed the plfints will bo
bedydtitcibuM, ^
Sftino amdont o< iHbiMfii baa iately aitacbad to iba oatalpa iroo oa
aoeoalit. of tho i^eafc darablUty of tba wood { it la Mdd to troiilt doeay in a
manallona mjar# oapaoially wbaa bariad in tba afvoond, or plaaod in
aoniaattritlitba^aii^^f fanoe^poata mado of It ban atood iatbo ground
fojt^.aiit yaan, andwJitt taban op baaa abom no aigaa of daoay. Fartbar,
aapeounanoftbatoo^lialamlrottApaatt^lu^ in iha gttmndfov
7b yanra waapatfeoiili baadand aoan^r bnried
•howad daoaj only to tba aatant of ab^ a ^aartav of ita diameUr. Tlia
wood ia light la walgbtf of ooinpaoliflbfa» haa a handfoma gwini takas a
bfilllant poUabi and ia wall fnitad for ornamental oabtnob work* Tcaos of
four yaara <dd have but litUa aap. and the older ones bat a xnara dim, hardly
ihiekar tbgn papaf. They are isdiganona In Indiana and other ports of
tlm wastf whdifo apaoimans may bo foond d feet In diamotar near the gvoundi
and with trnnka ^ 4ot Idgh wil^out a limb. The trees are of Tory rapid
growth. They ahould bt planted thicklyi ao as to oanfine the growth to
the stem, and after a ooftain period thinned out. In the Western States it
is l^ttg extensively planted, with n view to the il^tare of-ite timber for
railway ties, It is asserted ibe^t one rood of land may, in 20 os SO soars,
grow ireea enough for, the ownaS*a nee, pnd at the same time thin out and
sell enough of the imaller growth fbr telegraph poles, fenelng, •and other
purposes, lo cover all axpensea of growing the Ivee. The durable nature of
the wood ia beyond dispute, and from eaperiments made, thus far, for rail¬
way purpoBM, the catalpa ties proved as Urm after a lengthened period
under tha rails ai oak. lb is said that a railroad onoe laid with thom would
require no renewals to apeak of for RCly years, and that in the annual out*
lay for repairs a very great saving would he effected. It is further stated
that in some situations in Pennsylvania the catalpa dies back the drst year
or often the second, or If not dying right down, it looses ita leader, and thus
makes the stem etooked. When growing the tree fpr timbor, it m advisable
to let it grow^ asU will, for two or three years, and then cut it clear to the
ground : a clear straight shoot 10 to 15 and even 20 feet high being tho
result. Trees have been seen that have made a growth 15 f^eet high and
10 inches round in one sCaipn when out b«ok in this way.
Tho plant here referred to*is undoubtedly Catalpa bigncM<n4st$ a sample
of the wood of which, taken fioin a post that ha^ remained in the ground
75 years, is conla’med in the £ew Museum, and to all appearances is per¬
fectly sound and as strong as the first day it was put in. The wood,
however, is very even grained, of a very pleasant tint, and would no doubt
prove useful in this country for various purpoass. Dr, ScUomburgk tolls
ns that he has taken steps towards securing a quantity of tho seeds of this
tree for the purpose of extending its onlilvatiou in Australia, On the
subject of wattle fanning, or the aystematio onltivation of the various
species of aeaeU which sre known in this colony as wattle trees, Dr.
SchomhnTgk enters isto details, iaaamuoh os Its importanoe to the colony is
suoh that it formed the subject for tho attention of a specially orgaur<e(l
cemmlsBlon. Tl\e V^Uoxem vattgtrw, or vine soonrge, also comes in for a
large share of attention, the substanoe uf whioh, however, has appeared in
European Journals, The progress made in tho Adelaide gsrdch itself is
eminently satisfactory, which is shown by the facts of the improvomenti
and enlorgementii of soiho of the plaut-houses, aud the introduotlon of
nnmefons hew plants. It is, moreover, saiisfaoiory to loam that the cost of
anew building for the colleotiotts of ooonomic botany has been granted by
the dovernmeni,—iSoeWy of Artt Jourwh
" TEA, OOrPEE, AiiD OHOOOLATE.
T M£ vast oixay of medieol dicta on what wo ahould ** eat, drink, and
avoid,*' haa teoenlly been anpplemented by a onrions broohnre,
u on thembral elteeteol iiHerent artiolea of food and drink'* by Dr. Bock
of Lei^aie; Aoeecding to this emineut Professor of Moral DieteUos, the
nervonsuesa and peaviahpeaa ef out times may be ascribed in a great
measoie to ^e immoderste use ef tea and coffee ns beveiages, the
digestive orgiai df oodJinned tea and OofTee drinkers being in a chronic
state of deroagamehi^ whieU re-aots on the btoln, producing fretful
aud lachrymose moods. That strong green tea keeps ns aWake, and
excites an Abnormal extent of nervons exteitoment every one knows.
MnlUindw of university students have ruined their digostlou and
impaired th#lr nekvous system by Imbibing quantities of green tea
late at night white readhig for honours ; and pr. Book thinks
test the snipplth and petulant humour of the Chinese is doe to their
exteooidipary appetite ter this beverage* But aio the Oelestials suoh^
a very inepi^sh 'snd petetent pteFtef They ore obviously vsrynervond ^
and qcdqk-wttted, oud in sense of the term w|de4wakei^ yet
they bear ^ith/tnemplni^ doiotltty nod ttibmiseion tho oppression ,of^ a
Oovernment which rules mainlf by tbs bamboo and tho headman's swerd.
Tk^ M be si#! of vmy mliitettt of IlmHkh&pWMMti
who Will drink tea by ^ gidlitewhen 'their ^s¬ bet vodte, butt who
ora nihai itepidly dosite than enappish os petatwiti Cobbet's.hsteid
for <* the cup that cheers but 4ces not Inebriate '* is well-known, Me loathed,
tea 08 he loathed what hp cMtedf'^teat hog's food*'«-tbe potato. He
proposed, indeed, to feed a pig op gn ipfasion of tea, leaves and all, and
offered to wager that at tho end of a week tlie animal would expire
from inooition. Dr. Bock asserts, n&^tha other baud, that fine ladles
addicted to strong coffee sre afRtetod r^tk a ehoraoteristio temper, whioh
he qualifi^ as*'‘mania for noting th^ perseouted eaiut.** Buoha mania
may be prevalent In Oormany, where oofibe ie often drank with every
meal—that ia to say, lour times a day ; but it is happily unknown in
Eugland, where, in society, ottfj n^r is only takon once a day, after
dinner. Bvery Italian phyalolau is nevertheless aware that vest numbers
of his countrymen, exemplarlly abstemious os they arc tn the use of
alcohol, impair tho validity of their braiot and the ooate of their stomachs
by drinking bad black coffee and smoking bod cigars. It is ajso a fact
that the French faculty recognise a distinct malady, brought on by tho
abuse of oofibe, as prevailing mainly among literary men, and several
of the associates of Hefiri Murge, the anthor of the ** Scenes de is Vice de
Boheme,"who had formed a clubfiom which iutoxlcants were hanlshed,
become patleuts in the hospital of tho Hotel Diou, to bo trtated for the
malady of'%a5u< di«c ccA** In these oases the faoe and the extremities
assumed a livid purplo hue, and the disease culminated iu apoplexy. Tet,
no such malady obtains to any cousldorable extout among the Turks, who
from tho rising of tho guu to the setting of the same, drink oefibe and sm^tke
oi garottes. Their colT^ie may be said to be eaten as well as drunk, since
the roasted borries are crushed, and not ground; the conoootiojti is
swallowed ** grouts" and all. The Greeks scaroely ever drink tea, bub they
are naurly as great ooffee.dnukera as the Tutks; aud the UoUenes are
really a snappish and petulant people ; wherens tho OsmauUs are stately,
phlegmatLo, and somewhat lethargio. Chocolate Dr. Bock oonsiders to
be neutral in its psychic elTeots. and ho holds U to bp really the most
harmless of our lashiouablo driulm. The doctor might have added that
nearly every variety of prepai*i»tion of the ouooa bean te wholesome,
nutritioua, and delioions. It is a fiesh-former, it appeases hunger, and
it enables its oonaumer to support on unusual strain of fatigue. A
Bpanish muleteer, or a 51oxteaa arriero, never ^begins his day’s work
without a Urge cup of strong obocolate, and ho wants nothing more in
the way of a liquid atay or Uold-fost except oold water until night- Iu
England an erroneous impression long existed that ohocolute oouduoed
to biUcuB dlBtarbanoes; but this idea is growing obsolete, owing to the
admirable manner iu whioh chocolate is now copipounded,^CVylcn Timsi.
MXmiLA HEMP.
From 0, A, E. Hotrar. Baq., Acting British Oonsul, Mannila, to the
Secretary to the Goverumout of India, Department of Eevenue,
Agriculture, and Commerce*
HAVE the honor to acknowledge tho receipt of yonr despatch
No. 20 of 3Ut January, aud have now to famish you with what
information I have heon able to procure regarding the cultivation, Ac.,
of the dfiisa UaUiis, or Maonila hemp plant.
Tha plant thrives best in sod largely impregnated with decayed
vegoiablo matter, the distiicte in which it is planted being to a great
extent vooUimed forest lauds. Hilly land is the most euitable, the
plant yielding more abundantly on such than on Iow4ytng flat
ground.
The voloanic nature of the soil of Iheso islands seems to be particnlarly
suitable for its growth.
Tlie olimate should bo humid, os the tress require a large amount of
rooisiure, and the pcoduotion is chiefly iu the southern diitriets, where
the rainfall is greater. The trees suffer severely during long periods of
excessive heat and drought.
The plant can be grown from seed; but the oustom here^ after clean-
ingthe land thoroughly, is to plant email plants of about ihteo feet
high, leaving a apace of from two to three yards between each, the
young shoots whioh spring up later round the parent stem filling up the
intsrvemug apaoea. The ground should bo thoroughly cleaned and
freed from weeds at least twice a year.
It takes about three years to produce a full crop. In a favourable soil,
however, the first crop will be available in about two years after
planting, but will only be about oae-thlrd of the full production; the
second orop the following yeu will yield about two.thirds; and in the
fourth year a full crop will be obtained. The trees ate ready for
cutting wheu the first stems are thrown out, end the leaves of the
plant, instead of spreading Cut on all sides, close together. The plants
must on no aooonut be oBowod to produce fruit, as they then become
^ orthkes.
When the trecft have tnotnr^, or ore ready for euUlng, they are cat
doivnaboutateetfrom tW'ground; and the labourer then proceeds to
strip off the layefs from the trank, whioh are cut into strips of about
three iuohea wide, ot, i^, idiree strips to each layer. These strips are
then each drwim between n blunt huife and a board, to remove
^ the pulpy vege^bte matter teem the fibre, wbiob is then spread m the
auntodry. Ae aeon •« it hae been thoroughly dried, it is ready for the
modmt; Tht npi^oftoe of the fibre depouds entirely no the care
it, as, should it be exposed to rain or act titwcoghly
/ ^ I
ariod.H>coom«i aitooloiiradot AiramM a ))rQMirti iioga him hm tb»
vtreogib t<> oome axtant.' ' t
Tho (Matilda layet also prodflcos a nddiali flouted ilb», wMoli if
liot^vor sound and is easily dUttogiiii^able firam the ^oUad
hemp*
ThaeoStof ytepatiog and ptsnting a (10«000 square ^oms),
and keeping it* eteaii tip to the time of the fint ntop, is estimated at
$$00 to |8d0.. not Ineluding the original cost of the isnd. and aftenrarda
an aonnal outlay of about $00 iroald he required to keep the soU free
from weedsr'die. ^
The ehoyenlentloned extent of land irohld produce $0 to 40 pieuU
(liOtb, English each)) aeeording to the qnaUty of the soil after the
plantation Is three years old. The labourers here receive, as a mle, one-
half of the result of their work, the other ball going to the owners of
the trees i bnt owing to the low prlees now ruUitg, they are reeelving
three-fifths at present, and the owners two*flCths. One labourer working
nnder pleasure oan clean nearly 90!b. of hemp per diem* but as a
ittle, the quantity denned by one man working steadily day by day.
Averages nbont ISlb. At the present value of hemp in the producing dts-
iricta, each liian's half.share would bo equal to about 15 cents, per diem
allowing for expense of carriage from the plantations to the shipping ports;
and this being insuflioient for the maintenance of the workmen aud their
families, the plantations are being neglected in many places, the natives
taking to planting maixe and other food-ptauti.
'When onoe planted, the trees continue to propagate themselves, sending
up shoot after shoot from the old roots. A plantation will continue to
give a good production for from fifteen to twenty years, after which the soil
becomes exhausted, and new land has to be planted. There appears to be
little or no disease among the trees, which it may be said can only be
injured from long continued drought or by hurricanes, the trees being
remarkably tender and easily blown over.
The total production of the fibro in these islands last year was 325,600
bales, or 40,700 tons, which is just about the estimated total consumption
of the woild t and with belter prices, the supply could be greatly in-
oreased*
As regards machinery, several attempts have been made, but have
proved unsnccessful, to invent a suitable machine for cleaning, to supersede
the primitive method still in use, which consists of a few cross and upright
bars of bamboo, to which are fastened the board and cleaning*knife; the
fibre, or rather the layer or strips, being introduced betweeu the b >ard and
the knife, which latter is then held down by a string attached to a cross
bamboo, on which the foot of the workman is placed, aud the strip is pull¬
ed through, thus removing all the vegetable matter.
The chief fault of ilie machmery hitherto tried has beou its weight;
»t being absolutely necessary that it should be light enough to be
easily carried about by the workman, and its liability to break the
fibre.
4 . now machine is just rcpoited to have been invented, which, it Is said,
is likely to prove subiable ; bat it has not been Lnsd here yet.
1 trust the foregoing information may prove of service.
TETROLEUM FROM THE CASPIAN.
A COE RESPONDENT of the Daily Ntm, writing from Baku, on the Cas.
ptau, gives an asoonnt of the petroleum springs existing there. AH
round Baku the ground is sodden with natural iosues of naptha. In some
places 'he earth (s couvorted into a natural asph^Uc, hatd daring cold wea*
thor. but into which the foot Biiiks a couple of inches at midday. Add to this
that, owing to the scarcity of water, the streets sre moistened with coarse
black residual nsplha. Itoffeetuslly lays the dust during 1$ days. After
this period a thick brown dust lies four «^r five inches dei^p in the roadway,
over which the numerous " vhmtouR*' or street carriages glide so softly and
noisolessly that the ioot passenger is frequendy in danger of heiug run over.
When a norUi or west wind arls'*s,the ait is thick with impalpable marly
earth, combined with bitumen. The least glow of suoshiue fixes this
indelibly in one's clothos No amount of brushmg or washing oan remove
it.
The shores of Baku bav north of the town trend towards the oast, and
some five or six miles distant are the Ipetrolenm, or, as they are termed,
(he naphtha springs. I'l ' surrounding district is almost entirely
destitute of vegetation; ond i.i ire midst are some blsck-looking brick
buildings, intorspersed with curious wooden structares, twenty feet highi
resembling oontmenUl windmills. These latter are the pump or wedl-
bouses covering the borings for cd, and in which the etude liquid is
brought to the surface. All around smells of petroleum, and the ground is
black with waste liquid aud natural infiltrations, Bering ^or naptha is
conducted much iu the same manner as that for coal. An iron bit^ gouge¬
shaped, is fitted to a boring bar, eight or ten feet in length, which is sttOoea-
aiVely fitted to other lengths as the depth oi tlio plermng inereasei. This
depth varloi from fifty to one hundred and fifty yards, this difference exist¬
ing even at very short borixonUl distances, sometiinos not over fo^l|i4s.
liayers of sand and rock lia^e to be pierced. It is in the s.ioA kwtpiifsa
the greatest ditBculties have been met with. A Ioorq boul.b^ ^ . .1 ' the
boring tool and, displacing itself; leave the passage free. But when ths/sijas
are withdrawn to allow the hifroduction of Urn itubea which
of the wcUt the boulder Bdlsbfiok ^
MiiUiui. Ui* diOM. Wl. MIm li a* ^
oommsncingfcobere. SottleU»ei> aftOe a leagtheirtd diseha^gO of h«i%
earbuEotted hydrofso, the m^tha lifsitothesiufaoe^ittfiew^ewiotsv
abundantly, as iaAe case of the iiMm. wiU. Vnkf orttb# etW*
stances, lb has to bo fished np fr^m ««ishiidiiw)lde
gensrally tsn, or at tnoafc ^tien iiuM, In filaaaeter- A long tMtetVcv
rather a tube stopped at ihiboikonie^fiftMnifeet In lengtli, id lotfefod
into the wen, and drawn np full of orad# pitMdenPji fi^ty gallone ii a thne*
This, whieh ii a blue-pink traatq^tentlifiti^. Is pOnted 4nto a ikfiefy oei^
atruded, pZaDk-lloed trough at thedoorol theweUihonse, when^Ufiowi
by an equally rude obannel to Iba dhdiUeijr- The dhtti^on is oondapted
at a temperature commeneing with llO d«|fKea Pentllitr^^ mush lower,
1 am told, than the first boiling p<dii^ for t)Satlioni 'WheR >A>
more oil eomei over at this beat, the reittlt ia wBbdrewn and the tem-
perebnee increased by ten degrees* This fooondreenlt is.id 80 laideiide, pnd
the heat bdng again increased, a third distUUtien is oanled on until no
further easily evaporatsd liquid remains. This left ia the best quantity of
petroleunt for lamps, That which picesded it is the leoopd i^nalfty« and
Uie fine, ox highly volatUe, liquid is either thrown away or mixed with the
best and second best aS an adulter jtiott. The thick dark brown treaely
Raid rsmaitting after disbillatioa Sc termed ststalki* and Is that need for tho
irrigation of the streets. This distilled petroleum, if nsed In lamps* would
quickly clog the wick with a earbooaoione depoilt. Frovione to being
offered for sale, it ie'plaeod in a large reservofr within which revotvei a
large paddle-wheel. Bulphnilo aoid is firat added, and after being allowed
to settle, the clear topdiqnor ie drawn off, and elmilarly treated with oauetio
potash. After this lb is ready for sale. Up to the present the residues,
after the acid and potash treatmsnts, have not beeu utilised. I have no
donbt bnt tihat later on, valuable products oan be dsrivsd from them. With
the sstalki, or remnant after tho first distillattoii, ii Is different. For years
past has been the only fuel used on board the war ships and mercantile
stcamersef tlm Caspian. Ab Baku its price is only nominal, VMt quantities
being poured into the sea for lick of stowing space or demand. In oooking
apparatns it Is ased, and for the prodnotion of gas for lighting purposes.
In the latter ease it Is allowed to trickle slowly into retorts raised to a
dull red heat, pure gas with little graphite being the result. Weight
for weight this waste prodoot gives foul times as great a volume of gas as
ordinary coal. By distillation at a high tempersture and treatment with
an alkaline substancA a product is obtained which is used as » sabstitute
for oil in greasing machinery.
Apart from the local nse of petrolfinm for lighting pnrposes, and its
exportation for a similar use, comes its applioation to steam navigation.
With the old-fashioned boilers in nse, haviog a central opening running
longltadinally. no modification is neoassary for tho application of the now
fuel. A reservoir, containing some hundrod pounds weight of tho refhse
(aatalfci), is farnished with a small tube, bearing another at its extremity,
a few inches long and at right-angles with tho oondnit. From this
latter it trickles slowly. Close by is the month of another tnbo, eon.
neoted with the boiler* A pan containing tow or wood saturated with
Astalki is first introduced to heat the water, and onoe the alightest steam
pTeasnre is produced, a jet of vapour is thrown upon the dropping
bituminons fluid, which is thus converted into spray. A light is applied,
and then a roaring deluge cf fire innndates tho central opening of the
boiler. It ia a kind of self-noting btow.pipe. This volume of fire oan
be ooittrcUed bv ono man by moons of the two stop-eooke as easily as the
flame in an ordinary gaa jet. This I have repeatedly witnessed on board
the Caspian steamers, As regards tho expense, t give the following data on
the anthority of a merchant captain who has used naptha fuel for years.
His steamer is of four hundred and fifty ton^ and of one hundred and
twenty-horso power. He barns thirty poods per honr of aslalki to Obtein
a sp^ed of thirteen nantioal miles in the same time. One pood !• about
thirfy.threo English ponuds (tfi ktlogrammes). and costa on an average
from five to six pence. Thus a twenty hours* voyage atfhU speed fbr such
a vessel oosts about twelve pounds sterling* The fiiet is as saih aud
oocupfcs mneb less space than the amount oi coal neoeisary to produce a
similar eflbeb^ not to speak of the enormonl difference in price and the
saving of manual labour. Two engineers and two stokers snAee for a
steamer of a il^ntand tens burden. WHb the immense aupply of natural
petrols.m>, as yet only very sUghtly developed upd Hs application to the
already gaarinteed railway from Tiffi# to Baku, and to the inevitable
fittttpn ones beyond the Caspian over the plains of the fat Bast, 1 think
this snlgect is worthy of every attention. Yet fberp are proprietors of
large tracts of petrolenm-bearing ground whose oapital rests nnprodnetlve
because of a went of demand. The island of Tehilican, not fax from
Krasnavodsk, teems with the preelouf liquid* The seaward oliffo are
black with its streams fioiring idly into $he seaf and a natural paraffin,
or mineral wax,” is fonnd abnndastTy in the iidand and in the low hille
a bnndred verets west of Kraenavods^ All round fiaka the ground is
full of naptha. In Imndreds of plaess It exhales from thp ground and
bums freely when a li^ht is ‘ applied. Ooly aoouple of months age the
volatile prodnets produced a remarkable elfeet a couple of miles sonfh
of Bektt, A large earth cliff fronting the m was ttupbled over, as by
enearlihqn^eflbeek, and. as I saw myself, hugh boniders and weighty
•hipa’ boUers wei<e thrown a handred yardA In tome tdaoed t have
seen fifty Of , ^lxtyf|amaeu forbnming lime, the fiame ns|d helnff solely
thsd y the wrbnvctlod hydrogen ismdm natnrelly from,Issues Inthf
earth. <^‘4 * * ’ •
AOIllCUtmiST.
8|5
q^BB-WBLW.
, ^ {'}y B» Bo»«irtj Btijpowisi*,;
*• ^ M iKMimr wetiy Isit Mofan^ tli« piu!tiealto ia«thod of
m objeet of pijior to oxpbUii, b ontimly
mo^im Ulo ornd# SdiW bf 4tifij0g « tiibo StitomiogroQttdfovwAterii
■OMeMy'moM iiteii» ^omu yowi old^ and mafty of Hit aypliaoooifor dtiviai;
tubo-fr<{l»«i»a6tI tooto toeonL In anoieat dojit w^# yrm nnUoiul
propojt^/^ battlei of )^iotuioii bn?o boon fongbi Ofor Ibom* Kow» n
^oll ouk bo modo In )n^s yloeot in n fe«r xninntoi* tnd tbo vety dosotta
ifmy botiii^ed^iutddlOttf obtnined froA tbom* lileo miny other
eloviuF hiLV!»iijnoni» lb# tobe^o!! owea iti ftret etUtonoo to Amorioo, slIhonKh
it hoe b^ foOnMy lAelAod at hnfhitr been really originated bj the
^agrooe, «bo dm notntoabinnbcmeino# into the emlh, and tUdAd their
’Iriraibyirtwiiif tqpIttOivntorihrontbthoi^roiofriiooiaMi. Bo thia m
it may, the fint iron tubo«woUi oonld only bo driven Ui the vory eoftest
toilt, and Iho tubet were atruolt on the head, vrhSeli flawed boadingt injnry
to the flflfow tbteadii and firaotarO of the pipea. The pipet at drat employed
trere aleo of i&ferioi qniUlty, tneb at am need lor gai porpoeesi and wore
quite uttanltfld to the rough treatment and Tibration that a tube-well is
subjected to* Upon the intredneiion of the patent into this conutrya the
neoesaity for an Improved method of driving the tubes beeame at onee
evident to those having ehorge of the invention.
This prooeis it may be of interest to describe. In the fimt plaoe. the mate-
rials used muetbeof the very best qnaUty«fuidespeomiy tonghand good iron
is required for the tubes. The firat tube is pointed and perforated up for a
few iucheSi with holw varying from one^eighth to quarter inch. The point
ia somewhat bulbouia but only enffieiently ao to make clearasoe tor the
eookets by which the tubes are connected together. On the tube a clamp is
fastened* provided with steel teeth* so ae to grip the tube. This clamp is
tightened by means of two bolta. Kext* a caat-iron driving weight or
monkey is chipped on to the tube above the clamp. The tube thus
furnishedt is stood np perfectly vertical iu the centre of the tripod; ropes
are made fait to the monkey* and driving is commenced by two men
pulling the ropes* and allowing tlie monkey to fall on the olamp. It is
partiottlarly important that the bolts of the damp are kept tight* ao (hat no
allpping takes place* When the pointed tube has so far penetrated the
earth that the clamp reaches the grouad, the bolts are slackened* and the
olainp raised again some two or three feet. IjengUi after length of tiie tube
is thus driven into (he earth, being coonooted together by socket joints.
It will be noticed that ike tnbe*well proper is therefore self-boring^ and |
that no core of earth is removed. I
One of the first questioua that will suggest itself to a thlnkiifg mind is*
will not those small perforations be blocked entirely up by being thus
forcibly driven throngh the earth. This was the American’s first idea* and
heprorided a sort of sleeve* in the shape of a sliding tube over the I
perforations* to protect them from the earth. Experience* however* has
proved this proteoboa to be quite unnoeesaary. The perforations are made
about four times as numerous as ia necessary for obtaining a full flow of
water from the tubes* Batlh does find its way into the tube-well ia pellets,
like the costs from a worm; but some of the perforations are always Iflf;;
sufficieotly open to allow water to pass into the welt* and if the soil comes
rapidly into the tubes* it ia easily mixed with water poured down from the
aurfSce, and drawn up by l-ioch tabes, to which a pump is attached.
To thoroughly clean and open the perforations; an ingcuious contrivance
has, however, been utUisad. Long before the tuhe-wella were invented*
a pump was mann&ctuted that* by lifting the handle* would allow the
water to ran out of the taiUpieoe* and Ihas prevent freestng in winter.
This sudden liberating of a column of water that is maintained above its
normal levsl, is the method which is employed to clear out the perforations
of a tnbetweU. In skilful baoda* the water can be kept in a state of
agitation* being alternately allowed to press through the perforations*
from the inside and from the outside; and before the whole column of
water has descended to the level of the spring, it is caught up by the pump,
and a fresh supply drawn into the tube. In this way the perfbratious are
syringed* as it were, free from all soft obstructions* and the excess of
‘ holes over what Is required, mekes the closing of a few by grit which is too
large to pass thiongb, of no oousequence. This aotion of the pnmp is not
tmly useful in olearing the perfoiations* but in some soils it plays a most
important part hi tbs development of s supply* When all the holes are
free* the fall of the solnmn oanses jets of water to dlsiutegrate the ea»h*
and by this means the finer and softer partfolos are pumped to the surfsoe,
and either an actual eavity is formed belpw, or, in gravel* a sort of filter
bed ie left, out of which all the sand within reach oC the pump has been
withdrawn. It should be stated that the first presence of water in a tube-
well is ascertained by au ordinary plumb-line, which is also useful lor
gauging the quantity qf earth in ths tubes. Having got the tube-we^
into the spring from which it U to draw the perforations allfrse, sad the
earth thoroughly disintegrated in the immediate nglghbourhood of the
point, it remains to ^tosoribe th# method of pomping*
Until thie plan of obtaihlog water tn# diaeovered, all pumping was dona
by meaUi of a soetloA^pIpe fleiniaunl#ittng with the well or bora-hol#*, As
^e atmosphere had free access (p w«tie In the wWU* th^ setlan of tlmpuaips
mas elmidy h> dtafr watyr out of tha reseryoir, ai^ thers Its duty eim^
premre on the water In the tubes is removed at each stve^e of (he pump*
eud hence the sapplytadiwwntothespot*in»tesdof simply (lowing there
by gravitatiia. Although the tulbe^llB achieve this result as it weito. by
accident, tho importance «| (^e iaot, is now generally acknowledged by
engineers. Hiuty engineers were of opluion ihst it wovdd be Impossible to
obtain water at all, if the atmospheric pressure were excAuded from the
well* but they did not pursue their reasoning quite far enough. It
is (rue there must be atmospheric pressure somewhere ou the
-^vatet that we pump from, but it need not bo in the immediate vicinity
of the well Perhaps it is miles away* Pumping in this way, wo
have not the tiny resdtvoir of an artificial well* but in some oases natural
underground lakes*—one might almost say seas of water,«*io draw from*
Some here way recall how our army, during tho Abyssinian war, was
supplied with water by these tubes, and it was the prominence which
that war gave to the invention that led to Uto present prefix to their
name. For oarapaiguing parpoBes the wells were otUy used singly, as
one or two were found Sufficient tq supply the wants of a number of
troops. When, however* largo supplies for manufaetorietb towns, and
villages wore needed, a fresh development ijyihe system took place.
Instead of single wells of great diameter* groups of moderate siee were
driven and coupled together by horiaontel maio% so that piwerful steam
pumps could draw from many wells at the same time. The great firietion
that would he caused by drawing an enormous body of water to a single
spot is thus avoided. Wells so oonpleddraw from a very large area of
ground, end tho water-level at any one spot is not so rapidly lowered.
The very aotion of tho pump* too* in drawing the water to the wells,
opens and maintains channels of communioatioa which help to keep up
the level of tho water. In putting down plant for a largo supply of water
a trenoh hundreds of feet in length, and some two or three feet in depth,
ii dug* and tabes are driven every twenty feet, and coupled by mktns as
already described.
It may be interestlrg to refer to some particular iusUnces where largo
supplies of water are thus obtained. At West Thurrock* in Essex, a
cement company is pumping from two 6-inoh tube*wolIs, about SO feet
deep, 220,000 gallons per d$y of 10 hours. Another oemeub works at
Northfiset ts pumping 00,000 gallons per day* These have been pumped
daily for about four years, and still givo a constant supply. As expense
is an important feature, it may he mentioned that the cost of these did
not exceed £60 each. Tho coupled'tube-wells are to be found in greatest
numbers at the oentres of beer manufacture, where abundance of pure and
cool water is au absolute necessity. At Burton-on-Trent about two million
gallons axe pumped daily from these weUs<
A feature of particular Interest to this Congresa is the question of purity
of water-supply. Tube-wells very soon attracted the attention of sani-
tarians, from the feet that, being foroibly driven, into the earth, there ns
little or no possibility of their being contaminated by surface drainage,
Too frequently a dug well* from defective steining or other causes, becomes
! little better than a cesspool. It is also often expensive work to dig through
water which is impure, in search of pnio springs below, and stUl more
cosily when the good water is found* to keep the bad from mixing with
it. Accidental and temporary con taminalions are not infrequent in dog
wells. One of recent date came to tho author’s knowledge, which was of
so serious a nature, as to cause a Governmeut loquiiy, it was found that
in a certoiu district* eoppHcd by a water company, cuterio fever was
raging with great virulence. No less than dfi2 oases occurred in places
suppl ed with this particnlar company’s water. In a very exhaustive report
to the local Qovsrnment Board* it was clearly proved that a contamiaotioa
of the walls* caused in a peculiarly offensive and direct way* was the origin
of the epidemic. The instances of tube-wells having been driveo through,
ooutamiuated water, and tapping pure spungs below, are very numerous,
A few may be mentioned, where the results are not merely one of opinion*
but are proved by analysis. At Gravesend, within a stone’s throw of the
Thames, a 2-inch tube was driven through contaminated water* and reached
a spring at about 50 feet, from which a sample wsa taken, and submitted
for analysis. The analyst, after enumerating the particolar constituents of
(he water* pronounced it to he the purest he had ever analysed, with the
exception of Loch Katrine. Bear iu mind that this waa taken from a well
sitcated in the hurt place one would expect to find pure water, namely,
within a few yards of the Hirer Thames, which at that point is quite salt*
and obargsd with Iiondou sewage. A point has sometimes been raised*
as to whether water obtained from, snob positions is likely to remain pure
when regularly drawn from* and perhaps severely taxed. This particular
well has been made betweeu four and five years* and subsequent analyses
have proved the maintenaaos of its good quahties. It is used for purposes
which neoesaitate a very strict watch over its excellence. The ships at
that port fill their store tanks from this weU* the lloyol yacht among the
ttumb^t the quality el the water is not therefore taken for granted*
At Peal, another mustvarion of the perfeofa isolation of n spring was
afforded. Most of the wells ia that neighbourhood are brackish* and a
Supply of freili water was needed for a fiourtsaili and for domestic poipoees,
Withib the first 2# fflSfi water was found in gravel* hut too salt for use.
The miller was usd#r ^ha impression that if the tubes wore diiven deep*
fresh water would ha^obturin^j and he dlsoouroged any furtUcy testing of
the watet an acoeunt of the delays in so doi^ until loo feet had been driven.
At X17 ftfit the pump was again applied, but instead of being better, the
wafesf WMniMfitMbriiafi The wglneif hating ebM»« of the w#fk notified
«t tit* «»)[>«> vs <»4t Ult rnfait Imt Hftuid tak itm ^lM<r 4 #
ntt ihm «t
tJMt odd^e'fptitisf. A ms^ iitbe mm '^Mm
to 4| ind^lfoft it quite tajbet wet obialited* ^ts
lief)t«Md fire ^eare ate, eod the water itiU retheiiti tm itom hree&iibiieie^
Hohdft^e qrother htiUiieee tnight be menlikitied, M theee eio io ndirM
e to be aoflleieiit lot the porpose of illaetretion.
Scute wdtex# of good qneJitji but coutaihing lolpbate of lituOi do.f are
much luittred b^ Uio dupoeute the; get i& oIrdiuvyTrelle, and the author
hae heard of dug wells at Burtou*oa- Treat thdt emit an uupleaBSai offlntia,
and get uafie for um If not ooustaiit^r pumped. This appeare, therefore, j
an additional tesSon for keeping the atmosphere from the spring. I
When roe)c| solid efconei or ineompresiiUe clay is met with, a tube cmot
be driven through it without first making a hole, and removing the cores.
In some ohiesi however, there may be many feet of loo^ earth which
can he easily driven ihrough} this (evpeoially if gravel has to be passed
through) U a tedious^ process, The tubes, therefore, muy be fitted wUh u
temporary hard wooden p^ut. which Will allow them to he driven through
the soft earth, and when aa obstrueUkm that oi^anot be penetrated is mot,
the point is knocked out, and, being wood and in seotioni, SC floats to the
sarfis^ of ^e water, and leaves an opcmended tube, through Which
ordinary boring tools oaa be passed to chisel and break up the roek. A
tube can frequently be driven through gravel and olsy io a depth of, say«
70 feet ia a single day. To bore io the Same depth in similar stratom
frequently takes ton days or a foriuight. Tho saving that may be effected
by driving through the loose'siretam can, therefore, be readily appreokted,
and, what it still more impottaut, the upper park of the tubes ave fixed more
tightly lu the ground than if a boriug had been made to receive them. In
some cases, however, bard etrata come right to the eurfaoe, and the boring
opOtviUotis, con8eqaent1y% caunot bo deferred. When Uiis ie the case,
inetodd of using a pointed tube, an open-ended steel shod pipe is driven into
the hole as the boring proceeds. As the tools pass dovm inside the pipe,
they do not cut so large a hole as the outside eiteumferlnoe, and some little
trimming down of the eidec Is left for the steel shoe to perform.
In greet depths the single tier of pipes, with whloh the work is commenced,
osunot bo forced the whole way. Tubes, thetcfoie, of smaller diameter
are is^erted ; but as to pomp by the tube-well method, air-tight joints are
absolutely necessary, the final tube is oontionous from the deep spiing to
the eurfaoo. In this way* tube-vrclls dOU and 400 feet in length are put
down, and if the spring, when tapped, rises to the surkoe, or W'^HIhi say,
S!6 feet of it, only an ordinary lift-pump is required to ebtaiu toe supply.
Where the water does not rise to the required height, a deep well-pump can
be lowered into the tube-well, and worked by rode from the surfsOe,
liorod tnbe-wellB are frequently put down in sets, and connected by
borkontal msdoS, where larger supplies are requiied.
The now water-works at the town of Skegness, in Linoolnehire, will be
supplied by two bored tube-wellfl Uius coupled together. Those wells are
already completed, and a supply of pure water iiJti the sandstone has
been obtained, although salt vi'ator was passed through during the upper
portion of the work.
In tlcBCtibiug the method of driving tubo-welU in the commonoement of
this paper, mention has not been made o( the late«t system, whkh is more
paTtioalarly appheeWe to tubes oflargo siae. It is so simple as to mer.t a
brief notioe. An elongated cylindrical weight passes down inside tho tube,
»nd the blow, instead of being struck at the surface, is delivered where it
18 wanted, near the point which penetrates the eaith. As water lu the
tube would impede the force of the blow, the % it socket above the porf ora-
lione 18 made sutficiently long to admit of a stout iron ring or washer
being pieced in the centre of it, in such a vay that the two lengths of
tube, when ecrowed tightly together, but against it, one on the under and
the o.ber on the upper iurfiice. Thu inwrior of this rmg is of sufEcieut
sii&e to allow tho water to pass freely through it, but it has a screw thread cut
throughout its whole length. Paring tlie operation of diiving, the ppouing
in this ring is closed by a steel plug, which is soiowcd down into it
until its shoulder butts on tho ilng, The upper surface of the plug forms
an anvil on which tlie driving weight faWi. The plug is readily removed
und brought to the butiaeo when the rcqaiiod depth Use been
rcaobed,
Tho object of this paper has; been to describe a lartioular method of
obtaining water in large quantities, and free from coutawlnatiou j but in
the great quosttun that tlus CongruSs is ooniidering of NaUunal Water-
snpply, no one system can, t 'dor bII the varying oirouxnsbinoes, be appli-
oablS. fke town may hare abundance of good water at its feet, others
may have to seek it and conduct it from a distance.
The coVleciiod of full inlormation oa this partof theeubjooMs.of the
greatest interest hnd impoitaacc, and betote a really national scheme of
water-supply U entered upon, it suems advieeble that a eumpkte hydro-
goologioal survey of the whole country should be carried out.
Utw Joseph hucas has, for sometime past, devoted special attsntiou to
thm branch of geology, and has, single-handed, utapped out ceiiaia dist4ots»
und oomptled ntuoU mloriuatiou into a comp.(c& end useful form* 9)o
carry *>ttch a gigautio inquiry in a reasouuhle time, however# requires
mOWi als|slAae# than a private in^vidiul can geuerally pngu^d,
and probably it is iu this direction that Government xu l Iq
the first jnstsnaef bs molt V\kat«ifieow^ dlrecmd.-^ .iris
i/barwuf, , ' . > ^ .
A VERY full an^
ivitli t^ia product/ ^ph; _ , , ,, „ ,.
tbodispQSol of tho Prosa« from wbiA
qualifi^ persona wero
in Jasuar;^ last, ** to oonrtdor ,
bark, and whether the iodihorlmifiato iivipiplpir^
by the incrofts^hfi donmd for 1^%
uiarkete, in addition io tbore<|d)[i^^^
Ukoly to eiliaaat tho eoil^ipjiy nmah^,
o£ the troea pre^uoing jitij^oud^thua apt H#:} '
it- ‘J '
ofiitaod
an'd'l^t^
^ jg-ga
AOtOp,lO OXfOVt-
ation lor tM futaro, but lihiwbNi bo Otff iuppljf. leqaiirld
by omptoyera of U onthoapbti PaMiii|f, hoiroveir, lA thb uaoah*
time, from further oonaideratfbn of tho Mf fikid idihoraio’ teq>6n
eubmitthd bjr tlioho 1Si^<jalrers Jhe Vii)oid,^ OoverAmept^ we
shall proceed (o uOtloe trauahoti^ito
have taken place more recently ana hear^ hoinA On ilto Ifiih of
June laat, a letter waa addreeaed hy. thoC^aorvator of Foreata,
Colonel B. H. Beddome, to the ktadraa Oovommaat, In which he
reported hia opiiflou on tho varietiea of Auatrallan aoaoiaa culti¬
vated on the hlUa of this Preaidohoy, and tho proepoot which
etista of their being eitenaively UtiHaed hereafteh In that letter
he pointed out that the dcoo^a dea^hahjot ail^^r wattle, la very
common, all about the etatioua on tho higher plateau of the
Nilgiria and Fulneya $ it growa v^ry rapidlji but ia probably not
a long-lived tree, . , . . for when about 20 yeara of age, or perhapa
a little older, it aeeroa often to decay at ifca roots and ia easily,
blown down.” The Acacia deeumai, which he believes to be a
diatinct hind, though eminent botauista hold an opposite opinion,
has not been largely planted like the dsathaiUt but ia found
occasionally in the Government gardens and private compounds,
where it Rowers sparingly^with dull cream coloured Rowers,
instead of a profuaIon of hriUlaut canary-Uke flowers. The
ilcucfapycfumiftaisa very small but ornamental tree, particularly
whan ^ flower, which was the case seven or eight years after the
seed of it had been sown, but only a very few specimens of It are
known to exist at Ootacamund, in the Government and private
gardens. The above appear to be the principal acacias yielding
tanning bark, but there are three other varieties from which a
similar product is obtained, and of whioh two at least are well
known on our hills ; more especially the A. mUmoxs^lonf found
flonriehing most abundantly all over the etatioua on the Niighina
and Fulneya.” Only a few apecimona of the other kinds exeit m
India, so far as Colonol Beddome is aware, nor does he know
whether the A./ienninsm's has ever yet been iutroduoed. All the
above trees might, however, be very largely grown, he tells us, on
the higher plateaus of the Nilgiria, though ** aone would have any
chance of succeeding in the plains, or at an elevation below 4,000
or 4,600 feet.’’ He questioua also ** whether the hark Would bear
carriage to England, aud has never heard of any demand for it ia
(his country, but had learned, when visiting Australia seven years
ago. that A. dcalhata and dccurreti$ were largely stripped for their
bark, which then realized iii England about £5 or £6 per tqu/’ Tu
deliver it now in England from Ootacamund would cost fully as
much, if not more, but then theprioe has gone up, haVlug’ more
than doubled in the last six yeara^ aud ia apparently fstil)] going
up." Bliquld the higher value be iiistaiaed, « and it we ever have
a rail way up the Gbata, it may become a new industry lor our hilt
stations,” anticipates Ooiouel Beddome, whose foreOast aeekns to
utfecudo^on a secure basis, as Baron vou the Boianiak
of Yivtoria, has stated as tho result of experiments made in his
owulaboratcvv, that the dried bark of the A. nyonaHtaa yielded
25 per cent, of mimosa tanuin,” and that he ooaaldered It deserving
of exte'«><^ vo oultivatkm; though he apparently' gives the pre-
ferenoe to A. Acmrmtg, Both it and the yielding a
quickretoruto oultiratora of them*. The QoutejUts of t^iu in
either kind vary, as far as his experiments have shown,' Irojn IS to
dd per cent, and the price of this in England wail mm £8 to £tl
per ton at the time of hla writing} althduglr he subsequently
mentioned that the dmlpata^ or silver wettlk bark, was id general
much less Valuable than thd black variety, letbmng but naif its
price in the market. Golduel BeddomS, himself, does hot appear
to share the popular beliel held as to the high nuaiitlea of wattle
barks^ cdnaidermg the ihyrabolaas, sumach, divi-divi, and catechu,
ah of them more ^luable tanning agsuta than they. And as these
K oti can he procured to almost ahy extent on Gie plaint of
hequestions whether it would pay to rear wattles for that
purpose, ali eleyauona from which, t
opial^ oltlffi beixi slvuii^ ^
m
U or it Mmetie*
vo^fftOw o£
iip^M wre 04 ** miie ^««|l 0Mq
of tho
fto^ront #ao0F|iy too^ from
ofr<^i|0ita«e» h» ,li»<t ^Wirreii
in^wW
I^ylh, wj«4
HttOlf .Vj
W,;
.^Sl®_
tw^m 9<kna''«{ ^tni!*, aM aaJter'wiltittfliw'ifoulJ «»•
1)*b}jr h«r» « Itncft Hfa thim #!»• ■ AvwAg* (of :th<rt* la tlw
low lawh, af iBoM*. ” ‘ ' ‘ ‘
tbw r^fi, .jr,bjj(^ id •
wh^re
fill ^
tre«ta
iMb
TfwV\ M §• u
ooQi {4 «m k Viokrk ^ i4lkd to foqtuirew^Hto^ ui wbioh
l<^ge gt'ou{»« at thoti^ fi]r»e$ h$d aQdfirtr«)ik« smwlf %nf ohango
of appe«rftnoci dorkg ^ y«ftr«, Poor, mils An4 ogtreme 7*r|-
rttionii o£ wet, drought fta4 tomptfratoi;*^, a* ''•( n tvomo
lioUi otobiCtig to^lr gro#to «Qd indiiptog pi'• >11 /< • < > n
the climate of tlie hUKe they wouJd^ h% believer, n. <h h ui ih
thrive Well, and boneeqabhtly yield athrjse amooDiof hark.*’ What
the quality (^ ttmt'^ytbid rhight proved however, waa not at pro-
Heut able to dotermitie, end therefore eahl' nothing* Esperlmente
were then being made by ohemietR for the porpoee of eettling that
point but the iaene of them ie not yet within Irie knoiSrledge* li
will, however, be ehortly notamaoioated. He euggeete that eoino
two tone or more altould be etripped, dried, and sent to England
for sale, so as to aeoertaui iia true marketable value. There would
be no want of a local market for tlie wood, and the gum also
niiglit 1)0 collected for ostport*
In aooordahoo with the varioua opinions and suggestions
above loferred to, the Madras G-overnmeut have direoted the
Conservator ot Forests to collect a considerable atnonni of bark
from their plantations, which is to be sent to any of *' the more
important tanneries at Madras or 'Bangalore, the proprietors of
which may be willing to experiment with it*’* And both the
lnspeotor<'O 0 neral of Ordnance and the Couitnissary^General will
be requested to point out how and where the coUeotioii so
made, can best bo subjected to trial in a praotical way.
Colonel Beddouie is likewise instructed to obtain from AdstraKa
the seeds of other valuable varieties of llie tanacia, which have
not hitherto been brought iuto this ooiintry,
To keep the oommduity informed of all that is being done,
Qoverniiient have wisely and widely circulated their orders on
the Above subject tUrougUoiit the Presidenoy, both to o^cial
and non-official persons who have an iuteresb in It ; and Wo are
only loo glad to supplement their work by drawing to'it the
attention of such as may not have an opportunity of reading the
docuineuts referred to.—i/adras Athmeeum,
AGUi-HoimcatTunAL sooiiorv op India.
J'he ntUAl Mmthty Meeting wai hM on. 'Ihursday, the Wh vf
Septmher 1879 ,
BAJAa StmyaNilND Ouobal. Dahadoob, KP., in th$ Chnir,
3!B£ prooeediugs of the last meeting were read and oonflrmed.
The fetiowlAg gentlemen were (>)ectsd membeTs; —
The District Esgtoeer, Ucsulferpure; Cooroar Juggut Sing ( Dr.
ViooeuC Bibhards, and Mestra F* D. Neleh and Arthur C. SUorrers.
‘ The names of the following gentlemsu were submiUed for member-
ship j*-*
jr, Bantioii, B«q., DaMartUieret Ltteknow,«-pTopcied by tbeSecietary,
seotfuM by Mr*' S* Eiibin|oii»
Baboo Qtessb Ohinnder Mookerjes, Calcutta.--proposed by Bnboo Peary
Oha0<| MHIra* le<^ded by Baboo Protspa Chandra Qhoee*
The phief of Kagsi^seiv JKolspore^—proposed by the Kicrciniry,
aeooudtd by^ Mr« J* M* MaoLsdiilatt.
Major A* Wayi D.A.A, Ceuefal^ Jqbbslpore,—propoend by the
Seoieiary, leSonded by Mr* H. d< Lsllob.
Manager* JPerjethog Tee and Olpcboua Assvclation«>^propoc6d by
Mr* fit* F. Broen, esoonded by Baboo P* 0* Mitira,
M. P* Wood, Msq., Barrtet«r-at»L'iw, Catontta,^proposed by Mr. G. T,
Dark feeondedby tUeBeoretary. '
The Rev* H* P« Boarreien, Nya Doomka,—proposed by Ilf* W. M.
BmUbf seodttded by Mt R« Bignell.
R. Webster, Msq., Jtoer, by Bagdogrs,-“proposed l»y the Booretary ^
ieonndfdbyMr,Mac]b«oblau*^ ^ .
iik8fo<fiedrr!*|l- Thnsatobi Msq., Bap«yiiiten«lettt, Uoremmeut Tele-
gfaphs, Akyab ; W. Macken^it n( deetwauporc, Tirboot; end
BrttettMewto%Req^iBejefl4^t4U|^^ '
IA at and wid nl,
AtohstoMsailoo Society.
Father supply of yeedi ead^ plBliM trem the Ntoobar lilaiidi,^flom
E*B*Man^Msq. ^ V . ,v 'f,
A pientor Aoenkf
Bead of fetdable for tii«beri-4rain,M^^
F. eon MSe'ler. ' ,
A amall iqoaatity of said of the ^ duatifOt*’ ibyd jrieAsiiwIaeihlh
SAwau),—from Dr. Q* n. E. TbWiiiee.
Seed of the golded millet ot the Daliwi State«i'^ftom Mr* 0^
BuUl. •
Mr Buist regrote bis luabilliy to send iced ot Matpn bjywofklsfUyf
48 re^ueiiQvl On the suggestion of Mr. J. H* BHdgoian, (dbsPeo^ed-
iogs of .May last )
OAinsBiR*
fhA H-ad OJiYdemor’s monthly report was read «i followl :—
ttdu all hne beeu defloleot this last month, but has been fiarlly
n(»rri|tHit)(»h*(l for by the many elottdy days wbtob ae have bwl^ dorthg
wiihii «.vwMtt redueed^ toe miuimnio. ’Tuelaob near the
pHin if*' ft* " ii f*»nR<derabiy more water iu it this year^ Iben leet;
• 'lis i» aoouuu»> <1 lur by havittg bad dvaine cut from vatiOBs low-lyipg
purls of the gardflo to the tank, alike benvUoiel to the 'taafc^atid' ffie
part dtetsed. As ootting up the roads rnskee ttte garden lobk
unsightly, I shall take the first oppcrtisnliy of placing large drain pipei
under the several roadways as a permanent measure. Works some¬
what aimilai Co last month: guoteei are heiog potted oE, vaFtoOs
cotttngt made, general oleauiog op of the garden* and delivety oftreni
as brisk as ever* We have planted out a lot of Armmria eunningkoMiit
each about 6 feet high, and //. bldttillH two fuel high, in various
couipiottous places in the gardenB. We have about twenty large plants
yet remaluiug, parts of which I intend to transfer into ishefor speolmens*
Palms of various kla is have also been plauUid out in tbs garden
grounds; a ouupie ot large palius have been suooeisfully mmosedfmiii
near the west gate to the marglu of the rose garden tank, and ptsded
In prominent poiiUotis. Oontrihutious during the month have ^eu a
ooiieotioa of seeds from Botanic Garden aod.Oape Town, of wbiob tome
may suooeed probably, but I am afraid wiil uot< live long, the iempsta-
(ure hers being too high. Booetthia Japonic sowu several times* bift
has not germinated. Andaman seeda from Mr. Mao, also U pots of
ODuamed aud mixed plants from the same source. Seveoty ibrsto
grntiitima ascda duly aowti on day ot reoelpt and eoversd m\\% Wire
netting to prevent jaekais from seratohlog them all oiit; ^^knlmhis
are very troubletome In the gkrden, destroying seeds, fruits, and .any
thing they can mauago to get at, even digging iutn the rose beds nnd
outting off tbs roots of the roses in their endeavonrs to make an
excavation—with no apparent object. Palm seeds from' Msuyfriai
Deianio Garden : these ocatribuibiis are exceedingly usefol. Oonoarnlng
the germtuatiou of mahogany seeda anpplisd, 1 find that the Bombay
(Gahleh Ehiud Botanie Garden) have germinated 4 per oenk*. and
the Butaoio Uardeu, llowrab, firsk eons tgnment, 16 per cent. The |()!b*
of mahogany see ls subaequeui ly received, roughly calcuWcd 1 q eontain
about 17.000 seeds, have only produced 15 seedlmgs.
We have in baud about 200 tuce plaulsof PkitHe Qoiffbium ia»ian the
seed otwbioUwas received from the E>yai BoUUie Gartleu, Howrah,
and whioh germinated freely } these plants am now saltahle for ilisin-
butlon. We have plamod out some uf t ha largest for permahAut itefek.
We have ohtaiueil a (resh lot of (kladiumit by purotmSe, someV>f
them are svmliar, lo our old stock whioh were almost exhaustwl iMt year
by sates: the oiUerseotiouarAkiddtuot iu the ontalogue, and maybe
distributed next spring.
Oonoerotog the plntits received fVom Mr* Bail* the following have
died up to dele, however, 1 do not expect further lossee:—No. Bf,
Passiflorn amabiiis; No* 36. Pawlfiora btjuu; No, 46. Peperomla
velateuft ; No. 103, Cbomcea Veitchii,
The semainder aieBotug willivimd will he ebahged Into' Urges pots,
as they have started growth freely*
In respect to the glased case from Qaeeustand. | fiud the Arnwaria
cmninghttfnUn\i right; H, HdwifBi only one dead ; A eoohii, if bMy
alive and 92 quite aenU j the orchids roibec weekly ; the B^mtrobhhi
Hngua/ormit dying soon after exposure to our moiet air. The Bajab
B^tyanun l Gbosal, Babadoor. of Bhookoyles, bas presented to ibe
garden a nicecciteciion of plaurs, luoluding 37 plants of Moraa doolnia,
S igapaeftopwiaSfe, Ac,
Remedy for coffee hffghts,« probable applisahility for lea bligbU*
Bead a letter from Messrs. Maeneili A On., eoolcsing extracts Itnm
papers r6ga^liug the disease *>f whioh coffee plants are Attaoked^ and
its CBTC. " U has occurred to os,” observes Mtosi's. Maonelt ** iBai this
would probably he as effeotnat in Asstroying hlUht^ to. tea pUnCs,' and
we purpose reoommendin# IS to the Managers of svvernl el cur gaMiens,
imtitsyou will sea the mode oMts applicatiou Is not very clearly
mpressed, we w«m1d feelnhttged if you would be kind enough to
atimituln from some uim In Oef'^* where jrou have no doubt oerre-
spondehts. as fell ibtormwGgnaui possible oh the lubjsch”
Ssetetary tuau^ned that he had leal no Mme, oo receipt of tiie
above oommuploakicn, Jn sending copies of the extracts to Mr. D*
Mortis, toe ABrisfitov’^.iwCk^^ the Boianio Garden at Ceylon, who
has bfwtk tor toml Mind |n*t devoting hli attsntfou to a remedy for the
JSrssii/etoi^nd rsquinlito aefuti Inlorinatlun as possible in eonniiaiton
with IfcMnb‘.Macncil A Ooi's pattinnlar inquiry. He had not fci
tooeited a reply**
« t«titr hm Ut ArC^r Orota, iMkno^ttAfftat «;
MpMHliAkii^lfi U^ hm of t|«iiiAtoi Too
9a»0&0, Olid *<*# « mw forte ^ UkM on, ^bof in
*hf« to lwM(lw hs Mr. fn pt
tbt protewAliil|*t tktoteteMotibotlttilofc tiooroitellwf ib« latter il.
nMwwuft Atid tbr totetto sow teot te naorlf olHod to It/
TboMMiig te oiferast Iroin tba orooMd&gr of Fabrnary 1873. Of tlu
i»otem#loOfM frbte Ut. Moote anSdoA toby Mr. <3rote^
»• riMliiMot wbfob yoiir oortMpoodeoiofilio Moran Tea Oo„ Oaobar*
ftatef Atteokf ooA<3tettroyi tboyottof Filco# aboota, it tbe tame tpeetea
of OMtlo iilMaea JHp$fr0mprpha> msUimput^ that eaota to mneh Ooteaga
on Iba OOiilpote Tea Betate fa 1869» at nolioed In tba Metj'a
Proofedloga for Kofoaber of that jear. Tbe only reoiediy tbnt it at
all likely to prove ioeoeeafttl it tbat of having the tea plant oarefutly
aad regularly looked over leveral timei during tbe day, end all loteott
fonnd upon tbe platile pfeked cS and fnatanUy killed by pretelog them
bettefin tbe fteterii Tbie operation abouid form a'part of tbe regular
dally iimtk of tbe baodt on tbe plaaialiou,*’
Thb AgOAM Tnaa of MoaOooo.
Tbe Seoro'arf ittboiMted a note from Mr. ft. 0. Duek, Direotor of
Agrtenllura. Hh.W. P., atkiog for Mtdtof the *>Argati tree," deaertbed Id
Iba fTAronicte of the Bud Anguat ta a Mtful oil and food^
prodnefng tree of Mor^o* '* It fa atat^ tha^ aeeda have beep enppUed
to farione parte ot Ibe Bast Indtea. Are yon aware wbeiber ibe tree baa
bean aoyirbtteeuodeMfoliy ratted la tbfa dountry 7 *'
Tbe Seoretary Beentloned that Mr Aoott, of ibe Uoyal Botanto Garden.
Oateutia, doea not lenember baring aeen any piante of tbte tree
(JfmodMkffon argan) in their gardnne, nor oan be traee (be receipt of
any needa. Kot baring been able to trgoe fte re^ipt la any other qaarter«
be (tbe Sdoretary) had addreaaed Sir doieph ^oker on theyublect, and
■iiptted for iKioda.
CaooorAta Tgaa.
Bead an applieailon from Mr. W. Altobfioo of the Dooloo Gardena.
Ctoefeiort applying for aeeda or veedlinga ot «he oaoao or chocolate tree
for fnttodoatten into bte dtetrlot.
Tbe Bforptary mantioned (bat troea were ralaed in former yeara in
tbe old garden of (be (Society» but they never frnfted, and eventually
died down. Mr. Scott had iofortaed him (hat (here are now a few
apeeUttMCf Yn (lie iteyal Botanic Garden, which, though now and (hen
Ac were, have not aa yet borne fruit. Haviug obaerved in the
laat publiibed report of the Boyal Botaxdo Gardena of Peradeolya,
Ceylon (aee following egtraot). that tbe chocolate tree bed been auaceaa-
fully OnUirated there, he had applied to Dr. Thwaitea for leada aa aoon
ata available
CkaeolaU (fb04O).-*The ouUlvaUoQ of thte very naeful plant may
now be ooncldered tboropghly well eMabUslipd in toe warmer parte of
tba ialaud ; tbe native villagera eren are adopting ita euliivatioii
to tome degree. Aa an addltVoual number of treea in ihla garden are
now ooniof into bearing^ we aball aoon, have a larger aapply of
aetda lban Lhherlo, lo meet (be oonaiddrable d^teeoda made upon
pa for them. In our tropJoel garden at Hewaratafoda the choooTafe
tree Ibrivea moat luxorfantly, and we bare been''able to form a imaH
plantation thereof the paler fiuitetl Oaraooaa kind, with ita oream.
coloured variety. Beeda of tbeaa we hope (o distribute in moderate
quantity In a year or two. Our antiety la to obtain from Trinidad the
inoet( eateemed varletlea of oboeidate In cultivation (here. Oultivafora
of odoao muat boar Id mind bow much the value of the oomraerelal
product dependa upon the adopting tbe proper cyeiem of fermentation
ot the oouteuta of tbe ripe freabiy gathered pods, and tbe aabaecYttent
thorough drying of tba aeeda or nibs.’*
Tile secretary placed ou tbe table farther namerous applications for
•aeds of the gnango which he had been able
to meat paftialty through the kind aitistauoe of Dr. Tivwaites. and
hoped *i> ittcei fully on receipt of the promised furl her snpp’y.
GARDEN.
TRBATMfiST FOU YOUHQ PBUIT TBEfiS.
XTAVING some little experience in the treatment ot young fruit trees,
-Q* and thinking I might be Abie to give some new beginners a few
polhli, 1 write (his, 1 ii 04 seed aq article in one ot the agrioulttiral
papereeshtei time aince, in whtebihe writer stated that hte treea did
beat when they were not onitiva^ed. This Is entirely cOAteary to my
experience. [Bear la mind that soli and locality bare vary much to do
wUb (bte lubieot. Give IruU trees ou thte rich virgin soil of tbe West
auob cnlMvetlon, and they grow so sneouleut that the,drat syrcre winter
•«-and moat of them ate such tbere-^wonld kUMhem limbenl Ml*]
Nor have I been troubled as much with the bbrer when the trees' are
DDder ouHivation. And white on this aubject let me give iny plan of
exterteinating them. 1 take a strong chlaal, about Ave^slXteantUd of an
inch In width, and a malUt. With theie you can follow the borer to
the heart eta good*steed tree and not injure the tree but Utile, aa the
natibw oj^ing lo«i chtesi voou growl over. lubet^^lbao
all the knirei 'and te niaoh •easier and quicker. My
oalted to tbe fact that borsgs are mech worse on youug,nyide ji|ei«
phtei^ uear timber len^ iod after nottelogU carefully, l AadAtte*
fapt (Of hte\bf«a
J;weeidedfi(jfa^ew m teeWiiA»^4a«l;te'
bhoeaaterelpiaaaelgfmt; tl^Aiii^irl^eaila^
treat.as leastlorfy^teaeb btfn^i^^g
fsrtiltears on tba ofopa.
andetever in about lopr j^agi^ ep
one crop. Tills fpr, eq old lai^ ‘ tlqf ikp
qutefcaet to getan erebardla k eatelliar
wqoda near lor tbe reoacn teenUonad abofa^> elgkl wp
oloie to a atuteP I do opt try to Ifbe thste, but aef td a t^p' ae
poasibla, and yon iviti aoon have Ana traaif trte,
it sotetenf ited'enrlekH; % ^baqd as'
rcotelollcMftj^placeetee<^.eqd;lhp/^ b||,%,4A.footed ^hto te
the eaMsMf I
aver tried or beard ofi i;n aaMQg^thAfar(etiea,^e«|urpm >a^^ try
and Bud out wbaf vaijaly aulte bte cBteaiai(. it eo^AppIte highly
spoken el eliswlte^ are vrorthte^ here.
(A very llCtW Salt and asbea tlir<^«^o^4^ees,^e«e4 breea when aei^
and once a year afterwards, la a^qfe^]ilyis.^^W. Tabiuavt, in Fruif
lUcordit,
mvn qeowiNa bt sHiLL' farms: Eta
*nTB know'a iin||^ farmer who la In pretty close cteeumafcanoee
vT having a family of five QhUdreUf<«oiia boy,end four girted ,Ua
has a small farm sixty to seventy aores*^not aiioogh to hire a man,
and yet rbtber too much for a green band to put into frnit; In fact
we would not advise him to plant so largely with the prices of fruits
as ihey are fq this section or nelgb'oonrhoo^l,—strawberries and
raepberrtee Mx to eight ceute. on ao average. This farmer, at this
season of the year eepecialiy, hay bard work to get hold of enough
money to meet bte dally expenses, and but three to five (hdlari per
day for a few weeks at this saatcu of the year vsouU! be a great help
to him, and keep things going along nteely oniti he could realise
from bis small farm crops. We would a Id he has horses, wagons,
cultivators, hoes, Sco., lufflolen^ so that be bsi to go to no expense on
tifem. and two to tbroe acres set out to strawberrios raspberries, and
blackberries would make but UUte more work for bis horses than if
planted to corn or potatoes. Now our advice te tints permn is to set
an acre or two to strawberries ami the aatn& to raspberries and black
berries—say four to five acres in all, and set only ol<l, tried, reliable
market sorts, so oh as Nioenor or Metcalf for early,' Wilson's Green
Prolific, Col. Cheney, Cbas. Downing aud ICeutogky, for strawberries i
Davidson's Thornless (blaok) and Digbland Dardy (red) for early, au<l
Mammoth Cluster (black), and Turner and Brandywine (red) rasp¬
berries. and Snyder, Dorohesler, and Eiltetinny blaokborries. We name
these because with him they would N reliable and tb^ plants obtained
at low rates.
The whole cost of plaute need not be over one hnodrel dollars for
five acres (an I this he oan buy in time tiiiiii bis fruit comes In to pay),
Himself and children can get them all lb iu one week’s tims, it tbe
ground Is properly prepare 1. He hat welt protectedt loomy soil in
good order, and If set as we eliall instruct In our article, " Djss U pay”
(III next mouth's No.), he is sure of taking in at least |tO to $20 per
day by peddling Mio fruit in towns around him, and among the farmeis
even at six to eight oeuts. per quart. Els girls can do> most d the pick¬
ing. white bte boy with a lltetepraoitoeosn soon learn to psddlo them
oat.
Wbvn berries sell from six to eightasute. per quart, fameite buy
largely, afid there te no loss of baskott and but tew ciaiai and
baikets required, and by havimi them nloM by hte own family tbo
fifty to sixly oenta. that Is paid out iseave^t te him and to them. With
but lUtle experience suuh kinds ot farm crops Can be grown, so that the
care of sach^need not take up much time tn berry season^ and even if
it does, he caApuy all tbe help be needs to take gbod cays of mob, from
biifruU .ticoipts, ” But/ say our rsador«, *• W atew wiU W him. why
not go into the business more largely 7 '^ Bimply becaose bo bus to
hire tbe ploking donti which takes off twentyTflve te forty per een t.
Of the price he gois. mod by bavtug too many with the small teoDlties
be bas for peddling, Ac., be would have to force thsHi off at even lower
prioes te get rid of them, Aiart.wiih the stee pianteiiori we nieme^and
then as espertenoa is gidued, Ittcrease if thciw te money, in doing
it,—iVttif,,JSvpafdcr.
THE WAR WITH CABBAGE PBSiSr
I N om tells especially, cabbage has a ten lency to form club-roote, Or,
as thte well-know Alteasb ir someUmCi te«iiBad;fisig«ratead tees.,
Xt te a v^liabte plagfia which imt only oceasl^ wide |a|hi Ik ibe AoMs,
hut ofiten Beciroyc an oaHre crap. Tbs genc^ABy aoaspted N that
eteb-rcot Jtedne to Mm sUtaoka si ihaaahbagagrub or iarvte* M- Woropai
h>i .«te bM Ul« «lwli «t
^ pttt9)m4^ wnidfi
tttt^dry vtW; m 'ild!4fil«iitlt ms 4
iyf|i^;i^|i lira aiim|itiB'^tliV^ 4 «[ldjr i'f«* ^kii
Odioiiy tM>v« eit^livu^&ia relief tjrd«i g«ubi th'«
root! ^1 «|i)|i|^ ty lmmnm$ tU MtlU isUm toitte rootg #ilh »lioe,
ftud, ^0 urivii't 6utt4ev^xtk 6i « jpilat of 0 lf Mipi«i»4 iraier
IWd 6 r ti'^ dbirfoi (ha ^ohaont*' tha aolmioo OMitat* of ona
vmti ol aotp' to iWolye pwM w»lar. ViTeakar iodi p^red on top,
It ii Mmed by loina girdaoerf, daa^y the graka t»okm.
A ma^d oi. proiaoiiog tha iticoadf of iha oibhtga «roh It to malea
ateh phuil g»pi(«i|blO' to tha g|gb« thit laay ha dhod> Moidiog U tha
jraata# t% la (ha Ibttowipg taanaar' Ik tbalh^iig proaora
•otaa fraib-lramd littOr Wl tir baaoma atr^Dak^t abdikta it 'idth an
a(|aa\ bf aaof,' Xa ptanidhg tha holai aramada with a tirharei
ih iha tttuit aach plant la dioppad Into nil ptM^ and ao look of
toil put over tha roptai a good walariOg|fhaa Unit, than i moderata
handful of loot and Itina nttitura (faFown into tabh bole, and tha
ramaining toil dllad fn, Bqual parta of toot and dpa gardes toil mistd
with water to the coni latanoy of thin moitar with tha pltoia dippad
into tha miatura up to the baaa of tha laavat prariOut to plautlug» it
alto advtaed ua a pravantWa to elnbbiiig. Wood^Uta mUad with
water poured into tha holaa haa beau triad with aaooeia,
For cabbage worma Prof. Bitty raeoinffiaBda|^t water judloiooaly
applied from a watering pot. Thia mutt be done with oantion, and
therefore la liable in oareieaa haodi to do more harm than goo<i. Prof.
BIley atio adviatt for tha tame porpoie a^rplying repeatedly'a aoiution
ol wbale-oil aoap and water, In (be proimrtionaofohepouudaoap to
alt galtona of water. Piaoee of boarda raiaed au inch abota the aurfat'e
of the ground afford an opporiuuUy of examining and deitrofing ouoe
or twice each weak iranatormtiig larrm under tbain.-^^iVr World*
FORESTRY.
O N the aide of the ptibllo road not far from Nanagli, etaada an old
elm tree sadly decayed in the heart.In the cavity is a fine olenr
spring of water. Pedeatriana and visitora drluk of the water, and
all pronounce its quality cool and refreshing. Three years ago was
a very dry auminer, and although surrounding spriuga were all
dried upi the well in the treo kept at its usual level. The only
hypothesis 1 oau offer for this natural ourioeity is that one of the
roots acts as a syphon. in Jotsrml of Forost^a*
Taima is one shrub growing iu Queensland which actually kills
men and horses if a oertaiu proportion of their body be stung hy
it. The carious thing is that the sting leaves no mark, but the
pain is maddening, and ootoes on again and again for inontha ou
every change of temperature, snob as the body experiences when in
bed. HoMes become so frantic when stung tliat they have to be
ahot^ and dogs will guaw off affected parte if they can bo reached.
Tha shrub is not named botanically. It grows fitnu three inches
high to jifiaen feet. In the old ones the stem is whitish, and red
beiTies ttfoaliy grow on the top. It emits a peculiar disagreeable
smell; hut it is best known by its leaf, which is nearly round,
hgvitig a point on tha top, and is jagged all rouud the edge like
tha itetUe. iill tha laaras are larga-*-iOiua largar than a saucer. 11
usually grows among palm times.
Avraa ^numerous assays made iu the greetihouses of the Jardiq
desPlantes,PatIs^ they hafsheen successful in raising numerous
plants ol a usaital tree hiUierto almost utikoown inEoropa ; (his
is the QomisgwMion, eommonly known as Uie wax tie# of Osyenne,
Wa have no indications of its botauiosl dednition, whatber it is one
of tha wsx berry Myrioao, or a wax palm. It is said to yield a
wakiimtlar to that of the b^, and equaliy applicable. The culture
of the tree is not costly,, and On arriving at msiurity it is said to
to yield to 0Olb. of wax. It is to be tried in Algeria.
-- %
Tnn loSpeetor-OenaFal of Austrlsu rsilwsys haa addressed a
cirbnlhr to the XkMwde of BJreoiom of all BiUways in the Bmpira,
ttpoh them thb advisability of oblilyating osiers On the wssta
Imida gdjolhing their lloes^ hothfs a souroe of ineome, isMcib is by
no ipeaiia to be daepisad^ ouAhi gelaa^pp^
thoBOPOi^ wne diffsmt ilnds d wiUowe w^ wltlsk
boUnlsts am uow acquahitad, tWe ate three iu
other of which would do Wi^t ob the different sells mot
the oonrse of the tines, thsto kti' the ISdUan pimlinafili,
fitted for damp groaudtthe which d|c4o^
dry, sandy soils ; and the jpi^fliiosa, whtoh yields Satisfactory
results oh lands that are almost abldlute'Iy bari!en*^^p)»cr. \ '
mineralogy.
GOLD PROSPECTS.
ji T last the gold prospect industry is about to xnake a start in
Southern India, Not only has a commencement been made
in the VVynaad, but a oom^hy hSs Started, dnd, wo hear, the full
capital subscribed, to open but the dolsr fields in Ujeq>rcvinoe of
Mysore, wiiare the Commissioners have a large extent of land
abounding fii quartz reefs, and rich with the preifious inctal, dip
readers wiD, perhaps, be Surprised to hear tlmt thh capitalists mo
foreiguors—we believe French ; and if rumour is correct,Is the
Credit Foacier of France hacked with enormous capital, A
gimranieed or set-aside amount of five millions has already heen
placed towards opening out the Wynaad, and they are iu treaty,
we believe, to buy up the conoession of the Ootar conceSsionei'B 4
U it is irue that fuiHjyners have walked in while JEoglish capitalists
wore sleepit.g, it serves us right. Many attempts had been made
to push the thing in Loudon, when either distrust or disinclination
caused hesibAtioii. fho terms offered in London has been most
liberal, and subject to fair test and trial before bouoluding a
bargain, and now (ha time has slipped by. We hope to be able to
give further and fuller iuformallon at some future of
India Vherver.
ANOIUNT Gold Misss.^-We have just bad satii to us (he following
paragraph, out from a newspaper published iu Npw Baaliuid A
Melbourus merebaut reoeUed by lest mail this earloos and trustworthy
iiiieUigenoe of former gold mming on a large scale in India {in tha
Nellgberry highlands). Speaking about gold and the old native
workings, a carious thing happened a short time ago op an estate about
ten miles from here, called Harewood. Three pjaotere ware out stalking
on a grass bill. A valuable dog ran forward and (ail toto a pit Mtherto
unnoticed. They were unable to get him ou^, and one fellow went
(0 (he bungalow lot ro|ies, and, (o bis surprise, found his dog (here
wagging his tail. No noiioe was taken of this at (bs time ;but shortly
afterwards an opening was discovered on the Side of tbs hill, mfd
it was explored. A large gold luluo was found, with air*hoid and large
pillars of quartz left to supper t the roof. The reef bad been entirely
worked out, and thouiauds of tons of qaartz extiacted. Further
explorations discovered artificial tanks for washing the gold. This
must have becu hundred of years old'^a fact which aOQoqnts for the
theory that these heavy jungles most have at one time been thickly
populated.A of India Observer*
METAL PUODUOTION IN GEBMANY.
T he statistics of production for 1878 shew very lavonrpbly in
comparison with those of the previous year, oonstderiug the
depression of trade, which affected Germany not less than other
countries
Fig I run
Zttio ...
Ijeed ...
Copper
Tin
Antimony
Coal „.
JUguite
Asphalt
ANTHftACITE COAL PIBLDB.
P W. SBBAFBB of FotUville, Penn., at the Scientific Asso«
• cjlathm,.iii^e ^X! Idie autliracHd coal fields of Pennsylvania
and tl^cpqi^iex]^ B;esaid :^
TUi work pi imniifg anthracUe coal in thqt State wap.
XlfiO whb ; now 80^X10,000 tons per annum are preduhe^.
1878.
1877.
Meir. Tons.
Alctr. Tons*
2,124.444 ...
1,056,570
84 854 ...
00.852
Si,m ...
80,278
9fin M.
8A82
831 ...
881
1.245 ...
t>80
39,420,888 .„
10,871,117 ...
80,428,774
10,844*427
20,788
47,k20 ...
oa..tU»d<t|,9ce,l _
WW^|«44^iJP^t rftoo*, ^qr^t (Uiq
wiU Tli^n ya ^Miiat fall i^ ng V
on otlt bftnaiiuKtt cotl tret, vbl^ molieil the enirmow of
m^'t^utn witw, wr Dvtt m tuow tlu WM ot tb« vnthrActto,
Hr.8ln^<u<i (b«t %,«qiii>ci|taMt Hlnwii our Mver*l «»«|
oomM**. 'od bj Uwtn'wlHi MtiftWrtdo, co»i,«ii, ^ “
tiH. pri«M iu«d«r»t.. aa duubM it great BriMa,, could much
inerMte iti uaw e«wm»M* .^todwl of 136,000,000tooe. ret ether
preiientrite of iuoreeeo she will aiheuet her oosl—aboeo 4000
fe#V-5ir nbout the liino to whioh one eiiiUmcUe output will Jue
fiat tti6 Bqam iailea na we b#vo in tite \Vo«t,
. .I" I ' .. i
f. minseal statistics.
rpEB QslQQxel United kiefdofu iarlWSJiavo jMi been
Mi^ninfjleoorde,.Mr. Robert Hunt, F.ltef. a'be
Will velee ^ the ttinemla piojDood leet ye« wue £66*964,49^. more than
ilbOQfOOO beluw ibe vnloe of Uie minernle raieed iu 137^ (£68,899,071).
That year already ehowod a etnall diminution ae compared wUU I37fl, ibe
total for which Wae £88^691)612 | and no low a veturn na the preient ban not
been beown eince 1871» Half of the total deereaae in the prodaoe of 1878 aa
compiled wUli that or 1877* iaatlrtbutedtp a dlmiootion in the «upply«f
iron,CM, and the freafiw .pr^poitioo of tite remwuder toadecreaaemthe
ptoduohou of coal. Th^ itatiatica of coal prodoction given by ibo Keeper
ot Mutiug iWoordi do' not, iiowevcr, atwo^i tally with ti>o«cooutained in
the rbpoit* of the iuipeotote of coal tuinea. With regard to the pjwt year
thore ie ho noticeable dieorepancy j but in 1877 the returne varied^lrom
1«,6W8S tone, the figoioa gim by the Office of the Keeper efMiuihg
recofda, to 16»;lJ!9)988ion(i, thefelmn of lier iospoctora. The
amouaM^^oal which* Bceofdiog to boih wnreea of information, woe fum^
in 1878, eiceeded. in amount 182,600,000 tone, and wu* qf the pf
£46,412,768. It i« ueedlees to asy that toobO Talnee are oalcnlaUd at whole-
ttleprleu. Ivon ora to the eUant of 16,726,370 tom, worth JCIL409607
waa raiiel. Ivon and coal are. of ooune, the main loareen of our mineral
wealth, and m.thuig alee approached the amount oootnbnted to the toUl by
theae two minerali. The neat largeat item wm furuiahed by the ialt-worka,
Of eaJt ^,682,980 toua, valued at £1,311,466, were oafcra<?tetl trom
eprliiRS, The prodnetion wm 20,000 tom leae than in 1877. nud the value
£150,000 laifc There wore obtained 77,860 torn of lead ore, of the v»iu>
(leM by 8,060 tone and £400,000 than in 1877) of ; and the olaya,
for the nee of pottew, fur mafciug procelain, or for the purpoaes of dru cl y,
realiaed £677.871i at anavaragu rate of about 6r. a tou, luv 2,7li,tad tom. |
In 1877 the awmsc price waa 80 per cant, lower, and the yield a iiuie more. '
Of tin ore a li^igar quantity at a lower price wu laucd in to78 timu i« !
1877. Uet yaar’e return waa 16,046 tune at £630,787. The pinidutv , t
187.7 was 14,142 tom for £672,673, Otherfi^uree fur 1878 maybe mora »
briaBy rafawed to. Sundry tolnarale, including abalw. gypeum, calc, epar,
coprehtas. and pUoaphatef, leaUead £5W,000 from a produciion of 778,079
tons, Copper ora daereased comidcrably in amount (from 73,tH, tom to I
66,004), a«d the 66,094 toot railed brought £sf01,484. Ziuo weighing i
26,48(i tone and worth £60.665 was raieod. U<*''yjiq!i produced £8‘,688 .'nr tl
22)486 torn j arsaaio, £26,900 for 4,991 tone t iwa pyrites, £i 9,<'99 for 29,897 ^
tone. It win beobservad tnat by far the hirgait aniotmto are fainwhed’ by tl
the cheapest of the mmarale. Silver (eaUsad £5,991 fron 91 tuns 9 cwt. of 0 ]
silver ora. Thie does oot mthamt tUc yield of silver, for that widely u
spread metal, which » detected in the wave* of the »oa, was also extracted
ID paying quantitiee from the lead ores. Oebre and umber worth £l ,0d«, and T
weighing 4,414 tom; mang«ueie aitimated at £8,120 fur 1 ,&K 6 tow; nickel
ore veined at £616 for 98 turn 19 cwt | fluor spar weighed at 391 tons, aad »r
sold for £138 1 10 tom of wolfram worth £100, and finally, eight evt of i.
uranium valued at £44, complete the list. The ores prodaced to the UuiteJ ji,‘
Kingdom tufuad out 702 oe. of gold, valued at £2,818; 6,881,051; ^oae of u
pig iron, worth £16*154,99J . 10,106 tom of tin worth £<)t;3.080 j 8,962 tons it
of oopiw, worth £271,043 tone of lead, valued at £972,491 ; 6,809
tone of sine, valued at £128,0.^5. dtl ver w aa obfcaitied from Ic td to the amount
of 897,471 os, and the value of £88,296; from eUver ore the ainunnt was oh
27.648 cs.^ai«l the value £6,223. Mr. Hnct obvervei that m au aulbonty
which eprnmands reepeutfui attoutiou U.*e tailed the qiieetion of the im
compar^ve values of the two nyateme .under whieli the totoeml leuirm Z
arc obtained, he ieeli ltns<»a>ary to say a lew wofde as to the coshfiletenees aH
of the ieformatioa contained iu the annual volume isiaed (rem hie office, ins
which depeuds eutiroly ou volunUry retunii.. Under ihe, Metalhferoue u)e
Miuee H^ttlatton. Act, W72| »he lusp«etor» ujo ompoweed to chtapel be,
muine .in or before the l*l of February iu ooeh year, of all ihe hkiheralv 1
ndaed Um^ all ipinm or undeeground working. Thv eaunob .mol« iwi
retorm ^.mihevki ppi^noe obHued by workings or in Z
m tin oto obtotoed by waelbng altoviel depoeits or ibi ' s
hate PC power to enek thtguapatim of iron ore^ ndndtiil q||
obtnbi4fTO»l»Ml«irhedfc TlNPF«^»tt6Wlyn^^ L,
9Mm9 mi
*.’?** amount of liieiaeUm
Uelri^jalrie.,
-Well it aniHini Uiretuh ,7oeUill>e&^”!y
tie to Helleed i»4-a,®i,nilCte
•ewrteiiTeSL 1 “ V* «> •
amnitotod to l£ai780^^a htol. ‘year
of coal
Softilk ’. in' WPiuotlM (lAewai, of (riiioh «re t.i t&o
« bH* *f oUuk marl of
bewme of*iiril j**'^ T l*"^*^^* A<M«iaiid of. Uodfordehiro) havimr
or «|} tho tHiVutoS aw diffimlltop ncare. A li«t
ur 1 f Knigdun cnuciudm tJie book, la tlio
prduc ianui Ui.M . .. u.. ,iu«t bm hai.tbe ubo a|*ieC J M
woiuirl Mcadu ttud All J„.UM U, d.>vdu, AssUftnt.kZpers of MmmJ
P4i>Jl.hoa regularly.
848, Aud i» oi great uaofal.iox for the pu, pus^a of commrijoa,-Vfttjeif.
tea. .
I THIS TEA PLANT.
I la IT A K^Tivn oir Cbiha, oh og Iwdu ?
, By U. JafA»g Uaineit,
\ B a separate mlumn of the AHan ie epeolally Mt apart for the discus
-CX ,toa of ^ubjecte connected with that oomparetirelv sece»t hn^'
already great Indiau indnairy,—tea, Jte readers, among whom there are
do«Ml«. « large eamb.r .f Tee Planter., weald perheemtU mdi,!
pwd to bMr a few pamonlat. regoedleg tbe hlelor, ef (he plant iteelf
wlKb I iboll put lopUier with th. riav of eadearaucittg to aetoUtek it t!
I« But a Bttive of Um% but of ludio. I ihult, ei briod, to poaeibi,, atate
lkegn.oud.oawhieh lalormfot it.a exeiM.aa olaoe iu (l.u iuoi itawai
tmo ol tbu eoBBtry, tad in ao do.Bg, I will., it to baeloarly aadentood
tbut 1 , BO B.OUB. ortogalu .o,d«nde the gwatioa aatl,ori|»«g,t, „d,o(tt-
olumolg. I.B»rrlywi.btor».aoadMcu.niouou , polg, of gto.t iBkoia.
ta«'fo,audooutnbutemyiiiltotowartls{te oluoidi^ioot ■ T.
li«»tauy rank the tea olaht under the nniural oydef aV
Tea fttinify, and it in known m theit blttomml nomeunlatare a# yw ekitum
ti, 0 . -dfaaTto.’' Of .b.g«,B. rbawor« *«. - tk,« .teSi
.pod,« eutdiit, oBd tbi. boiog dotlgoatoi CAtauwauioa '•.ObiBo.*' iL-ob.lo..!
i^faieueo i*r-«nd m « maltw »f (net it i. latUBdod to .tuBlfy—tout Iho o[„-t
I, , ipibu. puu,., 'Pbi. i. wbutf Btopoto to aoBtrVl ..y
be ^4fM;t<-r%udtbUbad tbut thu tuu plout j, iBdigtuoua IttiudiL wbil t
It IB ui. uxo^ to CUiua, tbe «oi»uti{lo<Hjpal«t;i»«'baMwed Boda^ltmaat
BBdeigo * udieal abuuge, aed " fg4ea • tie lubati^Md fot '< CUiuhO'
latliatrttpliaaititiiauea aty to axuiaiue iho gtouudt oa 'wbieb 'it l»
litiaM to bare btM origloally » autiae of Cbtox., Tbe eol« M- . « n
^auBoad tor<t.Mttfa. lauawata.UUiittU hiiaboaoBultiarttd,ftma uim
waaiijWiiHa that rouotry, TWe.aiBBb, J tWik,iTOyba,eooaed^,d>.t
tl^ eqlturo.at lb. to. pWt oad tbe iggolor muoatnotuft of I'eaat. a. .u
ortidu Ol eontttiBptloo uud enauioHo, luldgo uBiety to t'bo tibi«tie OroBi
iog. how.r.r. both tlto.,.pdati, Jtf 0 be'i*aBB-B,ae4«(diy(iat»WtiiS'tt,'
pl(B.t W B bWi". oftftiB., tbougb of oweto tbe ...iBral pt«Bi»paoB "auia
be,»4tia*bueiMe«f4Mt,«iti*to,aoooBtfufy,fli»titj,,a. ““
native Uud of the. tea ntout. t’lm ' It. ' i
parte df'Ihdik. 'T’ke«, nn tii fAheyi^r^i:
n# iMfit|p|in 6 i 6 ^t A itcUaknowik tmtout 'iHlwi 4 ii 6 | ^
OTAN iGRICDiTCFRISX,
8»l
vFrxvjy V
jQUloiii^ tK« ItpM^
W^lly teftVbijl^ pm t$» > <»f
, , . ^ WttWixed oy&ibs ^ **% wM^
<MH!iyoi«ia U Itf. Indian
* a ciiwaj|>ii^
lllteti* WK««iftkH& m& (iO visit
^ ,f3M MitBattuae^Mt'sl'lliia oliAbVbry of tbs tsa filaiib
ihm» to ittNs^(|at0 ^ ph^thtl oonAitiaa oitbo plaat with, ** fofovsiiioe to
l(Oo|i^0|t|; oHmiits.'* ,^ii soioaUSs expedition pro.
oesM Id JMMi 1 ^ In liSd, and l^lh itCdmee ti» tho tea pUmt« they
oatto to ths oonoittiiitt that ** it Was probably vtldoliiljy intzoduood*’
from China. And ot |doarfe if it was so, Xpdia wpnld have nootaim
whahtoevef.tahn#il^onedtbanaUv«]aad4^ iha tea plant. It is thevefore
neoeaiaxjr p aa^the'tht groadds npon whieli they based their beliet
They were; tumble to iddnoe any fast fp hnpp<»^ their opinion, and
traveUe^, intoihe haay region of nonjeetafelto' evolfe thia dnely apntM»at
theoiyj tCisy pyum^thabw« ‘ ^ ' ' ' '
^ It if enanih' tilt'niNde eeedlaahy^ ha#e fiUhii from ^^Chfheee Gsravan
nsifr die Mihse If on^dC tibseftdvte^oranddoatimis whidlk oonvo^geto
the vUley bn ofevy lldl; o^ IBf long, and l^lat., where h may have
been deposited nndhr eironmatanees fsvonrabie to its growth and propagn*
tion. A colony woidd thus be establtshed|frm whiohthonsaads of seeds
might be ann wy t^fudltedf and aithongh tea tbopeasids of these might
be Ipst^ sUllione of th|bt ndgbt be dvift^ daring a fl<M along the basks
of a stream, and depicted nnder bivcnmstanees fayontee to the establiih.
meat .of an advsnoed oolony, and so on.**
How soientldo genUemen giyen to rigid innnUy conld be indoeed to
ennneiate snoh a frir^btohed theory It is difSonlb toW^ The anthers of it.
however deserving of credit for their ingennity, cannot he congratnlated
for having bronght' forward any tangible argnmeot in support of their
oont^ion. Knou^ to say in refutation of it, ttut admitting their supposi¬
tion to hold good with regard to an *' advanced colony** of toa plants in
Assam, simply for the sake of argument, how did they progrese to Tippariib.
Munipttri, Sylheti and Coohar Y Thus. I think, it must be allowed that
there is nothing whatever to shew that the tea plant is forOign to the soil
of India. But to the oontrary tliero is something to bo urged, and this I
shall proceed to state.
In the absence of anthentio history wo mnst peiforoe trust to local tradi¬
tion, and that the tea plant went from India to China, the following
Chinese-^mind, notIndian*-«*]egQnd tends to lOnd some colour of ptoof :—
About fil6 B. 0.«-Cbinese chronology esnnot be depended iip(m~-a devotee
from India named Dbarnta, introduced the tea plent'into China, it having
been miracnloasly produoof from the hair of hie eyebrow, which he had
Boattered on tho ground la « ht of remorse for having permitted the dosh
to grin asoendaney over the spirit by sleeping instead of being abstracted
in thought. The leaves of this tree he gathered and tasted, and finding
that they imparted frosh vigor to'Jbis mind, he took the plant to China and
mode known its wonderful virtues to his disciples there.
Now to eiplain tho siguidconoe of the above fable. Dkeinna signifies
" religion,’* and as the tale is ondoubtedly on allegorioai one, it probably
means that tiie naiienai oreed of the Chinese (Buddhism), and their national
beverage, tea, travelled in company from India far oif, to China.
Fairly balanoiag the, arguments on either aide, there is, I venture to
thiulr, greater probablity that the tea plant is a native of India than of Ghiua,
and if so, it sUould oeeupy a prominent place in the Flora Indioa, and be
re.Damed fleet tndtoa, which new specific designation 1 would suggest for it.
Before bringing this aitiole to a oiose, 1 should state that tho honor of the
discovery of the tea plant in India (Assam) belougs not, as generally sup¬
posed,' io' either the late Captain Gbarlton or Mr.C, A. Bruce, but to tho
brother of thC latter gentleman, Major U: Bruos. This, I think, 1 have
satisfactorily established id a nontrlbntion to the Indian Tm OateUe of
Msy liB77* enUtted—** Who first dUoovered the Assam Tea Flaot?'* It is
nnneoessiury to go over tho same gronnd here, but I may state shortly that
the late Captain ChaiUop laid claim to the honor on the strength of
his finding and making knopn tie tea plant in Asiam in 1831, while Mr.
0 . A, ^vnee proved, hjr the nntmpeaobable testimony of Mri Bcott, the then
CommiAioner d% tW priHrinoe/ that he dhtcovsired it at the breaking out of
the first BnfmeSe War, which was commenced in 1884. Mr. Bruce,
hewavA, leadidly Says thal** his late brother, who was io Assahi before iSie
hfeAcihg m nf this war, had pi«vions1y informed me of it.** This Is conclo-
sltiii and pffiveh that to Maior B. Bfriod is dnb the hCKtor of the dlseovery
though hi never aet^hi for it.
Itnmybeaddpdthat the tea plant was not disoetner^ in Cachar till
llfil, Hanntirih, A Caohario cooly, fonhd it, allhoo gh, according to
Uctttenant Btewart, It wad ^atna^ the then Superintendent of
Caohar in lfi34, who nxistooh it fox the Camelis, which is a barely
generically distlMt plant* The afbmaid Superintendent is stated to have
written M AbeBeeAtaiy the l^mUtee Ics Tea Cditnte in !||84. that in
th|S Qic^ai dUtriet be l^d i*a species of CameUa,l^aleaire« of whitn
had boon w^nfactaiod by -a native |rom the confines of (ilhina into sompt
^ h^ was hp. doubt the tea p)^t, ys* to Kanunsth
indif df lAigs* 'and a ynfites on Ties
Oultivatiouintndia/'inthe.pa^nl .the Cahwria Berisw, Vch BLI, 1885,
says he was at the time of a blind old msfii finding imlnty
for fiubslstenoe on the honnty he reeelni from the Cachar Tda*piiiA<iiaj*«tM
TAaisInH. ' ^ ^ M
It ia said by uHoog-Hhitg papw' ^lal n^ortb aro being made' bo
induce tho Fohkion ten-growers tolfis^ort lArgo gaantitioa o2 ton
troea {rood the boat Assain, ttarjWitMtj lUfigrs, and Hoflgh^ry
plantations, to roptaoe the present stoch. . ^
COFFEE*
IISBIAN COFFEB,
I N the statement of the trade of British India, compiled by
Mr. J, E. O'Oonor, tho following appears under tho head
“Oofleo.’* •
*< The exports for the last live years were as follows
Owt
Ito.
1878-74
...
364,420
MS.UtlO*
l,30,lt6»346
1874-75
...
... 811,881
1875-76
M.
... 371,986
1.62,70,207
1870-77
• #*
... ' 308,489
, 1,84,68^217
1877-78
... 297,827
1,33.84,892
The drought in Southern India affected the coffee plantatiooa ae
well ns the fields of food-grains, and would of itself sufficiently
account for diminished exports, if tho loaf disease and tho borer
did not help to keep the yield down. The average vaIuo per
cwt was a liltle higher thaa,ia 1876-77, having been just over
Rs. 45 as compared with 414, The United Kin gdom and France
are the two largest consumers of Indian coffee, although in both
countries it is subject to excessively heavy duties,--U shillings per
ewL in Qagland, and 156 francs tho 100 kilos in Franco when
imported direct, an addition of 20 francs being made when the
importation is made directly through a European entrepot. The
duty of 156 franoB is ecjual to a rate of £3. 59. 5d* per owt, which
is in fact not much short of lOO per cent, on the value el onr
coffee. The English duty :s at the rate of about 15 per oeut.
ad valorem. The United States, with their stupendously productive
tariff, show a good example to both Engl a ud and France in this
matter, for the Americans admit coffee in tho berry free of duty.
1 cannot quite underseand how it is that a trade with Australia in
coffee has not come into existence as yet. The colonies consume
large quantities of tea and coffee, but they do not take either the
one or the other from India. It oannot be said that they dislike
our tea and coffee, and I believe the troth to bo tbat no real
attempt has as yet been made from India to open out a trade.
Produoors in India have hitherto found a ready market in Europe
for their whole production, and have had no inducement to essay
the opening of a trade with Australia. Neverlhelesa the trade
would oertaiiiiy become a source of oonsiderabio profit to India,
and it would be well worth the while of some energetio speculator
to <lireot his atteutiou to the matter. The exhibitions to be held
this year at Bydney and next year at Melbourne offer an excelieui
opportunity tor introducing these staples to tho notice of the
oolouists.”
COMMEUGIAU REPORT.
rrillE statement of the export and distribution of the Coffee
^ Crop for the season is as follows r—
Shipped between SOth September to 30th September 1873
1 ship for hoodon
Now York
MslbOttino
ftlaaritias
Marseilles
Port houls
Bombay
Flsutation,
cwts. 679
. .4*
111
836
209
Native*
•e*
hm
m
Total.
679
f.987
in
386
209
A98fi
219
8 ships with „.
" 1 ' '
ewis. 6,381
1,606
‘ 7,827
Total tit Oct 78 to 83th Sepk T9
.. ^77 ^ *78.,
. t»i,w
llil
824,609
680,893
^ Total owts,
. m6,247
12,030
letiSir
■' ' '' ' 1'- ,
Increase*
Decrease* XnomaSd*
MtutvTum am
mum. ' ‘' ihMitiilWii:'
isaa, = . i: ”*•
Ha»w «.* .MU , .m r
pb.
U«9botlYD0
VoYt Loitii
Cbixm
YokohAmA
Hon|t-Koii||
%
iSkttw. . 'AM.-'
TMeiriu.
iUiHUitiMi
FMMlioa*^
** S J***'!”'- jpv
S I'.MM ,«P,
* 8 |l»*»
la (hii initaiM* U wilt btMtetIwt th*
"T'/'
i'iWa*'!'"
Ciyloti 0di$nw^ m m« mm m mmrn ——.f
OOFPEB PftEPARATrON; THE OBJECTION TO
BI2I»a AND DIVIDING SMALD LOTS.
T HB foUoYitogeiMalAt Uab been stni to the OAyton m«rch«iiti
ao, Ittnnion, S$ptmh«t 1 , t 879 .
PkAB SxBS,«-»Befor« next aeeeon for o60!^ olenning com-
menoAVi W0 think it neoepenry to dimot the attention of yonr
ootreap^ehts in India to tho ioea in value and inprepee in expeupea
inonrred by thp oonifnuanoe of the ayatem of aizinjs the ampll
paroela and cdieri7«drled lota to t|ia same extent aa ia neoeaaarily
done in the earlier and larger ahipneenta The erant of idtera-
tionboa been pointed out Opoeefonally,' hUhorto the reply
from the ownera of the ooffee mllla baa aWaya been that if £ey
exerotaed aiioh dieoretipnf they would be open to oomplaipt from
the planters that their coffee was not properly prepared. It ia aa
well therefore that the ptantera ehonld be made folly apqoainted
with the following oiroumatances which act, and will oontiooe
to aot« prejudicially if the present ayatenji of sizing thoe^i small lots
prevails. In aceordance with a rule recently i ^sed by the coffee
trade in this market, all small lots—cherry pickings, triage, and
damaged*«-ard aold separately, when the buyers of large lota absent
themselves, and the ownera are deprived of a oertaui amount of
oompetitioB. It is also well-known that a shipment of 10 to 20
bags of coffee sixed into A% C,PB, and T wilt bring hi, to 6 $. per
cwt. less than if ^be AB and 0 were ousized and made into one lot:
and should the ooffee be see-damaged, the Iota are again divided
and estpeoses Increased. For each lot of ooffee, wheUier of 1 bag
or 20 Dags, there must be a dock warrant with Ss, stamp for
every lot at anotion, the charge is the same if it be fur one
bag or twenty bags, And to ehow the needlessnese for such
iuoreatied expenses, it almost invariahly occurs that when these
several lotp are offered to the buyers, they are hr acketed together
in order to effect a sale. We may perhaps make it clearer to your
constituents by giving an example or two from our own catalogues.
On 24tb June we sold as follows :•«-
Plantation. Pile. Bag.
A 11)
a ,
p’*B 3 I at CCr* per cwt.
T 4 X)
I The only tixiag iweewary was as uuder.
1 Pileii X and 8 withent saaik«
1 ,, wo«td be Pile ... I
I fat 07 e. 8 „ „ > *m «S
^1*1 H t» •»» a
i 1447 „ 4
1 which would have saved 13 warrant
stantps andSieU expeoses on 1,31^.
have baeh aav4d.
We feel ponddant
by the jj^aeut eyptemi ahawoi^
can only be ehm|^ m stisauw
should alone be *w^arateil^ a^
advantage if, when only a small *
another ^weslld ahorttr ha oodipii
in ibis inetanoe U will btaePiitbi^ ttm 4sniaff|^
Icepi
should alone be *w^arateil^ It * mm t&C td Xmx
advantage if, when only a small pkrpM 14 feiid|mab^mehV
another ^weslld ahpitty^heooibi^iwei-wey worn waft wlidhetivo
opidd be worked lefeBter at ^ mitli 'afiA abii^;>ed aa one tot,
uni^ iheip hejifgant reaaaaii.!<;othaoeOtMkf.
Hieae jaiperka apply mitli eumri Moe to ^the ahung of eharry-
dried ooffee, frog^hleb it ia,4Mdy.iieoamiiy lodmpmte,^
berry wpd trh^e^W® ate, A?., *
St ^ WOOBHOT8B.
DISIABBIN TEE EftAEMilAN OOFFIE
PLANTATIONS.
AB a!4r»ll9g pt ^ nh^^as t^epk^u eel bi the Braxl.
Han coffee pllwtittons hk* f¥, Ai^W <4
Boienem. The dliPfme apneaw to Atm chiefly the ffnsst and atroimeat
planta-.^^^ hetweeu se^n aad^ten yean oLd^the eyll hctog^moit
ihatkid!« tjiexwighheerhocji of riftM.and hrcokiet*, apd in jhfdy
damp vailipai Xha dhtitw ksaid to follow, tb.e diiea^op of the iiaae*
which arephMited in rewA but UeecasiqReUy infUots ieehiMpat<dMft<4
gtQund. leering ail round heejithy7-|n .the aeiuitt mimner m the PAMfkflwi-a
Ija vineyards, ' The ijmptotnl of the meUdy are ilins deetwibed ;—
Ffrstof alt theatres 1(M Its leevcA end when taken op it is fonud that
(be smelter ones—the SO-oaMed ** hair reeti^«-^have nearly all disappear¬
ed, and in the larger reota and the main one the peel or akin ia greetJy
el tered. The aortaoe of these latter, at also that of the Smaller roollets
left behind in the grpoad* l> ooversd wip» imall irmgplev growths,
which ere burst opea et their poln|a. Xu ur^er to ip Vjsatigate the Initial
Btagsa of the dissese, M. Jobsrt dog op forcaamloatrdo soeie apparently
sound piaiits in ihs iminedtete neighboatfheod of these atfsoted. The
roots of these also wees ooveiied with«<ngii haots which, when broken
mlliineuc ia lestgih. K4oh lUUe sac contaiue d from fevty So Affty Cgis.
and the.oa«ah#r of knotslisneh iha(4hmh (rhe xnlghi eahlJy early ia Us
roots thirty mminu worms. As soon SC m» lif4 tps egg* they
HMk. (ban mj fflbWMd«a«4 M "Wf* WlIV
bacn d«,.lona) wpowd (. .11 W Jfert tb»
fooli *1 to rot. A# ajtftloMb.wj,»
mj lor (brfrd«..l«^tluat uAVMMt
IH Wwtarn Anrtn^. Ooijpfi^r i« b^Iag tonMlt Hm
We*t Aoi^raliaa 00 ^,^ Oo., ];id|.t't.r pt paaia^edttau
md uttMT: (rpittMl .ia4<!M m WM^m
AivMkU. fo^iMtiKWwndiOltd lqiftitl|ll|r,IM,bt %
Irintpad. IrtHtdi, «wl iUt H»Mim,teU 4 4 o oSw a <Mr. «E 0 .
abwM to <WtoB totoTM. Mtaw.toW' )»jWi«!toA lMtoiJn#b
and tto ObfjntpHM 't^.iwMtoid.. ppm to 'MV :iNiMni
ototividiB,.
qttSm—mad
End tiBhttiittciifMflr A jmsA^i n qA
ahetia vdadiMfi In flNfAdiff j|!itiftMs.{bfdkdi \
^ hhctta|d«idlirirlnfl^M^d!iit^^
wHi AOlJbe abfff hf ippi|r , Ou r .a^| iiitM |priy i ^ i y .
u i|M«‘<w|ktiiiiwi|noi''w)oni
ipAfililil itwi^k
• Mf« HHBwto.ttqjraiiNiMe Bwlj^ vlili IfMjr to ooom to
mkti^te;':i|||||M|w.ltrfo«t #tab^ WJl^d ooTtr
•boot 9jtW"itj9M<i|IiM»lHtko|l|wm^^^
tnwootfVoiHivwo^ottMni Idtra^ ooKm {dutatlooB.'’
-•mmim y • ■
oik^ifiONA 0DLT17A.X10» IH Xftd^AlTdOBfi!.
A. ... .li,.,. ,, ,y
f lii >botil lw«p(y }iM MM Ui«fif to the front
-L nod tMM a Hie (0ki mtiiaotwttw
onlilf4^ tt ihet one hut hee done notblog
wonhiiifiieio^lof fo tMenile^^ td 4»( the i^^tot hid
e^^oi whSleh ^ it'Wtie' »r ’ fipwooowe, the
oPuMmMett ettek te fhetr work id ihe iKl^df hekter
MikridM'Udve tkt^e
it no reMPon lifofttfd dol iM t^^ieeted elda hy
fide with ooffae. In tka V^fnM tan fa tonod to grow end floorlah at
about fha aavta atifitloQ ee aoftal^ idd thia would no doubt be found
tba oiwa i^ao in ike Sdatbara FrhiotBatttn BoHi tea ^ad etoobona
are e»«'nOw^wMifliNid la '^a <3fefii?bi^ot et 'Mrmadoi
but marelr ou %amail aoato aa' aa. eaebirjiaieai or ** fau^ and la aearoair
aspOolad to be ramunaraMvot loougb ha«) however, beau done to
prove tbat faellitfei for tbti eultivettoa ou ao oiteueiva aeaVe, and ou
» iMoatmitoiUKiiKfK’ACUyMrfiv toh««UMt
oinoboae la likely to oeodai'd more important poaitiou than hitber to,
lotbitBtateL Sir Hbdafeltpw wai auxlona to lutrOdooa the euUate
of Ibia Meat during bta and took pafiba' tO otreoM, among
tboae likely to eugagb in tne eaterpfiae, a piihi^tdt written by tbe
Ute Mr, Molvor, giving full partloulata and Instruotionf on tbeaobjeot.
Ko privata effort ao far aa we- urb aWare, wu eulisted by theie
endeavoura on the part of tbe -preaevt Beweo of Berode. But uow a
oinohona pUatation iaTravaatmlbf Id the' aorib.of Peermede, ia about
to be opened by e geutiemau bafling from Oeyfon Who baa bed
ezperfeooe of planting in tbat tetidd, ana la no# Obgaged in atodting
tbe eultivattou o^tbopleUt in ihe Government Ontdena at OOtaoa*
mundk TDnttg,p1aut|pf theblMm M aaitad tO tJkO lodailty Ohd be
aaatlj procnredirodltbisirk& GaVdeni at rarmadST' Hereford With
good praetioal ezpertedee, anffieleait dapltat, and petleut labour, the
new enterptiwought to be a greet eueeeea. Tee advantage#of free land,
ao liberally granted to tbe ptoueera, of ooflee plautlng, are eot likely
lo be fortboomiug in tba preMut eaie ; but we trait the Traveneore
tiovernmont wiM aid the new enterprtin to tbe felleat extent,
and tbuieOoIrtbiilte to render'Me aonree of p^flt m^bopMuifter and
benefit to tbe 8tate.«M,JltodrM Mkmttan*
SEEICULTURE.
T HB rdmarkable b^akdown in the price of eilk oonttnuea, and
the ftagnation of the Lyons market la repotted to be ao ex¬
treme aa to amount aknoat to diiOrg.wdaatiou. Altboogb tbe end of
September iaapproacl^iog, tbore is no symptom of revived activity,
and both hero and in France mere iaaigaificant orders are forth¬
coming fot the autbrnn and whtter trad'o. If tbia lasts much
longer^ we eliall ndt im{lrobab1y aed a driais in the silk trade,
eapeolaUy in franoot and the Weakneas of the speeulatora is
shown by tboottromoanxiety to mliae displayed at Merseillss and
tbe Italian oeairea,*^k dlipi^tfca Wfilob only oauaes buyera to
bo more oantioniy and to boi^ «)tf 'ia-long ai posMbte. In Chinese
eilki tbe demOfaltsatlOn Is so groat that all quotations are merely
nominali andd^hpansae silks ire In the same bad Hm,
fUtiodLTVaifrZK THBKaSTH-WSST,
A 0OEBIf8t^KI)M^f%''W .^^iebed with some ioteretdug notsi
t«t the aoidaspofo diairiet, This
i»daekiy^bestila% kandielined semewbwt stosaibalMakbted death of
Hr, Halsey* and several jwiebei wito iBt^gtoWeit's bad
tbat gentleman lived, have failed to keep sHk-kWormt for want of
• eneonregefBent and beto^^tn the wsy of'’•dveueef# wigs* amney, lee,
The present teeaon bee moreover ,, ^n as,unfavourable one ; in some
iDstanses nil tbe sttk-womii '01*^0' iit^towev have died off, and tbe
yield bii not btob |4n«r4Uy mOre tUaO ha(f that of nu average Beeson*
This moftfUty ia ssSribwhy the dsaiee U the sffeot of the winter
dmogtodn ipwitovto er ito hhr it*li metoprobebi#
dbetotha lalekMfBnf tbs agmott at Wbl^ 4ee|d^ato batobed, Tba
priea' ebtolaAd^af ibaiabaeoetto sbonl Sg; ^ itoiitoreed
eelmtol^^«nd<al annSwI^.eMhd^towinteiaa
at^wtotolait
SttiSil^a pu&lSS^^fft? ^ iWfMftoJr
Sf«
-‘awsosK-
tbanaiidtoidilkettd;
,'iia,
aulhoditoi to toitar and lilwpiiiN* exteiisiva nurobssmaUnded
probably mneb batter than any
^bttttooa of t>Hdto would hivs
thSib Witl be contUmid*-*
IHomr, , .
# ewoswwseewmwBmw
Tnainbabitautirdf tdrktotan cuttivlte a OhnbidetaBto amount
of silk, to whiidi they devoto mueb attention; the ooooona aro
sorted very oaretmiy^ Mto double onep} badly wodad, atm pieroea
onei all going into waste t Umy form about 15 per oent* of tbe
total pv^uction^ Tba te^ng is done wHb a real Of a large
diamiAer, which driven a botisontal splndto; tbe tattov Is turned
towarde the oven in which the ooooona are lying In Mllhg water.
Tbe threads are fished out with a small broom, and generally from
eight to twenty-five reeled togethev^ Tba waste ia spun on a hand¬
wheel, and then washed with a deoOoUon of morels (UmheUa),
which gives to the silk gloss and olearnoss* This dOttoolioQ of
momls M gsnemlly need, la Central Asia in eilk oultorA The
morels are dr|ed, powdered, and then boiled in cottondiasm It is
tbe tegStknie oil oontato^d in them which acts upon the silk.
, Alter being passed rspidly Ihfoogh this decoction, the silk Is
washed, wrung, and dried. The decoction of morel dyes the silk a
light brown tint.
A Nbw Ftetod ittK*wBome fwClVS years ago M. Gtfertn Manavill
introduced into Franoealarge apeoieaof batterfly (Xttam cyiifAto)
tolfioh baamada itaelC at borne, and bai beoome tborongbly naturalised^
ao that It is as large, robust, and prolific aa le its native dlatrietfb^be
north of India andObina, Ouaopuld bavenotieadiu the evanisgi of
tbemchtb Ol June, this butterfly, with wlngf marked with Ibgltndinal
Ifnea. fijUw in the squiretoravenuea In the environs of Faria, oraven
In theolty Itself, where they are planted with tbe vamlib tree of Japan
(ItowHitiinto ccrato), or In the wlitto^, w'hSn the liaves hive fallen, ens
ney have obmrved bangtog from tbe braoehstlcng eonootn of a pearl
n colour. Those are tba winter abodee of the oaternlUar which pro-
• the abovenamed butterfly, sad era composed of sfik. Be mM
baa long bean known, but little attonttoa was paid to the inbleot so
long as the stlk-wonb aM the mulberiy to«e both fionrlehed. But
of let# yean so many eooldenU Itove befallen tn,tl|« that too difficulty of
breedfog the worms hsi beoome vary great In franoe, and tbe ^ioe of
the raw material has oonalderablv Increamd. Uuder these oiroumstauoes
attention has again been dlrsoted to the coooonsof the naterpillar above,
mentioned. It it fiOt Vary rleh to ailk. la etrongly enorusted with
ulutliioai matter, and la difflenit to splo. Wbat naa haa beau mada of
it baa beau ooufined to tbe production el fioai tUk, a aubatanue of small
value. Moreover, aa the ioreSd la pefy fios, It required a apeoial
apparatus, and aplitnera dtot sot appear dipoied to Itok Ihs expenie
necessary to work the artlole.
The meobanioai dfflleulttoahave tow been overcome by M. Lc ^oux,
who haa dlioovered a method of parttoUy softening the ooeoon ao aa to
allow it to be easily epnn, retaining at the same time auffiolent of fla
natural glue lor tpe thread! of several ooeoona to adhere Mother and
form one aiogle thread when twitted. M. Le Loos hal lltd before
teveral of the eclentlllC soOietlea of France Samples of t&sr eubMiffiee
be.prodnofs, and tbey wave eoaaidered as of a veiy edtlsfietofy batafo.
Cue point especially in their favour It tbat they can be ptMred
with the ImpUmeots now in Ordinary use, and eonssqueatly no
UDueoa 1 expb'ndltore li required. As the insect ia very hardy,,and 4oea
not require careful tend tog aa tbe silk-worm does, this dlsoovery is
likely to be a valuable
THB AltANIHICrB AND ITS SILK-WOAM.
r haa ofien boeu remarked that the AttontAtM* or Chinese
" Tree of the Gods,’* ia specially fitted for reatocking woods
and forests^ especially on poor soil, which it afeots bytpi^reuce,
and which it enriches, and so prepares for farther cufifygticb by
the fall of its abundant foliage. Tbe wood, too, fa extremely
valuable for building purposes, and for use aa railway sleepers,
resisting the action of damp in a remarkable manner* Besides
tbia, it grows with great rapidity, and is veiy easily propagated by
seeds or cuttings. But the particular value of tJte AUan^ua ia
found in tbe silk#worm which frequents it, the Aftoena cyutoto^
iotrodnoedintoFraiiee from efirina some twenty years ago. liw
silk-worm has now ^me quite wild and hardy in its new home,
thriving well without the least care or attention, and spinning Its
cocoons upon the AUan^^ whence they may be bad for the mere
wonbleof g,ihM^Bg. Tb. grta^diflority U«bwto h*« bM. in
wiodiDgo&tli.riJkfroiiitb.m'titemiMqaMtoe of whioh it could
only b» .mpioyod m flock ,Uk, wbiAl,o*bntHtll,T»Iue. A
*?'iS*.**Jk** «h*MT*r«a by M. Obtiititn’I. Doap, by
wWoh tbM odcoowi <*11 ti« w<Wd off, wtthouttb. ImwI difflMliy^
®? .u ?;"*"» •»??»!**"» otiMTourirtiM, nd tbe tMdooa
of the Attacua qmmti in now likely to form the stapled a highly
remumratiye ind^try* Very fine mmoimens of the eilk wound by
M. to PvcpM were exhibited at recent meetings of the
V^urn^A^Mmmk 8 e«i*(y, when tb*y •tumtiircemtal
m
TIE
THE B0MBAy 8EVIEW
AND
UTDIAN ADYEBTl^E.
*r|YJEiIS^ JoDrtiftlifl published on Ssturdam atid fs sent to Atti
X FAHTS of India ; its objeot befbg to promote the public
intSTest impsirtifaijr, untrimelltd by local or class inaasDses
Annual Bubsoription (post paid) ... Bs. 20
Half-yearly do, do. ... ii
AQBnts :
CUlODtTA
Madbas
BoUdky
•«* Wyman & Oo.
Higginbotham Oo,
W. Mfatson ^ Co.
THB
INDIAN lEA.GAZEmi:
THB TSA PIiAITTBEB’ A SBAEEHOLDBBS* OHBOmOIiE:
PBVOTBD TO TfiB {NTBBBBTS OV
tEA OWNEfta TEA PI.ANTER8* fk TEA SHAREHOUDERS,
AxkA U ttU mittrtiftmMrHiuff Ms .The indwtry India,
Pabliahecl on the Pint and Third Pridaya of aaoh Honth>
AT THB OFFICE, 10^ HABE-STBEBT, CALCUTTA.
Bate of BUbacription:
HaXiF-TBAKLY in Advanob ...
Bs. 7
Vol 7. U nm ut eouree o/j^hlkniion.
TTKAJEt ISm
OOlWaNTS OF Nob, 9 dp lO, VOU V.
Hob, 07 a 58 OF THE SEBIES,
DOTlBIiB NUMBCIB,
Jfrfiterial ArWrfw—
Emigration Koutai to Assam.
Tea Planting in Haagra.
Neglect and lll*tteatmeat of
Coolies.
How to make Tea pay.
Chriattnaa Kamber.
** 1Omuibtts Bebos.*'
The Preesatnepresston.
Original AvUcUs,
Co.opctaUon among PUnters as
regards Labour.
Labour Otibrancss amongst
FtaOtsfs.
Tea Companies* Beports.
Editorial ^ote«.
Ot'igiml. Poetry.
Corrsi!po»de»fls—
A Suggestion*
The labour a Oooly shouic give<M
Beply to ** Cephas.*'
Catc^ng Mosquito Blight.
Kmmoud's Machine.
Hioe Importation to Assam.
On Tanation in India.
The inoreaie, In London, of Indian
Tea BepCts.
The Fuerh Tea of Ynnuan,
Benewals of Coolies* Agreements.
Cooly Bows.
As to Drainage of Tea Land.
What is required to insure Sucoess
for a Tea Plautscs' Assoeiatioa.
Exhaustion ot Timber supply for
Chareoal, Ao.
Xsflfai!'-
Civil Appellate Jaiiidlotlon,
Sslectioas—
Some rosBODS why Tm won't psy*
Table of Besults*
The Melbourne International Eac.
' hibitiion,IS80.
Pomestie Filtrution of'Water con.
served in Tanks sad Cisterns.
London Girmtlor.
Aloasv A/QinowUfiytimi*
lOi Hard-sbFeebi Oaloutta,
TO INVBBTOBS.
FOn SALE.
A half SHAEB in a large Maugoo Ptautatloiii four milSB from
0at;|alore. The Plantation contains onirarde ot TWO
THOeSAND Craft Mangoo Trees, planted in 1873 and 1874, ^
’ Bm M
In
Pn
h«l
W3
SiblEM 1
Front or Back pgga ...
Ordinary Pagt
I Page
i Fage
abwihiiftXK»ts^'4' '' r ■
0B0B01SOTftSiet, Bw., „ " . ,
F. ALOABi EsQ., ... 8, i^unk4aniit Xw
monohw k 00.1 ... u X a
BATES HBN0V k 00., ... Len^n, XX
HaA9 .CfHAtBurA*
#HE ’
OF INSU ft milSKftS.
f 17d«% EMim,)
SU.VBS OF BOBBCXXFFXOV.
Adnani^ Mate,
For 12 months
M 8 months
ybum,.
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Haan OfFioa^, CnowaureoaB, CALCum.
THE
mTBSJUAN & FBIEN D OP INDIA.
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Including Postage.
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BACK NUMBEB3 AVAILABLE AT 4 ANHA8 PEB mt*
ALL SDBfiCBimONS UNPAID WITHIN 15 DAYS OF A TgaM WILb
Bg OBABQBD AT THB ABBSIAE Jkkjm,
▲gaats in Xondon: ^
OEOlSIOE street, EbQm ... CbrttAlIA
P". AliQAB, EaQ., ... 8, ClantetiUdane, Zandan, X.X. ,
KIOHOLL8 k CO., ... 1, WkiUifriaf^M-itreatt XX.
BATES HENDT A Coi, 4; (Hd /ctory;Leader Xa
HflAo Offiob— 3, CaewBtNnnsm, CALcmTA.
INDIAN ECONOMIST.
T O Hefi^hnkfits, District and Revenue OffiOera, Planters, In^o and
^‘IsL Manufactorers, SSexaindilini, imd all Intet^^ the Agri*
culture, Miamalogy, aiMl BtatmUes of Ind^
FOE BALE,
aJHEBACK VOLUMBHOFTHE^ .
'* Trtdfifcti EoonbxniaW*
*« Agricultural ^feette of ludia,^'
Half<^(^nd,n3eimw)li^^ .
4,|)er Vplum ail rcimdi .
Thjsse vplumesi4«A^ WhSsItis complete initseH, oontwht nMy
literature of the last mn years, oh die egricubuT^planthig
other ihduMea,of thpeoantry, dpmi from and mvaeck^
indem^ fnfonnathm that ^ be
'' V ^ \ ^ ^ ^ fS^.ntSibtfp'A '
ffmiiiiiiiyt iloiti'Aidu u
I
THE
A WHtTBtT
JOOM4Z OS' INOIA,lf AQ&ICUITURS, MINErAIOGY, AND STAUSfiOE,
^ VOL. IV4 CA.LOtJTTi.j MOSDAT, Ut DECEMBER 18T9,
[No. IJ.
NOTICE.
Ths Indus AdBioutwatw M bs supj^lied h aU Schools and
Mitsknarki iti India ai half prks^
B. ffltKlGHX.
OaloaUft» Ini Feb. ISIS*
CONTENTS.
Paoi*
COM»nlF01IDBK0a«<
Mauttrioe tbe Height ef
traM ... wB
Taonota 8aad.SM
Tiie OhattlniHlii Plant ... 896
Oat Fuel Pcaterrai ... m« 898
GolN Leaf Diiaaae m. ... 898
On IlMuiriag Onflee .» ... 987
Kotagmh Kot«ii. ... ... 898
Leading AaticLia**
Co8(ae Lu^ Piaaaat.899
Some PiffianlUei la kln^um *
Agiiaitliuia.490
Lima and ito usai in Agnonl*
turn k*. ... ... ... iOl
Mr. Oaitd on Xudion AgiionU
tara . ... 408
Well Irrigation ..404
fciDirnmAL Noiaa. ... ... 406
COMMUMXOATED A SeLVCTJBD'^
OaidAmnm Pioking In Ooorg 408
ArtoHiaa Walla ... ... 408
Palm Oil M . 408
The Hop Plant..406
Buakirhaat .407
Edibla Fungi « 407
The Pottery Tree .4Q7
Tka Palmyra-palm ... 408
'i'heTxaflln in Atnariaan Qrnio 408
Notaa an Cbiale ^ * 409
On tba Varmlai of Coffaai and
thair Oommarolal JiLutnA.
tlona ..It ... ... ... 409
Swim AgiianltttM^ ... 410
AgnopUnra in win ... 411
IhaTaAMaritat .4tl
fiara Abaorbantafor tbaAUbte 418
CottmiOal^mitt dypirna ...41$
Bee^kaapingw Chine **• 418
The Proaaia o£ PattiUantioa.^. 418
Vagatabla PradunM in Coorg 4U
VegeUblaWaty^ ."4*8
Paos.
BmunetheBaea .m ... 418
Bae-kaapinR on the Pfaitie .«• 418
What Qiaad ? .m ... ... 417
Botanuung in Aighaaiatan .«• 417
Tan GAnDair<«i«
A Pnetioil Hint for Boae*
Gerdeoara ... 419
PavEin^aT--
Ifotat. ... *«* 4i9
Fo^ata Diraatly InoMaaa tha
Supply of Watwr in thair
Kaighbaarhoad ... 419
Keaklaw BaatraoUon of FaiaaU 480
Foiaota and Metaatolngj 420
MwEiAnoaY-*
Natal. ... ... 420
Oui Coat Fielda ... 420
Tha Indian Sait Sange .* 490
Patrolaum aa Faal .421
Tun PiiAnvBBB' OAaatrc—
Tea—
Notaa. ...
A Vwitto the Tee Diatnota 422
Tea Market . 422
The Cultivation of Tea m the
United States .422
CoiFie—
llanuraa for CofCae ... 423
OACAO-f
Note. 428
Oaeeo Planting .423
CUIOSQVA—
Note# ... ... .424
Prodnetion and Conaumption
ofCinohone iarv ... ...421
Allanthni Silk.424
8Uk fioni tke Sea .426
TOBAOOO—
Note. M. 436
ApvnettMhMnran m ... 4*8
, 421
ifn
NOTICE TO COEEESPONDENTS,
p Out tftmtfmiftbi tfnd will gnaltjf obl^ ru
wE( taaitft* imtMi. wktr* thi ntfunM *attiret(M an
ttttUi if Afm ta InfUrn weigM* *md nlMAiru, J« gkt fhtir
JEaglitk mtr 6t 0* **
fooi-mut, Jra. «||Mr(iMtar titllaM »««* <« Ui #'■
frau AwpAhm ,'that a it i«nwi«y h gim th*
engUih aalM tffU h til aatu. whMS* « 9f<«l
ifOt GmmtwmM J*ao»U tht tarn pnttt* M «» O*
npprtt puUkhtd ig U,
COBRBSPONDBNCF.
MBASUBING THB HBtGHf OF TBRBB^
B
SiB,—Is yosr f elOkbie Johrnil of the Indian AptltHtMeHlS for the
month of Aogsafi J aew n akatoh nrtth iiplaontlottii» lok tteimiBg the
height of treaei nhteh to ny opInlOa lOatti rether Intrloite thstt the she
1 know of.
AB it the tree, ot enj objeot of ivhleh the height hi
rasnired ; mea«Q?e BQ, Its ahedow os tUia grspsd i nnw
**0 lekae iiiak of .iihloh UB, tti nuMaiSnest li hsoilrni
and Menenre Be ehndom BF* Now hr the alisple
rule of three BP: OB: t BC; AB« the xaqntied
"F height.
Tha atiok la to pleoad perpasaionlerly, esd tha ihsdowa maeiorad at
tha aema tlrnn
8. JBYANJB^
Palmora, Augoat 16.
Note.—T hh letter got unaeooqntaUy mirfilA and theaM heneppeand two wantti
agoo»hs.» /. A _
TEONINTfi SEED.
SiB,—X notlead in the Soptambar nnmbac ot tha JyrimiBsHjrf, e esr*
raspondanl Inquiring for aeed ot the Xsana lussufUms (TeoalnU), 1 abel I
be rary glad to send by post e aiselt peoket to any one who agraa to iiy,
it. Aa e forage plant aapeelally for a alsgfa esttibg, It la so doubt by
far tha hinriaat oroppar erer lotrodaead.
A. BTOBMONTp
Boparinlesdanti Ehasdaab FeiSi,
3rd Norooibar 1879,
THE CBAt7LMl7a&A PLAXIX.
TO Tav VDlTon,
tiig,«^ln a letter pabUihad In year paper of last mosthi Nr* J.
da Mello Sanpaio, Captain of BogiseevA to tba Fortogsaa# Ar«y« gsea
to contradict tha aiatamatit of Mr. John B* Jaekaoa whOp to a leotste
on ** Indian planta ndaptad for oomiseroinl parpoaaep'* atoted in
eommon with atmoat all botaniato that the Nynoanfdto odorOta er
chaulmugia tree la a satUa of Pago, T*eaiaa8im« and ether piftg ot the
Malayan Panisauli, extondlng aa far aa Ataemi Mhaaatoy and BUihim^
and that it haa sot raaohad to the waftornipiartiel Mto. Oaptein
Sampaio aaya ** that tba tree hnown at Goa m fttwM, mi^ be identliad
aa &sn>wdia odsraU BoEh«, or fiigdnocafpns odomtat Lind. Th«a
traa baa all the obaraotaiiatiaa of thp genua Mydmarpmg asoh aa
diwslooa or nslaasnal flowers with five aapalfp Are patalfp itaatone
five, piitili (atylfi f) flre '* and to your editorial yon atnte *' yon
are right to your aormifei the pleni of which yen t aant
apeeimanA k the ffyt^aatdfa akrata or eAanlmnsnta*'* Chptato
Saoipato ia right la saying that the bnifi el Goa hag nU Ihw
Qharaoterlatioi of the gniue jS(yr iifa#npSA i^nd haaee It la nql
Gyeeaerdto odorata of BoghsrgtK., I bate engsilnad wpastoiaBi of
dnrfi from rarloos parti of GoAi smA t hellete. It li iwhae la enlled *
AT. Wifktkm of Btottior AT. fnaHdlir of VkiSh wiU deieMbid In
Daieal '4 Bombay Vtora •, the of Gon4e #ltogelhai4iftaient fieto
The error eha|in|tied by Oaptnin SaMpato INa I
batlarA to oonloundldi th4«hfto||tjM9ef Khegenm ^ynmrdia with
ihuaa of Sydmatpik Bo^h thpae olpw^f ellled geaare are wall
dtoorlbed in BantMtthi Aar. tarior^n'* 307. and in Hooker
and Beothatoh ** Ganato jNonininoi, hi p. 139.’**
Xhaflowariot o/Moiau^tM atol| to dlamater (tomala largar) et a
pale yellow selont nki|A pewerfaity fragraoA They arise several
together, or ui laaotolea from tnbaroiiuaa oier the trank nad old
brasohiA leldott aie egUlary and solitary ; iod Ohptoto Sattpnto will
and M n m
In mtleamit iwen Ind^tU (ifeouUOO), aii4 |a tl^ 0 iiiMba?t,dinil
itnmittodiik ; f I, i; t ' I tf I I I ^ i
tbn';animn nt M ;
inodoromtod UiVilfinry, ftv rMtiini. Thd iid«Y« adw«n »m
peutnndrooa, i.«u they hive Jive etemme 0 Hly^ m Oeptaln Bumpaio
cotr«oU]f diioribBi. In the femite floivert ttigniMirQ v^taiiletiid
lohed, aid iha ovary It mroaidad by dva ataminodai. For liora
dataUad dat^lptU>a iab ibi #o»ki «bov^, ^
Oapuda l^pib vallei im Ur« ebataotar ot tba laavts of (be hutti of
Ooa #hleh be liye ate eitire and not ferrated at deeerlbed by (be
geflevi1H| eertably pawidea a begliaer, bat 8(t J. I>»
£(oober ta b(e **^ora o1 BrKitb ladia/' Ycl. p. eaya tbal the
leavee of JET* WlghtietM iva ellbev entire or evrrated. 1 bare alto
foood that the leavee of era eatfre^' bat la toaetpeafiiieaa 1
ooDid diidngaitb uiootendrratfitee. '
At be £ie pibpeHy of tbe oil of tbe eeedat it it believed by the
aatlvea of tadl*'fit’'geWtfW''to bi tneCal to ddi diaeiieit 1 bive faytelf
beta atiog U for tbe lait three yean la le|>roay, lauoodertaa, ptoriatiti Ae.
!rhilrtt|t.-jia<^«aid to be atadlp €ayloii and eeiao parte of Xadia to
poiioo li^< Saiapalp laay abiak it advieabio to
eipeilniOt apdnadertala if (ha kueti of Qoa doei pobroa filih.
J. 0 LIBBOA,
Boeebapi i7ib Kovembar 1879* |
• vm wwe not MnoiaUr .eoaaidnlied with the pUmtln gootUoit, and eahmltted the
tert’ihite^ bjfcdaMal Mithottty in OhWbtAj^a wttoeo ophtloa our 'thort
edib^aotaOrM^lonaA^t wehaveavary cMioatboracoxn foradherijBctooareptntoB.
^ .
OUft FUEL PEBSEEVEfi,
/'fb the Miter^ Madras TSsnes^}
r g growing demand for feel ie a qaeation loll of interest to all,
tbe etXeoie ct the drain made opon preeervoe of it matt, in a few
yean, tall with etrlklog elleot. Bail ways and the teveral tbNtai>amploy-
iog taoioflaeuse opagooddi^l of ooal aod wood, dad tba ooMook It,
indeed, a eloomy one. !fhe ooal flelda of Central India are too ezpeniive
toglve mnob BSiUtaooe. and the preeervee of wood in this Presidency
are too ooatly to be drained. Oar north-west jangle, lipglnuing from
Kiroumbaody and ending with Onddepab, dipt on either bide into a rocky
belt, Uitle fit for eultlvatipn, and the jangle tblna off to a degree that
is rery oDpremiiing to all wboolalm an 'niierast lo jongle growth. Tbe
1ntrodiiot{oil of presopia into oor plantations proihiiss as good results
bare as it does in Bengal* It Is aboat the beet fuel for engine parposes,
end the oottivation of It in thla Fresideooy deserves notioe. ThoogU
of slow growthi It yet reaches to a sisa that would he invaluable to
steam-engines^ and It might] it intrOdaoed to this Preeidenoy, take a
high place amongst its fuel growths, Ken have not yet learned to
crowd out the jangles b.ere« as (hey have done elsewere, and tbe cradles
of oor forest growth require tb be oarefally watobed till they reach to a
maloiity that would repay aUeotidn. Oar alluvial districts are not so
much ntlllsed as (bey ought to be, and the growth of jungle about them
is notso ngaobendoaraged as it deserves to be. Oar sapplles of fuel
might be iaereated tenfold U an agency were established, ontslde the
forest onUi for (be purpose of encouraging villagers to bring op a belt
of growth. The area eapable grounds is very large, and few people
can look to tbe promlelng allavlal eoliv we possese wlthoot being sirnok
with amasemedt at oar neglect d them. The estimates of the quantity
offueltlMt wf may grow are rough, but there is tittle qaestlon of Its
being very much larger If oare were bestowed on them. Acacia and
tamarisk io the Interior, and mangrove in our littoral distrioti
deserve (o be better thought of than they are now, and wa
oonfeMi to a iseling of disgfgiolntment at not seeing them cared
for at Ijfegnpaiam wbo<'a the gnswlng needs of the railway, ought
long age to have nagges'ed Ks introdadtloiL Btreehuraycottah is
now owe principal fuel ground, apd eontraetors agrsd in stating
that tha diatabca WOdd has td, to earvled Is daily increasing., For
railways the demand is kt way# mtoe Intense along ffeateiHes, where
tha supply ft mnob dlmhttifaad for tbe ordinary ^ts of the people,
and for brlckAbnming pttvposai, and what wa 4mil1idvaip do, on a
growing searelty of fuel, ought to be a ^iuesfioB, worthy pf all ai|9ntlon*
Sportsmen, audottots watl aegdaibied wbh jnngVes, complain of their
lieing otaared to an anooytng eglant { gaase is being ibtnned to a ifisgrto
that ijiitNl Iww for its belter preservation ucoessary, and uotirufe naO
learn Igflto tba wisdom of betterpresarvatiott of ^ Vandalism, toust
itleni #1, parbaiw, it is too late to a^tit We are htMif our
rotidli cdt' ^ belA ends, but y^calnily took on, at W \jv«r#i^Mwreia
Mfene lo the proepec^ sud he k^eat day of §Sk ft
hand. <}uadeil on ^^edsArtoned pnrMwrvatois, frauiio ordqm aSe
tiooaviemaUy issued, wblcii drWe pillagers llhtP the
and tba prepartton of bis scanty' Itod snggCllb ot larceny that bd
ptiMtwjNiiv sol fitsum
(am ii that dl manuHraf jglvfi|rt|k
- duafgjaewi '‘»»ut with ao lahW.iijip
: i 4 piiit i| daprifa
tlm^nt tosAlitilpve^wlUras
EtofliitleA
of tbe climate by the Immense ar«to i^eared apay
growth ; tbe deorease of fodder ^or diffly li tpsiywbsiSt,
against, but oat voice Is,like that of one ovylttg ip tha wilderi^, aheu
we'protest against tha dennd|(lp|,,,.p|»iy^yp'd^
even now U Is etWI not id'a^ somaldfitly p(W«ct
ahldlDg results. Brs. Oleghorn at|ladi!aiv tad Btewaiim Oatoufta
have been active with their pip* to l^fut out Um avEi wa afa.
, upon, but their eriee, In leaeon and eat of scaeon, baft ] Man
unbelieving ears, and waste of omr faet<anpplyii trlM w^bi htmplte
of all protest against it. We may mej^h ^kuni gsouiidi, oarefblly taka
thought against loss by fire, but nil w pr^ressim feeolntlons are of
little avail, so long as we fail to oooytnea people n^ tba ef our
claims to protect forest rtgbU There thay be a cry, loud and long, of
onrtailmenl of rights at first, but trne aoendmy will temMilts vatnei
and eitablieb the jcstlce of oar acts. Act V11, of 1898 gives ns power io
pfoteofe onrSilvfi^against a daily increiiing avil, and we Me no raason
why it should not to carried out with greater vigew iban ltls now*
♦ . SvmXM WALLAH,
ssmflEBnasBSBtommnw
COFFEEJ^F DISEASE.
(To the JBditert of the Ceylon Observer,)
bUAB Sui,<-lt requires no apology from me at ifals time,to beg a corner
of yoaf valuable {oumat for a lew remarks on luob an important aubjeot
aa co9^ leaf disease, It ohancee, too, thatmy name has more than once
been nueutioubd in the Observer, perhaps rather more prominently than
deserved, aa something of an authority on coffee oultpre. Let It pass. 1
have been a saderer like those ptanlerl and bate, of ooorie, been deeply
interested In the disease and coffee csUure geuerally, lor many years*
It seems to me that with ail (to interest naturally pertaining to thla
matter, (here ie, judging from the ootrespondence poblltbed In the
Observer^ a great amount of vSgqe and uodefiued ideas abroad
amongst planter! regarding the disease add how it fs to be cured.
BoieuUfio meu^s oplnious are eagerly discusBed, and what they have
been said to Say at some previous date, is brought up again and
agaioi aa if It would be any go^ to hold them to their words and obser*
vations, which were merely their ideas at the time, and never intended
to be received at facts or scientiflo truths. In all suoh matters, euporl-
ments exactly and oarefally carried out are the only means available for
arriving at anything like the troth. 1 fear It may be my mistortuns to
) be set down amongst (hose who have turned againtt Mr, Korria,
when his back is turned. It Is not so j I said Uothiog against
him while be was in the island: there had not been time to
test the value of hfi wotk. 1 had a special introdnctlou to him
from Dr, ThWattee blmMlf, and spent a portion of three dif¬
ferent days with Mr. Morris at the mloroioope, thought hie skill admir¬
able and believed him to be a reliable obeerver, BUH. although all thie
Is true, we have to go further, and the looaer tha totter, Were Mr.
Korrle here, he would to sorry to find that somehow he le, wrong. X
ooufesi to having been led oft with him. Of oourse meetings, tootwes,
and tbe like, could not fall to dJafOt on such a deeply iu^tosMng
euhjeet us coffee leaf dieeaie, the oUUcomeof all this being a graal
amount pf popularity for Mr. Kfirris, whiefa no one wiM gvudgA ^tiU
t^e were all wrong. The fact is, Mr Morris, by his tOO eilMt ghd pre-
mattire d^uittoo of the life history of the Inbgns misled ui all, honest¬
ly enough wo doubt, still U was done. Then, When he toft tboto wUvb'
wail from the mSis, as if the vavloCf b( tfie^ country had taken
away In tbaS Individual pereonage* Lid Mtorte discover aoytoiimat
all abo^. the mmiMa vfstmria Which ThWaMgs and Abbey hi^hot
pubttohed tong before f' Kbthiog, t sayi, bgl the great length ol^ the
fitomentoni growtoi wblob is unimportant, prahtibally. even it oorreoi.
In regard to sulphur I to Is notiitog iiew» mtori had toen ^ing H
before, and the lipse mlgtoie wassoggSstod by a Ltotbnto piayitoy, and
is a step in the right direetton, ftopt another point of tkwl
U wasqpUe right to try aulpfi(fir,MW it lithe nmst mmfsuient mbit
stance avaitohleforettch a pofpdMaa destroying tkem^luhgus, We*
were fortified, ton» by tto tout that eulphar efleetnally destroys mIMew'
or blight on the grape, ytoe,. and hop, As. Tticrs ^ however Agfeab
dtftevsoce between (hfse plants and the ooflee tree^-^ h^t^ toiog
anfvcrgreeuAadtoakfatooracitoity, mOreor to^^dnffllg IgtoWhoto
year, wbW one ^of fbe^ lormnri being hap >blitoOi^ ftnur* of 1iif taught
^ lor#kpiigjpofiiwinfif* ^eottouMto^vinefsdtetou^
peal iauastto dealt with, in oaee of eueh plants balng of tbs
gtwat^<|iasettoa^iathluasibumutottof ’ V “
In toil omintoy the eoflae (rte la grodi a i ab elSvationa from LOOWt.
to 8, 09ft,^ under lunoh vartoty of oottditioas (u iSAfit^ lo femuara-
'iM'’'|li^bi|rM|l|UWT«miitj^ k
iy'i4M)<»,‘»ifhcy
Ikd
■ ■.. .. . , ■,, Wrf'Pi!«»«i»;ifi^5"\^«»«>t
f:imaii%MWttiilii'Vt6'^ '
' pt '«n|t1ittig WUti 111** «orrddM
jf«r ^ilb« «ell.
CteaUliy toOi irilf kiMft ofga^lid tiiliaai, io W^ naver
•Ma hf ^ ttia'om Hm toand Memlngly, and wa forgot,
fOdQihly, toogi^dof W^bot the dtaeMa might not oome heok, tm toon
for ttt, Hodenger of' that, mid Ifr/ttorrlf (to effaot) '* 7on take it joit
at the time arhen yoo don^ me It, and a few apipUeatlooi of the lime
miitate will do, and lime atone rednoei U SO per oant.”
Kow that we haft had ^mo to eee the tifaota of thaae eaperimentt, it
laeafetoeOKdiiiiei^onth'ett'i aodOne ^ two faet9 t give ae brleflf ae
pomlhie, ^hlohjbrO tbefeiiilUoItho otwarratione Ot tf well as
myself ;*• ^ ./r . r, ,
lff.^The dlieiMis hai letarned.even before the fnlj^harous .acid had
bean wholly ueutraliNd, *
8ndl—It is impoulblo to Oie a« maoh tolphur as will tboronghly
dismfeot tba (raaa wUhont eowodiog the leam«*in fast where tbawxperi-
mant hat been carefully oarried out, and profed a faiiare, the lea res
ware badly injured and rendered oielen* <■
3 rd,-*Ilran if tttcoeu bad attended the eiperlmenti, the cost of the
laJphur, and appUoation three times in ode yw, woold bare been
prohibitory.
1 need hardly inform you, that 1 refer to the Breyton eiperimeDt,
wherehythakindneMof my friend, Mr. Forsyihil hare been able to
watoh and see tberasulte, haring arrived in the Islaod too late in the
eeeson to experiment on my own oofiee. So ninoh for the sulphur and
lime cure—exploded it is*»yet 1 by no means throw np the sponge, in
regard to leaf disease, bet on the ooutrary am more hopaful than arer
of seeing an end to it^at leapt so far as to leave ordinary ooffes fairly
prodtable* •
;rhe London oonferenoe of soientiflo men on Ual disease is not likely
to lead to anything deflnite or reliable in the shape of a ours. Should it
oome pff^U will in all likelihood lead to the same practical relalt as
the oholera eommlsslon did some years ago. aud nothing more.
It will be wiee to work for ouraelvea rather than trust to anything
turning up, out of the ordinary oourso of things—which seldom happens
in snob eases as this*
lu hli letter tome, Dr. Macadam states that it will be better to look
to theeondilion of the soil, than trnst to anything in shape of external
ipplloatloQS,' and the best anthority on the subject, Br. Thwaltes. of
Bojal Botanical (Hrdens hero—has lam sure been always of this
opinion, and years ago reoomin6oded deep tillage and better oaltivatlon,
hut how slow we are b lehrn!
From' nil that has been observed of ooflea leaf disease, and jodgiog by
analogy,' X am of opinion most strongly, that those who holvl the view
that the SomiUU U not ths di$fa$eat aU are very near the truth—and
this if Mrtly'proved already. The growth and marvellonsly (^utok
dev^opmrat ortho Tnngns merely shows a oertain condition of vitality,
or heiath of lb«ooiXee traa, anondltton of debility—one may say. This
if proved by the fhetfeUt tgeli eiiltlvated ooitee escapes the pest wonder*
fdly, while n^^ied O 0 i|fe •ofler.f nmatM
Onr olnnmfalUmlMs.beinbarbaroasiA the extreme—and is
so'^oflen.iMlV Improper ntaoamg are applied in holM, the fotmer
ll^le slow potmoii the latter being the means of eanaixkg.lbeleie
of. inaiNf ^ Xhe rooMr^erhlehL serve pi troo^vChannaie lor esgty.
log a Bopply of food for the whole tree* When cni they hardly ever
grow again* Whj» hae, seej. the older iwtatei,-rwhore, the pernicloai
•ystemi and^ we<^ng; tPOJr* hap been carried op.iloe years* and
not markW that" each *;shuph*' Old twe stand^,aloae<eot.ln hie glpry)
on apjrramldoil ipliai^l—rnotgl Then wa
are often tpjd that the eofida tree li a eurface feeder,", More'e the
pUy thal^t^joltene^pdepnfd to that mode qt living, bt^t, the faefe^ te
th^>be rooHftbrnfr funotione. in a soil meehanfe.
ally; hee obt^gh fe j^et lham hare air, and it often renewed-^ eptniee
hi wtilatlopiil^B^^^^^ ,
>voohi»>^a9d nery often eht hfanohet tnoi in
wlhnt i« oidi^ ehaPafei oof. Imed hn Mm
Qhehti«e^|rei^^MmdoiP»id^ thdthed^# ofiha
i^r'nofOPilet Pmt.ithi^'Ollleoifid Ut' ««iihifiid/jud
readyIpod'lof'l^h ^^
' The true remedy lor me«f at IdM Bi# list in giadaally and eyeleMllio.
ally lot^alog the foB by mea^bd Ml #llleb wtrt net M^ylefnr#
iho IMny roots; tteeflmtw, sptile'ltetirnoe the
this wothremsekably went t- vj
BiBCB»lrfi^iOi»eMtlm»hMM^^ with
these tool*, the die el i^toh, with intti^ Mimmi^led esrl^ in< iiie
season, liave little to bit deftfid by lw\ibe eoHivittM of
the oofleeptanh hhd when snih priMler lecemas the vhle,. we ahall
bear less and Ispe of leaf diseaee.*M|nin^ yooii tmly^ .
' Wm, OdgUMtOiH.
Ythaniide, Blmhnhhlftlk OetoberXIfgk ^
ON manCbinooonfeb.
rend with Interest tba edltoMsdeeesmsn|e^ OH |wo^ |||teri
of mine whiob appeared in yens Overland Imoaof Idthdunai |niiMiv»
ed, and theremadcs thereon of Mr.,Ooflbfin and Mr. BMmUki .^as^ot
is of soMcisni impoHanoe Io |nstifyvtrlttrt,herin|r«aMan yp^
with a lew observations Of a noa^eootrbWiihd ohanolert „ . ^ ,
1 —of CoffMj^l think Mr* Oochran is mieitalmn IpsinitM
perosntageof ash at 4 per ten** Tget^sottf taefile|ea|ainedf4n»tlmiXm^
ratory of King's Oellege last faar»,aod the reanlt was 2| pm M*.. ^
2,—dbmvMs «/ibinsdi—Yen hava leUen into a very „|iatural.ww in
supposing that 1 reeommeoded hslnil .eplti* The {arge y^fMlKf of
oommon salt in Miejin leadeie them very llabm \to.
besides forming a heavy percentage of freight. It ispraotieally
better and eheaperl lo use a less onanHIy of jthe. bypt ^ nfuriaie
of poieeh* an invoice of which lies before me giving H j^v neat*
of murlatf e^cal to about 47 per ceni* pure petesb, egh^ U or
14 per cent, in kalniti the former costing B7-16s—the latter
per tou—freight being the same. Both come from Germany, and there
is an inter mediate sulphate of potash pontaihlng 27 per cent* poye potash
to be bad for d4*I3 per ton, which I io^i^d t>^yhig*
8.—Xiftie.—1 have observed a dispoalUon io some of year correspon¬
dents to treat lime as a manure instead of • (oei or solfOnf* the old
farming proverb is a very trne one
*' Lime and lime without manure
Makes both soil and farmer poor**'
And I would suggest another as eq^ually sopnd
** First manure and then lime,
Will surely give good crops in time/'
Oon yon not caleino yonr stoisa of oyttev-shelle at the pearl bMks, ojt coral,
or limestone nearer at hand, and spread a few nwts, per sere broadcast
every three years t In this way you would best digest Into selobi# food
the potash io your siowiy decomposing felspar, as well as ifie other
neoessary ingredients in both soils and manures, as the Sussex la^^meri
have done by liberally liming their stiff Wealdsu olays.
4.—Yon may not be aware that «n abundant iouroe of
phosphate liee within easy reach of Ceylon, In what fe called the Queno
of the Lacipede ielande off the coast of Western AnetrSlIa. It nw# a
guano ages ago do doubt; lonomerabNr monsooni have watbed mit the
ammonia* and though ]t still resembles gsano tn oolotir, H $s ln>esali4y a
phosphate, or more correctly, a guano phosphate* 1 gibs yon the analysis
of a sample«
Moisture .24’18
* Water of combination
and organic mattor
... 702
Phcsphorio acid
... 2S*67»*TftbsiiIcpboip1iate'of IlmUfS'S?
Lime .
...88*21 '
Oxide of Iron
... 8*48 ‘ ^ ' ' e. '
losolubls matter *..
... 00*69 ^ ’ -
imo
What it cost at thsiilaads leannot fall tan, hot ft his bssh sold
in London at A4 to Afi per ton, and mixed with ammonia and pobwh it
ought tio be an excellent manure for coffee. Here it is used for super¬
phosphate, but after all antpharfe AOfal Only does quickly, what dame,
nature does fbr us elowly and iuraly In ber own way, and I am not sore
that the advantage of nifng anperphosphate^With coffee, is. aa, great as
with annual crops of different kinds, wbsn it may be reqalr^ lor use
and not foe the two following, .
A per/tfsf manwre,—Ammmtlii phoiphnrfn nohl and potasii InAome
form or other and in dpe prbmWtM, art.whai m hava^fa.hmnblnn to
4fe»m wperfeet maohm^ aartbe scdi mtilyaii Is jnamly ualnahieIn indl-
eating any partial waaknamv wtBsWean ba;atren|^ed nsnordingly*
M7.Heihesm,Ibeiteky,aMMalMav (iS Mr* Ooobnm fusiiy^polntsoot in
his totter of gSthyunfGfliB ^hoMsx^imyr of M anils inOsyton, the
analysis m whlbh youlmsd^^ibUsbed, sufftolantly rich in potash tails-
^penee with itailhsSil^ Mih inmmts* Jit the Indton stdlf I quoted
1 wkhdnabtotltopc^ ’ftyittr Blmbntoimd Btopntsto miH^cseiutm
^ip«s.manM.imeevdini 4o;Br«Vmiltfeojif,imd
■ ■■; ■; ‘ 'i 4',"¥ ;■/' *’:•
.. ■ ■ ^ <
:,'S!S!Ssr,‘SrSKW
~ * .^w.s A.. -.4 1. ....A. jliii nni' taif ■>
cci2^3t“r«rts- vrUteis 04 Uili iobi40ti.I
*?*." :-.?Zl ". ■.I.„.«|| hi■*> MBtit «t h*r !•«• Md OM toH/i«
A_.<-- M oMrtsU«tptol||«itMUi» ttothmwi taw wton
'’Mk'M WMwpftailii'taMitattt*'(tow aotfto'toi ^
^tato^Tw^ taoU Ant
...ifysKK “"7
^>iSl!!«*flMito^ tWIirWHw fcta d(n* tod Mtato "te' paMWitat Mt.
kSSSai «dWta* .••WHdJnUto tadw. ttWta.p
, SSmSx. «'bnUtoSrto taiatow ;taw tt taB ta„
■ IM ilritafciti at iitif W< 'Wwltail' (Odiawtaii (od at ((It sAlitea
WtoWtaT^ oltaowta^oa
iiiWtola%W«liA*r*»H toe^od. . .;,. .. _. .
■»■<■*"«*« W ^toad'wWito'totwdMta* la tajiofea
(tSLTtoS iftd«>«l <to« -» toa-M-ww. ^ >» ‘O*
wiiiiriitoaBdptoadtoat t(ip(Httt*hd*nt#*rt»ta» «•»« Wot# (oon
utol^iiLAi^ wo ‘ta torilto toto.^tltotli It l( qnto* too.
„.taaid»r«.bKmorwta.
Cm flto lottWaooa. nbo ‘toowtftw wj"®* !“
!££» o» »»« «»to iWWtal*.- »ortwitorrli««ta » « »«»
Lito rfiWtatollgoal taH>fow«ioB'. «d at Moa at fnwMow Wttioi
iMihUt'HiUttotto*. tta^ol* •* tow'WBAlo malti. I am
!l^Wad Ola toawtk ol a good oM SWAoittatllatloi with who* I woo
JT^tUoI^ool. "Pn tol JO tMCIWm »j aa(totlonoo,"#ald bo
?.1nSoT«ta ‘h»« wtWW'^f -»* Wto ol tta* loio
jooi »o»-o biatat tot.' -Towo laWitallj. ^ jOLPXJir.
82, Qtaat St. uaoo#,I«oh4»«. M™.
'l>.8.-8UioowiUlogthotoogotag,I'a* ahUio fowl* joowltUa
Bato an aualjilo ol ttaw toHo»«« whlto ptrt ol India.
Ufo, X,
*110 ‘393 ‘^3
Lino «(( o^iA
a u ‘ASS *244 418
{^MgWiOMid Z -tad -oso -osa ,
• aad-toaoiUI ohaotw tta p(W(»tol« ®l Pttoh it higbti ttan In anj job
rL*«lSw WtUmlatlJ No- ^ •“'* “ ^ “!;•
SZT tboj wto« toatowhloh tato boon narwdand mioma^d,
rXi ttathlfdanold oaiioflBttndtnt tematk^oo kaarwg ihat It had
S?wam<^“«opl..“*.».. ••Von
S!jtoLgoolphotphotlo*old.ttho prominaot loatar. wblob.oalU to
rtttntti% and a Ubmal topplj ol pbotphado manutoi. Ww
-_A.A It not too #*P«nil*o, both at Inoraattog ibo (juinttt j In tb# to I,
^S?^dllln?kh* poltot mb'* b**^" •» »’•“* '
to la tta oondltton In Aioh It aligadj, “
Hiltii^ooaolad* at lollowt-'*! tbould opt at lb# ^ tlino
adtiM jonlo dltptnat bj OM »#*»• *“b ttliaolal Watb, tnotoj
fcooawa tta poiotniag* ol potaah JpnqW to a mil* abot* tta atony^
XM* I* wW 'Wdtioo ,wblbb I Intond to l»lh»w.r-B. I,—Cbjiwi
Otumr.
■mwtaf-towwaoaw*
$.0!SmVRa 80XS8.
■g’ttflitt ■*1“' taon NUiifaototjandWtJontlablototaj*
mtang and gathortad i« tta taUnut tatwtt (wo. U^. am»
ai tta wBBlndaia laj tbtj wtald bawllkodalittla taln, doting to
^ to aolitattagwand to Iholt -ploaghtag apttoloa* to
' irti wwtoi* o 2 taiiojwndwhtt*, bail'hnojjtoj toot mow lothoto
olnltait' Mdt tihlah aiw gliaaiodat a dlttaw to* tolt obttla itjMi
' aoS^'vbtob. towtoo 'do'^not loodlw *oA> oaaoaio, tbaa to toU
! *i 4 iMOfBoUliM.iiiitak d» tMO '**noied-~aad whiA nppota to bo all
•tot tan ta'dtiiNd. Xbtio! wm oaor daj ^id) onwWA hallloll,
: 2ffiSC'SSrSSS:s^^58?S.S2
; dnnw te taaM|i|»^iM*mta
'anpraiil gtoii* l^,-
at tta hUU, taj, Titiagoti toMi, 4
«{ tta.^di, pwslp^ W »,
poto pt to inowj to,Ita»^Pj,
Tta ,totoHng to *,ait*pa»«?a_tiw, Jtttflta UtaWt* . !-•,
KlKw
Alittaidl'ta
|illf^,^ii«Mtaof
ilp.jbMn«
W'iV'toMtn
I'ift'iiptaMii'i'
,'■*(.'4*1..
Wndill a.
• 4 < - « ' 'I v „ $
0404 for, 8Mnnm>o^*i’n«4j^ioo4_fov ^nn4 n
ttttAnOMimi
SSS*
Wind oblviy Sf.i 4»6otlUttiitVl3.JB4 WHtoli b400|Xitttp tin bail: alight
tbnndhr and lightnlaf; ntnofei^or# Ywf otaafg Hoar Irdst on tb«
Sltbo Daring tin drat woafc imif d«^ at
l!ba tbamoinater Xl^nnbait) d4ng In anbpon tacnbdbb (6,400 feet
nirvana level). W. asi^ ie abtint 64« Hi the nomiiiip 66^ in the
afternooug toweet 48^, blgbeit 68**
mfoilewing tegeCationthripe.'^Odneeoftha oedar (tern. Aelv)';
Henp (vavno bLifie>i tba eUlagerg nabe rope frote tbe^bre} frntt of the
^lld T^{ym,9k0gMi)tit^tutAiihi%t»T and la tn^leei until half
futtoo, irlieii it 1« eaten like a medlar; ttte narteXbtIPera Cv«rn.pnibO»
(eUtt tbe kerneltot tbeiaade a ** Hbite*’ trrltlbg luk le|niakaH»tarea, to
trrlte on blaCe and board with,.after tbe manner In wbleb tome beniae
keep their taUlee;ilia flower'fi of a bandiome red oolonrj oeeaeionallj
jellow onee are met with, and It blomolae daring the early part of tbe
inonth, tbe Qreoaerle lanaglnoia (vetn. bapfa), from the' toibentoin
on tbe under tide of the leaf, a very niefal tinder ie madii tbe vUlagere
generally carry a email qaantlty witb tbeiog and with'It and the
BMlataaeoof a flint and ateelg are>l#aye In a poeition to obtain a light
for imobing or oookiog pnrpoeee. tbe oolooynth Ci*abi.3n.itimfM, i.e.| tbe
time of tbe aril epirft) need ae a purgative by ebmey and dreaded ae a
poiioa by othere; the bryonfa nmbellata (eiebbri^ the fmit has. a tickly
f weet taste; tbe boriewObeitnat (h»nor) tbe seeds am landed op and
need for waiblag clotbes ; tliey also make a Very gOod starobp an
experiment in eonnaotion with whiob Is now in progroM^ pattlonlars
shall be eent to yon in due nonrse.
Tbe poplar (vern. oMwn) le sba^dtog ite leavee. eolOnr laded
yellow and light brown ; tbe biU>oberry (Ar&ap jdmuii) deeper yellow
and brown; the rboi (tittar) of a bandkmia soertet; (inaplei of, a
bright yeltowp the Himalayan vlbe» fsermbllng tb4 yitglpla ereeper»ie
now In all tbe blnry of its ioarlet anltornig eoma kre ^ a brown
oolonri Ibelearei of tbo peaobi are brown; feibi abeanilfol
appebranoe, and ara of O&apjr ibakeiogreliii, broWtand golden; there am
.16 varletfas of f6riM(bhal wo om ^ftonalty ae^iialii^ kithg and I
dared^ there'arO many oibera' Wfllbb ‘ We' ^^e nOj^' yat Aotleed, Tha
wild rdsa boabas amootared' whbbdiflet' bOrfiOi 1' wtilb Ibt SUnii^ayan
kaimyibkliXb<i/be«01t4i4tawbi4a<bmtaigmie(Wb^ oaifbntao
1 H}a^>ta«opliinWiii<Ml«Jla 2 > if ansittig kfid flowar, Wta^jXlb eotbitred
platfle; Ha wild okarry (padam) is tw blOMesi^ pbka tlbi: gib4Sm ira
tnfj^(^.a brown, iha ipear-griee ^bfinit'^bl wnjMeailll^ pr^MSoa. Tba
^ filmflayan ivy is ooming Into bloinott.
Tha monkUir now boodme lees iib]^» ind #111 oonHone lo ttnlll spring;
they prefer faortewabebtknt foibitso ObaHore dboeting ia now eatremel/
easy, WoodeOek mtgratisig tb the plalnev ’ Qailtln assail nnmbers, and
fomid ablefly In the flelde 'ObbtafeliH(vern.
Ma). Starlings and feal nfe mat with; the owl.bim HbOtt, The
viHagort hate a leiend to bowfebtron With tbta bird kb'the folio wing
flfeoti«»Qooae oemHon' the bfrdi were going to kwdbs (^a|r>; and
Hi awl beootnfng anvions of tbegajy bindiaki of lila ne^bboama
ashed eaok ana to bgld afeather with wblH to dealt 'lillhself ont
^ and hwwiiOfi' fh^dtd ao m bondltfen tkal^ bd kboald^ fHnrti tbo
feoOHm «i aha aoiielaaioa of tbe aieldt He oiA iNtoniiarao v4lb of
hiitiigpniraiePtir^'Hls bofiowed pfesm^ tbithtfilttied tb i^#«bott
^ H*,bfeda oittidtooanf^*; WtH Hejf ho
only ftgahfed th^r own leathery hot ttrlppid Ibt'aliH lA bte thn ;
iir f^|i‘'9iiiiA. till %i4Mn -4«il of, ibfioiiRl uHvt
^ult' i»im^ «nrO|^ ii$r«' ti^Uged lo
iiytt|^i 1ft|:o’ otbn 'gdj^lbtbt thoif owu,
tf» wordy omtt«8.
eottto^ to ^ OR tbr^o :b«M)i^«r» buOtfUg, tl^tfaiojlvgi, tcfolbor Rod
d^Ui4g,tbo1iil|^ MiueoQO wlio Ui iiofc oo guRTd^
or ,b«i idlg liil for o^ i^ioo. B«iiri oomo OQt^oigbl Umo
ftod daitroy Ibo, jbttekwIieM ojrof) oroRi j to that for a
Bbort ttago/ggiOfoktl/* ibo ttliggafii bate'tWr Utoo folly oeooplod la
gaardiog unu oiopt,
BbU aro ftrjr wuoaebOB, thli year. Tba fillafi;era aiorlbe tbie to
tbe foot of (ha nalMlaeM of M ftiator* which did not hill (hem off
io the ordloaij maaaer. The cooeeqaeiioe ti that they hare Jaoreaaad
aod moltlpltod iu oopleeiaat oumberf. We etiU hear (he fox at
. iiight^tiiae» ^
Beeaara la ahoadaBoe, aad hard at work amoog the flowers belong-
log to the 0« Jiabiatce* ^
A lair Uflighhoiir of miae has last drawn roy atteatlon to an qibIii-
aioa in my notes In your fssne for the 1st of Kovemhaf in oohneotiou
with '* coeoons of the wild silkworm.’' 1 ought to bare added :«>Tbey
have nothing wUaterer to do with the eoooons from which sUk is
ordinarily made; bat are the nests of the female Maniii (the luoa^tdm
division of the family of orthopterboS Insects) who deposits her eggs
upon plants and eovers them by a glatinoue sabitanoe, which soon
becomes hard and forma a kind of oast In which the eggs are arranged
lo a symmetrical miaaer ; theee oases or nests differ in form accord¬
ing (0 the species.
The villagers are now busy with the autumn harvest (A4ari/;,(;onsistlpg
o( phaseolus radiatas (urod. eia%), doUehos aniflofus O^lt); both
these are similar in appearance. The former has large leaves and ripens
firs^» the latter has small leaves and ripens laterBieusloe oorooaoa
ikodrett Ma) resembling a child’s hand, stalks used for oaltle
fodder :^tabte rice {bamati dhan) and common rice (reri dUai$t aad
many other uaineO* The vilTages are again partly deserted (as at the
sowing and transplaniiog perious), while the pcpalatton go down to the
▼alley to gather in the rice crop and stack it for the preseuti as it Is oou-
siilered uuadvisable to thrash out newly out rtca, Ths stacks are very
neatly built Up oireular, and greatly resemhie on Kaghsh h«y-rick at a
short distance; while on the sabjeot of rlce» 1 may ae well mention,
that an owner of lioe-laud, ta not spoken of as possessing
sach and such an area of kyer (clce-land), but Is said to have so many
*' hdlrakt*' (bags made of goat or sheep ekins) full et d/wa (rice), one
halrah being reckoned to contain 2 bhara (sa>501b. common, or 421b«
table rice) ; In this manner a man’s standing among hla neighbours may
bo known. Amaranth, or Love-lies bleeding {batu f
Bsveral varieties, some having handsome thick hanging bunches of
different colours, white, pink, and blood red ; the leaves are used as a
pot herb, but act astrlgentiy The two kinds of buokwhont {<>gal and
paphmh), these are very elmllar in appearance, the former having pink
flowers, ripent fleet, ia grown at low elevations, is reckoned the better
grain, ie givett oorapllmentarlly to saperlors, and may be eaten on
•’lasting" daye ; the latter has white flowers, ripens later, is cultivated
at higher alevatlone, and Uhpatiog and bitter :-»Tobacoo the
floyrers are cut off iopa after opening to give extra strength tp the
leaves ; the leavea when out |tre epread on the roots of the houses to dry :
^-pumpklRfi^^^) pladed on ih^ r^* to dryGrass ie stlU being
cut, the forki and lower branchee ul trees are frequently made use of
for •tacikinii greet in. '
Honey Ie now being oflsred for sale; price rather high, 4 seers per
rupee, owing to "the demand being at present, greater than the
supply.
flbeep sheariol Is going on ; the vtllagers shear their sheep rwfes a
year, once in Hay when the barley fa harvested, and again In October
when the bad! id ripe. The yield f« about 1,2 ounces of wool from each
ebeep. Before eeUbg n sheep, the villagers always cat off Us wool, no
matter what the quantify may be. Yoong wheat and barley eprouting
and looking strong and hOalthy,
ChrysaothemuinB in hlomomt
JenuiaUpu arlleholtei ripe, the Wslgbt nl that )arge .pgUipkln to
which t havo hoBwo rp^rred. Id 64 soors<WlSd stooes, m*
!]^raweveieveralotbeltA hut they woighed e^lHtde lets. Tdmafornwhfo
over about thamhldioot the; drht^'iln^ become nharfy-
taeteloeik Ohiownaad 4Hefica« <nvh*^H«nV'
ri|W.pisodttoo saWdfaotQiy. . - ■ ' , . , w''
• ■ ' a*i\p.
81«t Oelober 1879. ▼
OSlCWAy BBCBMMR Ut, 1879 .
COFFEE LEAF 0IBEASE.
in^E.bnvo been favoured with a lengthy letter from a
^ ^ eortespondent who aeemo to ua to undefetand this
dltcase more fully, than the doetora who huvo lately been
diagnosing it, and attempting its cure, but wo are sorry
wo cannot insert Ids letter, as it oont^ns too mauy
personalities to bo suitable for our columns. This, howover,
does not blind us to the extensive knowledge whldi he seems
to .possess of the subject under discussion. In many points
we agree with him fully, and in the few remarks we propose
to offer hore, wo wiU occasionally eansuU bis loiter.
The snbjoct of coffee cultivation has perhaps not occupied
quite BO much of our space, as the Importance of the industry
seemed to demand. ThU has not been caused by any
lukewarmness on odr part, but was principally brought
about by the distance at which we are, from the coffee planta¬
tions and the scarcity of exact information on the subject.
We have had the opinions of various sections of planters
displayed before us in the Ceylon papers, but from these
we are uuable to draw deflnite conclusions, owing to the
tincture of personality which pervaded the majority of those
communications. A writer did not seem to bo able to discass
the subject without insinuating something base or unworthy,
against those who happened to hold different views from
himself. This to a large extent detracted from the value
of the arguments adduced, because abuse or even bare asser¬
tion can never have any value in ah argument.
We have been looking closely into this important question,
and at the outset had some qualms of conscience in placing
the title we have adopted, at the head of this article, as we
have come to the conclnsiou that the phrase Lmf Disease is a
misnomer. Undoubtedly the results of the disease are palpably
shown on the leaves, but that doss not constitute it a leaf
disease. When any of us is troubled with a bilious headache,
wo certainly teel the pain in the head, but wo never think of
calling it a head disease, as we at once take steps to apply a
remedy to the canse of the disease, and take mediciae to put
our stomachs to right, such is our opinion of this so-ci^led leaf'"
disease. The manifestations are in the loaf, but' whore is the
source of the disorder. The potato disease, so woU known at
homo, is clearly not a leaf disease, but stiU the first and most
evident signs are iu the green haulm and the leaves, and we
strongly suspect we shall have to look lower down for the
origin. Some few hold the opinion that it is primarily a root
disease, and that to apply sulphur, lime, or in fact an^ mediciuo
to the loaf, would be like applying eau-de-cologne to the
bilious head-ache referred to, it might for the moment afford
a temporary relief, but it would have no effect whatever in
attacking the seat of the disorder, and in giving the sufferer
any permanent alleviation of his paiu.
In looking into the sources of this .disorder, wq tnust go
back to first prineiplos. The graudobject'which i^ataro has
in view iu the growth of plants is clearly the propagation
of species. The first ^Veat order we have on this subject ia,
Let the eartli bring 'fprtl^ the herb yielding seed,
•<aud the ftqit ti^ ^bose
Mated isipi ty»^ ^ mikf »ad it was so/’ Euoh
l^ing the. eoeeH^^^ ^vtOturaliy expect that plant life will
be specially adapted to carry oat this great behest. And so
it is. Bui for purposes, of our own, we interfere with the
THE INDIAir AGEimTUEIST.
natural ordor of things, wo do not |>oirmit thesa plants to
grow in a state of Nature, we want mire aeed and fruit than the
bushes would produce in the ordinary eoutse of Nature, and
hence wo adopt means to - that end. We interfere with the
growth, we prune heavily and thus throw a vast deal of
recuperative work on the roots, at a Reason when in the usual
course fjf Nature they should be resting. When the root
should he recovering itself after the past season of hard work,
os it werOi we interfere with that period of rest, and compel
at to resume work, and not its natural work, but e^ctra abnor¬
mal duty, such as in the ordinary course of things the root
would never be called upon to perform. It has to set about
the supplying of fresh lung-power, and hence to some extent,
we must expect au exhausted root, and with a root used up as
to energy, wo need scarcely look for a partioulorly healthy plant.
Now nod again plants have on off-season, when as it were,
their energies lie fallow, but the coffee planter looks on a fallow
season, as subversive of all commercial prosperity, and can¬
not permit them, pruning and artificial manuring are resorted
to, and year after year, decade after decade, these unfortunate
plants must go through the same eternal grind, and is it
fitrengo if Nature rebels at all this. We know tho inexorable
laws of Nature to bo, that a breach of them, invariably brings a
punishment in its wake. The pcualty may be deferred, on
account of the lightness of tho breach, or the natural power
of the object thus wrongly treated, but it is inevitable.
All this, if true of coffee, is in a greater degree true of tea—
where the pruning and plucking process is carried on weekly
during the entire period of the plaul^s growth, hut we are not
now spoaking of tea, we only offer the various blights which
affeot that plant ns lending additional force to our remarks.
We do not advance this dogmatically as the reason for or
cause of this loaf disease, wo offer it as a coutribniiou to the
discussion, and as, in our opinion^ a reasonable one and well
worthy the attention of planters. AVe ihiak too that this con¬
clusion is strengthened by the recent failure of the sulphur-
lime cure—for we may call it a failure—if, as we suspect the
disease is radical, and not of tho leaves, then this sulphur-
lime cure could not prove otherwise than a failure.
SOME BIFFICUIiTlBS IN INDIAN AGRIOULTUKE.
_ •
I N any attempt to effect impioveineuts in Indian agrioulturo—or
indeed in any matter calling for improvement—one of the
conditions necessary for success is a knowledge more or less
complete of the difficulties to be encountered and overcome.
We believe, and those who know anything about tho subject
will agree with us,—*that it would be diffioult to find ou the face
of the oartii in ancient times, or in modern, a creature so help¬
lessly poor, as the Indian ryot. The homestead of the ryot
consists of four or more rude hats built of bamboo and mattiug,
or bamboo wattled and mud plastered, or of mod above and
ibatchod with Juugle grass. There is no furniture, the greater
number sloop ou s on the mud ffoois, a few may have charpoya,
that is, rude foiii-l «Tged frames about the height of a chair
covered with intetlact'u cord or sacking. The fire-place is a
uiwd one, made and cared for by the women, who keep the floors
clean, cook the food, husk the rice, spread the seed to dry in
the space inclosed by iho hiitS, look after the babies who tumble
about without a thread of clothing iu tl^e same eaolosaro, draw
water, and tear oaoh others character to tatters round the village
well or lank. The cooking utonails are earthen-ware orbraaeii,^
and have not changed in shape sinco pre-historio times. There
are ;wo meals each day consist lug of rice, some kind of pulse
(dbril) and chillies or soma other equally cheap with
oocasmually flsh whet^ it can be bought. Fo v *’ with
the fingers frecttumUy from plantam or other r.avee feo aveid
tho ueoessity of plates* Tho dross ooasista of a cloth,
end a turban, tho house rant may bo Be. 1 or m M, 'ihe'Cost
of the homestead if not built by,the ryot maybe about
Be. 30 for iho largest mat hut. His pair of buUooks may cost
IJ .Vj ^
Ra. 30, more or Jess. The b^##; be the^vtUage
blacksmith iot&or annas, f*^***^*
himself, with the loan of a fhis .tnolijfrom the
a rupee to the smith 'to ihod ^ttb Irbri
The plough is shaped like aa ahfhw, kt
angles, the one pointed with troii may hivol
about 46®, this arm suratchos the Other ajnaJlJansS pearly
at right angles to the abaft, on ew Wh,l^dh ihn bwloi^
are placed, like the pole of a oaifr^ l|«hal4
to guide the ploaglu The bulli^ka pnt theb! itebjm under the
cross-shaped end of the shaft, and the on jlhi^ ,beb)se®®*’y®
for collars, a rope passed through the oenhre slaew ef the ne*® *>
serves for reins, and the tail is twisted by way ef admonition.
JJoogai ryots—unless a fortu;nate few>**too iasigoifioant to he
oonsidered when speaking of yyets as a eiass, are utterly with¬
out savings. Unaided, they are frequently unable to renew
even a worn out plough, much less porohasa a new yoke of*
bullocks, often the seed for next sowing has to be borrowed at
ruinous interest. The rice for food, aniseed to keep his family
going till the harvest comes, is borrowed from the money¬
lender f;mdkaj<i^) at fifty per cent, interest. The usual rate for
money is two per cent, a months eitlmr in hindf or coin at tho
current basiaar rates. The land cultivated by a family or homestead
may amount to from two to ten or more acres, consisting
frequently of plots at some distance from each other, and which
may or may not have been iu the occupancy of tlie family for
generations; and for which he pays an equivalent either in
kind 01 - monoy to one or more middlemen or lenuro-holdors,
who again, because of the intricate and perp lexlug sub-division
and joint interest in the soil, pass it on more or leas diminished
till, it reaches tho eswindar who finally pays a yearly tribute to
the Government, The heaviest item in tho ryots' expenditure
is for food, and although probably Rs. 7 or 8 a month will keep
a whole family, even for this* he has a constant struggle, often
ending in inextricable indebtedness. Were it not for the luxnriaut
climate and the possibility of sustafniug life and a certain type
of heallh on the scantiest means; on existence such os this
would be utterly impossible. We venture to think that tho
social condition of the Indian peasantry is without a parallel in
tho history of tho world. The land tenure of India, one of the
most complicated and perplexing that ever existed, has iu its
growth of ceutiiries, aided by the rapacity of various rulers, slowly
closed round tho ryot, till he is in reality a mere sUrvoHng
covered with a rag, tho play thing of ignorance and soporstitioii,
the wretohodest oraaturo on God’s earth, wdU nothing to live for,
nothing to hope for, but in the present rice and d/mW, and in the
future, annihilation. No doubt there are exceptions j beyond
question there are ryots who accumulate savings ; oommuoUiostliat
possess advantages that their poorer neighbours do not enjoy, oom-
forta and nooessaiies that others scarcely roalixe* Middlemen arenot
all oppressors, money-lenders not without bounds of pompasslou,
iuid xemindara with loftier ideas of exietense and duty than those
of extracting tho last lees which might, and the law allows them ;
but in tho main, poverty of tho most abject kind, ignorance of the
g rossest dosoription, apathy, hopelessness, and an appalling
ii difference to life not to be matched out of tho East, which
enables them in tiines of famine tp He down by the roadside
abd dio* ^with scarcely a murmur, ar4 notable cUaraoterislics of
the ' udian peasantry.
On a former occasion wo said in substance, that fur India's
agricultural ills there was no one panacea, any more than there is
a royal road to knowledge. A people can not be made prosperous
and contented by laws alone, though these nasy help much.
Prosperity cannot be conjared up by budgets and statistics,
though these have their pees. .There arc thdags in buumu
nature than are dreamed of by some projectors, and advocates
of irrigation, and works of national nsefnlness begun In hotite
in times of famino*pai|iic, to be abandoned to. Jelliufely
decay., High olais faimiag and^4oluble phosphates sPd Kew
gardusrs are mere mockeiy to men aogagsd in a lifedong
struggle starvation,,,however useful and ipp^opfiale they
may ,be to men of sn bet once and with savings. It seems its that
some of the things the ryot wants are to ^ \|taught both by
pre oept and example, habits of fdrethonght and thrift. As long
as he sees his wealUiier neighbours Hviug^in astyle and with
surroundittgs little better than his own ; and speuding much of
401
Paoembw I, . IHE IKDUII AGRICULTTJEIST.
. Ill' 'iiiiiMH|i-lHiTr«rmrwirkii
%j;r feAQtei And '
i^ioatdaodk; t 0 Idill^w 'AX«£m^ld '
cctnU^Affj l«om hAUd to mouth, mm out
of \llur iiio^y«l«ixjii^ ^ f Athev^f^ woro^ Ttil»
m«y otdy bo{>o(l {otf whan aU who
ord id Aat^i!]^,r«oV hAfO ttty iuilaAitoA oTOt tho yghet otaoa
peA|Autr7>^( tyt Mttettott thd nuthotUy on the aide wa Untro
in 4 ^!^^ Vi^ oUlaga s^sboalAbr' tUa mora waaUhy
noUvOt An 4 judinioim ot hooks and teaohars should
uno^iuto^Yjr ha brought ^ uudor tho notioo of all ^ who may tu
any way ha iddooad tohal^ina matt^ of this sort. It is by
tha spread of knowledge of alt kiuda among ttm lowest paasantry,
not aaoeeisty Wok'^wli^^ nt tot hand ; but knowledge
reoeiTed In d^rarsalian with It may ha thair own obiidran, thair
wealthier italghhoari, or kuowladga derlsad from the Gorerantsnt
* offioial either ai aeoond or thUd hand, or the knowledge that
may be gained from the reaulta of a Model Farm ’* oonduoted
on the principles of oommon sense, and exhibited in tangible
form in the Tillage baaaars, and elsewhere, in a hundred
.shapes. In these ways It may be hoped that the lot of
the Indian peasantry may* in the oourse of time, with |
the spread of intelligenoo and the growth of thrift, be B 4 >raewhat
less wretched than in too many oases it is at prileut. In tlio j
meantime every scheme that may iu any way tend to diffuse
knowledge, and breakthrough the crust of iguoraudb, aupemtitioD,
poverty, aod the evils of middlemen, monoy-lemlers, and tenure-
holders innumerable, deserves support from all who have the
welfare of India at heart; so that, however, Viceroys may oorao |
and go, departments wax and wane, and lesser liglits in the ofBoial j
0 rmameDt ditfrom place to place, and rise and set, a people, thrifty j
intelligent, and prosperous, way grow up to de^elope the vast !
resources of India, aud to carry on to succoeding generations soino
of the best features of the English rule.
tIME AND ITfi USES IN AGRICULTURE.
L imb has been in nso for agricultural purposas for a very long
period. As early as fhe reign of the III. Edward, ld27-77»
it was in common use in.tho south of Englaud, aud for hundreds
of years before that time farmers whoso land adjoined the sea,
where the rooks were calcareous, or where the beach was chiefly
composed of the sUoils of cretaceous animals, ground to fragments
by the action of the waves, were iu the habit of adding these to
the land. A calcarlous earth is found at the bottom of bogs,
and is formed in many lakes in all parts of the world, composed
chiefly of the shells of the crelacoous animals, mingled with floe
mud deposited in the still waters of the lake, clay in fact. Where
the waters of the lake havo been less still, or the currents auffloient-
]y strong to hold iu saspensiou and cany further on the flue mud,
the shells are found mingled with an amount of decayed vegeta¬
ble matter, which when the bog was forming gradually encroached
on the waters of tho lake, and iiUimatcly occupied its place.
These marls as they,have, been called, have been used on land,
by cultivators with varying effects. The discovery of their use-
fulnoss was as a rule, accidental, and their effects on the crops
raised on the land oultivated was perfectly unknown beyond the
immediate preseut crop, which seemed to profit by their applica¬
tion. Farmers followed ** the tradition of the Elders ” and let
reenlts and eonae<|iienoe look after ihetnselves. The value
ef ^ ilmse matU varies with their composition. Tho propor¬
tion at eaxbonate of lime may be as smaU as 8 per coat, or as high
as 80 per cent., they may or may not oonUin phosphate of lime or
potash ; and il is only by watching their effect on soil, or obtaining
a knowledge n£ their eorhposition by analyses that tbshr vaiuo oau
beidetermiohd*
Is the" only oxide at pteseut known of the metal ealc*nm.
ts seldom l^repared ^ the laboratory, it is of a pale
%Hite eclour, tarnishes readily in the air, and when
^ebSdlhicebhiaot with water, the latter is decomposed, hydrogen
bdlhl^ aet free, and tho oxyi^u uuites with the caldium to form
Lime to extremely abundant in Maturea^carbonate
and ihlphate. fThe ^alk an# ffmsstonO rocks consist ohtefly of
Ctttbbnate, idofe )»r less pure, aud they.>are the most widely distri¬
buted by all the rooks. The soik ptodoced by the dis-
ihtl|railoii of these rookk wifl! to of i^eaW or less degrees of
fertility aoeording to the eharncter of tho limestotie. Generally
they are light aud perOuB ; and whett chalk and clay have com¬
bined to form a soil, it usualiy possesses the highest degree of
fertility.
(hfnptititian o/ some fimeetoiwa
Cfttbonate
ot Woi».
daBhoQ^to
nf,
Stosaoale.
: oInuDe.
TrenftAS
AtauMitt.
SiHca.
Sutplmfcfii
It
Lim
Aairtm ,»
0-sj
0*10
0*08
Q'ii
.•r.
Du!>tin ..
flS'OC
....
4 '
Off
Um
....
&3'6l
1*03
'He
'4JJ
aO'Otf
0*93
{And»r*
nump-Xn
R3-81
80^41
....
• 3*00
3‘»1
0*19
1 tm
It will bo soen from the foregoing table that tho ooaipositlon of
limestone varies considerably, that it oontalue email quantities of
other substances which find the|r way Into tho soil, and in some
cases add to tlia bulk of plant-food. An average of tho above
analysis gives about 77 per cent, of carbonate of lime. There aro,
however, Umestoues which have large quantities of their oarbonate
replaced by inagtiesia, and because of the high percentage of tlila
substance are called dollometts or magnesian limestones, the lost
in the table, that of Dumfries, is an example. Magnesian limeHtones
are as a rule iojuriouii to vogetatiou, and soils produced by their
disiutigratiou are foequeutly barren or jufeiior.
Jjime for agricultural and other purposes is prepared from the
common limeatone, which we havo^seeu is more or less imparo
carbonate of Hmo.
The Umestoue is placed iu a conical kUn in which a fire is kindled
at the bottom, and kept burning for some days, during which tl\e
limestone is raised to a red heat, the oarbon dioxide (Oo^.) is driven
off aud ,limo calcic oxide tOaO.) remains, this i» the ** burnt lime
or quiok-Ume” of commerce. When water is thrown on this qutok-
Itmc, it rapidly absorbs, it falls to pieces aud gives off heat
suifleient iu same cases to char wbod, explode gun powder, and set
Are to barges ooutalniug it. It has been estimated that one ton
ol quick-lime takes up about live hundred weight of water.
Quick-Ume left exposed to the air gradually attracts moisture and
crumbles to powder. Iu this ooiiditiou it is oalled alctM Urn, os
mild lime, in coutra-dlstinotiou to cangUo lime, before alaktug. Tho
water unites witli oauatio lime (0«0) and forma hydrate of lime
(Ca 0 Ha 0). When left exposed to air fur a sufflcioutly long
period, caustic lime or quick-lime gradually attraote moistme,
and carbon dioxide, it falls to powder, and in time jreturus to
its oiiginal form of carbonate of lime, only iu a very finely
divided state.
Iu all soils produced by the disintigratiou of such rooks as
granite, gnosis, and porphyry, the action of qutck-limo has the
most beneficial offeot. These rocks ooutaia large quantities of
tho double ailicatenQl alumina and potash, which are slowly acted
on by atmospberio and other agencies. Tho effect of quick-lime ou
soils of tliis character is to render tho doubU ailmtas speedily
soluble. This point, and the notion of lime on clay lands have been
already noticed uudor mineral plant-foods, «»hca. Many soils coutaiu
iron pyvilei^ espooially fliose derived from orgauio sources, elates
and other rooks contain this dimlphide of iron (B iron pyrites*
It is mot with in the form of crystallised yellowish cubes. At¬
mospheric influences oliaugo this by the addition of oxygen to
sulphlite of iron, which is aohible in water, and may then bo avatl-
I able as plant food. liiine materially aids in effecting this ohauge.
The oxides and other compounds of iron in tho soil havo
probably not yet received that attention which tlieir importance
would soem to indicato they dosorve. A peroxide of iron,
that is an oxide which contains the highest possihle amount
of oxygen is, as a ^ rule a valoable constituent of a soil,
because it is slowly giving off its oxygen at doplbs in Ihe
soil to wbiou the aii‘ does not usually find a ready entrance.
Tiiis gojs on till the peroxide is changed by lose of oxygen, to
the vrotoxide, an oxide with^the lowest possible amount of oxygen,
tills latter oxule along with the eulphuret of iron have an
jqjurious effect ou vegetation. If either of these exist in the
subsoil, and deep Or^SUtoblt ploughing be resorted to, the effect
ou tho laud for SomO tHup will he most disasterous, until such
time as the oMurM ai^noies Om effecting the soil have changed
tto tto aud the protoxide to the
hfHiui abaorbllon of oacj'gau. Xo lb« latlar
li^f mrd»0$Ab0iiefidiUi&flaettoet. , ^ ^ ^ ^ ?
4 applied ill v ;
(1> In $ oatuthl directly from tba olakod by «aUr.
la ap^tUI{y rai)d state, .by ibo atioorbiog of water and
oa]?boa*dio;^do from tbe air, ’' .
(3). la A m\U atate made iuto a i^oqipost, wHU reltisa or
ay^iod i» ihf form of sand, oompriaed cbiafiy of aUoU^fragtnoaU
Bud ]ieiirJ«
, :!2^b0 rttljBV for its appUoatian may be stated as foHoWa :—
^1^) In reclaiming peaty soils, or atifS clays or land containing
sa^taapes detrimental to the growth of die finer grasses, aooh as
free organic acids, low ogides of iron, or sulpbarets of iron, it
•honld be applied at hot as possible. I'bs qniokdime should be
carted ofC from die mondi of the kUn as eooti as it is cool enough
to be placed in carts, laidi down in the field, slalted at once and
J^uTomi in. To lay qutok<Ume down on land, and let it lie there
till it has been eleked by the rains and dews, is to allow it to lose
ta^eh of. its power of efi^ectlng those ohaages for whloh it bae
b^n lo justly oelebrated. XtOng eaposure to air, we hare said
changes the qniok^lime (Ca 0) first into hydrate of lime (Oa 0
0) then into carbonate of lime (Oa 0 C O,}; in this latter state,
it is ohemieally the identical substance it was before being burned
in the kiln, sis., limestone; the only difEerenoe being that it is
now in a finely divided state; it is no lonpr quick-lime, it has
not the power to set up those changes for which it has been so long
famotts* It is neither necessary nor desirable, rather the opposite,
that prevenUble loss of < this kind should go on under the very
eyes of the cultivator himself. Wliatevsr method may be adopted
ta slake the Ume, it should be one entailing ths least possible
delay; to that the newly formed Itydrate cE lime should be
brought as soon as possible in contact with the particles of tlie
soil; for^m^i^^^oharaotsr ws are at
presentoonsidering, consista in this, that it takes up the abundant
carbon4ioxide given oif from the peaty soil, in this way hastening
its disintsgratioo, as wall as ths organio acids formed in the
prooessoE orgauio decay in soils lioh in vegetable matter; and
which are injurious to the growtii of other than the coarsest and
least palatable grassoe. Lime exeroises an important iofiuence in
tlie Uberatiug of potash and soda from the inorgaiuc particles of
the soil, in a form available for plant food ; and its action on the
forination of Uie double silicates,-—^a most important point—has
been already noted.
find,—Lima ahonld not be applied to land at the same time with
any manure coutaining nitrogea, ammonia, (HsN). If the manure
containing the nitrogen is first ploogited in, Ibon the lime scattered
over the soil, and harrowed iu, the ammonia, which might other¬
wise be dissipated, and lost to the crop, will oitlior be absorbed by
the particles of the eoil, and given up as plant food, or it will unite
with the potasb, and form nitrate of potosb, a most valuable ferti¬
lizer. It is true that manures containing ammonia, such as farm¬
yard maniire, when brought into contact with cangtio lime, will
giv: oi£ ammonia, and if no means are adopted to secure this most
valuable of all plant-foods, it may be lost to the farmer, a compost
formedof farm-yard manures or organic refuse of any soil and
earth to which lime ts afterwards added, slbures the possibility of
any chanoe of waste, and when the ammonioal manure is first
incorporated with the soil, and then lime added, the same conditions
are realized which bring about, in a somewhat rongher form, the
production of nitrate oE potash iu what are called Nitre beds^
3rd*—Xf the soil is a poor one, and deficient ia;vftgetable matter,
or light and porous, liras applied hi the foim of a compost* and in
smaU quantities, or ii* 'he form of shell sand may be nseful. In
aoils charged with decay ng v^getbblie matter, and in heavy days,
the more energetic the actluj of the lime, the better the results are
likely to bo.
4th.—The tendenoy which lime has to sink in the soil is taken
advantage cE to bring it to the surface by deep plougMng,^ thus
rendering a new appUoation unnecessary. Thi« laot of the gradual
sinking of tholtrae in the soil should of itst?!!, apart from the other
reasons given, be sufficient to ensure that it should never be buried
(00 deep, but, as we have said, harrowed in.
Xisndc recently deep ploughed, or not perfsetly drained, provided
othdv thiuge call for its application, will require a largOr
that si^leht Inr Xlgl^t smls» Xt may not be unusoessary
that while ^e aotimi nf Ijhae m moon imd moss laiidi»> p«at|^ ss^
tbehsxbigb
' el themdet'marked^
finer and tio;?s
is propnlar^’called
ct lime builo ths went ' l^iab#^et^Wgeht(s
Oarox, Eumek; ddneui^ ef
moisture, and.sfe^sure^'to
drained, 'or low lying.
of exiilstioe sssdntial to ^Ibnti
absent^ they ndoralty
suited for and preferred by^cattle.'^ ^ '! "’''V
The action of lime thee of etie . Mrs h
no cultivated plant (bat doesiiteit
leguminena plants niti^g 14 in hteit abUfideh^ Id kbtfon ^
on (he oonstluieute of the soil, and the ahhewt 'lifirficNllbee ejects
it produces on iiidtgenohs plante in pastffirs imd^ cli|y laodi pro¬
perty drained, have been tiotlesd brlsl^* Its meebsih.^ action in
efilecting changes on the teatilte Otid mefiowotiili Of soils Is also of
considerable fmportaitoe. AU tbsse (hinge considered, there bra
few products, natural or artificial which; ptactfov or science baa
commanded lor use in agriculture, Which, taks^ iiugly, can do so
much for t&e Soil and ilia Wdoj^cut of its prodnotive
powers than lime when judioiousl;^ ap^ied.
Its uses may*be shortly re-stated as fellows ;—
lst.-^lt supplies a necessary plant food for all cultivated plants.
2nd.—In alt soils which ocutaln a large proportion of vegetable
matter, it hastens decoiUposStioo^ and thus oorfehte tlie excess.
3rd.—In soils centalriiiig the organic acids, and where drainage
has^ already been effected, it produces a marked change in the
character of the indigenous vegetation.
4tli.—It sets up the action of the formation of the double Sili¬
cates and the liberation of soda and potash*
5th.—It assists materially in the production of nitrate oE potash
in the soil.
Gth.—It promotes a physical change in the 'soil which renders it
freer, and more productive.
7th.—Ill conjunction with salt it, iuoreases the quality ami
weight of the straw on moss iandsi It has the reputation of
shortening iho time of growth, henoe quickening the ripening of
grain and roots; it is bolived to be a cure for finger and toes”
in turnips ; it makes the pea more easily boiled, and the potato
Jess watery, but wo have been told by an expeticooed planter,
one whose opinion is well worth having, that water Charged with
lime, is most disastronsto the tea plant.
It would be difficult to find any one snbstsiice in use in
ftgi^culture for which so much could be said*
Jfx , I I, .. . m.." ■ ' I II il l ' M
MU. CAIUD ON INDIAN AaRICULTURB,
M b. CAIRD'3 articles on India, which have appeared in the
Centur^^ are deserving of attentive eoneideration.
Three-fourths of the people in this country entirely depend on
land for subsistence, and agriculture is In a deplorably backward
oondilicn. As Mr. Caird i» an acknowledged authority iu
matters vagriauUural, it cannot but be Interesting to know what
he ihinks of the systems of cultivation punned here. His
inquiry al a member oE tho famine Demmiasion commenced at
Oasnpore ; end he made a vapid tour through the North-
Western Provinces, the Punjab, Oudh^ Bengal, Mad;?as^ and
Bomoay. kk. Oaird ihinks, (he agriculture of the nsigbbobrbood
of Ca .ipore good ; but he States (hat tbS produce of wlisat in
that part of the country is abuut Ifi bushes aU acre, little
more than half of an English brop. Tits outturn, he says,
might be doubled by an application of ths nitrate of soda;
but he admits that owing to the fetpeotive vatees of wheat
and nitrate of soda there would be lihle profit* Tbs Jlanfitts
Oowmissiotker iuspooM thb Oawopers ExperimbutaX Parm
under Mr. Buck, and saw trials d native and fctelgh plqogm
augaroane mills, waier-Ufte, fanners for .cteanjlitg,
examples of deep aQ4 shallow ploughing,, fotefs. phtn^s under
irrigeMon, vnrtMieiVf .feuit tew* jSie appltca^
tlon ef tesimrys^-wtlte advantage of which tn the ig^hboprJIioCii
c^aunol H denoted' Wos ha^
cnhUsiiofv, ol ;4ho soil, futd hte of eoiteftq
wm:^iili»Bi«i
(hAnrui^ Mn OM fettad. the
mi^^,,imM^fh iM oa'nnything
.fc, ^ileMii,^ tin ^ «l the
er oitit^ fo nql,» pwtiele ie
of..tjhe eo*l|
iftjWfll M.ih« pt^gli maidyhft Imsmt^*
t^atJ^J-iitihe oiiifeiiil. pnaetiie In ^'pirti o|
ladin tp the nf the fw^fctjia Ho„ jnmidbried oekee for
oqpw»«t4 of
hhe |qv .opotdipy^ lm» tSie M oennot be
ol, ireod-lnel eow-
4^ In mennv^ for the land,>l« therefore
ef giiil; Inipeelftnei. The Fereet l^pertmeni ehoold be re«
qnifed to ddTote ttl etteellon to this eabjeot Mr. BoberteoDi
the able ^up^tendant of the 9/depet Bepenmentel Farm,
told ^ Mr* Oalrd tbet cheep^ wood*fael might be eeppKed by
plantiti^ hedge;<l^dtr Hmber^ the Jupe Mfe> of qnioh growth,
which m three yeani wpnld yield lour tone of wood fuel per
mile. Aa esperimeiit hiMf been made at Bydaffet to aecertaio
the value of oow-dungaa manure iu its uatural atate, as compared
with the aihea of the eame quautliy after being *harat and need
as fuel* To two equal adjmaiog plots of land these wero
severally applied. The plots were otherwise treated alike, and
they were sown, with cholum. Plot Ho* 1 yielded 5,73B)b.,
while the outturn of plot Ho. 2, came up to 6,544lh„ the yield
of the two plots being *'so nearly alike as to lead to the
iaferenoe that the universal praotico in India, of using the dung
first for fuel and al^rwards as ashes, for msnure, ought not to
be hastily oondemued**’ Then, Mr* paird ahowa that the Indian
cttUirator ia not so very disinclined to give op his old ways
and adopt new crops, as is generally supposed. Mr* Prummond
of Bhahabad, who has been fifty years in India, and has thus a
right to speak with the weight of great eaperienoe, assured
Mr. Oaird that the ryot is ** qnlte ready to adopt now crops when
proved to be remunerative.’’ As a remarkable instance of this,
Mr. Drummoud mentioned tlie rapid increase of the sugaroaoe
crop, the produce from which has been increased tenfold in
the Shahabad district in three years. Again, Mr. Caird speaks
very highly of the intelligonoe and business-like habits of the
Indian cultivator. In walking through tbe fields in a viliags
about Lahore, the Famine Ooininissioner was struck with the
ingenuity of the sower, and he remarks that ** the most perfect
fiOgUsh drill oould have done the work no hotter.” In walking
over tbe land of another cultivator in the neighbourhood of
Delhi, be found the mau so intelligent, industrious, and careful,
that he thinks that **no Kuglishman or Scotohuian of the
same rank oould he more clever and business-like in his expla-
nations.” The testimony of an unbiassed observer like Mr.
Caird goes to show that after all, the ryot is not so very stupid
as the average Anglo-Indian official supposes him to be. ,
We have Mr* Oaird’s evidenoe as to the severity of the late
famine about Agra. The Famiue Oommissioner found ” many
poor vlUagei in this quarter," and he ‘says “ tho famiue had
been sore in tbe lao<L” He visited a famine.strioken village
in the n^bbourhood of Beoundra, five miles from Agra, on
the Muttra toad* He writes:—^<Ou reaching the village
where we h$k arranged a meeting, the people came out to see
ee and to lay their tales of misery before ue^ Their crops had
failed, and they had nooredit, and the native bunyias nO money
to lend., ’Hie death-rate had increased tenfold, ai^d more were
4xpeoted to die* t f ^ ^ And so eilaut are these people in
their dietresi that the settlentent Offioer, who had been two
months encamped on the iand^ haid npt observed aqy particular
poverty,-nor hod become efther aware that the people were in
a state, of or dying of ii” And tbe Oovemment of
India figoroasly fkacting the land revenue denial^ from
Oiee^/^lei and 4cing almost nolhSttg for titem, ia eald to
the famiptp aa tbe '* bssi-ix^aged ” famine
ia ..British . It,-is no
tender tM P ^.peterty,
ar heopmo AwW toai'^lbe'^-'^e;w^4|iag,o< famin«v;,He
'itoew weli Ifcat Sir
auittld be uo^ famiae in his wdrspyiIJtjle indeed dj^es;the
arertge SSutopean offielals Ww tbe qomitry they aie dalled
upon to role, that M |rmi|es| |ifr* Oaird, the eondlHoa
of tbe people In any tilkim ^ district, they can letdom tell
you wiihontmakb>ga special; Inquify. ia'tot
of tbe nvSiha maaiw vt the O^fafapent which adjntoietiSK tbe
affaire of India. The laeilta ef m oMw OQitiwe not
judged by rpfld* honest wmk pesformed by him, hut by figured
statements ; and this^ we need scariMly say, is di^orallaing;
No question uonnected with the edmi^tmtion «l tidi eimuU^^
is more important at thw preieot mmm than iha (iadehtedness
of the sgrienltutal olaesoi. Mn Mrd brMy hpwkm on this
anhjeet* So writes T%e poverty of tbs sttlUfstor makss
him very dependent on ibe tmtiye insney4eader. ^ first
presstire that drives Mm to seek this aid ia tbe prompt payment
of the Oovsrmneiit aseessment. Xt ie fittd fee a. period of
years, and most be paid, whether the, seeson Is goed or had*
If the seaiou is bad, and the mop partially falls, be jhasno help
but in the buuyja* • • • • The pmeent assessment may he
low, but in a bad year, when there ie no surplus, a lAwi with
no capital has nothing with which to pay IL” Ws hava aaid
that the real curse of the country is not the mpney4eadsr who,
iu bad aessQQS, euablet the ryot to tide over his diffieolties, hut
the vicious revenue system, whiph msrciiessly saacts the
aesessment from the people, even when Ihe crops bave, sutfrely
failed in oousequeuce of drought* How that we are engaged in
a orusade againat the Bouoar in the, Peooaoi it ia intemsttog to
read the opinion of an Indian High Court JudgOvOf expisisns#'
on tlie money-lender, as quoted by Mr* OMrd. ** The bsoyia
or native ba^er he oonsiders u most useful oltss, who do not
charge higher rates of intsrest on the doubtful seourlty they
receive, than are eommon in Lcmdoo, where bills, of stmilar
quality are renewed every three months, and dharged fife, per
cent, interest and five per osnt* eommistioa." It the Bouoar
were suppressed, the whole maobiuery tor tbe revenue odmiufe-
tration of the country would come to a deaddook, unless,
indeed, the Qoverniiient be prepared to replaee the huoyia by
opening State agiioultaral banks and making advancee to the ryot.
In dealing with the land and people of Baatera Bengal,'Mr.
Oaird has oooaaion to refer to the relaiiona between kndlord
and tenant, ia that part of the country. He pointa out that in
the existing state of things the landlords and their lensnts
fight their disputes out with the help of the eourts of law, tlie
tenants making up a common purse lor the purpose; aud then
goes on to say:—** The law’e delay, and the difficulty of dealing
with large numbers of small teuants enable these to get the
upper baud by uniting agaiuet enhauoemeot of reuti^ aud even
against any vent, ae the landlord ia called on by the ooutta to
show by his book that he has received the preciae rent fof five
years back; otherwise they will not grant him a decree, thus
casting the onus on him to show, that he is entitled to rent.’*
Mr. Oaird holds that the united aetion of the ryota in withhold¬
ing rent is a serious matter, and he ie of opiniou “that the lesa
the Government and tbe oonrts of law interfere in the relatione
between landlord and tenant, tbe more likely are they to hs
satiefaotorily arranged hy the mutoal interests of the pafties.”
This is a matter on which it is not safe to express an off-hand
opiniou. As we said lately, the Bengal law ooniatoi every
provision for the punctual oolleotlou of the land-owner’s dues
known to oivilised jurisprudenoe, and the normal state of tlie
Lower Previnoes is marked by a struggle of tiie landlord to
ratae tho rent At present the landlord generally ia able to
realise not only tbe stipulated rent, but about twenty-five p«r
cent* more in the shape of iiiegal oessea. The Bengal landowner
haa. been asking a procedure not to enforce the
exiatiug rates, but to raise them without the iutervenUoU of the
courts of law. And if the Government aud the, courts of law
were to abstaiu from fntorfering In the relatione between
landlord and tenaut, and to leave them to be arranged by tiie
^ mutual ioterests of the partiee, the days of would
probably be revived, tad tlm ryot placed absolutely at the mercy
of the zemindar. Ql, all questions connected with the adminis-
tration of indiSi >Aora important than the law of
rent, whiah^ai^ots $h« whole iute^md eoouomy of the country,
kud the wsHUbtiujl. 4he vast mkioriiy of its working pi)|)uU-
tum; fodih^ to to,#toeeme time no questiou upon wlttoh
to moto,diffieoto to tirrive at tudisputabie oonclusions*—
I andFfiMd^ Indku
■;,-iv.s‘i(
¥ "f r, "'' f •'"'■A
M*0
^ fliii^^iNl^^
itti Hj^ip^ ^'to nt v^iy,
' l«^<'-i9k(»t''ldi«^1y
l<ttiuillij|«d ^igmt lvv^t«/bI<ift'^^n4&Uo& ' 'iriftt>«r;'i«lio<^'ibft8
liHi«t%i^illltoli'^o^ 40*)l|lii rail^ftyt eiw 6! tbe
edmisif (M^ll»te» IlY^loptaeiilt i« tlie WeU ifi%tt{6n theory ;
8r^}#< n^ «a fmylioitly b^FNred Iji, m of oUl,
otill oottibiafld !rm%^ foi^liotfl ofeidt obiii4«)aoo* ' The^ of Hglit
rtiliNiy^ otfbolf tafu# tpoo to bi^poihooif tlial; Ibdiii, m
o#iid4b; tottito fbdd ottoagk to food ftt pbpttUWn Jretr by
yobr, eo Ibair tore iteod b6 no year of ftmloe, it only mdans aro
prbvidod lor Oitrylog tbe eorpto of oo^ iliebnot to aapply to
deOetoiiey of Mtotor. ' aseaniptibn oottUiaii a largo el^*
meat bf trbto The adOroity 'of 1^77-7^ i^otild havo been
ts^ kitor|' abfire io Eobllkbund, lor had theto been
nordil^^ to pour ftrain into-the great towni and rnral oentree
of'Iho 'ptofit>^ Tito irallle^atatiettoi of the Oudb' and Bohi^
khund noy'tMfy ttniototaka^y ‘ to to servijoee reWdored in
that Wtotrto 'toe* In to touer of * oditp' to (^mpiariioii
ItotutoeO^glitfaltoye and Oanala ia all In favour of the former,
' Tito iMif^ptoeof oauate ia often ioetaigbt of in admiration
oC ^toto beWeAte. Again, poattive ^harm ootnea 6f oanaleinaome
plaoet^ Where toy eeak to toad aodden bringing oat the aterlle
ealtei aid'toeding'toer,* whioh kllla oil a large petohtage of
to'l^ataitoA^uttd^lileratly otoaeenlatea tomt. Atbtiieae dia-
aorofiea^lMrrblito utode^^aiaoe the* ^nolpal Indian^ eanali were
conatrOeted * they are ao natioh ez^erienoo Wfaioh bto been
dearly btoiight t and they eeftalnty form a fair ground'for stop¬
ping and 'omwidefing to mattor a HtUe^ before oeinmittiog the
country anoredeeply to tlie eyatem of' which they are aome of
thO'ieattlto.
li^ana on to oHier hand, ebme inp vv‘ih all the" aitraotivo
hopefulneaa of n virgin pubjeot. l!ifo salt plefna, no water-logged
fields, can ever lie attHhuted to ih«m ; they wilt not generate
malaria,* nof ehtU the genial workings of Nature's ohemistry
with that*ootd' water for Which the' odltivator blames to
oanal. But etolfo, too, hate their faults. They are ezpeusire--ii
ia Said‘thirteen tithes ae etpedstve os canals*^ add toy have
atrtck Of ratining dry at tim moat critloat time, summer dried
fountains, when onr hUed is the sorest ” But the principal in>
tereit attaching to walla just now ia aritb rofereitoe to the battle
fought dser them by aoUntiflc men and dlstriot Cfloera. It can¬
not be said that to district officer is a rery prominent figure
in to pfoture of Indian agrtoUlturc, as it will be in a happy
future.. With difficulty can he be detected iti the background,
•hrouded in the gloom of ignorance, surrounded by such horrors
at Uoeude-tazts, poot-hoiiliies, revenue-reports. It is the ecieiitifio
agdouUurist who poses fu to oentral lights of the piece, as a
missioned spirit teaching the ryot the way to eaUutfon. And
When wd come to wells, another shape intrudes,-«that oC to
irilgatibn Offioer, ' who is hfituratly antioUs that hie experience
flidhffi not bo overl ooked.' jBe is the pfoper Uiitority, it Is
said, upon Questions of water ' fovbl, e^haa’stibiUty of apriugs,
oomparativk coat of :voB Irriglitfou, and of other systems.
The kciedtiffS agHoUltiiristi on the othe^ band, ia to deciile
whether water is wauled kt'aM. Ifheso two gentlemen obvious¬
ly leave to didtridt officer nOtltiug to do. lal^r functionary
is skUled neither In hydranUcs nor iii agricuhitra^ chemistry ;
hia other duties are supposed to leave Kiiu hoHlW'fojf ahquaiut-
hig'hiitieelf With the native pTooeSaes; aiij||' any Schcmt»'Of hfs
pepposfog U sure to be fathlly ont from ttfo scieniidc ^ut of
view. This ' is bo unfair representation of/ to attitude bf to
fdkatilic "^Sfiliool towards dliirici officers and their WgsMtok.
Tki.iM^iilWMybde khowh'to iU pnhhb'''i^4>'
^bjf’ihC^^Hirdfv^^ ovW to expialriineiit/'tsf'’'^^'
ffi^idkiAd dto(A.; fa kllbdhii if this die
thus ago, akfffi ekaia^o' to bvila of'4kcie«^lve liill
•’Oft
has even hwtt ddn'idd ’he
hifi fields or not. Tlmre Is this ihnoh yeMti
to ouiiivatpr IS Ipdesd
hts desire for Water. 'He ;lrodd ’ ^
filling Ms viilage, eVto thooghfeker yshdAld dirnii'!
fheii we must tediifobef ^Ea^ Eltf
[for
/Ibestihble in
hls^^l^lis and
Mdi ii ^ Bttt
li hb tore
lOoy, bht has been Us^t him' b} ''' toriy of jisrd times,
fetohiny thwi'ptofi «imfi frOtrt' to ' ^hOn ill is
said,'to Question 6t water or no' #it«r, vrbero whtl' Irrigation is
proposed, n^Qit%{fond upon local eatoflsiiOit and obnimon sense
-^two qablifiootions whioh Will not Walhly be looked for, albeit,
in rdktic gntse, among the peawmtry on the epot. ExiiUng
welie are an Obvious test of the kepply of il'aier, end futnish o
Htaudard of cost. The skilled bydrdg^apher indeed nanst
asctoahi, if lie cab, the probabilities of to water-sapply hold¬
ing Cat all over the tra^ nowfor thC first time to be exten¬
sively tapped. It would never' do to leave out of consideration
the ohauoe of a general breakdown when the Itrain began in
earnest. But the fault of to sclentifio eohool seems to ns to
consist not so much In giving iindne promfnenoo to the hydro-
grapUer, as in Ignoring the district officer and the cultivator.
Irrigation o fficers are no doubt brought widely and closely into
contact with the agriculturist, apd In fact toy are left
practically nnfetlered in alt their dealings with him as regards
canals ; but there is something too technical abd soientiflo in
this Intercourse, it Is too much a matter of measuring up and
calculating rates of water-tax, and ia ao far inferior to the
relation in which the district officer stands to these same people,
as the person who chile Ota the revenue, euferoes payments of
leuts, settles all disputes between landlord and tenant, often is
aOtnally the referee where the question is what the fields can
fkbTy psy* If, however, the canal officer's rblaiions with the
agriebUnriat are lees intimate and initruotive ton the
CoUeotor's, surely lEe agricultural bhemiat ma^ bp regarded as
altogether out of the running. He ja a useful and estimable
person in bis pro per place; but those are no friends of his who
would drag him to a dry upland tract, cultivated by a poor
depressed peasantry, and bid Mm there make etperimenta
wlietUer deep plougliing, subsoil drainage^ knd soiehtifie manur¬
ing, will not obviate tbe necessity of Irrigation and save tiie
ettiicing of wells. If practical measures of relief or preventfou
Alt'to be deferred till we have solved" every ptolble' question
tot osO affect the welfare of the ryot, we shall rbo'to riiedcof
Uea>ing to educated tlative apply to our policy to old proverb
about to snake-bitten patient who Would have reoovej^' if
he outtld oii|y have lived till the 4utlddte came ' Hyrcania.
Surety ^aetoneuts of thO pjwb'lem are^npl sd ^ yefy '^ihpYloated
that WB ipttSt begin with to Bam ^ and to i^ WsIy wis'ban
sink Wells safely wibliout waiting to try the results ' qf ^boding
big cattle to draw Bngliaji plouglts, «with a ftopw like a
causey,*'Which‘shall toder weUs/uqif<i<*«*W..^ Jfhe dafifersof
undue generalisktien are tot |e|s b«rta**t tot* toal
empMotam. liad lbcitbffi<»iWtohtottodiq|.^^ the Wqrst
tolls fifbxltog ^uals Wdqld'^^ve be^ aypidb^ and if to
rebeni^' lamedtaMs baptoooes of the couuti'y, hkyp Unght- any
foton,1t fi that local readies, tooW We to
toto of'AeEling With or' slWing' of famto ' ^j$ere W a tract
'M
r >'*4Wtion
iiy 'W
no oall to
.
'<^0^, ' $6
‘“•«^W*f‘
ing l^^vrlM 11 ^^ of m\$hi «f avtMUjr
in<i^ ig 4 Udr^ol 4 ii<^ *<i^^oh »hfy uriH not fltid U
poBiibU to repiaoo £roiis„^||»|;,,Q,tl^fjjp,jlO]^^^^ oroa from a
Departloettt of Agriooltoro ai^d^ lb(^w^9tp^*^^idt«$man and Frhnd
af India,
EDITORIAL irOTES..
T A^lQItT <tii importfaiftt tOOtUoo aroea ia ooonMUaii nr^ boodocl
-Li atorei., It aeatxii aopao atoreO mra landed in QoUibay iOf Bond
Tl^ey lay there ao long thatv they had beeoehe perfehtty
uumer^iaolable, and^. utterly, uoBt lor ufe^ ;aiid the'queetio^i
tUeti aroa^* On theae etorea, being oondethned and destroyed '
for eaiiitary reaiona* who ahonld pay the duty,* or ihoakl
any duty be payable at all? The question waa anhmitted
to the Board of Ber'eOue, who have decided that iio duty alioutd
be charged on such goods. This may be a eaiielaotory oonolnelon
for the Importer, but we think it la bardly in aoeordanoe With
equity and fair dealing. The importer evidently left these
goods iu bond beOause he eould not find u suilable markets
probably a profitable market for them. Had he found a very
profitable opening, be wou]d^ of course have iakeu delivery, paid
duly, aud embraced the ehauoe of the good market, and the
revenue would not have benefited tn any enhanced degree
beyond the receipt of the ordinary Import duty, and since the
iiierobant for his own purposes finds it perhaps cheaper tu lose
the goods, entirely than pay duty, and place them on a low
market, we do not see how the revenue ahouU suffer by the trans*
action.
It la io be hoped tha| iha planters of India; tea, coffee, cin¬
chona, and indig^ will but loae sight of the Melbourne Bxhibition
of It is quite.true that iu the United Kingdom, we have a
market extanaiye enoagh to absorb aU we grow or can make of
tiiese products, hut we must not forget that ootdpeiUton is the
soul of trai|e,|;' and that new .markets will tend to equah'se the
prices in Londop of these artiotea lu no part of the world dde's
there exist better ^elements {o» a new market, especially for tea
and opffpe^ than iu |he great .oOutinent of Australia. It is air
island we , are ^uUp.awara, but the groat ooutlheirt OddUining
Borqpe and AaUlias now ham proved 'to be au is^aod, we shall
none the lees oontl^o to it oootUieut. VjTa tnlst there'
foiw that tea pee that MWy are well i^pre-
seated asthjbitioo, and that the iubahlbiuts
ofAhieb^psay.iee^^^ H iiMi dlfttbui^ io tea^
our owft^^i thatiudlan Cpilua-r^is « vastiy
different prdi^lottl^ tl^^ veudpd as liidiah tea
atho^ '■
Tm rlse > il|e>e4' and oo^ msrkete must he i^rtioolariy
pleaajibi; W shafpheHers^ nud to plantei^,'for althoiijg^ these
lattar iosy .net p^stw' ^O’luteiwtdd^ ,^^ ^ Ihpmae;
iegihe,we4imWlt^ ledthe^lJy\ wh^^ mauufhotnvee de ubt
meet I^er a long time both Ipddstrles
lave.blrtij^ low prioea^ and the fate wiuyt ^
I» im.that ^kooo^t;;; a'liitf^^fijwpyiaed' ii.
the
fTyhaad
.ri"•' ■’ 'i, • '; V'. ■ ';' ;■''''.' ■,; ■> "■’
» ,,, ^'fiyi;:- ;
su'gpti*oeoe"'tMy"¥idil^
havebkeh lOUd‘bothplkiiiW^of
JS/odsa'Cohadentls,'hhiehi^ has
eveotually to ohoke up <mr wafhrobdihei ^
that this same obdoxioas Weed is a valuable food tor llOthIbhk* Ik '
oonssqueaoe of its having beeo^ repeatedly obwevy^ ate
tbe J^odso tana^ntii witj^ avljifyi
recently undertook im ana|ysi(s of the p^t poifp^, of
mining iU oomparatlA nutritive vi^dp,' 9fhe resoHs ofJkf j|qv)»eUn ,
gaiioDs are how publiah^ in I^UmL ^
One hundred and fifty graipinei of t|ie weed yield^ Ih grammes .
of dry sttbstatioe, equivalent to SB per oeuk winter, and l^por qint
of dry matter* By SohaIxe*s metla)4 ld<18 granfutef nraelluloee
were obtained ; the Overage protmftiou of proteja was per ,
cent. Of the residue of an ebtieriat extract, 0*15 per oeut wao
foniid to be insoluble in eulphate of oarboiir The propoi^£eo of
sugar was 23 02 and of starch lO’dO per oput .tn order to estinti^
the 'substance soluble iu au aqueous aolat^n, a sample WM
thoroughly exhausted in cold water. The residue, whqtidi^yf reached^
25*17 per oeut., and yielded 249, per oeut. ,oC ultrogeo, eqpli^i^ent
to 13*06 protein, showing that almost the whole c^ tbe.qibumaUt
has passed over iu solution. Jadgetf by the ^prOpprtCow of nutria
live matter oontained iu it, the weed appears, ,tb^efcre tp^ba ,
eqtial in value to the best hay, Of to agood quality ul ^vqf, and
should, oouseqiientiy, be well worthy of consideration as a food
for live stock, wfaynw it Garnet with fn mrylliillt
quantities* < \
A MKW oil plant, says Ifafiws. (Zmifamontiali^te
acclimatised on the fields ^of AgrpnomtiQ^ C^iou
(BoatU Bussia). It bbloUj^s to the La6iaiit famUy, 4nd ii very
aimilar to £>f acocijf/talum. The herb attains a height of 1| to 2f
feet; and bears some 2,fi()0 Seod-graiiis, which give d'yet^ pdre oBi^ ]
appitoable even for culinary parposee. Tima^de bf iiits^bi^nidU
PersiHn plant were first sent to Ohersoitt by ^^rbl ' Skbqrta|(& m
V ienna, ,/ * /
Ths QtomaU A^ricQUara gives the general resilHs of* a yet
unpublished letuni on this subjobt, whlbh has been orfilcfa% '
prepared for the Italian Ministry of Agricalthi^. Fr^ ^tfils
it appears that the average annual producUon of wine "jn'^Bid
various countries ie as follows ;<-«Feaoci^ fi5,fi04)0ii0 Wiioitrea z
Italy, 31,ea0/}00 ; Bpaiu, 20,000^ ^ Fovetigal, 5,00^06^4 A4rilll»<*
Hungary, 12,640,000 j Germany, 6,5lOl,OWj S^itaerwdij w
Btisaia and Turkey iu Barope, 2,134,090; Qreaoe^ wll4 '
1,115,000 ; Boumauia, 637,571^ The total Uniiiud
of Burope Is 146,121,646 hedtdiitres, dt '
gallouB, Since the iavampo of the phyilox^ra ^ Fceinn^^
average production of that ooitutry has laHon* Off by khokt '
8,000,000 hoctoUtrea a year. ' ’ .
Wi learn from a Beport on. the Foreiga Ooiametee nl^tki United
States that in South OaroUna, hi ooiite^aenoh of ’an app^hhnsion^
that ribe grown in the Sandwich^ ,^ehd«, may M ^s way kto ikn
United States free of duty, and regarding this danger to their
iulereet as imminent, eoijite of the rice planteia in that State have
determined to substitoth the cultivation of jute for rioe, SiXperlmente
haviiag shown that the rme«fields.a^ well adijpted lor t^;piirpqqe &
and the iherohants of Ohlurlejdowq, hfviiugl^iii^aill^^ef
jute ban ho aucciaif filly g^Wh in ^at region^ fn^’^idiBdia
atani yi|Kj|lnl| mimhfbbto^, and fhimto oj^n ahom'i^]^^
juiii^ which io nqw oxpoHed ^1^ StatM WiItViaxtint of
ovOr^30,400baiO»i<^niA]^.''‘ ^ ^ ‘ ^
iThiataldl b |hi|«^ ^%kiH^»eltnaf/ b^ the authorfly. ql
1^. BrONohtieldfl^|»i^
tharthoChlfib0eil4l«sK#ji^^ >fbveridngeheii^«t^1^'|r"
Ur. Uvfi4MdihOtfibri4l0il^ operatfoti,'whfcih'^4b' iMoflii hti''
tiOi, 1^it« ti|p «w# oC ttk«in ittUen t>tat downward and idirtMl
ofAii«9oi;iM^egr^l; li|«l
anil Ibl^Vdo^dWttt^ u^patniott; tm^i
tiia id «tlaka ^tS^du* The lUm
ofilialidfl^ i^l poUil^pt
irnba lli«, two* and lb« tdots of ^o rovorsed tree foroi tbe
J(a. I|»|e.ab««l fKiellioa UiOf rettoire
eUod^ fob ^oltl km fanned eonte braturbee/’ In
tbi•lp^lpprt 1 |t 01 ^. 111 ^ bjr I)r* BfotAoUneidor, ao.ttauaUted iu
tiio l|be ,Waai«. obtain ik tUetr weej^lag
treei.<«aiir«^ ^ r _^
lately been attaetied to a aiogular
plantpf'tiedeiMttod WBonibAtietraUa, known tbe people aa
ibe Flidrii or, a« it baa been popnUid/ apett, pttpberit, pitoboafg,
or edeiiC«Bifi||ery. Tbia plant ia known to>btaniafta aa DuhoUin or
Jnt/bM^ePalajffop^^ tbe nattti^al order'Soropbxi-
lariao^. llie leavea,tbi« said, are gaUiered annually during the
montb of'Angbaty Shea the plant ia iu bloaahm. They are dried, .
first by A:^(»le8a dt^ attaining, and ibdn packing them in hemp
baga fof ^rpohei 'of trade. ' 1?o prepare plturi for use it ia
damped^ ibiied wUb abhea, and rolled up into the ehape oC a oigar,
whiOb tbblieople’ehbw, atloking it during the intervida of chewing
behind tbdedr. ^le eS^t o( the amoking of this novel cigar ia
very i^ednllar, rendering the emoker, for tbe time being, almoat
Inahne wbeii indulged in tdo freely. Wlieu atnoked in morderationi
the lea^ hare 4 powerfaratimujlating effect, bat the symptoms
areioniewbatBfmilarto those produced by strong drink When taken
to enoeis. Tlte ol^awing of a amall quantity of the leaves ia said
to aumigdhnnger, and a peraon^to uaiug them Is enabled to under¬
take tonlibbubyi without fatigue and with little food.
COMMUNICATED AND SELECTED.
CASIDAMUkL PtCKlNG GOOUa.
A]CfB eorresp)u4eii^ frooi H ircaea wiitee pardamum piekiogiu
V Codglabihi|rapidly pushed on; there Is a very fair prospeot
ot a large quantity end of good qasllty, and a month earlier ibsn last
year. It Is noW eepUal weather both for drying and gathering,
For the latter, the nadergroivth in the Jungles la not eu damp, and
the dry wegUier ia ahrlfelUag up those pests, tbe leeohes, wbWb a
fortnighl ago ,wera lying In wait lor their prey. To dry the seeds
great attentUm and care are tsquired lor the firet few days, as they
rapidly farment and eraok the pods, and seat terlng all tbe aploe
uiilaaa Walt attended to by women, who' mast oarefatty tarn them
over on mata laesaiaiiriy, Tbe pHee of tblispioe has rieen eoa*
ildeiably. A en«eetot average Ooorg eardamum la quoted In Jbondon
Ibis year at hr. fid, per pqnnd, wbioh ia the hjgheei I have boowa It
fetoh, tbonlh of eontas picked speolmans wootd bring higher ratee.
At this figuralt trebty repay# (he cost of gaitbertng and looal thxea
at eaidaamasi aeo neyer eallilvataa, only preeerrod, oomlng up from
tbe earth enontaneoualjt 'Vonae J|rofn (ha eea, where tfees have
been felled, or that b4ve fallen down or blown over by tbe wind.
Here, whtM the air and sun pereolato, the eardamuOis fioprlsh like
a bod of I Vies when they bloisom indenai with largo iralUliig ehooie
of ttowera, of the tlae aod (ragrauee of a white and purple hyaomtb,
Oardamnm ploklng Is one ot the taaka beaidee atteudiag cattle that a
Ooorg will eogaga lo. He knowa the unbeateii (oreem, and raagee
ovdrtt laieiieli of eaedamnuna and gatliera about a bagful. This
at niahtffdl bfought to a elm^ng »ptaea, where ttm Ooollee then
sB3!i!i?sB,.jSiasisar " >“
tbitr bMtoay ond btniidy.^'^Aradiif jSmdaH,
ARXESIASrWSLLS.
A N.^t(l^tiaA,Un,; Ail^*u ymil. (im la
' Ite d'AaelhMU«a tk th,.
Ui« U,.'frw Guvi^atfut^
eoaoi^ tojuaiir tb. i<Uttek,t:p]pi ot otlMC wi^lii U ..Ml, jiMril*
tM. '¥6. FtaSt(lhttr|f> vdl obrt .boot 1^ ^782, >
MteUtiluaMt OiMgft, tb. total coat woald anoBut to Bo.
3,0& 0,tf^|difobK«.9< #-$S«ahio £Mt jnT
h ^ thb
GWi&l^0A»Mf Im H* ^toKif-TPlR, MOM. te
butt Vblt^l KMk
Mn liUiWiftM.
il,,t»0.(HWt^et*NMt MhiMM
;Hio esttmawot oisit ofiirigjwnlvl
30 per a 0 re,tit<ln^dTri£m
0 ^ of the Arieaian waU in
of the scheme to oidtnoiry
would iDy?>jply a b^lalion <ff wM
diem : iSl for dumeitib oiO^ Us^^
or ecpefimental forma ^moh
valuabla, whorevor».cthM 41^0 oco#B»iviiO
mm ,,*$|wat«WNl'*U tb«
vaiuaotB, wiierevai>.wat bi%n mmspinMiao , uiqif^m'’oqmeon mi ane
yearmudjj /JPhe,
looalitiea for the oonatruction of M
Bormountea^ aud it is hUj^A tne/^lpd^ tfill
ludioatowherethey m^y ha aiibk Wi^ aowiaMhmil^%
ceasful reaatta. Id any onae the oiparimito is IhleiUalmg aod
worthy of the atteptiou of ottf local Xieparimaul pi Agrioulhiae.-r
Pioneer. ^
WXhU oiti.
npEAT portion olthoWeit Ooaatef AldOt w^hliHea aonth of
the Biver Volta, Imniaheaugw^ out prtecifpal supplies of
palm-oil. ^ Nearly a tnillion bahdred-wo%htg of tbfa oil are mmually
imported into Great Britain, of the value of over a million and a
half sterling, idi piiooJpal use being in tho smimfeotiife of soaps,
perfumery, oandlps, and rimitar arUriea. Among the natives it is
highly valued, hath for food (takktg the pHiue df bolter), far
lightiog and cooking patpoees, and for auoinflhg the head and
body. The so^oalied oil| whiohfsratherhfaHy substanoe resem-
hUug butter in MpearanM,w obtained from the fi-uitof several
varieties of palms, but chiefly from that of the species known as
Afais guineem$t which grows in abundance on that part of the
weeteru coast of Africa, after which it is named. 8o thiokLv do
these trees grow, and so regolar and rapid are thefr eupplies of fruit
that iasome localities where tberegnlhrOoUeotlon onho produce is
I not practised, the ground becomes covered with a thick deposit
of the oily laity mattter produced by the ripe herriee. Deporils ot
palm ** oil," which may almost be oalied miuee" of vegetable fat
entet in aome parts of the Gold Goast which, if not in themselves
worth working, at least praotically illustrate the naturri wealth
of the country in aucU production^ and indicate its undeveloped
resources. These ** mines" would probably not repay the cost of
exploration, as the palm-oil ia apt to become rancid and valuelees
for its general ueea after long exposure, though for such purposes
as candle-making these deposits might etill be valuable.-^TAe
Colmm and India,
THE HOP PLANT,
T\B. EMIL POTT calls attenUon to theiUiny nshful purposea
" for which various parte of the hopq^ilant maybe applied
over, and above the mere production of Uie ambles employ^ in
brewing, to which alone tbe growmw* care appeers to he given
at the preseiut time. To begin with, the tendrils fUrnleh a good
vegeuble wax, aud a juice from which a - reddiril-browii
oolouring matter can be extracted; further, their ashes are greatly
valued in tbe manufacture of certahi Bohemian g^ass wkseg. Of
etill greater importance is the fact that a pulp for paper;
making can he prepared from them, and ihodgh the sroods
Urns mMufaotured owot he eat^uMiy* Mmwhed. very
md cwillKkVd, 0M gU bom
b.pk d.t<md in Vtr.d.n ywa m 4 UaM nwUtii'iMNd Ukplb^
huloDKbmw erttUuM (Kw^koit iodwt^i vlthA k
itaptlr ia^Utfin impartMon md, .xtwt. ^.wnirtiorof
tb. bb^ bH kiAwk,>rMwt.d «»i>b«!d«r«l4, diaoik))U% Init (h«M
kp,w t« b*efl.«MUf onmnw by Um pkioM rMwify dkyiud
|qr Dr. Wiw, ol NmitomlwdMl, ,( rtMpiu tlMw for H btmt
Ml wld wate, 5 pw oMt, .f nip* ari, oeU, ^to* »
sSwXSBdfesa
tonSStoSUr
■ ■
,1
THE
AQ^(itsvtxmsr,
T BV tti« gf«i]i.«t |t» l« 4friv^ tU
0«En|«ii nM
of tb«•«#»!»
UM #> 1^01 iftijk «f '^btofa 4hm «r# monM fa iU
Kovtli-WitflM' inmk ^ if a aaflt «of C^hui, im% ilia tltt« at
it« fatMapttaft 1^ itot iMl'iMfivikliiid; * It Itwi Uta
i ttf' J8il|tliid; kt ItMill, 800 ynt% Xt «H iatraO»^d into
Ifffiih %mnicm ,oantaf^;, Ki^lW»
fht Swodifli ^^ataraj^V, ^ jtllsb lofoatrj fia lti8» loaadit
gtowlag ia FonaiyNaala, Now J^ofOo^, aOd Now York, Thore lira tbroa
ouftlratad ifool^Oosimoa boi^boOt, {JMpfmmn fag^^rm,)
lartarlon baokwiioat, (i*. jfMaHoaOi,) aad aotobiaod baokwhaot.
(P. $marffiaMtuin), Tbo fif«i.iiaiaad ipoalao It ohieflf oaltlfitod )a
A iierloo, tho ioooad In Itilyi bad tke Ian |a Qblaa« la Naiap" ^ ^
arowo for food fn%;' lUiaifW %o lialyi Bnat Brttila'aioeafcod^ lo Ibo
UoUed Btotoa U «ba bb frova iawrary naitaa* bat to ahiofia amlHvatad
nonbof Hortb Oarotlna and S^ranoiioib Tba total atop la 1180 wai
7^1,7(13 bnibelo j in I860* 8,980|818, and la 18<Qr laolodiitg gtatoi
and TerrKorloi, 17,671*818, liWlUbO iOaii bF tbm Ogipoa tbad tba
orop ol 1860 wai naariy daabia that at I860* tbowlag i fflator iaeraaia
than any othor grain crop, la Pooniylvaala and Now York , fba grain
la oaad txtenalraly for faading abacrb ia ^intar; and It bai baan
found ao taleablo tor tbit parpota*' that tS» orop bat Inorailad
taormotialy ainoe 18S0„.^
Bousainganlt gliH tbe fQUQwfng «i ooatalnad ia tba grain (A}* and
th«itiaw(B):-. ^
A* BL
Water, per coat .. 13*5 Ilf
Nilrogao, par omt. dried . S>40 05t
•. „ aotdriad ... g'lO 0*48
Aumonia^driad . 3<04 0*66
In 100,000 parts of bookwhaat atraw Bpreogal fonad S»803 parte of
aab| eontalaiag tbe folio wing iagrediaata :—
Fotaeh •*• ... *■* ... •*• 833
Boda ... ... . 83
liima ... ;. 704
Nagnesia .l* »* 1«303
Alumina . ... ... ... 36
dalde of Iron. . 16
Oatdaof lAanganaae. ... 83
Silica.140
Oblorina .. ... ... ... 96
Sulpbiirio Aold . ... 817
Fhoiphorlo Agtd ••• ... ... *•• ... 388
8,203
There ie aalrlking almllartty in tha eotnooiillon of bookwhaat and
rye. lo tbe aaedi of tha former there i« 27 per oeot, ofbaak. The
73 per oenl. of dour oloaety reiembtea that of rye in oolour and pro-
pertiai* oontetnlag 104 perta gluten and 62 of starob. Tbe graatait
reienibUuioe extite in the oonitUntioa uf the mbai^ when both pianta
beta been grown on tbe tame toll. The dried grain of rye eontalaa
24 per oent, of aebiMd that of book wheat 21 per cent. Buckwheat le
frequently ptoeghed tn aa manura for a wheat prop, lor which purpose
it is Mid to be, ea lomt eoiia, faUy aquel to otorer. Indian oorndoea
not aaooaed well when It loHowi bnoKwheat, bat on aooount of tbe loU
being mellow apd free from weede, nearly all the oexaale and root
crops grow weU after it, July U the month (or sow^g, bub U can be
sown Si lata il will enable it fo esoaps the f roit* ’^Soeutg of Arts
JOUmfA,
SDINXiK FUNGI,
|tbe tppeamnea el Tov
tlM In a
a roof. Tbetoi
iiUbopk, Ut« .malU&ff onte priMillP
«f dab simloa,aiid ara then left fo Wa _ _ ,
welbTentilated ipot, , Bern ih^ roiil^lttrlill^ tbmyeart, wnpa^
the decayed onelare thrown alTde, add eeleoted foTtiio
wboae woody fibre leiaaiaa narleoh T^eapiwwarraased ea a Iraina
work of atro&ff beaiii% empeihltfg in ttMiwniOWay at the raftera on
and in March of the fellow
iagenemUydriedfOrfetuiwnft* _
begiatiing of Awgaat tho ara laW^a wifer for bDf a wn
placed upon the wroand aafi aonudly beteboaredt with a llAek
wooden cudgel. Tney ere then again ampfed on the |iwiiiey,nnd
in two or fhieo deye the aecoad emnof fpngi Wdoam a»Wt
and oonUauee.to do go for a coniiderahle ,t!fee. In the firavjlttoe of
Tomoii the people declare that fee elaedf the Ifaagi w direiatty
proportlopate to tbe Ttgour wtih whieh the loge hare haen
Bogged. In this alinple way enonaOue qnantltlea of fungi aia
ebtidned, lofSoiaat to allow a aorptab of 400,0001b; for expofta*
tion ill the dried form, after the hotoe coaeumpttoa bai been imply
provided for.-^dbcAi^ 4/ ArU Jountai, *
yt THE PbTTBaY TBBH
A mobo til*
kingdom
Tarious economic preduole of fee vegetable
•caroely any hold a more important place
than barks, whether for taedioiaa), manulietaring, or
other parpoeei. The atrueture and formatien of all barite are
eeaentially very eimilar, being competed of eellalir and fibfeue
tliioe. The oril eoulenia of theet however viury much
ia different pUuts { and fof tUie reaaoa, we have djapaa oyaelti
woody, hard| and even atony harke To agplafn evnyfetofi which
relatcito the etruetore of bark weald lead ua iafe long detailc
which oar epaoe will not permit.
Briefly iftated, the hark of treec conaiete of three liyerf. The
outermost, called the ** oortioel," ia formed ofceBuIgt tieioeiend
differs widely in consleteacy in different ipeeiea | feoiin the Cork
oak, which fumiehea man with one of his moat Utefel commercial
products, tbe cortical layer acquires extraordinary fefekneesh The
middle layer, oalidd the » ccltalari* orgreen bark/^fda btmiter
mass of a very different nature. The oefle'of which It iiooumoied
are polpbedral, thicker, and more closely joined, and fllleowlth
tap and ohlorophyl. The inner layer (next the wood), nailed the
liber,** eaneiete of fibres more or less long and tenaoioue. It is
from the liber that our moat Talnable odmmeroial fibres are
obtained*
T he Japangii ippear to understand, better than luiy other
nation in tha wodd the art of drawing tribnte from the
Tegetable kingdom In the inatter of feeir aoppllee of food. Dainty
and nutriltiChe dishes dfe'prepared from matertala passed over
with oontempti efeewhers, vinany common weeds, aooh so Shephard^s
purse, burdock, hofsetaii, ferabrakd, Ac.,' aa wjsll ia itevWal
carietieaof.Bcheot and a large number bf sea We^ lidding
plaoes of honour in their wor& on coofcery> ^Matu^y snob a
people have not :;nigUteted fee merits of tim mnshtoom and other
edible |i»ng$* l^ese am lasgely oensumed by all ranks bf society,
and tfag method ol littir sdtlVBy:o& Is e^tren^Iy on^dps. Instead J
of nifitetbedaof
tbdsmnehr^lSiliii^
Thunbgf, fed &
Thefttn^lifeNh'
apjferenriT ilfeblfeM
and Ag, tK
muehrOQm^gMtrlng
fuetSesiii dtemetefi
eg or tan, as us, fee dai^aA grow
»IrirnhSof tteee of thp Amebtaeeeua orders
: eidef^. fed are
not'fete
IsfeiMfefelfy
fee tmfeQe wife a ehait
which ic to be fonnd in fee Potteiy Tree ** of Para* Thie ^e,
known to the Spaniards as ElemUat fe feeFreuch as JShl$ fe Fsi*,
to the Brasilians aa Chratpu, is tbe JNcgmlea of botaniati
and belongs to tbe natural order Terhstriemiaceai, It is eery
large, straight and slender, feaohing a brikbt of 100 feet before
branohiog ; its diameter is from IB to 15 inehei ; and Hi wood ie
exceedingly hard from containing modh flinty matter.
Although the wood of the tree sa exceedingly aonnd and durablf,
the great value of fee tree to the natives eonetete in fee applfcAtion
of the bark forapnrpoee, whieh,tosaythe leait,fsanovdolli-«
tbatof the manufacture of pottery. Tha fediane employed iui fee
manufacture of pottery from this material alteaye keep a stock of
it on hand in their huts for fee purpose of diying and eeasciiing
it, ae it then Imme more freely, and fee ashes can be iafeeiw
wife wore ease fean when fresh. In the procect of mentilaetur*
ing fee pottery fee ashes of fee bark are powdered and mixed vrith
the purest day that oan be obtained ifom the beds of the riveifs \
this kind being preferred, as it takes Up S! larger qnanti^ of the
ash, and thus prodneei a stronger kind of teate.
Fim thousand enealyptua treea are to be planted about fee
City of Mexioo* Tfafsse trees grow very rapidly, and in a lew
years, it is expeoted the/ wiH oaete a very material modifioation
of the rainfall about fee Mexican «»pita1.
CmitotBiixxo the Australian bifte^gom ttwe <Fiioa^y|ifitf
which hae been planted by tbrnuumds in aonfeem, DaNfornia,
ProfesMr Botbrook enterfeini fee opinion feaf onaoeOunt of lit
radd growth, and Ha 6^^ oliDiwiiiViied, en^tirlbg rifeber^ H will
beWo^md more prodfeble fe dil^vale H., ha. Wkny, feto
Ahd'osreifs. Be e^eems ite Itghtiy,
sceertlngfee ahtfeeriedk,s|te6fe of ito pnp4railot)S to, batnocii
inlericf to thoee el . pf ctnohQife ' Me . roe<>guis«s
-..I-.* , 1 ^ ifsnt, kitt^feviog tbe sanitary
«utri,oiM «v»p
JtAihWB*
WwiWfwp
l>«o«n,, ot tt«
tfa. pUptfiii t>t tha
__t, m» wwnpwiJfwly tnwlM
[^Wn^, wod !ltra:M.-.MWwi ofAfpfya
ibbpaiiw»4‘Pai 4«. 'r:'; ‘
4,’. "! ' .. ' ^ ■
' 'rf t» '^np*** kl* ittUmr pin** *Uia« tto Ay« I*
iU) MM; b«t ft* «wim *«pni»laodMt « cotapiMd
■ |)SB»r»o» th* liii«*-**> Olattujr, wd pMOOl lik* lM»M «f •1“«'‘“ “
'*'m1®<im«. IiiwtagliMntyMidfcth* wintofMndtoM"**^
«l POIBMW tt»B »»T «t *•» «<WpMf»> * M. tbit Um
to to*tepmo»t W U hwiHj » ff t wbbih dm
toMi»«omf»rt«' aonTaaUBM a* ia«. S'* iiita mlaliw M h iri
An* ntrttwlu *g* 0* ptolod of It* **ito*«M. ||*»»
hnnmw to aowk of Ito flPtfOiM «•••» o» of ito poCUlUt wpipulatlon to *x-
totot Mii toddy wbtehtoitomrin proa^, it tquM U iMt m to oy *
"ruo'JniaifMiiMliacSttMmco « pioporty MtouoWo, oBipoywit rowaa*
to: OwotatoJ?* ?tto» to Hw ootflomort to MBBowlly, «M*h *•
noBOrSrtoSoa olpotayiM, tobod to®* onitoOMiy forBowado 0«o*t* to
widWtoMOOMtof »n««NM*td* tWMOOO*0«ty two 0< tottoye*»
SfedtoSuiW-wlwtMdi (jot h»a to pty. «»y “od to. ond d* •‘d'.
Mo«Md*B«ato*rfoldaivS»iooof oil tee** oJtoopt fOodUng* *«d pUnto
P<tm«p aoitfcwaud UmU;
«ttdtl^»»M»u«tl7bttrwaor iiadfval<n>«a' twWi whioU neitbar
ityM iv«<« or Toddy ieobtwiitd
serJTL ftrilfctwo y»ri*ttaf, bub iUd Wo yieldl mow tU^ fcht ^
Ui mi tint toflowtohawd with the
iitfrty, diftowab »»tw bi* obtaiood ia diffewnl: p^wea, ^*^“5*“*
«• they dlid eight aonM to Bt» 10 <o* evory liundted
^1 /tiid among other Improrementf attcibotaWe to the reoeab
sStallSr I with .Mirfactlpii to - to« ^ eqaall«atiou of
tfcAM diffoce&t Mtef. «ad the iatrodaetioa of a apphoaoJe
Whole diitiiet. From the deioriptlYe memoir preteed totheSarvoy
and Stofeiemeat BegUtorof Udoiyarkulam (Toakarai Taleq), now lying
beforewe,! gather that 1».18» twee now pay lathe agj?regal6at* a8«ea«-
ttMttt of 2» «Wi the new ratae boUig one anna and one p» foe
XfdW ffuttopand too ^ee for OkMu. Whoro fto too are held con-
leUtly with Uie land, the naegn" ^pejehla for both ia ttaed onoef or all, or
it tot, nnti! a freak aetUement ahaU takd place. Under tbia tore, the
ryot paye no additional taa for yoang too which aabeequeh^y
matuSy, nor if he premted from cnttiflgtreee down or from adding to
^i. holding by freab towlngf The Pattah Ufuod under thiaform of tenare
ia ealled Sasweto Pttttah (ewriaetiug), and the tree# are etyled aasieatoprtaei
in oontradUtinetion to tho«e held wlthontthe lend. When the land balongi
lo Oeremment or other parties, and the Puttok is held for tcew alone, the
holder poeaeame no nght to fell them, or to elaim oompeMation for trees
to do^ ferimbhe purpoaea. eapeot In the way of redootion of
^•ta«. mofeom ia lieWe to enhancement or reduction after a penodioal
ine^ou and ennwemtioii of all rateable trees, a» waa the ptacto pnor to
the •etttemenk* ifn any oaae, no charge is made for eeedUngi and treea
niider eli feet in heii^t. v . . j
I*et me now eay a few:wotdB as to how to* to w p ropagatod.
The nanal method ooaaiata in burying the seeds ot rather nuts in regular
UmZ In holes acme eight feet* apart, lu October or Hoyember* whan the |
•arth has been euffloiently aatnratod with wet, may be seen jdyoim little
gfotipe Of men and women, carrying baaketloads of nata, and with a
...h RroBp. AtelWte cot «i«. to. » olum .«0«.ot to
excavate to the uecoaSary depth, nor does too aubaeqneut oparato
itf eovering up the feed entaU any greater eapauditure of time
of Uboan ®*e nut gawnmatea in a month, but it fequltea ala for the Heat
BM# Of Jeeyee;*e eppe«»n^ve ground. Ink years t^ to
iXight of iOmi?feet,|»di» eoven ot ten ,it flowers and yields toddy
for the firet,time, 'fbm ihii period foi-thwiUi, it both flowers and fruite
emy year, theugh she y«Id It great Or small dcecrding as the season is
fawwabte or otherwise. ASafuleltbe treea ire left to shift for them-
eOlyei ee beat they mi^» though it ie nn aaeertained fact, that ooeaatonal
nionghinganddjgging round them, besides wetoing where the soil ro-
aSri juptoutoae their growth oonsi4w«bly- . We ure told they thnfe beat
ftt light eandysoUe near the eoaat, hut »t eny ratotoey do not seem
ev«f4asUdicns at to lituntioii i since,to fihe. totoii«,lwurihat graves may
oooaaioDally bp met with On hard grovel or bait eotton bam, aoarto^y
inglu mbnitaeie to thdf seaside brethfon , « ■ /
The first edible prodttotof too palmyra li what b erroaegu«ins|lea root'
» ), but which ie in tonlity toe plant itself, root, pa^; Shd all, aftef
mbntos* ‘^dwto. The germ or flret in Me eentr^^'
eloisd to V tof sutoeedtog tnnvea, to«l«i*her #||i|fitlee
neWiravttiy and Mperiag together to a com, eueiwquenbjy eapthd Into
euame, yeUw .signed, fibrous aUtoa when they Xathc
friuUaesson, which generally lasts Iruttl August large qaaiiti*
to of ttui ere erabodded In too gr^nnd to VC Uy ere seldom esoMd-
ing threat and waterod daily or every nthee diyr tor n tottnlght ot eo. Putt
fooiM'« mt
iMooMtei teitenti* » **»W. w!
:ro«B4 tato'lw* ..la Wio4*rt» SeMf-iteWwW*.“ T”
DoiM,. U>. „ol^ *,*■ MKM »
Ataivu iioUtatool, Jt iMiom |M|^ ^tVW®*****^?
rin.!, the iwUMMpkoMa
Mi nMotvhoA M •i>to«th,e*«i.tel,»^«^r«ao«li[^^
M it tteUcM deopw iatoU* »oU. it i# toosd to v*^ 4 Io«mw
tion within the mute ee tkdy aredkg,op wlto ,or wftnont the KilcAgu j but
whether sweet or insipid* sblid W vVati^^the rfwWoara ole<t^pen as qulo^ly
as they are thrown np, and their oOhteuts sfifllowadl without any eemmony.
The leaves are put to a vaVioty of naea of which I can at beat attempt a
bare enumeration. They &tm an eseblWt tl^lwh Impeevloua to wind or
rain, if only properly arranged and fa^ed to too *oof. aeptember and
October Ire the monthkln which the leaf erop ie gathered and disposed of,
for it is only then that, the toddy seasrm beShg ovot* the cUmbere have
•pare tlm| on their heads, and the ryots think of rethatoWng their homoe,
in order to proteertf them agidhst the' Iforth-fllaat Monsoon. It is to be
understood, however, that care is taken to leave untouehed the central
-leaves-nfour or fife tone mher--ms also to deal genUy with such trees as
yield or promise to yield toddy the ewulngneason. foremost among its
other uses, must be meatiened that ftom time Immemorial the palmyra leaf
has served as an excellent substitute for paper or parchment; the
ancient Uterature of the country has been preserved to this day in
pftim*leef books or as they ate more generally called, cadjan
manuscripts; m short, even now, to out-of-the-way places Ike
leaf and style maintain their ground against paper, pen, and ink. Basket*
big and small | buckets of different ahapes and eises, teddy jars, ditto ;
cloth reoeptaoles, geein stores, curry stuflf bones, fancy ornamental tcayii,
and salveis, sacks, seats, and cushions, fane, and parasols, mate, plain and
ornamental, whether designed for bed, roof, or perbur, toys, etnogs, rope
and oaWe—these are some of the multifarious articles made of palmyra
leaf: The atolks yield coarse fibre lufeiior only to eoir ortho fibrous
coavermg of the coooanut shell, and which is put to almost eveiy uso to
whiuh the latter is applied. The most estootnad portion howover is the
yellow skiu, whiih beside* being made into rap94 like the rest, serves es a
Bubstitute for rattau forcanw^f chair aud bed frames.— tfaciras Ji ul.
' THE 'XKAFFIC IN AMBUIOAN GRAIN.
A LETTER in the 2^mt from hlr. Joseph Price shows how the
iiicreueed facilities afforded during the past ten years of
transporting American cereals in bulk have placed the Baglish
farmer at a disadvantage as compared with the growers in the
United States, Mr. Price saysAs the new Wheat territory of
Manitoba and the Red Biver country developes, this ^ffioulty to
the Eogiieh farmer is more likely to iiioroaee than to diminish, aud
must lead to a large reduction in the rents of farms throughout
Great Britain. It may be iuteresling to year readers to know how
it is that the effect of this cheap transportation has had such an
iuoroasing influence within the last few years, Ilavlng been
engaged in rail way transportation as an officer of the American and
Canadian railways for the last twenty years, if you will allow me,
I will satplain the maittor. *Um
; There have been three great through rentes, of railways fiom the
Ailaiitie coast to OUioagofor about twenty-ftveyears; but it is only
a little over ton years that they have bsen m a FOfitioa to carry
tfretor in bulk without tranuer. The reasou was tois : Ihe nsnal
X^eof thoAmertoan railway! was Aft, 8|ln., bnt the Canadian
lins jEormiog the middle link, of the portU'Shore though route, north
of Lake Brie, was 6ft. fiiu. The other two, routes south of Lake
Brie passed through the State of Ohio, where >^*^^’^*7**
built of a 4ft. lOiu, gauge Which, fit toe wisdom of the State
Legislatare, it was tUougUt woUUl ptoonce labonr In tos State by
oompJfiittg the handling of all fwight antotin# leaving that
used, whldh enables them to nttoae their 4fA Win. rolling
stock* while the tread ot bhe oar whe^ the
Siltt^ Unai' has^' !*••** broaden Gyain, in, bulk Is, therefore,
^paratioslF^ naw-torough tto&a wh^h,; froga th® ijeMesity
gcii.^Atoaiiiifersonoachol t^tHtongUrhntii,dld nothtonousy
VTha rateto Hew Tdrk Is to 16^^
Stotds will bo the price of firaitb farms pint the carriage I hav<
mentioned, and in Baglsnd it will be thaMlns the freight
BIflTfltor md traosportotiou laclUties arsIncreasing all the wlab
lii«o« tiat l«d^^ 1^ txAt^lii^on 6f 41{«3^^ ]»r«dtiei, Imwii itk tJaii*^
Atai^<fr i niu^l ^ ilha‘,i»^flii9f (i OtAf^ftor TN
l*ifc(W ilA^ I3)tlt 'tii« ^<»* 0 dwt ‘ftpk 4 «riii ;«4 ett^oJ ilw
BiMiy tpWlii of U |K»ioi»d ouh a* ^ Imo ^«iaiih>*
iof BaUto* Wp^ it «&*««• io^ Uo% ^utdlUH^iiilo
feoaral diiiotlj to^t j>«oaoct
jBiidar l» ^ jo^MhOf a k«a ?«riotitfy oalt«d by
>boia&i|bi j&bfolo (Mtbi) iiirW h^ta, AehruidUi^t «»4
•apate MiMr^ |bi|pit4AM^ r^o'va,bi BvPPb CHiiaa«» whip
hialeiiaaid tobaiUyi^d^oit^; of. t1i« iow« o'am fi^»m Moxioo^
Tbo 4ifaroooe in itta&&«v of oMoNt Bko ibalwrial is ovidot^t from tho
obomioal oompoUtioQ, WhUo balaU i« oo almoit ptt?» bydr(MitrM^wt<|| iti
▼ariooa yrodoeta of osidatioa* Obieto contaiai alio tbo oarioao 'imporitioi
of tho jaioo from whi^ it P dorind*
tTboonlj roforooooto ohiolotbat ootild be foondwas by J. B* Jackeon
LPh. J. ATr. (8) tol^, 1, 4C93i He givei a gooetal deeoription of the
mateiial, statiog that it rOiombloe gutta^peroha in appearanoot boing
however, more Itiahle and bdttle, < He further moutionf ib^t it if*
probably derived from ^IjfeyphUvUm of the family Sapotaom, |
and that it ie alto bnoiro nndec the namet of Meaioth gim and mbbep i
jttioe. ' I
• ' • e • • I
The material exiiuiQed w«iin the thape of reotangn^areaket, of light
olioeolate or fleth colour which was more pronouaoed on the lorface.
where atmoipherie influenoee had acted moro powerfully. Tho tubttauoe
can be crumbled bQt#eea the fingers ; it has, however, a certain degree of
softness and tenacity which is more peroeptible after the materiel has
been heated. Taken in the mouth, it disintegrates aaiief again, however,
after chewing, then forming a eoffc plastic mass, this latter quality has
probably uado it a favourite material for chewing gam« On heating, it
first involves a sweet caramel odour t after thie hue disappeared, the
pecnlmr emell beoomee preeeptible, which is generated when caontohouo
or gatta.peroha are treated in like manner. The material disintegrates
if it is boiled with dilute aoide; the brown solution contains oxalic acid
and saceharino matter. The |residae, subsequently boUed with dilute
■olutions of caustic alkaliee, umtes^a^ain, and Uien forms a doughy tdasa
The following constituents have been found
Chicle resin or gum, forming 76 percent, of the crude materiol; oialate
of lime (with email quantities of sul^hAto and pospbate), 9'pereent.;
aiabin, about 10 per cent.; sugar, about 6 per oent; saltSi
soluble, in water (chloride and sulpbato of magnesia, small quantity of
potash salts), 0'6 per cent. All these figures are only approtimate.
ChioU Rtsn\ or ChioU duni.«--The resin, in the crude material, can be
sompletely separated firom tbo other constituents by bi*aulphido of carbon.
If tho finely divided material be chaken with about twice its weight of bitul-
fide of earbon, tt will swell and assume a dark ohoeolaie colour. After
^itanding for from two to three days, the insoluble residue will settle, leaving
the reliowsapematattt liquid perfectly clear* By e refuliy siphoning off
tho Bolntion, and treating tho residue with fre^h portion a of the solvent
about ten times in the same manner, the resin will be completely removed
from the insoluble riSidue, and obtained free from the other eoDStituonts
cl the crude prbduet, Towaidi the end, when tbe Holfont centains only
litUe iniolution, tjhi iOsoluhle residue will eettle only very slowly. After
dietillmg off the larger portion of the bisuIphUe of carbon, and pouring
tho reeidue into boiling Water, the resin is obtained as a very light
resb-ooloated donghy, tolerably fluid mats, whioh is heavier than water.
On cooling, it beoomes hard, and then asenmes a wax.like ooniistenee
fetainibg, however, a certain degree of dasiteity as long as it oontaint
water or blsnlj^tddO of oacbon. Dried at 100<* 0., it precenta lumpa, of
aomewhat grannlat appeanwcO, which are lignt yellow inside, darker on
thesurfaoe. TWiy ere brittle. Voloanised at low tempemture and with
sulphur, Uie relin beoomee elastie | at higher temperaturas and with more
enlphut it becomes hand and brittle. The dried fesin dissolves easily in
bisulphido of carbon M oold other, only partially in boiling alcohol. For
reasons which wUll appear hereafter, the above method of obtaiiiitig the
reeinle objeetionable, if lUturtha^ eramluatfon is eomemplated. Another
method for obtafifidg the resin, at least free from arabin, the sblnble aelts,
and the larger pitft of onalato of Ume, is bv boillug the ornde material with
water. Itthenpr^iinnis «holota*s-«DloBJf4d lumpii with prcpetiiea ewiwlir
to those deaeribed in ^ wrta, arrived et by the other method.
rukmit 90 resin, obtained by bitn)|iyde bf oarboa
yields^oueahansd^ aloolwli a light’gray *«*««•
wtiiehfUae^Ves re^ oi atgetOnh Wil^ belUng ether. DjUy a very eligh
fioeeulor preoipete kimoifii* Tike’ygfiow soMontbnt^intd
gelaunines tda eooling'and^atandingir Henporn
ticmdl the mother by atwHnn, ylildsdn^ktaeikhtdb
on drying nt IW di|% g
beBing. It beeomil'fi^
and'iJgW yellow on^Mm with ether, and
vsiy litBeii ^imelf«4 thif
, .yMihrhehatfobrat'bnm'm^ges^'thh^ reiidiii meyb».iwe|ei|i^’
pmdnet, vhinh was fn%«<Mrfiim^ eg'
theiUbefance, which had been rapfi|Wl^ U^ted ^ WligettMikimdl’
elc<diol, and then dried at ldOv degei> to eontein k-77 pgr eegt,^
salphuraadahmdgpeV oent.oienygtn^ ' ■
The waty aoM obtained by diTh»g *bd pmMy mentionsd white
qryatalf at 100 dogs., after they had been thdimi^^y' waibed by ee)d ether,
and pressed between blotOng paper, eonsiihi tai^ of the fn^laUe hydiw*
carhop, boi oontaint. also a similar ynleanlied WMeh W
behind undissolvad on digestion with holUag qdhei:^ .
TheiouMe Of theenlpbaria the vnloanised pfodasti ie Wedlly dontimh
hensihle. It is a well-known feot that .bl#«lphi4e of Wbon wlB aHeroii
standing, oxpoinre to light end sir, and thee eontiin ^eegniphim.' (C^palw
also, timeUn, Handbttch der am«g, <?h„‘*!fite Apfi,. vOl«t(8Vb«m|
The complete eatmotion of the ebiela main from the raw' mateviat in
natnrally a lengthy operation, and atmoapheflo infinenoes on the l^alpHide*
have ample lime to exert themselvei. Benoe Bie hydiMttrbene were
obtaiaed first oontamioated with anlphnr, and finafiy in a valoanlsed eon*
dition.
The descriptions glrvk of gutia ere somewhat dhofiiotitig, and it has been
assumed that gaita.pe||;ohe mgy exist in different niQ^fioaBotti,
prasenee of these two modifieotioni, in the seme fimplef hag never been
proved.
The 'prepertlei given to guttaby various anthqrs are sneh that they seem
to describe as gutta, either a hydro^iarbin solnbla In eold ether, nr a bydm*
oarboD eoluble in wSrm, hut insoluble in edd ether.
From the manner in which these InveitigetloQi were made, it reiraine
doubtful whether the authors, after fiodingi really l^ked lor nnqt^
hyUrmoarbon,
Tbe hydro*oarbons found by us in ohiole eorrespend^ In many respsets*
to these different guttae, and most be classed in Uie snme group wi^ ^
if they are not aetually identioal-wi feet, the proof of which W(^d JEmvn
neeeesitated • direct, oomparntire examination of gnttes firom nHeni
souioes.
The ornde chicle oontaine, besides 76 per cent, of ehiele resin i-*
Arabia ;... lOpereent#
Sugar i.t t»t A
Soluble inorganic salts 0*8 „
OxaUte of lime (sulphate sod phosphite) *.*9 t# <
From this it ie evident that chicle ie merely the prodnet ^ direct evupern*
tion 0 f the juice, without attempt of separation, aa ia piraoileed fatibe oneeiof
gatta-peroha aad India-rnbhet. There is no doubt in oar mfUdSi thal by
proper treatment of the raw joiee.a far more valuable prodnet weald be
obtaiaed tban tbe chicle gum which is tKiw in ^e market.
Whether tbe produiA then obtained, will bo one simitar to gutta-pMOhn,
balata or ladta»rabbor, muct be left to future examination of the taw jutos^
which eo far, we have been tmebla to obtain.<-*ffiO| A« IVseboskn, FA, U
and J7. Sndmann, FA D«
ON THE YABIETIB& 07 COFFEE, AND TSSIB
COMMERCIAL ESTIMATIONS.*
rr>HS exact determination of the souvae of any kind of ooffse is n viiy
difScolt matter, and requires considerable knowledge, prnstlee end
experience. Tbe form, the sire, and tbe colour of tbe ges^ serve, At iht
porta of arrival, as a fair entenou for establishing a first eUseifieatlod, hut
sertaln kinds undergo a second triage or assortment when ^ported, ot
with tbe dealers, hence the various kinds of eoffse consist of n
many varieties.
The estimation of tbe commercial value of coffee, therefore depm|de
ehiefiy upon characters drawn from the place pf pri^uetton, the
size, colour, smell, flavour, age, and unlformityof the eeedi | also on the
pressttoo or absence of foreign substancee, suoh ae dnsW etonei^ items, Ao.
The source of production, vhen known, is usnally a gool tudsx, but even
then there is always to be found some difterence aooordiug to the nature
of the soil i the season, the state of ripeness of the beans, tbelv mode of
extraction and preparing. Thus arid soils yield better qualities than low
or bumid ground. Berrios which have been decorticated by meant of a
mill, end then dried in the enn, are better than those which have been first
soaked or prepared by desicoation and tiiturating tho Irajt.
Tbe geoerallform of tlm berry is not always a safe orKeiion for determin*
iog the souroe of tb« coffee, for forms of difitoreot kinds will often bp foimd
in cofibe of the same origin.
Thus, for exaraple, Sautos coffee p.wesses 'oharaetem bpmmon to tbit
of Xndi^ Oceanic, and some eoriji of Woit)bidUi^ imii'BohrW eoiifefe begM
have sometimes a pointed extremity, nnd tjt ot^rs'a r^emndsd^thd, '
The different forms of b^s gofiy be ranged nndfr tbreo typiii,
rep^utod by Hoobo, pointed Bourbon and Harilniqua, firet is'
etmai round od and rather rolled tiheaeeond it of mediuni sb^ 'eloweled
and pointed ; the tlrird ^ ki^ apd fiotteped. Snt It touet notlm qvyrfooksd
that in each of tbAfObOt^ wA fpd bsslides the typi^ the two others,
4f0
if tiM ipeMj^oiiid iM•ll ilki«oSili><p|ia^’i^^
•It fiMttd «• • ttA:i^\ 9t IfatM iltcti ftrttittfi ttoli
littir. M. liiUiattbi^ *<K^BfMka/lonl^r
tht |iili6t«fiiin«MelMft
itoItioftiMi, fltti tien k»t
aUteiltgr* Tfaitmlttil tli» ftttmnity tlE t^« l^cttcliei kljr produci felli^
ftnttt HkiM txli tb* toriiii Andibt iutfroitdiiut
IMdkllM fktetbda btnd* tivt frelii«4libisi«b ill tiat firomilitixHiuiiitiiei*,
fndn ^la dtcrstM ia ippitra tob« tht
sm§ npu$it aia^ aki ittMiotdirith
IMtb«t«y,wfii«iiiMtvtaibil ^ tttttviilMMlit btooaiM !«•• afcrot^iilht
InittibtoirMvihAAftoattdt^ a
litdi jboiprtdotti&iiior tf th« pUtit^nm
fe i 4 j tafc^ ii ^ pomal obiurAflttr of Ibt Mtd.iiid fcht lloobt OM^foliy
fniraUktta pvoportioii tioit tiid movt ooniidefftblot
fClUllittiabMmt, TbitPtiadod ApdMlfeUdaMdt 9^^ tho Yoood
•oftiiitfilliCiiolMittiift fiftYAtoltUo bf ibi 8p«idAid«» iiid tht ptabotcr
ioMlIbMtatebrto#
CNtAaSwal^aRPodtaattiUfttiTl^ firom I3it oonrtx oronuhed
•biiHi «t tbtdoriil foot of tbo Mila* of tbt flat or txoaratfd form of tho
iffoiiti iMiiiliO of Ibt dtapoaitioi of tliiloagitQdliil filloti wbtolii b«trai||ht
av]dv|^|optn» Atidof tibiebtbo l&ftflor ixtattmity daoroa^M moire or
liiiAbtbadoMidfiact* TMaitalio ihtoAeo •• ft^AYfla tho eize of ibo
Midi, whSeh iDiUava floipt plsa to tvolf# millimetiea loflg by lix or tight
hfOifl, 8«mi ^Itm, aa BrttU llatUnliia«> d«ta» proOeotaa eqnaWy of
^baoBi h pra^ fb&t fagaMtn bat this iinot th< ooae with thoao of
Haytl, flaa ]>omiOffo« and Uoehi, ia which will bo loaod ‘ betoa of difforont
•taoiL Ai a giiwral rola tiwiotta whJah have tho flnoet floYoar aio thoM
whfYi tho b^o !a of modinaiiiao,
^ Tory Taflablo difforoiMO in tho eelonr of tho Modo rofnlta from
diflbttttt OaoiOti OOOh ai tho Oatoro of fho toil * elh&ato, dogroo of maturity
ofiho iMr ihodi of Osiniotion, ago, and kind of proparalion.
COffaiflt^o Ih almtod lofidi ioof a tight oofour, while that raiaed in
lolow'ilidlKomi&bMilitiOibiaoadal^^ bnov Tho berry it groon orhen It
haa botti oatraotod by maoiration of the fralta; ^llow wheo it baa pn»par-
idby tritaratlbii after oompteto drying, and ootiatly greenioh yellow
erhon ib'hka boefl ** gragd" or prepared by the mvlh It ie« in foot, of a
«owo»loiollghtiah*yoUow, whoa it arriroo ia a waiion tolerably dry.
The oolour of Iht beano moy differ coniidorably la tho name kind of ooftee,
•ad if aomo aro» in thia roapaat, aoffioiooUy alive, tho ohado of otboro, each
•• Sipaad Shatoa, will vary eonoidornblff being oomoUmee of a beautiful
giddoa yoflow, at otboia cro«>* blao^ groyi or bladdeh,
43 oaeatlly thoiofloosoftho old oontiaent and ilo itienda (at Mocha,
BootbooiO^lOBiJava, he*) «» yoUow or groeniih yoUow, while tboso
of Amotioaa origia (aa Martinique, auadatoupe, Haytl, firasil. ho.,) are
Otonei flpatofprb
nryiag Ironi, a pia^t iuiodi,^
generally i^to, evyitotUiiii^)"
the itor^ of leytl (?ott4^r^
iiie frogi 4 iKroia of aaad ^ % 1
Hence tho^ gt(m«| and t
. Ih^ df. Hio are
linii «»il i^nnatidi glaoB.
i : aod ranging in
TUagraatet, pait of the oofleea. thoep of BajU eipouially, which are
moitaiteeinfd by ooneumere, have whcn^freih, ** ^eetUh odour and a very
pronoanoed raw flavour, Coffee improvee coniidtwWy by age, and i» never
really dt fur eoniumption, until it hae attained a proper atate of dryneee.
Thia it attaine by natnral deiiocatiou and only acqnirea after at least flve
yoari ef keeping; or else by mean* of ailifiolal drying (stovage and
wentUation) tbe hfpofioialtieiUte of which have been well pointed out by
GoBonl Morin, t
Tba weight of coffee depende greatly on its state of dryness, Bence
Morin telle ue ** the drieet coffeee, the colour of which is in general a pule
yelloir, have a dcniity^by taeaenre, determined without heaplnK up, of about
Mio giammee to the deeimetr t, while these of a giesaith colour, and whidh
have paly been gathered about one or two years, will weigh on the
avera^ from 680 to 7 b 6 grammes or more ta the cuhio deoimetre.'*
The odour lui generis of certain oeffees will furnish a good test, but in
most eases this needs great experience to apply it.
Green Mocha hae sn egieeabli odour eomewbat resembling that of tea.
The aofihes of Martiaique and Jamaica have a pure pleasant smell, that
el Porte Bieo is much less agreeable, The odour of JBriu^l torts is generally
•ttoag, without being always the same, because it i« by this character that
Bio end Santos coffeee can generally be dietlngutshed, Those of Java and
Bumatre are penetrating or sharp, and that of Manila is very pronounced.
The UstoBud flavour oonetitnte another special ehaineterUtio. That of
Meeha is tbe best of all, Bimttnique ooflbe ie vory agreeable, white tlo
coffees of Ouadnlonpe end Porto Kloo are less so. Padang tuffee is not
ao uueh esteemed es Uiet of Jm \ Bnmetra coffee is slightly bitter.
Gieea coflhe tnoiMy ir^^via idecmpisrQA mined mere or less with broken
bifriesi dibfi$ of hoskf, mouli!^ beanS^ and foreign sObstanoei each as dost
itonsitbito of wood, and various sheds* It requites, thhrefore, in examining
difisrsnt kinds of eoffSe, to have this element in view.
The aoffee of ^syti, for examptoi contains a larger nnmbsr of broken
beam, dnst, and a greater quantity of itooef than that Iretn any other
qiartsy. The aeffess from Bio, Santoe, Marthilqae, end dava, ass ganerelly •,
onthecCntrary, will prepare^ clean, and eontain few foreiga maitors,
Othar lortf, as from the rayes, Biogaporcj and Macassar, have usaally many
mpu^heaUi,
The etones found, will imcssiaidly eorreapond with the geological forma*
Ihmdt^ efldflfciy wham the cUte is grown, nk hsaoad|^ heto^^
• ItotoeechtoofimnM^^ 4»'4ddi'^faris.'USf
.
4 netothesoaine'ofgroff%b|ttiW'i^^^ dealers
osnallv mlimle otto hind with sndtiitL'' ^
Besides theitonii^ ihe
eeffeet^tein li^Mtsfff
coffee' '' V^’7' '< V'/i,
tinanir, ifl a c^mtveMt
•ssoimfmiistbsliafttt ef ^jflw' reh0fM#|iuMo^ whkh they
eontaln,‘but ihto dhtormlniftt^ cbemicel
anelysiii' ' '
MenMie^Jdbblquet BCutfM feuiM the fotUpiidftt pseportto
grammeui-*-
Orsmmss.
Mertiniq^ ... ... : . 1*79
Alezai^rla sad Java ... ... l*Sd
Mocha * ... .... ^ ... M. 1*08
Oayenna ... 1*00 •
SUDonuttgo ... *89
Wcttmal of ippksd Pekaesv
« . SWISS AQAIOULTUBB,
V t <M, b. IBM lllglit OMloIttiM t« tb, ot la||bad t« know
^ that they are not alone in their miefovtune, and that their cries of
diftreSi have foond a eympathetic echo in a eonatry so far away and so
dilMMntly situated aa Bwitxerland. Letters have lately pppeared in m>iny
Swiss papers bearing a striking resemblance to thoee on this subleot which
have been printed in Ike Tkui $ and one ot your leaders end Lord Huntly's
recent epceoh in the House of Lords have been tranelaiod and maoh cotn-
mented upon by some of the principal journals here. The oomplainte of
Swiss agrioultanetf have reference lets to bad saaeons and abort orops, than
to dear labour and foreign eompetlUon, Toang men they aay, do not remaia
in the country, as their fathers were wont to do; they prefer tbe life of towne
they wander away to other lands; wages as a eoaseqaneoe. have risen,
while tha prices ot agricultural produce have fallen. The warehouses of
Eomacihorn ate crowded with Austrian and Hangariau oorn and flour, and
even tbe Ksasiysn (bonnUfol hay harvest^ of 1878 has proved a donbtfnl
blasiiug, lor mdk is selling m North Swltserlsnd. at tl centimeR the litre
(equal to about Id. for l| pint), and butter at 18cf. per tb.; and heavy
importaUons of Amerlcau cheese have made the home bheese industry a
losing business. An attempt was lately mads to iutroduos the beetroot
culture into canton Aargau, ani it was proposed to tnrn the monastery of
Mnri into a sugar factory} but when the matter oamf tb be thoroughly
investigated, under the direction of Br. Kramsv, of ZuHoh, a great authority
iA agidcttltural matters, it was found Dhat while the highest price obtainable
for Uie root was one franc per cert, it could not he grown un^r a cost of If
89c. to It. flOc. the owt., ao the project had to be abandoned. It is rather
remarkable thet, while the Bnglith farmen aie complaining of the effects of *
game laws, Swiss farmers are lafEeHag greatly from the abieooo of siiuUar
enactments,, and the inevitable cxterinination of small birds which eoixnis of
free and promlKuoue shooting. Tm, most of tha oantons have lately
passed Uwa prohibitiog to ekasss during oerUtn months nt the year; but
as yet, the haiance of Nature is fat from betug restored, for a Swiss
«sportsman** kilia every live thing he sees that ie neither human
kind nor atrloUy private propetty«4arks, ihruehes, robins, sparrows,
and aven hedgehoge, and owls i and tho ** hunter*' who rolls over a
fox leas proud of hie achievement aa tha ladian ihekaiity Who puts a bullet
through tliahcad of a Bengal tiger. One notable eonsequenee of this indis-
cfimidato slanghtet ie that some diftriete are avery autumn literally
omrim with flMd mice. In one oemmoae of Zurich alone, 88,000 of then
posts were killed last autumn | and the MaGte^sr <May*ihBgi^ have greater
terrors for the Swiss farmer than Mther dear labour, qr iprsign, oompetition.
The datnege they do ie enoinume; individual commumm have been known
to 1 ii maoh aa 4,OO0{. to pcen^ume for theit deetmoUen in the ooarsa
of a fdnide Tear, la 1878 the district of MeUfn (Zorich) paid to this way
8,O90if., and the Jfaiiifl/sr caUght anddesirOyadL^^het^Utres (28,880
gellotts). Birds are justly eonsidered to b* the pitot totmtoabte foes of
tihese destrnefive toseetsi and it is t^gaideadt of the importenee
whidh is begUtntog to be attachtd to ibeto peeitovatiM to Switi«dand,
that the Swisa Soeiety |ov Bxotidtioii nt ^mals has jtist
addreesed* XmSn totter to Lpw imptertoi hlpi to nse hie great
i&fli»noetotofBtool.thaMrii^to8totofdd to eae^C) 0 ui^i^ to Italy
and eiiewhare, the gtoeb detnmant qf agrieultaxm*’ &e society are of
citoien ihal a solem afthtotidtonflpc^ hto Hohness wOl have a more power.
ftd.cffetot)tettMlhto^s,rrarMagsotare^^ ^ tha^tetfsrv of the lew.
The totoef. wj)l hS'ftoWarded to the Bdjpetot^lhtitodntoffiiediary of the
^||ejlh^jblli to.W to.i^^f^ Itol^i^iewi^ toueldag
to stGouitnre, and the s^'ef praeitoed by >gtish
IntBiirik Bt.toito fMpeoto SwitsMshd to toe miUto^to. of Bagiand,
mm
fHB ISDIAN AOBIGUI^TUBIST.
411
4««i^ i'
tiMMMth win.
ii^^ '1^ «M»k' 9» nJifto bm^ (Sun taw14tig(4oot
th» i^tiftloto both of
|ail' M'm iiaitlbo^^Mobtttt iaTostiefAtid
M ^lolirard, 'But !t
kaia«n> AoIwji :Mpp^ pmm% p»pri#tor8,
thiia m «*
««fi^tiib«04 #9l4d^ a«4 (i^aiUt«^ i^MOO «r j&$»90p,
io nftf imitblitfir,^ at Jii^aria^ Btifc* with the
tvaaj^^ #Wb flf iN*toirf» tbtlr livwi
art Iwti aaft ^ Ihtri araprohabljr ft«r ptcfotn trho ironld not
prefer Iba^ lift tba BogHlh fnrmtr) witb bit bitateri, bit ibtrry, ana
fair piaaot av<fa With hit prtiMl tmnhlti iOncoWa i&t
W^«i^twfpb^t^^j|ihtprtltiirt of litr4 tioitt and in Iha hope
that tto tba^hp tttort a tanttant tnpply of ebtap br«aa» the paeple
of fSartuk pr ra^ar a part 'of iheui« ata, propaelug to make the State a
dealer UrJMa*, 4talrt| la fatt* %t> tlU^iUh in their panton ti&e eyetboa
whitk wrought la ptU la fWiptf la eentnry, whieh was
denonnoedhp T^fOt moft^thaiii IdO yWi ago, W aholiehed at hie iaetanoo'
in 1774^ 4 laW^^tatlT^n^ ent this 1^ hai ^a preptM^ and adil he
aabmitted to the papt^r ?ttt a fiw wadu heat^ 9 WtU be iaitreitttMt to
vatidr the feifce of thli preheat* for, by » giotetahe eoinei4enoe« Ite pro**
AOtart, who aieatioiig the meet adranted of Siriat polititiBno, are at the
tome tbne the atreanoui euppoctereof tht.Ci(lhit4i«Mp/ andardeot opponeatt
of the roetoration of the panitheaent of death, dhie party» thoagh
at pretent rather nndtr a olond, it tblU rtry powerfal, and «te ideae may be
an important faetor in tho peUUoaV/utart pt Bwitsertaod.*-2^*r*
AGBXGULTURB IB IBDU.
rpIfOUQllthe many atttmpia that act bting madt to imprort tht
•I' farmfpg of the oaltintore in Indie, art not it entetalfiil at we eonU
wlibf there is no rtaion to doepair. It taket a long time to orertnrn <dd and
•etUtd habite in ahy people ae many of ue mnit kaow« who ean look back
afewyeareon ihee|)»Bgetlhat have been ^W^ought in the farming of
Britain* etpeelally of |he Ulghlandt of Seottand, The mambet end bogt
htee been drained, eaveiug a great ohange of etimate, and a oeetation of the
yearly rain whieh mnaUy leU npon the farmere in frotUbitten potatoee
and blighted turnip eropt* On hiU<tidet where 'nothing bnt heather and
breoken lued to flouriah, we see the hardy barley orope, and fine delde of
gruB. Much waite land hat that been recovered in the Eighlande during
tho patt thirty or forty yetra, to fay nothing of the improvement which
fflentiflo drainage and mannibg hare brought to the land formerly noder
cnltivatkm. To put aeida ell iniptovementa beeanse they are not Uked by
the people, or beean^e thep make very elow progreee, ie very uawite
indeed. Bverything hae a bogluniag, and most improvement! are uehered
inhyaHiieaof diaappoinfemente. Bat patience and peraeveranoe are
DoeeiMryto eeenre eueoeM. Feraeferanee it abaolutely neeesaary if we
would have new machioery introdaeed into India. Our earliest remain,
brante of Foona ia 1845, when wt were taken to eee the country all aroand
tbif lti^<^n***to bkotvood, lioottdwa, 4c. We were earpriaedto eee out on
the fieldi, ia variOM plaoec, EogUih plcnghe going to ruet and ruin. On
inquiry wo looad that theta ploa^ had bean bcoogUt oot from Buglaud
and <Battibtttid gmtmitoniiy mamig the larmera. The poor farmerthad
never ^baaptanght to nae (hem, and though they hadparpoiely been made
lights euiMht tmtll Dawnee bgUoeke,^ the people toon oeet them atlde
fotbhaUoldlAdiiUipioaghtWhioh merely taratchet thp eurfkoe. Wo do
net know what fiiudliy beaama.of thma ploogha, bht^ when waittfcttw
thiOhibaf wdnhithafairwaynf faBiag to pitaet. It there had beta
a^y, ana ta taka an intmeet ia teeehing the ryote how to un these plooght,
and to t^dm p pirmnre in qaiag them, them forty years might
havawitaatead abreat .Impfpytmeot in the toadition pf tha ryott in oar
aeighbbiirhaod. IHep piongbiag it tn .teonowy of Itbpnf, and givea Upt
work to the lyoti thaa tha pmetut aamtetuiag of the aoU. It ia, wt grant,
ttt^itda to gat tha ryota to adopt high miittTation alt atonce, but they
«if)% bat^r ^ iadaaid ta maka tn4i mlnm ia^j^pvbMOtt at would greatly
fttpfowa th^f non^^tion, by multiplying ike yiaid from «wi« fields. !Rie
Hairwi 14^ Wa aw tl»«otiaa,la ^iaal4w abbaation to the improving
of.ljm wMm^of kh#fhim«h Thoogh m aeotampotary eontldera
Hull t^ CMtifad fo^ tho'high aal^vai&oa 4^^ by tome
|KMiHa4'htfdthat4oattg at Introd^tag
puffiiatauliWnhW^ wadad to ^vcti
•a wwant •y*tii#,;b«dno«iwapplianoe%
aa«i0 grit^^ aaqoltad hayfA a few aimi^a which nmy
?|t'*wUi',w»ifhnpa ha uwespaefead fetalUgetiat timt
tiimt|«M|iawpl«iighi^^^ auohia,
iod^aiOMBowploui^Mdodiifaqa^ aw-hatf tha ani^batof tcipa
WlU ,ba plough to plough, t^; fields Da^i} p'tojtfghldk bm fhaay
•dvaatagat. la 'ihg. .|lapei U U >afiffept' plpni'^feod',
aan be yielded >y lolt eight.im^at deep tbg^ ^ soil Again;,
•hallow. It it alib more tpUghy, ahd rtiaint inoittura dltt^th loagar tfem
the fballow, ^hgf IWigthenin^.^# ‘tmaonby two monthi, a mdttat of va^
importantf of whi^ eftiy ^np jMiowa Tha Other a4a^^a« of dpep
ploo«b% ofe too many to fpih^ hffe, and ^a ao«t of a p^ngh miwla at
tilt Bangtiora farm, fe only thitIM fopaeui ui wivofibhoi^ buyoad tha
retonreaa of any ^diamy tft^ Ob|aetora tay fnrthar that maiiaret
aoit too ntneh for tha ryott, Gfeio ov toparphotphi^ may ba too expen.
•ivt. An ordlnarjf bullosk glv^ ab'oiA^fta batte l W^t of tpUd lAftnnre
pm annum, but If propeiiy , beddiid, th^ notf moiBy loet,
may be mtdf to product forty b^dy ibadt 4f mipwrg^ wyytb ufelyloadt of
thetoUa. Aryo^witlml4any««plmditttm^am«pt baddtii^ WUhmatatialt
prodtttad on his oWn laud, may obtain twoaty Uafei febrt nmuate than he
does ah present. There ate innumerable mothodt by Which Urope may ba
largely icoftated, wHh tearoely any coat, beyond that Of touching the rjote
a few timple facts. We fe^ enre that all' that is wanted to make the
ryot ado^ an improved tyttom of caltiva^n it thO idCohfggomtfht of hit
own people, tad the higher olatMS of Hindoo society." If the membciw or
tht Barvajanik Sab ha would only davotehalf of their tinfetWdopportimHilot
to pmetieal pnrpottt, tuoh at going about hi ^0 cooulxf and getting
tha ryott to adopt the limplo impfovemenlt which arg witUa their
gratp. they wonld «am ftbtn Buroptena and nativtt alike tbo
proud title of pnblio benofeefem* tu, the HighlaUde of Bootlaud,
with which we aro well acquinted, there was here and there
one farmer who dared to be eiDgular, who drained hie Img land
and his marthes, sowed hit hiB gldea with barley and tomipt, and not only
took pains to preserve and increete the meonre of home miimfecture, but
brought bone dqit and guano from afer. Bit land brought forth dcnblo
tbe product of former timet, and toon bit nelghbouis foUowtd hit example.
Wt know of one farmer in Ferththire to Whom hit nelgblAftra proieuted a
haodiomo gold Welch in acknowledgment of the benefits they bad received
from bis advice and example* Ur. Barman of the Bangalore Bvperimentat
Faun had faith In the ryots of Mjiijure, wh«n ho etirtcd on a tour among
them* taking specimen piought with him* A certain dietinguiihed person,
we era told, aaid that if he sold three it would be a miradc. Ee told three
hundred, and got paid for them too. The ryott came in thoiuandi to let the
new plougha at work, and he might have aold many mme, hut great are
thy wendeit* oh red tapel-»(hei>imaal allotment ^ 9 lough.]naking waa
eahanated# and aaaelion could not be granted iat any eaeeif* Buoh it the
itory of ^t iron plough in Myiore. What It raqalfed it, that any village
ofiering to onlbvate on improved prinoiplee thtald be eHowed their laud
fiee for three yean, aqd then be allowed eety terms lor one. Tbit mutt le
etaited with a whole village. One UuUvtdaal working by hirnteU would la
diiUeattened by the evil ptediotioat of his neighbonrt’ If this method
Wore adopted, the wealth of the country would, in ell probability, bo soon
doubled, Xrrigation ji all very well iu itf way. and the teoksin Mysore are
a source of great wealth. Bat in famine yean, there is no r un, and just
when they are most wanted the canks are dry. Heuoo the neoesetty for an
improved system of agriculture, such ae that i^iob it wa« the aim of
Government to introduce, when they founded Bsperimcntal Farms. Tho
danger is that we expeot too wueh at first irom the pupUt of tho egrioul*
tural lehocls, and tbe ryots who adopt the new syetem of plooghiug.
Bueourauement it wanted, and wt mould be glad to tee ttia members of
the Botvaiauik Babba devoting themselvee to the work of trying to
improve the ooitivabtug elaiS‘«mie most important elms of tbe communiiy.
^jOsccan iferaW. __
mA MAKKSX.
A OOOBD1N0 to the Oaitom House retiimf. tbe total q^uaplity of tea
delivered from the bonded ware.^hontei in Xfoodon during the
week ending 18th October, wae 4.620,9181b., or lift,7841b., and 2|
per oeut. higher than iu the prevloui week. The amount taken for home
ooDiumptlon wae 2,873,6121b,, for eoastwlee romovale 1,009,2321b.,
for exportation T68,42l!b.. for immediate exportation 8dJ2Itb., and
(or fhlp*s store! 4.S88lb. The duty received wet 488.840. being an
iao»ate of only 417 on tbe payment of tbe week ended with October
nth. Mamrt. J. 0. Blllar report a very firm market, even tigut of
exeitement maalfeetiog tkemtelvet* The market ie almoet Iflftpt of oI4
•eason’s. Tolegrame Irom China report the tbipmenti to this country
oQtbeiOthioitatit afi 118,000*00016. Last year* aooordlog to written
advioeC from (he 08)^'* <0 Hong*Hong, at that date they were
137.197,000)6.; about 3,000.00015. nave alio been tent to the Continens
thiayear. »lt is impottlttie to form an exaoti'etttineie of thequauuty
that may ttlll be bioSghI to the Ihipptof peito In Ohlnsr duiing the
remuoiog mouthiotehe yiaf, but It felmpro^btu thahmore than one.
half of Ibt'preteikt deAotoocy»^lC io mooh-vcaftba matto up, even if
the Ohioaeteu prepare old htovet. Tbe fnbure protpept ic« ibertfore,
very eeribtie. The ioUpwlog figuretehow tbeataiTtlW potiilou on tho
doth the, official aoooun^of the Ouslnm Honse do not
luolude quiuiBtee uantuijplped in their eUtvmeut of deiivefiac.
Theee a«^^ ^ $.7^4*49^^ od.tlw 30th uUlmb. If In
the tb* tbipmeote from Oblna and India for
v dtHreffea tha quaiHity
•« .piTMa/d .1*9,
Aagotfitw tW. wMvmmtmj litfonM««»
- I rli|i IMM, -■
bMO 'fttP^Ofbubto
twn8»<»oo,o0o»», d£ tmti im
ll»S,000/)00 i#Mi A tohrf ^ ®f Aboa* 8J0iO(WW* ^ Jbt
MtfoA of l«i(fwleti, fMlf Jaif buf. lo tbro#t]if awm Ib^ Adb
eoDgoai^ bAib«l tbo nainttJ otfootof ebAolliig tk^mwin Jw ObfB%
and hai to » gfoot otlotit l«a to th« foaroify ,wi *;• to
lor olgbtomlfttiieotbfitiJlb oomo. Hfm oobr ibfl itiO|poYtiii« mo
rQl«,«fOtoo imid torMtittliofr^ntoifttidka lAraiAAttd gaiAbllnjiioo
largo estaot ii gbinoon. tbo onoiol oOtfoautsi ^ tbo Ouitoio HoqM'
havoboaopttbtt^fOY tbonlno montlii twItEg dOib 8«ptettbir, and
•how ib« loltewkig Hgwao for tbo loot tliiioo yoaioj-isrs iwp«t
120,44},000ib.« bonto ootmum^too 182t98fti0008>>» wtport a0.091,000jb.
total ddltroiy iMt lotb So^triiibbr 8d,7ad,0008>.
1878 foport t48t4IO,<KIO bOtto oOnoiitiiiptioa I80,108,0001b.« otporl
s$j88.000lb.t iothl dolifery 148.880,t)00tb«; dtock 30th Soptombar ^
1074^38,000%.} , 1877 Import 181,778,000% ^ homo oonittmjtftloii
118.188.000%.. «»pOft 34,190.000%„ total delivery 137*858,OpOlb.
•took 80th Septeiabef 95.681 ,(X)0%.**>.*4eaf#ima8 ati4 FH^ni of Mia»
SAVE ABSOEBENTS J'OR THE STABLE*
I T ie • good UobE qow, while the weather ie oomparatlvelv drv, to
ooUeofc end lay up dry aotl to use In the aUbtealor ebaorbiog
tUa urino whioti would Oftherwise be partially or wholly waited.
LoaiUp dry loueb, land pr eawdoat may each be ttaed with advantage
for taking np and holding the liquid excremeote oZ the atable.
That anbstanoe will be the beat whioh oau be obtained most readily.
Sawdust near mtUep mnok £rom the low ineedows, and loam or sand
from the fieldi will each be preferred by dlfiEerent farmera* according
to the cirotimetaiioes surrouodkig them., la those sections of the
country where grain ridefng is oarried on as a Isading bueinese, the
straw 18 used as an absorbent quite freely by the beet of farmers.
We have seen It epread over oel^ yards to the depth of a foot or
more in some leoUons of Vermont and Oanada, and such practice is
highly commeiidable where straw is abundant, hut in dairy
districts the farmer often dods it far more profitable to use his
grain straw for feeding purposes, htuck from the swamp makes
an excellent absorbent for the stobles* hog pent, and cattle yards,
hut it shonld be dug out and exposed to the action of the weather
at least a year before being need. Wet muck fresh from tiie swamp
is noabsotbent at all, and some kinds may be really iujurioua tn
the laud if applied in the orode state ae it comes mh from the
bogs. Any farm s6i), if tolerably free from stones, will make a
good absorbent for tbe stable aud bom yards.
If one hae waste land that ho does not care to cultivate, or if he
has more than he can properly use by the ordinary tuethodff, it may
not be a bad plan to set apart a small area in some out'of-the-way
corner, to draw from for this purpose. Plow the ground to kill
vegetation and inakeit easy ta»shovel, then cultivate occaaioUaily
to dry the surface, when the top may bo drawn as wanted, or a
large pile may be stored for use in wet weather. Some years ago
we built a shed adloiniug tho cattle stables, for the express purpose
of laying up dry soil or other material to be used as beddiug and
absorbent under the osttle, and although we find a pile of dirt a
little hard on the wood work of the building, yet we are convinced
that no investment we have ever made has paid a better per cent,
on the outlay* All tlie year through, from January to December,
there is dry material at hand for taking up all the urine from the
animals, much of which would be entirely lost under ordinary
methods. We know the practice makes some extra work, but it is
work that pay^. E will not do for farmers to spend tlieir bard
earned dolUte for purchasing fertiiiaers and freighting them miles
aorCHS the countiy, while theliqulds from theiretables are soaking
down into the soil beneath, orWng washed by every ruin into the
street, or down some ravine, as is fat too often tlie case. These
hot, sonny dsya are just the time for preparing dry material for the
stables, and one should only need to be reminded of it to set about
the work in good earnest^-iyeto England ramir.
adulterated makubeb and cattle foods.
D It. VOKtiOKEA'S quarterly report to the Council of tho
Boyal Agricultural Booiety shoem that adulterated manures
and cattle foods, still find guilty vendors and inooceut careless
purohasers. A sample of manure sent to the Booiety's analyst
from the neighbourhood of Oroydon was found to contain only
two per cent, of phosphate cl lime, one per cent, of nitrate of
soda, and scarcely oiie-tatf per cent, of ammonia. The rest of the
constituents, such oS carbonate of lime* oxide of iron, ;alinaina,
and sand, bad no intrinsic feriiiiziiig value, and the mauars was
'^flcaroely conoentrated enough to repay the cost of carriage to
any oousiderablo distance.’* Tills worthless compound was called
** Blood Manure.” and sold at dg.7 per tnn. A sample of nitrate of
soda eent from Shropshire contained 28 per cent, of common salt.
There appears, however, to be some reason to believe that the
aatnpie was ttot properly taken from the bag in tliis case. M '
sample of nitrate of soda, sent l^y IL* J. L. Baker, f,
near EimboUoUi lahowororauppoadd to have been properly |
m
|kmii^y“iiat two saikptse of'con|pAij4?'^ip^)!^
MmseU .and atkothir a W
home-made mixture waa rasiiy wor4 ip wH ^ W
more expebpW pnrohaaed cempoiibji
produced on the farm cnlyjooat
margin in Itsjsyoor for ^e oxpease opr
it at home. The member refeited to; irrlialh|&ib m
fairly saye;—**1! have bo wUh m fot^^ wi& xsjmadile
manure merohabbi, and att<%, 1 am pleasit bs shy,, Hake
diMcmlty in finding. > If maim^e SMei% ap a
know that those dealing with them kdoit7lid|b^«n<k^
belmposed apofi,aaob imposttiOQtt as fmdrgfai|fitom^Et tb E9 ipeo
ton over Uie true vslne ol manure #qold soon be pat All end tow
and those of respeotability would iimn, aenmVf hsTpimwM 8b, deal
for cash even at ema^l profits” Again two sanipies of BljMABea
rape cake, warranted to be pure rape, on anaiyali fbund to
consist not only of orushed cape seed, but mauiiy ^o€ 4be M 4Mkd
small weed'seeds whioh sre sifted o^ntnmJgininm^Xmdne
them for the market. The cakes sent ler anUiiyni nekrly
10 per oent. of sanA and less nitrogen than good aud gebtiino
manure rape oske. Dr. Voeipker dicoote attenUontbithi# Okies
cliiefiy beeause the appltoatlon to the laiid of inch tape oakes may
do muph mischief in lowing a btentifut orbp iof wbeds, nnlass
speoial oare be taken to destroy the germiaatliigf l^wer of the
speoial oare be taken to destroy the germiok^liiig ybwer of the
numerous small weed seeds of wMob tm bulk of Am oM^ea . 00 n«
aists. The lesson from all these faola anpptiad in the report of the
Obemlcal Committee of the Sooiety is the advisaNlEy of nlwsya
purchasing according to a gnaranteed analyeis or warronMy, and
when there is any doubt as to the honesty of the dealer or Uta
genainenemi of the article, to lose no time m oommunioatiog with
a oompetent ati|^4ioal aathority.-^Fhinlsrs' GanUi*
OOrrON OULTUEB IN OyPRUS.
rpHB cotton of Cyprus batongs to the speoisi estled '* grassy cotton,’'
-L (,G 0 iti/piutn kerbaemn). There Is also some ” Nakeea/' but very
little, and itisof aobamolsooloor (Omgpium Mttuim), while lately
, there has beeo iotrodaeed from Egypt the *'Banina*' oottoo, whioh thrivee
very well In the ielaud. Cotton li sown la allnvlal eoHl, no matter
whether they baiauadated or gpt, although in the latter eate It ia of
course, oeoesaary to water the soil, la the tande iaundated by etreauki
it is sow a wUliout previously maeuriug the eoU, and fu other lands
meuare is usad* though In suull quautlUes. and Its efteot is Isapposed
to last four yoara la a few plaoes a kind of plant Is used whioh lasts
10 years. It bsglus to yield a regular crop iu the third year* No other
tbiugt are sown with oottoo* It te geaersily grown each oouseootive
year in the “LiVMtia," where doring the winter the only plant that
grows Is (heyellow olover. The grouad is generally pr^rad tor
sowing at the end b( Biaroh, which it done by tfarlce ploaghing the land
deepjy as practicable In furrows drawn at right angles to one another,
end as closely as possible m order to break and pulrerfse the toil
better. Three maihcds ere adopted for Sowing cotton, In aaeb oaia
from the last week in April to the middle of June.
The first lueihod.—This is used only for lande which are Inundated,
I end ooailsts Iu maklog deep furrows, .1ft. Sin. broad, by the doable,
board or wiuged plough. In order to obtain that breadth and depth,
! It is uecsitary to press haaviiy oo the ploagh, and to pass it orsr and
ovsragaittiik the furrow* fiix womengeoeratiy follow the plough, and
make holes iu the osutre of the furrow cue foot apart. In earn hole
thsy piece from ten or twelve grains of eeed. Ths seed Very of tan
piepared by sleepiog it in water mixed with sheep dung. The holsi are
afterwards filled up with earth taken from them, and pressed lightly with
the fist. Wbi^u this Is dons, fine soil isteettsNd over for proteotlon from
the aolioQ of the eUu. This mauoer of sowing ootton Is called sowing
]u furrow.” After five or eight days the plentt eppeer* and one month
after they ereihinued, leaving four or five of the healthiest plaate In
each hole, aud I he kronod It weeded. Tkie method is adopted When
the overflow Qi waitr takes pHkot, daring the mopths of „ Janttary and
8^aj['me(hod.^Vlien, the soil hss bekn prepared h In lhafitsi
method, end toaudited between Apr It and ttey, seven or eight days are
allowed to e1aps«n to :mhe earth dry, aud It ii iben ptonghed with the
usual plough j th« women, as in the first methodY follow the plough*
making boles la the fUfrows. and puiitnt ibS Sesd la peck bole. W^en
this has been done, they cover the seeds. Without prefsliig thy toll.
Some farmers put eeed In every furrow, ethers only to Uaeh aitemato
farrow. After the seed has been thaseowo, the»« faVola ** <bario«r> Is
dragged oVar the ground to lm|hress and level ii A month'aftor« the
blauto are Ihtonsd, aod the ground wesded et dekDrlhedto theirer
method. This eeeoftd mettoto tonaWid/* Wglleatoi^ : . , .
’ Xoird method.'^the laud rWhteh is not buf upljr ^Ige^l,
IS first ttimaied,and ibenptouul^iaiLhbniiai n^^
times* at intorvaii of Ifi fir *5 days. .I^s cuaiftity of manaro mnptoysd
per seala eawt be porttlstdy but it ahmeSueeds IfiOtoside
(golfiaflh) Wkett ptoi^bibg awfi^ssknwftoi^ we comptoied, it plot ol,
too& abmt 30 la wiW,. Mm fkil wboto length^of the fist^to
.^welared* during Whtoh a ma* brsake tka Stooipi.fif M,
tttl ! ll l l1lti'i > l|Ml j V^ ^ jif il W»
^ ^ ir Mm^wtSO
„^;\U'0ih<mki nm
'diyt,
mid tlm oottmt ^ ^Idtd lliii: m <m!(ifatioii
..vm ^ Hw: Mwi. It tb« pi«a^
, N |r$irUi ^ b)r Ute lkdiN|Maii<ig dl Dm loll s And in
midb iMd Dif iU to brdkmi wild Uto or #llli lb« «*T«voto/*
tjmtoiiid toiOi drmmtiMj i^todto
, hUm niinwfkdtdf^MalDtbedaiaiithi
dP^miu dt tl^ dnttotorMM 9 totop tottstlm
ilidi^piii. A'ttoM wid^tdaptMUMTi^or iMiUmliit
«f iMMitri i^M^to^ta^wid In, ttllitor b« doDtooUmi ita«p(id«,m by
pi<miDi«^l>Q# front <ili»n*< Wbmi Dm m9P I# got itH. >oati tro
mtoimd 10^ grmw IntbiJotdi. Oodon to |ftoM by vqnont dud wduan
boiog mtofiaorid obto lo p|ok» m oti«dgy«dlOolEf«of goda. OoUoato
Dton fldtoirod of tWiMd by ggi(b llmttorto oorf* worked by band: bnit
fbtooyotom to ra&idlf dyl^ oito in Oypcait wboro etoam-oiigtoei ar#
balttgtotfodoood,
, SlMdlatoioti nbdro ootcoo'to nwrt gvom^ gfo driVtlie MeMm* on
Abtj^^ot i^pbo gnd monda j andi tba dittototo of tornaka,
poitot Fatoagnifm and SttM Tbt bditor^laat of oetton.liowaveri
Oonto toon Dio diitHot ofMfcd andjSyfbrM; In ordinary yean
^PyprntteMrto’S.gOOtMtoaot (MtoOtt,<Mo«| to oirt« a rery tnaU
onaallty fodewl to eonpailioii .to nroat tnigbt bo grodnood la the
tflaiid*—tootofy V Arts JfurtwK
BEB.KSBFIN0 1» OQINA.
to find apiartoe ; and
it may be obeerred that to the prgotioal management of bees
thia people are not one Whit bebltid aocompHehed diaoiploa of the
illuatrioaa Huber. They are aware, ae judioiooe bee-maBtere, that
the pHnolpal requlsitee for an apiary are a aoffiolent proteotion
from the fiedt or eommer ae well ae from the oold of winter^ and
a eitnation far removed from noiea To soreen their hives from
north and north-west winds, and slmlter them from the rays of the
ennp they plaoe them under covered path ways, or under the
broad eaves of their dwelling-hqiueB; or, if these are not
convenient, under the eaves of gardK’walls with a eonthem aspect.
By adopting the plan of placing the hive oloSe to their dwelling*
houses, they make their bees so tame that the approach of a person
to the ^vea does not excite tfaDr anger as in England. That the
beet may not miatake their reepeotive htoee, they do not crowd
these together, but arrange them at a distanoe of twelve to fourteen
feet from each other. Ae water is Very necessary to the suocessfol
operaDons of bees in spring and summer, they place their apiaries
on the banks of rivulets or near streams of water. Battau oaoes or
bambooredsare the materialB of Which the hives are made, the
structure being sometimee covered with mud and sometimes with
eowdung, wmoh has beau previously well mixed with a gam
which freely exndea Irpm a tree called koo-shu. A hive c£ these
materiele possess this advantage over the ordiiutry straw hives of
England, that mice cannot boild their nests in it, and sventually
penetrate unaeen into the interior. To each end of the hive a
movable dredlar door is attached* Tliese doors arw perforated,
Die helsa baiog Just large enough to admit the bees. By this
arrangement, all larger inseotawhl^ are enemies to bees, are of
oourse unable to enter. Every morning the walls of the liives are
oarafuily bruahad to remove dust and prevent the formation of
cobwebs. In the spring of the year, when quautlties of young
are reared, should their be a dsfleienoy of food, the bee-maeters
are very diligent to eup^ying the bees with honey. Nor are less
oars and ikin displayed in their management at swarming Dme.
COmMld thabees noon leaving the hives ascend high in the air, and
aeeni dispom to iy away, the bee-maslere endtovonr to bring
toeoi down by throwing fine mould amongst them. Occasionally
«. „ -i.. —--mgjj,
r tree is
____. by the
sm^e aecendlng toom a.^oanDt/bf paper, WIitoh is set on fire at
the feet ei the tree. The swaiiiitog season terminates in June,
aim to the eto^^ mento of the year, what,the Chinese call the
btai^ «ff ** mtntoter bees ** die in gmat' humbera. The Ohinese
tl^nk tltot wera tosy net to die,there would be a great dearth of
toodiqr m kurvivote. Xt to gaiieralty during the night that the
hifSi are deprived of their honey. The bees are driven out by
msana^amm. A man wHh a toto ktolb than oats out the
totd Whiu, this has been dotoSy the bees sra permitted to
, ___ pnt into a
ygrajlaally filters into a
'ito^ohh«tototo^to#lisa^'a\vessel the
ware, material ooxto thrsugh sad fioatson Dm ssmto it to then
wnimedoff and stofod iii sti asarDtonwafeian Etotog the winter
^montlHr, ttonm \hera to a aoaiaiiy of fiowsrk Di*
eo|mlitdwith,sagar.-*-OAiiiciyby J, H,OfayiM.iu, tohdesfion of .
Haiig*fioiig« > ,
_ ' , T ' ' V >' '"■'I■" '"rfr/n-yr ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ tf 'i' -
, nr y*s,|tev. J.'grftoismitVroowi,t.o.a,; ir.ua^. '
F If, Qow many |«ari ilidief:|altovEarwto anapsaasd to wtold» the
leislts of hie tofiMfittto WiyDdepfieimai. thtofehaa
en tto in the roiesse of Mk^y, ^p to that thns it' wet genendlf heltoved
that each ftowet tsrtUtsto itoflf * ^0^ is bDiSred Dnit' tkU is the
oxcepUoit ratoew than the tola^ The ectwe^newMs derived from this 11 * De
fact art itmamerable. A new^ fShoot of vogetalge iMtotol# has artieh from
it. It lia« opened Hi 10011 a fisld ^ otoimttoa loid eipwtoiiStoi raiearcb,
withaharmiot rein 1 t«. alt of ijbrctbtSg (htotoA Dtot IsWondstful to
oontempUto Some of our, most emtosnt AitoraH^kSve ahtody gathered
snob lanmls open thii field that Dtey hre ptatod upto the pinnacle of
lOientifto tome, and doee its not eneWi strange that tdl thia ahmtld have
ensned from wstchioinr a common wild fiowe^-oiis" that sn many eminint
men mast have anon, and where upon one would think every obeervatlon of
Valne mnat bare been exhaaited long ago. Bat the truth is, seienoe has
done no more than aorateh the furtoo e as yet. Tal|; ef gleastogtotaoha
field ? Why (he harvest ha# not begun. | Uy ttreaS upon tUs, beeaose I
want to impress upon my readers howtonohistobeefioeted intfaesame
field by any one who will noe his eyes with care and patience, and at ths
esme time eseteise his jndgment. It is my inato objeet in w^Ung on this
snbjeet. to ihow how every one who Will mteresl hlmaelf in tbs eommoneit
ebjest by the way tide may reader great serf lot to aeienee. and even make
brilliant diaeovecies, Xf thia ba trt» to Sarope. wbere the observers are so
many and the field So well worked, how mnob more so to AnStvaUa, whore
the obeervexe are tow or none, and the field quite untrodden. Bnt it is no
nee saying this, nnlesa how it is to be done Is pointed out. Let ua take a
ripened cone of the oemmon howeymekle (Bankaia marglaato}, which grows
abnndantly enongh to some parte of Tiotoria. X am sure most peisona
must have notioed how few ripened seedenaeh none poatonea. Sometimes
no more than three or four hare the thiekened, herd, woody proleotiog
valves, which show there Is a rips seed inside, if yon now take a fibwering
ooae, andoboerfe the number of fiowera-*for it wpald be almost impoasible
to count them-^yott may well wonder that so few seeds result. Ao^rdtog
to theory, euch fiower has had the neqosaary matotol to prodttoe fertility*
There are anthers with pollen and a stigma with an ovary, eontaiaing ovnlea
waiting to be ferttijlied. Wliy are they glerUe 1 Imminent botanists at the
preaent day teU yon that, they are atari le f or want of oroas feiilHimtioo, and
they point to many faots to eonfi^ thia. whieh t shDl try to explain*
Observers will notios on the half-opened Banksia flower a number of yellow
wlry 4 ooking loops. What are thote f The imprUoned itytoa* Bat how
do they come to he imprlaoned, or held in thia bent poliUou If Xn answer*
ing this quoatlon 1 most say something abont the nataral order«>the
Froteaeem—to which these trees belong. The flowers In this order are
rather an eroeptiou to the ordmary plan of flowers. ‘‘Instead of having a
diatioet calyx and oorolla, theao two portions are anited to form a tube which
is oalled the perianth. This tube is closed at the end, and When it does open, it
sputa into four aegments. fi ome times it oommencea to open toom the (op»
end the aegments, Of lamiott aa they are oallvd. roll back. foVmmg earls
around the flower, which those who are aoqqatnted with the common Hakea
wdl easily remember. But to many cases the tnbe does not open till very
Isle, or not at all at the end, bnt epbts along the tide, tu that case the
point of the style is held imprisooed while it eonUunes to grow, and so
prqieets ont of the side between the split laminm ia the form of a loop But
there it anotber thing to be remarked about Banksto. The anthers in
this gonus (and indeed ia the mejoTity of Pvotiaeen) are icsatle. If you
turn back the point of one 0! the eoneare segments yon will sss the anther
lying to a little hollow jnst near the tip. Ton may reqaire a hand Ions to
see it well, and then jOn Will notiw that it Is formed of two eello
oounaeted by a rather thick membrane vDilcfa projects beyond them. The
anther cells are long aad narraw* The ttyle is also lofig and narrow, and
with the auistanee of a lens, U will be seen that Jost near the end it is
thiokened. and then tapers aWay into a many-sided point. Kow. aooordiog
to notions which ware very enrrent until DarwlVs titkiei it wonld be thought
that every piovision bad been made by Natnra in this plant to seouro the
faiillisation of the ovnles. For here, yon see* Die style ia held impnsouad
right np against ths anthers to ths point of the flowers. Tha anther-cells
open and diioharge their pollen, and the style will generally be foand dastad
with it* When at last the segments open at (he top* the style eprings out
with elastio foroe,soattertog away the pollen whieh had oolleotod 00 it, and
heneetotth being tor out of mob of the polltn from any of the flowars. You
would certainly tkmk that if the sttftta were not impregnated before it
sprang forth, K uaver would ba afierwarde. But not m, say the botoniats of
(be present day*' They urge that, aia matter of fsd« tlto somatic surface
if exttetaDjf Sffiali, It to only a Very fine poiat at tha'«nd..cf the style. It iS
neoAsary that peUas shontdodherato this p:»tot wbfP’ths stigmaiio surface
to atotaret hfii'th«y aSmthatlttanotmatarsanlto not capable of absorbs
ing ngfien iatfii! It hfMescaped from of the flower, where it is held
tiiktly DacycA IfomcDmts. itxcver do<»asekpe> and the stylo ramaiot as a
to^ajfbtdAka fiotoethag withered. In this ease they any no saeda
^^.aU D^assttih^tionsflrotsd? I (btok net, and if there wero aver a
iiAi of bltoervaDon where young AusfraTian betaniefcs may distingoisli
themielyes, this to one. Let it be remarked that no one seeme to quastioa
that poUen is nodded on the BUgmatic suitoes, to oifior to oUato ferUla
THE INDIAN AHRICUDTUBIST,.
December U
XI urotfHi b» <r«Il to fitetdilili liHilielQflly tM tbi* if ^ MM*
if niWflMlr Wfl^mtMnthal
tlMmif MfiAfpItoti ia«nf Aluili^tAfk fad IbfM ntf^ bf otb««i. At
ItMt it ibnald Mt b« tiIrM fM gmalfd, 3fr««t it diotUd bt bomi in mind
tbAttbf ittMl ft tbf tterri^tiMf tbal lat# bMn «m^« by botnniftf in
Xnropf biiff bffa^miidnfadfi^ fMnitf mniiaotbe vfirMdfd
if f&tbtt foiwlafivn or , Tbo Ift* 0ri|bf)% ol 3l4inbttfl{b,
Bidf fMfOffiinftbtfohMrrnUfai on tli« ^flMoffuf ^Innt OoaoipMmaim
tMtfoUott ia,n Uriiiff nlntf* and I fchbnk Itr * BonlAiun'f rtufrlui on Binkmi
wort mndn on n Uviiig dowor. But ^no fo* l^ ^e|f Moorinlnfdntt
hfrinnuv^o. .^flowo^f in tb# order ixMiiAe^ by Hr. Benibem »nd
otbeiir art Betvejj^a p«r|oontt ardenlete, P. ineMte^ pAuUiia
unrgiMte.* OrealtlM bnmlUp ‘^tteoid, Q. TeiUU, Adenethoe oboTAba,
AsMtaohy* odjimte, OonoepeJinniii Synipbee ditetetA. 1!'he only
one et ibm ooenn in Viotoiin if mtiked vUb AnAateriaHc* Bnt
tliere are Allied ifteoiM everywhere in tbeeolooy, end MnoobierveUena
Are refolded About them, it would teem (duet TioborU la qaite an nnMden
field*
Bet U the fiowere ere net ielf*lettil>fiiigi hew ii the proceu efleoted
Fifft oj ell there net a poetibUity Ihtt pollen doea not reaeb the etigmA
At a!I» tbongb (hii if A view that botAoietf do not entertAin. Seoondly, it ii
fuppoied that pollen if OArriad by the wind» by Mling tromothar flowem
by Mrda, or by iniieU* Aa to the wind, though thif Agency DAyaeem
unlikely, yet it la a mw% import Ant one^ ne the following feet will show
On April 17* 1850, yellow lain fell in many pleoea in CllAniorgAttabiie,
IcAving epofee like oehra. The wenthet wee flna. The roofa of honaea.
IMieona ent of doere, and the treea Ware eprinkled over with apota of tha
Abovtdoleur, Inapiteofheavy raio»thia doat woa atill viaible for mote
than A month. It ooniiated aliAoat entirely of the yellow pollen of a ipeeiee
of willow tree. Again, I have found while riding throngh the booh when
the wtttUe (Ataeia dealbata) wae in flower that the eiothee, and apioiAlly
the feathery tieene of a allk hati oolleeted guiai ef the pailen, -whieh nmat
have been floating threngh the air.
Aa for the Action ot blrda, every one kaowa how the honeyinekl# ia vialted
by different birdat who cnok (he honey from the neetary. In dohig thli
they mnat bMooM oovMfd with pollen, and ot oourae moat tranifer it from
one flower 10 another. Ac for ioMota, the flowering oonoe of Bankeiaa
Bwarm with enta of varione ataea and fpeniea, beeidea other creeping tbinge
with a tecte for aWeeta, So them would be no dlflUnily aa to the ttane^er
of pollen from ooe flower to Another, if that be neofiaaty for the fertiliMtion
of aeed.
There are two ihloge which hAve prinoipatty ooeupied the Attention ef
boUniata in their obiervationa on thva aabjeot. One ia the eontcivAuee by
whkh the atigmac were aeoared from being ••If.fertiliaed. In PereDmia
aaeeata tbe etigmatio anrXaoe la very amall \ it ia earefnlly turned away
frem the autheira and applied cloce to the alda of the (lower, 0 that pollen
eennot reach It To nae the wordc of Mr. Beotkam, tha etylo ia abort and
thlok, and only j oat reaebae the base of tho anthera. Bat id order to eioape
all ehaooo of oontammation from Ummit oatvea round, turaa it« back upon
them* and barieaita amall itigma in aafety in a protaberanoe ov pouch
prepared lor it near tbe baao of tbotube, from whioh it ia only releaCed by
tbe fall of the aegmenta with their than empty anthera ' Ac a farther
leenrity In acme ipeoiea. tbe anther immediately over the ponoh in which
tbe atigma ia buried, ia almoal or quite without polleti. There are aeven
Bpeoiea of Peraoonia known in Viototia, io all of whieh, obierrationa
on thta iingttlar and interesting feature could be easily made. At preeent
their mode of floweritii«»or, rather, fertUiaation^^ia unknown.
In the maio fty of (he onrved flowered GrevUleea and Hakeaa the
eolleotmg end of the etyle if a broad thiek diae, with a very thiok atigma
. bepy la to beAbM&^f«|iMV)^e«vMpl%p^'i^^
M «AI«4«-**€KTfaAfl^rwkeib.^l|!]B|m^
AteMd whether the jAignm iMa
the il^li^bttgbt m 'bhvbMebi'bf IbeM^tAbite 'A'perteetB^UMUf'iiKlfli
'' the ptierb(b(ople
and one would think* ePplfl ^ <4uy Mth ^W
in obmrviiig* The enbeAgiiiAt pafta ]pf
eareend greet deUeagf of iii^lAtfca i-wPi,^lbbe*iP
fldalHy {tt reeeytibHfflltiMlAMM they AVI AMm*' nfld net IbMpfiitAl^eiaeib^
•tone, mth all flhbee gebllltMiflflted titeif AAA'it fMMf tfewiyMh w be
Inade by an Anafif^'
eminetteeAfldMAowR. ^ **
The only BauktiA wlfleh 1 b*M tmbn Abld'te ^ 111 Bahbeib
This ia a honeyMeUe Wbleli la kaewd ^yi&dti«|tAfl«MAedtiibAMt
ooaat, Mteniiidg a fbW htmdred^tflea deftii of flyddlQi^^ kdft dM IdM d^deMa*
land* or on tl^e vNtotHdtof Che'MvfdingMf^'
any Vietoiiadipeciea,^(helbbVae%
dearly a^foot leng. Being of a ^aeie-red eolonr bhbt g^ or' eitpAgA*
they AM very handeeme, X MppcM tiikt jBem bp belwAM
flowed on each wire. The leavceiiAMi»eeiymeMtiHdl>lMiMimb^
j^bi^yalide kpddtii* lymgalMgtheiacigllutnelme^
Tb» itj^lo of the flower ie lbbA(iiia‘ Blehtnldl^il«Wl«igN^| f^
the middle and jpllow at eech end* pti||idi^
at the tip {it exactly flta into the pvate en^kM Bm^ae ^ If eaUh^^where
tha anthara are eclleoted* Beflwe the atyle ii EberaM^iblag odbgvOwt the
tube, and projec ti aa a eonapicoona leopi In evepy eaae .when it4a oak free,
itiseoveied wlth«pollen* wUeh adbevettenailonaly £o it* and thip peUen
doea not fall oB until the' atyie oemaMneeA’AH witimr. At farleculd
obaerve it doea net reoaive the pol len of any other flower exMpt ita own.
Moraover, on efrefally dividing the Umb ae Af to tibeiata Abe atigma jbefore
it oenld possibly repoi re any eiher pollen* I found* on mitroicopio exWlna*
tion* that polled tnbee warepartiatiy lormed for come diataoee below tbe
stigmatic surface, 1 wish, however* to add that X only advance thli itate-
ment with the reoerve that I am not latlifled* or Miber ahall not be aatisfied
on tho fabject* untU my observationi are uvfoh oioro nnmorotte*And bava
boon made in a variety of other ways. So % as X have geaCj bb^ever, I
am disposed to think that the flowers of Banksia eticifofla are aelf-fer*
tilising. 1 am not able tp say aa yet whothor it ia a proliflo aeed«beArec or
whether it be liable to very, l Perhaps other ebaerveip pah follow out this
line of inquiry. ,
In conclniion, it mi^ be remarked that onr eommanHoneyattekle, Banksia
marglnata* ia a very varlAble form. There ate three common apeoies, whioU
are probably oidy varletiea of one* Baukaia mafftibata, with entire leavae
one or two inches long, retionlate underneath* ^ with few or no trasiCvers
vains; B. integrifolia, with entire leavea, thrab ib sin iimhCa leng, with
reticnlations and tranarerae vams of eqnel aiae } B. dentata, wkh broad*
ooariely.toothed leavea four to eight inches long, tranavevM prominent
veins uuderoetxth. A great number of ether varlsties have bMunoted,
which all graduate into one another. There are td speolM enamerated for
all AnstraUa* hut of these only ien are found outside film eolopy of Western
Australia, and theiu ten may be hereafter lednued to lU or aeven*^
duftralaffoA,
GYPSUM.
r?^HE Piald has the lollewlog mmarki on the naa of gypasia ai i fortiliiar
'd' and deodoriser, which may eommend titemativaa to these interMted in
agricolbnre t«"
in tbe oentre. Ilia anppoaed that the dice is of nee in ipUlting open tbe
aegmittti of the perianth. In seme speelee the attgma is enoHosed in a alit
at the end of the styie, and thii does not open until it has beeome free from
toe periaoth* and m out of tha teaoh of the antherc. lo some Qrevilleas
there is an appendage at (he back of tbe etyle, and this is doubled back
and ptuiaed close on itself in the hud, eating aa a spring to force open the
flower, Xte use otherwise is not undersloud, and beiw* again* observation is
muek Headed*
Allthf speeieaofPfotaAeesaliave A stVActure in their flowers which ia
rsplete with the bighost intereat vthenevdr they are studied* Thus in
Conospermum (of which there Ape pt two apeoiea m Victoria) the
floiver ia a etraight tube which apUfo twot lips. The upper ia very
breed and cooeave* Tbit baa twe perfect oelic of a pollen^beacing anther
enclosed in iL la the lower Up there ere three Anthera. One is barren*
the other two have the inner cell barren at eaph aide. the outer oelle have
poUcu* Tbe style has leagtheaed fox beyond (^ stamens even in tbb bad.
It fane A lAUral atigma* and thii ia directed tewaidi the authenii ibe, fertile
antbera. But these art closed. They are shaped like little caps Opei on ^
one Aide* and thapoUtu es it matares would (all upon the i(yU word it net
thslllmeiipaulAlMtsrooiBliAl AaUsAMecaetiyflttodentotheenpebf Ike
two Utami «aie» wkmfo are alone fertile, Imving the thtee barren erile
together «A thaotikArafde^ MtlmtnQpoUeneaeApss. As the flower byena
the ealla opAA tpo* da tbi^ do lo, the s^le is elastically baqk^,,.^^
presenting Ita itij^MtimsidA ttf tha baccen anthefi* and is for
laacb ot tbe potieh* q^ual iatareefc la ebaarved in tbegMi.a ’
flytmpbembntaatiieblamfodAAMfwimrOAkef Weitera Atu(^^ would,
perhApa*WuMliaatoapMif|thA»« ;>
S
We have reetntly been informed by ah i^riuan of great gehanl agri*
ealtural experisuoe that* from the tifoc he was A boy till he left Amtrioa a
few years alnce, he heard the praisee irf gypewn Xw agriuhttttral •andhorti*
eultural empsAr^nentiy repeated* and eawtim way to which H>wm obtain,
ed* pttpatid, a4, apptidd. At the timaof his first tipe^eiiem
material tiaa obti^ped trpto Tnaoe } wMndlitwM bmugbt to Mewtork
asUllastlaerndto|vesaafo< It was tiiM W(tgb«ttp%y mUlasmandtokitt
in barges up the Mddapn and other riveiia, akd bsr aAUmija end dAnata into
aeSMtsm endHi/Mlie fltatea BogMinti hud the bdd df giWtonr then
beeime that nem»y all the corn wUleto hafl n^r of atoflia flned to a
Bnt M Tr^ bnehtiAdiad
and flnymam up the Hudson up tp whieh town tbi# lifag to tttW, toere
was a forge mifl erected dpaeaily ler grinding gjpautn fw egrtok'^unl
purpoaei. The applieetfon of gypsum wna pttooiPaUy to Xadfoa tomand
potatory buttowuA fve^entlyr »|gdfod ^todemidt auA otimr' ^
ttstogit for Indian eom andpettotofi a Inflewed tito «M«ve. With a
• At gypinm* and before the,seeds of ^titoautoae'lhi totter
were covered U dropped^ to a^ftoeh into dm dibbMefoi^Mhe
eontd Hold between: two ftiatofea tod hfatitotob* Thd same Vie
applied a aeooad time ykittoiforA the; Velatoto and oomwtoA foatotod ae
♦'hill^rnp. of thfo^ratoito too* fmak enttotiof
pototims with s vtcw to'drytogthem, and to prevtoi mwb'ao^ dfototo
. ati^ingthem ;.^tfo vps sototo\tii^toh >4 liMvfo^^
'' *** etiried among (fo «toAk gltotoe ae
woufoadheratoto '
Gypsum nta* lettBiier fo nok nnkuown to tbw oeuutry i but i^atoc«
tother as bfltodtolAMMMtxmtoasuaotofoortoUfofagii^
D«cii(lM L 4 et 9 .
nl^SrpSwM ?;*'
A^&ioutftesT.
oattrpw
«. »«iw swif toiih^i
«. »*iw
<m.m,teh ma.ywn. aM«iMn
arfW-ilW M t^'t^»»«** ttHqoM «*«(•, it
ffB ^rvn^ in I ii if i«» Mi>m«iii^ wyiift4M4^faf Utt. yrti«re
nr9|»iiil^tUro«ii9tf 4owfil9ibi«»b
uriiMiuid' hi^ Sti «t#ai$«it9 in tb« «o»ibii»tt6n UroMd
of tUi doidiillj Mptr tM oCI^ gyfiudito uf wmog liAfdof
tkef«kiilM» By uflogtfo# fcooi aamitlljr.
acoordilig I0 of «)MWp «l rotsoUle suuiuM may
be «r ^ vmil# may re^mw.,
b isoigaalci depoeifc of Nature*
Nmtt eeobomy
ae ealiAiiith |t4« alMt eeFttame to i«s»eet ttmttrpikinii'h a eombinatioii
of eidpbiiratti limii. Uma iiiMt in obblli and otbor eafeareoui mb^ni^
buleateMMui de^tt irithOnt l4« iotyHinn ivboomfAfatiyelyy little nluo
Tbo oaifboido aeld itfaieb exfiitli Id eotoblnatlob w&tb lima in the form of
cbOtki if vahmbU So she aoit aa a lolTlnt of inorganio Momenta, and St acta
also as untidtimi to idants in tho fern of ftaiboki|irhe& tdlen np by their
rootf* But the anSiilittir of sulphate of Unw airp|di#i tho eSements of musolo
and bosets auimid lifOi after it hae been taken up and amimilated by plants
to nbloli it faM been applied. Plants soiel, prodnoQ animals with an adeqnats
applied ptoporBon of bone and musole, Xitsafemarlcableofderof nature»that
as pUnti avefsd Into tlgMous and healthy growth.soare they natritloos aefood
for the snlmAl for whloh ihsy am adapted* Plantaiis swedes or other green
erope» thaiwedCQwn on fen land or otbor blsohsoSle. that may be doroid
of suitable ineagenie eWmentst will prOduM animalO thelt are dedcieut la boas
and muiols. or lean as it is oornino^ termed. IiUU this there i# evidence of
the wonderful desigoe cd Nature both in regatd'S plaati flourishiug in soil
and animals being deoeloped on plants^ and in the room there ia for man to
eaereisQ hie talents on the dertf opmeut of both domestioated plants and
animats. Oypsom &om thia point of view is a marreHoua deposit for stf en<
tifio utUissition. 'Then tshe theheitltb.ofdomeBUoated imlmalsia the oonfla*
ment to WhUh they are Arequentty snbjeoteth They are often exposed to the
exhaUafeicos of thsic own eaorota. Tame rabl^te that'are oonAned to o
hutefa* and taste oxatfly hkethesoent of the hatch, are only aue«tmplo.
Rabbite,,howoyer« seem to be almost proof egalust disease from their own
exoxetaf' Bed f«itl« eattle, shoepi sndpige are nOk adore than haU the
diseasfef in domesttentsd animala are due to sanitary negleot. T^odo not
say tamterdiimiy Sa^htfaUmUi from exoieta would produce speeido diseases
each as **ga|^^* in fowls **hoao*' in sheep. loot*aad-mouth orpleuro^
poenmdttia In oatile» end typhoid Xover in pigs; but no msooable observer
ivUl donht^ that ntfmsls iws •• mnoh predisposed to disease by sanitary
neglect ,as 'an army is to eamp letar, where sanitary reguUtious are not
ouf^osd tod dtotottots its not employed.
aaeicoi^Toaaaso Hostioui<TufiB
. J soouciiiis.
' V '«|(t .at *ni.
' ' .-'n 5,1^ .......
. ■■n.' TiM.4iiMM.tii.
vuild « M, ??**“•, V';'
XU; Tli* MM‘of Mte .
IV. Tk.lMwMttoftatirfUiWlh.Mfc ■
ubM* aiM* w*"-.»W*.' WM'lMMfite ^ i^TKiam
uiaPaBl.b«hMi«tttt. «t» |oo« Wkk lAtth
Uwm, m>4 Mh* M m ittU «Mlik a '.MM, J» '• .iM ,
M, towMSoiMill)}M aaMMM «| U.«mw4,.WiMb '
OaOMM-OMni b OWMtt to TtotoM •tot 4 M 4
uitoteAMi oMiMit to M toito .t to
aouKuei.toelasWoofiuehgraittf but totfto&vs of oontrlto^miii liom W*
triflti and idunlGipia funds. The gmht»ln«tfd would thiih tfM atod^«
third of the tottftneom* of ths Mitfyi hsolndlug tpe previptfaH, gimit
In Madras, thePttiyab. the CepIrAl Pmlooes^.tod iiritish Bnrmahiltik
obsersed that the inoomes of the Botftf4«s toe thnO torivid i«
Madras
Ptto|sh
0. Pyovinoss
B. BuimaU
In the Oentrsi Provincto and BtUlsh Buimah, one«third of |hfLh»Humouie .
of the 0otfeties there eatahliahed, would be ehd Jla,l»dtot<n«
apeoUvelji whereas the gcants4o-ald are iaeaeh ess% tees Ml Me'
amoauta) bat as the Chief Oemmiisioaers of theSg prtfd)^ 4^
consider that the primary aim of suah Bptfpties hiS ^tfts tl^
indifferently aeoomplished, they Will prdbpldy Mh it, pnditfp^
increase the allotments, until tho objeots le^ ftoth in pemwisph 4. amrvssit
adequately fuldiied. The CMe, howerer, of the gaadm at ftaegeeni todSh
the aoremmeut U India btfieve to ba amshfol
special QOueideratioa. The Chinese atb btot ^rdetom id
andgetmnoh help and enGoucagement in the es^iditohiiheiiisf M
and vegetable gai^dcns Arom the fHlelff* At prassto M' manstoskMit
is in tho hands of an Honorary toomtary who, Mngh keenly inUtoeted
in the work, oeii only give to it the Itfewrt' he can spamlmaielhef puhhd
duties. If the ffioitfy had soiBtfeab fnndi to employ n piofessMl
Soporintendenti its efforts might be attended with gretfey hdrantage
lathe Punjab, one-hatf of the iaeome o^lthe Booiety, estfasure.of the
Govemment oontribution, would be IU.6,4ii Xtfoklto to. tha good work
done, his Honor the Lieuteaanb^iloTecaor will, prehahly he nnwHltoi^ to
reduce the genat of Be* whieh is at present* made by tpovsin-
ment} bttt there conld be no objeetioa to the nut^stdcding M ihe
permaoent eontinnaaoe of this grant would depend ou' an luorimse of
iuoome from other sources If it wefa ouM sstabluilted that . the
Guverumeot, wiUuu reasonable limits. Were prepa«^sd to give one rupee
for every two rupees which M Suoiety could raise, so loug as it fulAlled
its public objects, the GoveniMeabef iMa hive uo doubt that the effocc
would iu every way be satisfactory* la Madras, the required proportlou
would very nearly be secured, if the present grant 'Wtfh rtfsed by the
amount proposed by the local Oovstanieiijt. vis., lis. 449 pc'* Stoom*' Vflth
the above remarks tha matter Is left; for Uu farther eonsldmatioaef the
local Governments and ▲dmluiettationi ecttoemed r but the Qovetoor*
TBM IMftmM toinett the foUowiuf repototlon }-~
•t atotothe linto ht the fleaplntioA of the tsth Beoembor 1879, the granis
to the ftd^itoalliwe and Ep^lcalture gotfotiesetMls. Pnqjabf the Central
Frmtoeeib tol Bontohi hato beto trsbsISrred to Piovinoial
8erfisec,a»4 the gfanlto tha Madias,flotfety istifctfy also shortly to
bs pfofMMl The Oevenutoto cd India trill, ttolistofe, tem^ the
quomMef^vtoeMtoiM Mtf OolMmienta and
AdmItoitoalW ^ Ths Goeesemant ef llitoto oto deal'With tbs
ptcfocil..fto. Btoietotog #e etotrihetlto 'to^to49ftosto4$boi'ety, when ths
negtobltcm now paed|to fto ths fahsr desetofimeto of thwProvlneial
syitom to Wito ^ ^ Matoas Bttoidstoy MBAtotva been eoncluded,
mitoto''M''M'amdd4 ^ Ctovcftototo to'ca^^ioeiitles be frotf
Piovlitoldto mptM Bevttuiii, it ippeam to^dtoito^lsthattncbaid
Ito# ^'prtosblisVahd |heftftowing
ytilM : mMrmtoneim gtone^lhutfd shtold h«fr
iplie
wctfkaatoiw^^^ ^ MUty, todfstoe%;to Iti ofiatoniftt
derive^' to
wertoa. ’ '’V ^ [' ...... * *
A« iMi| be
tfioweff'totohiM pdblto objto^T^toh|^'ili^ be
thus .dtoM^id j--* * .. • ^' - • '' '
General iu Council would with to be fataiihed once tax afesy tbiae peats
with 0 progress report showing the work atoomgHibld by each totfety,
tod tho help afforded by provtooial foods."
VfiaBTABLE >EODOO!t8 IS COOEq,
TjIftOM two reports ott the vegetable prodnee of Goorg feceiltly read
-L before the Agri-Hort ioittaral ffooitoy of Midris/somalfieaof ttm
interest' aueohiag to the yarions qcdps map bagaihired.' .Bleeand
coffee are the staplie produets. The vieeyi*<’pto last feesoa wtiiooked
forward to with great anxltoy, and the feportof States tha¥, to the
begluntog of July last y«ar^ When he wnionaM ^*^thioagh't^i^t
fertile valleys to Ceorff. |he paddy detda. were dry.and doae pUated^ and
the ryiMc totoentlng to M1^ delay of the aommtotoed tomMoott vatos ;
to tha middle of tho foitowtog aweth. howevef, the iatoe dilCftot eabitot.
ed a mesp pheerlng tfgnt i evtoywheie the tfee fftfds were etothed with
the Autf inaarlauk aud brAliato. vasdaio el the Oiwty ttontpiantect eeed*
libgs,to4|lp^citf^toMlMtodtomvto<toMhtohestfltf(to Itisad
thahasrhattdeof a^niiOtfiig paft/. the
MdiNM hy vWOstou to toiekly ttaddto adhoMiy gtoea
aanl^Bspi^h^ totneodgeoi'tMiitoa'fhtoa
•toodg jbgildlto'Wfef the wtfiwptoaihed '1lO«fd gWMtolj' A
, pmiApd ^M^fdrtofed to M takeep as maohattoeyeitor hetoth fhelr
wi ’ “ .
tiMHWalM'
UAilid
iSSS&iTf^
lAla t« ttliitf m 4m^wi Xphmuiiti obOH
Imd ttkM Hm ^pMiili «#' ^ d«4tf£i&'
_ ,.s^>!I(i!^J:.
_______
ioit MiidtUiillAMdiklli «4*UI(wlMidla«lr«M(iitpro^
‘' ...
1004*
fitl&vp
£Sct5”V.
ir««^ dHtty tut^oeJfHici
of i««bptos h^f ta Oirv profl«;
whtlovar o<imiiiiUMlill^l. 14^ libiir JiifiiiNmt M 9f«oli0o^^lMa altfot
TlpfiLjli|k iilMo» | 4 t i i oly opMi«a oal #iid ommigocl hf uottvot* oip#ot«ilf
Ooorgf, lUMhi JMI woy iof«ffot to gopa Boroiieou pitatotlone.
Lftod oijptolirtiyla liif•ttU todoU to doutod lot oofloo
eal»lr«dWr«ito3i;U,«ry^
Ttw notou «Ii» IfiMda odtoo do aoi oppow to ba
•oodoroffog. fromfitomMid dlitribotod loamMl pots
by ttM Kyioro (Jovofiiai^ liOto not gOQoro)ly done «eU« Blear of
theai« tnooptoiiUKl to to to^bod tolkela and kepi in a ooaserre*
torfi teOtoliMd itok^i ebotoAOted leaf diienie, nod did not pot on a
benllbiir oppeAntooe« oren atott being put toto good tUh eott.
ItiM fopQii sa ib# fiiadoet of Oboirg, dttod a* tot iMt dty ot
deaOAIfi of ibt litoeot yonr^ tbt Mat ftpori itfa'toot toe flea otop
wiibttifeiitdddf^ieMoiiAblt iHAtiitri«tia toti tMonttbi'Q gtatreDy
wAi good, to oiAoy InatAneei rtry good. Tbt tbnndAiil r40i orop
(»lniiiv0 Mf^dMdway to Btittra Ooov^, tad to Blydotf^ koitold on the
merint'tarf totti# totogtogitotto iktt'eltlf^ot Hto of toe bo^lae ’Within
tueic Jto tetietoirttooe irnddy, ttpdn tdiieb toey do dob torirt.
Tbe ooxfli!!^ jbng^ ptOdttedA ftey leir ttopi bad mitk pttoti
rleeo, otrt egptotad to bt teAUsed* Bslerttog
•gain' to Uwfm tbe repiorliec My», ** I «iaglAd« on torthet
toqntry, td Aiodtly toy foratt tepori Tbe plant tvtoenuy teqnttet
toeUatfeltotoiir to Itt 'otif itobltoiton, M wben onee ftolibg at bbaei
itlBtoMln‘fltoe^^Mito.« dtt M todtotttoa of the* rate of groato of
tbit plAnIr to btttod tbai v tret pat onl ae a iwdfUig to
ISTJlJliaof ij^gldphtittlglb W tobt only oat tree i# to
The gtomtiftonttodif id Ooorg would teem It ba latlefaeiory, for
it wat eftgttMid bbai MtMt tattnelft ptaatatiOna Would be farmed durtog
OPtaiAeaMMi* Aaaiobetitiitt (or motiltf tbt reporter aayi he
obaeifid A ptonUai esperiment* wbieb to mention, h^ thtoki wU)
' al to dttiurwtomi from following. Tbe .me* be'ug properly
rtoripl, toe dtondyd eUm wit wmearnd over with otoy, tea,
tied'on’With wltol eargtdiom leereA On removing eome elay, tbe
donaded atom waa found to be dntte dry, lor the oainbittm bad lerment-
td, and tbt formation of bark win eonmqbtntly hindered, grannlatton
bad oomnmiiiotd btrt and tbeet is ireegator Itnee, bat only where Ibe
Olay did not toneb.thl# namldi»m^ Tbe detaobed leaf atatka of the
plantain free, and tbe learet pi tbe wild tardamomor ginger, tied over
the woonfted Item, wilt prove an etteetitt lubatltate tor moM, wbieb in
Coorr, ttandt bb nbtatoed' to lalAoltotly large quanlltiM.^-Ptonferf*
Gautt0t
, VEGETABLE IVORY.
plant wblel^bean tbe iteda kaown aa vegetable Ifory ia oloaely
allied to toe pnlma^ end In eppearaiiee and bablt It it very like
iboM beantlCul treea wbieb are ao obaraotertatle of tropioal vegetation,
Tbe plant if named hotanleally maorooarpttt and li la the
priaeipal MpreaentaiWe el the PUyfab^Aaaiew^a natural order fo
eloaalyaUiad to the Mm that bofcanlau bare only recently oonati.
toted it adtatinoldlvialoD. Varloue namea bava been given to tbe tree,
bttt tbe one moet generally to nee li tbe Vegetable Ivory Palm. In
Oolombla and Kew Qranade, wbete toe plant le found to greateei
abandanee, tbe iiatlvee tall* It' ihr/U Vgtofnf*
The tree bM a thiefc, rohgb, oree^ *fig etam* from tbe under ant|aoe
of wbieb jwotaace givfo off* ^ Tbe leevei^^' wbieb erown tbe atom,
eloaaly caa^blVlfi their fiM. i{iap«> tboae oC tfa«
co/Oannt wm; Thk toaUabd female dpwert ace boroe ondldereiit
treea. tbe male tree beiiig abort areoi, and therefore higher than the
temUe, tbe flowere eabale a powerful perfume, and tblb la more
iipeeeily the ease wUb the large white female Aewem, wbieb are,
however, few to number,^ tbe ripe froit oonalfte of three poi^toua^
an .itoriltl obewbtob ia dark, rongb, bard, and woody ; a mtodto one,
which nemmae iawlly palp of a yellow eolonr aud awoet tafte i and
aotonMpqcstloa^toeiifd-^wbiob ia tbe vegetable ivory of eommeroe.
The oily pulp M eolieoted at the right aeaaoii, and aold under tbe name
of to Mew QraoecU * and tU* eeeile are exported for
uee aa tbel»,tMtoie ItopHw. «• A inhetltoto for ivory.
Tbe fmito gfpw |rv'm toi atom. luat above the bbete of tbe leavea, and
(bey oeonr to*|lgg^tolilli el gU or eeven. The nailvee of Ooibrntde
eaUtbeaeoHimmoMcVito.^^ or dtotomi ia JVijytv^ on
no doubVo|,tobl^llto^ ^ A few,
saob Irult eqatotot toidA to tM to one eeltebtton nt
huuebof fratoaihito m m* toty leeda ,Pt ttnry nata, to
JyWmam^iil^ltoM'
(bnwd'awwtoaiitwf «
' ceatoitol^tolih > V«
Tbe ttet waa drat aeewbydike $paM
totbi ... “
ioibHftogtoctrtot^
,withto«aieitt«^**'
tbia moat beanUBnl pettg;,^
and Mkipfe eofmo'l^' ^ _ _
of watkln^ekv.'tbe veere
tbaaJyoay, nnd a#'Mto,^febto^wtomto^vW4to>waM ife'
ere^ itwIS^^'dtoifeieBaaM.i|ni«axibn
^ tSi tree, aa larSa I kCdW, la not enb
being gtobtoed tty toe M
quaiiiiimt of vegmaMe (very erec _ _
kfafcdelena, and a etmatoera^itototoe to bttWtotoiyd^ Whto^
When A vegetable^rodtot ia geUtittod lamb ptimMk wot ^adee ^bbliva*
tlou, the aupply, from a variety of ea^a. maa^,tt mwawit|,ito Jtohtot*
lag I and tha tonroea of iniiipiy'aim to eonmjmV aai^ if tomg
exbntotod, 'Af wartot'>toMe''W««d't^bbtoto4'
from tbetoroito of toa.<toiflto«' iTbtorwto iie''agi kdoattod,^'' ihtoetnitH
tbe advfaabliUy of tropioii agrtentuwM tototog^tobto
oultivation of the i^etobto ifory pltoh'to they'have toceady ^ar .lii
tbe eaae of tbe einoUqke and pthar. eeonM^Q areM, The nmiaMt
inoraaee in eoniatol^i/lon oX the Artldte pointa to the aneaeii of am an
andertaktogf> ^ ' , . . . «
£q dbmaiea,JATrlaidad, and (a Demlnlea, the pladt Wofld tbrlva
along tbe hknha <of tbertftoaand atreabiv Wbtob /ad Ilkrbifgb^iWlmT Wt
tbe eatntee, and toto. a profitable crop migbli be otoatoed from lami
wbieb fa now pifiaeipatfv oopnpied by a |nngle of Bnaean reada. In the
BotauieOirdebaorTrlniaad I reoetoiy few a vegetable ivory toee ia
full bearing, aesd 1 broagbt a amall plant with me to tbii laland, X
have written to Oentrai Amerlea tor freeh avedl ; and, ihonid tbCBe
eae<la turnout well,there wilt be nothing to prevent eatefpfialngplabtere
from adding tbe name of vegetable ivory to tbe already toereoatog • liat
of Xtomiaiqa ekporta,r-^< A*’4if0i'4 di^UKt JhmUkipp, ^
BXA^mB THE BBE^.*
B UOEWEISAT seoma to bo neoreting oonaldorable bonoy tbia
faU to tbia immediate vloinity, and tbe b^iaanea are that the
bees will be in good eoadltien Jfor winter, eapeoiaily if j^hay are
aesiatod now. Ezamiue all of your ootoniea oloaely. Tha pro-
babilUy ia that yon will Bod aome of tbe hivea with ao oiiiDb
hooey to that lihere ia sot room for the queen to Igy; Too nan
retagdy thia by cdtauging cOmba for fcdt onasi or If yon are
fortouate euoagU to have ifime empty ootoba, exobaoge gonm of
them for full onea, and by tbua eqiializtajg tbeib you wiU benedt
all, for boar in uitod, you want to get and keep all 6 f youf Oolonlea
as atroog ae poaelbte all tbe time. The bM that We ybike thid
month are what we will have to depend on to tha eprtog, and htiw
ia the time to attend to them. Froat will aoon atop all bloomtog.
of the dowera and breeding will atop aiao.^ 01 oourie thone who*
keep beea in box hivea or guma, oaiinpt toto fxamiue the condition
of their beea, but must gueto at it by their weight, and feed the
light ouea, or doable them ap. If you 'wamt to vaiah^alf of your
ooloniea, it la not too late to httiijd OP l>y feeding, but thie
muBt be dooe by regular feeding'gnd muat not be neglected,
althongb | behave this is poor poHoy, tllUltoyoaliaVjlMkfow
boes.--- 6 or»^ '
aEE4BBrp‘a’luls!rfiAiwn
T ^ ^ ‘ipi.t- ,T»- n. I, i V ’ i ' , ' '' f. I ■■ '
IJ’OqueaUon.aeyBlfto E. 8 . , Tapper to the ihkmflae,
^ > mom frequently .atoed to ttotopmleoiMdiMktoiWO’lima ^
** *tirai it pay to hive haaaon now ptaltto dlattot from tftobe^?'* tokay
of tho aeltlofa who faaveooila West Irem^tlmtetod bhd'Wtof-ehHiVatoit'
parts of the oountry, eapeeiaHy from Wiaemialoi dttlo, abd’ ^oatma
New York,
tolrytogtheexpeftomto, And w«^ totou btor'
beSB 1 it I khoa^ti tbey. wonlddb Wktl, t
winds* iheiatoiprtoga, the ahtottoe^ trkl^ ii
How thafaeta are that tbM vmy^'^tokblttoM
M Mi’tt 1. It
I are ism waiw very vtaniwnea wm an w btonr^ boantrv
£i4'STELM'iasrKgr',"r''
BThlnk kwuu MBilmOjfc bA tnAMAMil *
like
***«*. TjH. flra^HIliWiiU* *>•
mmlibfttoefe^k^
•Bougl* t«4qt^ m(ft i«itnMft,i^iip|{|i^,k^^ ,|i^ Ml
«lgr tiatwtn.tU* .wd^teMiw i^iMtoMSili iHilm ttlU*
fWtMbn. :,. ,: ^ ,'; ,;,,. Ij,:;'
In. §mmt for
ire^tni kwA. <£!)«« m fe» ot
V ,, ■,' 'H' '
aaw mult ii M m i«OM«a
rra flad. oM*]^ itKoti
tliat it ii trooloM fund almoib»l»»rreft ^to*
Xn ol Ibnt], wjMii Hm lotttt IM satidy iii i^ritiwt
tito fint cbaMofewiaiii QM id iM sbMM ii
!Cha if iftra { «iaiiilM|»ll(|f9 «|l||^N0tt
le aetf lioiiMf^ wd ktHy^ytm M fiimif* it^ l>l«iii«bidi|ir.< by
J2«p«M«a dii 0 ^oifa« vhiolt }mtn a wmfrlKafoif fiMoodilaNa lo lli|.iallr«k,
A Utile diitanco out Tirol) la dro mor« (^4e«nll!r» mufiamiUa
Moffk $ephcra mUii^ IFoft,, ftud are
1^0 plaulftlist nalEf up^iiioit^ftiro uttub fongtffi^aai kbtf vij^it
tbroQgh the Kurtom Vt^li«y ny to tbe Hiilab *AI1 ^obbig to Jiti% 10«000
feet* fad form little eev«l>Uwi«cooatio»tt ly ie amougit the at
ibif kigh altitude. , ^
la gtedttiUy «feai<^og «b« Kuitnm V^UIey era rOou IomI out elilfi l^ujati
forme. At Atoad^da^Wa, iailee frotii 'ThtiU, AtMiic^. fftoM^ and
Zialtii^iaeiisouare teat eoeU,
Pmploca, aphylla, tiowerer, acoompauief ue to Uiwrty oppUiita Suftumi
a&d io aonro quantityIroing largely eut^attdooUooied M tMl» fot oanele
The only oeoaalmial ttae, wcoept in tlia imroedUte ffaia % of iratit U
Pittacia. inUgmiaut aUtl a ituill Hhw*
Wkerarat water ie employod fo^ irrlgaiioa Utera tfae eropiafii guof^ iud
trees of varioui forte rapidly apiiagup.
At Haair Ptr %rat ilsi tiaee of Pi^Umm t/rknivUt oad fMio iff ie 1»a
leeu {tkeea increasa iu uaroboe audeise m g« meh Srotraut, ,
Up to tins caamurropi ilitaitiMroa kai Imaa ttoia ot |e«i ftoquaiaC, but
from thia gradually disappear8>long tUf left bank at Jaaet of .ike Kurrum
Valley^ bub ia found fomtug a &iok daain ilbadUta eorukoiatiba fNteaox
that lead geat up to the Oarwaat Oai Tail.
When thie palm ia not ii^uved or «ui, it ferme 4 htaiiohUig ilia qf tlvom
16 to^5 featiahaightiaainay bo eeau at many of tiro abkiiife bi^vaen
Kobat and thier er even wilhin the uralU of Feihauar ueat oqe of toe! gate.
waje> It exteade largely into tbe Kboat eonotry. lu tbo Kur^um^ Valley
tba fibre of the leavea ia the uaual and ordmaray th e nuty* jeeuree of rope
all imported aa leayfe from Kheeti.
Kurrum ii a larse village and foftoeea floated on the ^ bauk of the
riverofthatJMinie, at an ittiuide of nearly AdOO ia fm opeafulley.
The nearest billa to the uortb beug pr»r nine mUff ojf, te the eonth aowe
iow hilU deacmd otoae into bha ciyar, butyipeakrog gaufralllf it ie mbiated
in an ustenaive open pldn, the brb4 bed of toe rivet lying to Itf aeuth*
At a diatanoe of about 16 mllee rannlog from eaat to weat (aligbtly iohto)
ia the dafed Koh range of hiUa. The t«ro blglieet polnte are at the ottreme
euda. The oue at tbe eaat oalled Karmra ia ahfnt 16;200 fefit„ toe one at the
west called Bik a Bam (but by the local nativei Spin Ghar) it IMOO*
From Kutmm, 4,800 feeti to the baee of Uro hifif toitf foptoi.Vp to 8*000
feet, except for if rigalios, which haa been moet laboricael| carried Oui) the
plain countty would be an arid ahrubleae tract perlfOtly treeleM f gr^eaea,
and a few amait berba alone give the little green that oceattooaOy meet!
the eye. , , .
When irrigation ia emptoyed, then the crops are in p'rofuaiiim' and rleb,
the Boii yielding two crops ih the year.;the first bairlby* 'wheat, iiid deter;
the second maise, ries^ millets, tobaooo, peas, enenrbitaoein, a little
opinm, and aome cotton in toe doiw'fottl'bezn parte of the dlattiet, with
nn meronv oreh ards of large trees.
The greatest extent and finest cnUiTition oooars at the eait of the
variona streams from the nionutuius on to the plaiufi under the proteetiun
of the hilla, as for ihstoaoe at tMatoa, where the tifCC grow to as
great a fies of their kind ff luy to Gasbmfre, and tonoh ttifVf Bafftby,
ewittg to the dryness of toe climate (^Venting the ttumCrefit UChtos and
fundi aflediBg too treeti. There are Phuadri piettohiMOilaatoKa with a
girth of H, 16,18,86, and One 88 feet^
The waUmta are fiutr Omfi any 1 have.averffia. Mkny trees el 8, li, II, 13,
and one of 17 feet. With tske afoeptioas, ato too tmekf aval hallow or
nnaohod* They hgVaneitoer ItCheiBk nor lisiAldNe^tofCsitDg tdtoras iu
^ Qashamn,
The Amlok yiiacpsM Xfofiik, to tavy nhhtotoasi a gowd tree, ito fruit is
oeaeUtoxad neat to vatoa tothaipoltos walnut,
A)wto«^ IfitoMS^ fCwpaccfais^ qatoees,
pemtotoiMtoa altoc^ tiro miss of the otoh«rda. Thaiwamno
eliwm yIMtoniei atolgtowo^lMr finding silk worml With,^ find Of trass
In Mtua] gardening toe nativM do little. Oiiioas, a latgf white vadisb,
irHb muMiaiif oadirbiteccw/ arc all they go in for*
fipIrsiiQpv .... .
tftnas eatah steakitoff awa^ from hobiio* ^
,1! tolbagad, dblonlai 'telil ba dMt hy*lba tima the
bartaat be^, aetd too SndrCaw all hiva bean aaoniwd batora, ao
< hat ratary. hita dill Imitali itOeM with bonny gatharan, aito to nine
tan profit la ^roriato. *
either lo o^ilars, impyoved, blrea, oit >y bnryihji, to abtotntaly nasential
B^eyywhers. The homesteader, who has but taw hivaiand haf notpro*
vided dooblaMralled ones, and has no oeilnr,, osn* with grant aaia,
put a bOKr or Imavda, or aern^ atalks, avonad aaohlhivo; and throw
dirt over U. We have seen many colonies wlndar tone, and there is
no. bettor WfVf The object in protoptiug being always, to seonto an
equal teinpeiature.-^u«raa.f of JprieuUnrot
WfiAD BEEEDf
A n axehanKa iluia replies to tliia qoeitton We are often
asked the question by our oorrespandents, what breeds arc
the most profltabta*l|{)r them to keep. Now' the same difficulty
arises In the soluliou of this question, that oomes up With regard
to breeds of csbtjle or sheep. The cows that give thobest resulta
in dairy products are not always the best for beeft and the sheep that
produce the beat wool do not make the best tontton. Jt is eo with
hena if they are wanted for their egg product, one breed may be
profitable j if for poultry for the maricet, qaite another breed
would be selected. For poultry, the Brahmae, ^lymouth Books,
Dorkings, and some Others of the largbr kinds are best, and iu our
judgment, either of the two firat-named breeds auswers every good
purpose. T^e chioka are hardy, and with proper care rapidly
daveiop; they grew large and handsome, are good layers, and on
account q£ the, disparity between the weight of tlioir bodies
end ei«e of their wings, they are easily kept within bounds, and
are thoroughly domestic in their habits. Their eggs am of large
size and rich, and though, when sold by the dozen accordlug to the
presetii: Unequal practice, 'ihey bring no more than those of the
smaller breeds £or home use they are worth from a quarter to a
third more. For layers, without rsferenoe to their earcaes for the
market, them is probably nothing better than the Leghorns, and of
theae thara are four varletios, tii», blaok, white, brown, and the
Dominique. All dC theaa are distinguished only by their color, in
otherreapsots being the aatoa. They ato^vot .as hardy as some
other kl^, and oanimh he recommended to thoso wjio afo obliged
to keep tUemehut up in email yards, as they are ’ high flyoWf and
, will go Qker almeet anything In the shape of a fsuos. i hay are a
very toino^me, tdiapely bird, but the, hens are d*m-aettew, and
some otoer kiadfi^hlt ,tbe|l^pt to
rsarlbg ol the brood, A oroes wl^ l^iO mhifia olf Ooohin prodiioet
a desirable fcwl ^tiher for Uyingorpitoltrypurposas.-^Aiiterovae
...
■ ■' " lE»;‘-AVOHAHI 8 'EASi
QOfaikatowttft'
■‘If *i0'-QwWl r,9*
oat 'vuirnd ..'kiMMiltt itf IM tvUm ati Bwil.,
irntfiiktet
bw\
'^ 325 ^ 1 ^ prn^^ ^ '
*^S> olte* 6a^ >»^««iU.
tliiilll^iirt^ itf t1ie«W«jr<*r ^{fMtiffi I lit* w tli« *ld« ol*
tifll *1<M Mid nollBwM* *t i dtifeiHe*.
^ lib’ Kttfrtttn rM tSbiUaato, itie ntUe serab ;
tti«it t4fr* ^ a<^ 9wbMrioi,«
IIHKtdidtti mmsmB A^«jr«W, laW^tos*. Ow#«#6ii«#, of wlilbb iptoiM
4^ ^ nkwiKMt t bol lUjiy 0V *11 of tiiMt *(« obitdy
I>*UW*ibiaoaill* openp)4it.
CoftOplvHl** feimijfiliotiw !• pwfii** itt ***11 hmamdolf* ftcom* lb* ^alt
tt*bt bFMfe** 0* 'f** MHUMOW Allir*pfl« foaad He** irltl pm* W Wi* !
Tibet** itt their typ*. . . ^
fhl** jrtfiiw e*«ii*tPf of ttK *b*pe* wd Mm with *»o«M poured
down Irom aw i#itt*irt WB* hX *he Ibm* oI mww end Wwter dep*»i*»d itt
ttttfwe*, with tt *tre*m betoogiog to •teh f«n, tuttittg iu
•MTdewtt Okteo^it* <wn wadnuhtuff tt* way fcowerd*Oi*tlv*r» utually
H *rtthtt miwh diaPttWhed lopply of watM, whether takeo from it
lot l*fi«iW*tt<P«l»*tt«^ or ttheorbod m ptwliig oeer the looee beds or
ebi^« toi*ipe 4 iwta|M*e* theerboleeCthewttmof tt etrettw, e*^^
itt Mnw^ t ^ i ie espttttdwL long before it ha» ftoy opportuuHy of gettiog to
1 ^« geoeitti otttUne of the eottntrir *nd the ttb^ve paselier futt^tluiped
d^^rte depoeiti ato beat ttoueed *t some diaUDe* trod* the aoiithi a« ia
the Dacwi** Q*i Few toward* Kafraia Itoa* whioh the
view very mueh reiewbiee iU*t eeeoe of the l^edekh Velley on ioohiog
eouthWAtde from t«di; «* long *e oae omi iia»giue the dUtaut loreit to
hetteiegbadiogoCthokUli*
In iMhittg over the Kttrtttm Velley and the hUle beyond from the
petWMtt'i^pi ^ of
the eBOW«ol*d pettite ^ lattgei esteudiog from north-east
to MMith^we*** ♦
The lower hills« or rather high peak* of the spar* of the maia range,
Aoeitt to form two or three lower rangee, these are *|| oovered #ith forest
tiom the top down to 7»dd9 feet, altsr whi<*»tbey are seen to be bare
os they gradaaUy lo** theswelves la tbe plaias that exiead from 9 to 16
miles before It waohes the river.
The ftret vegetaUoa to be traood oa these hills on thsir southern exposure
Is Uuercos 1U»# oommeiioing at about 7»UOO feet, as e good large dense
bush • *• aaeends gats mere tceealike and begiua to be lamed
with *Il«»dar» Final eecelso, khiat Smllhiantt, graduHliy forimlp^ a dense
iortit vrhett AhtfS Ifebfriotta appeaw lu it, chiefly j^ear ibe ridges, and
ctofttlttue* op ^ forests tUm ofl, and graduaUy it
neascs. At (»,«l>Ofeet, commonly <4omui smwarfti/olio^pptOn and takes
the place of Mowour Jha if it has oome up as Utf or often drives out
(he Fines and forms a forest of its own.
of hhalttsaa with a south eipostiie there is no Jmijferut e»eeUa or
rinui QerariiOtMi and as far as 1 oan hear, and of what 1 myseU have seen,
there is no hngifstUa from thall to th.s. Fiaus eMcUa in this dislnot
t,! ,...! i» iw.« Uie Pm 1 «» tom « N.kW.».’’
Except tbe bushes being larger of tbe already specified Z)(;^kn« 9ep/iortf,
Cotowsosiw’i Barberries wiih an oooasioaal vUiurAmn and hune^nuoale, thee
is no undorgeowthor bash vegetation.
In this i.HjaiUy these forests of Deodar are very fine, and the timber
superb. It forms folly tbree-fottrths of the forest nsaally. Except of
qimoot se*»io(t(pi/olia in eertsia locaUties, the feiuihec of the other trees is
In too r*"“^** a quantity to be alluded to when so much Deodar Is forthcom-
ittg-
It if carious to note how the forest uf Fines is directly got at through
(he Qaei'cni ecrub, there beiug no interveniug forest as in the Uunaloyan
tanges.
As already atated, these forests reach np to 11,000 feet, here they become
less dense and a few shrubs of /ibadodsadroa Anihapogont the gooseberry
and ourrant irith bush Juniper 1»»« weshtoj aud some willow* uai
Lonkeroi fill up the vacant ppuce? in the ending forest unul the bush jonipef
alone with Aetwto Ah^^^pMro (m iot*Mity),al<«»* wmwo to be enperseded
by JjUmhoeb, MiMlaHuh acme griM***, Uarex » and Cruoifem.
Vegemtionheteisoot etopped by perpetual enow, a* pn the seathem
etpoaura of (his range, there we* no snow dating tbe wiajler of ^7|B.79,
But it IS kept down 1 should say in its ittithd* by vf ant of mpistnre in the
soil as wstl as air. If snow existed all ih* year mud, vigetatien frenld
UAdireUy ascend, IbeUeve, higher than it now does.' ^
h'fom Thall to fihnlussis and up the southern face of these hdl**I hiV*
seen but one fern, kdiantum Cc^ Vsnsfis.
Eeret/fo** I have gone aver th* vegetation as preseniad to a* npon tb*
southern «*pattv of Itos biUf' Lit ns go along a water-ecurse, or lUwaia
bed, nod aXiMniue o»j other exposmae of theie hills than the south. \ .
WaAnd la thafiietphum th* pines deseenaing to form a os^Mrid t
w«ehlovfwdnw»,adwoi|ir'*n4-F*»m«aw may b* eeeu at
Tue fcreeti thin with a grCit^ deifl' of thfub and underwood,, aal slirnkl
gradually being wmovod by other trepa than piuos. ^^4
At firm it IS enlarged bosue* of the ortgiuol AfstpAae Sjp^i-v ' C^^ioiMASter
; . .a, .V ■...1 ■ J.„
pIN'Woi.'iipm
>#«w
i.T’ i '.i-i-s; 'Vaiiia.' '-lu
At fim m* BMMmbtmw mt W.a*''***
gtven flovN^ ' ' ''' ,' ' ' ... '■ t
VeUlut iw, A«i^<:
Tit. IWmr K#tol tut,, to.^tw ftm *a». wtortlog
nmUt-mtoartUlt (tMtoMU, »Mto-<I«M -I* m»««l'(WWl'ilW**, rt th.
KtirtMB Hnr- mudiriiiblt «U S|i*Mi MAW^-^tdftrW^A'MdM’to*
wiiUi.Miit 4iMrti|>i. Th. Aw4» <« W. U, On! f.hfjw- f((W >•»« “
ftMh to tm of
awtiyl|OMfMttoih.toA ’■'Sfe'.' ' ■ '■ ' „
Mto.tomrfth«8ototto>h. »i*lW lto <l .,^*> tohf tottlltitg. or
Tttwl, totoft •!»« mWntod. «i»fimSa ii'tototot »a*f Imrtoto ito. a^M
itimi'. «t «tomw V- («w>n hWi «to *»*«*• a* jmm, .bht
ta-mtitofto^ araSttotM » thrah *#» * »«•
OtotUMtor wAtofAwi.,
bMiai.inmitaumMAr*>H*«>av*>^ Aslh«w«iit
BPth.ptMWtoMlto.otth«K.tolU*to ,ato% OtoOia Wtoikl.
' «i{hth»tok«.tiMi«>a AMtoSii>Iltoii*aha Khit,,«»^ ,W. forming
. tot«tohI^ fwMh Um. M Mht AtofM* ViA, upot
tfuautottotoa «icek» m • tw. MWOrmi*. •
Bat artawtil it.,* toW, o# «a Into th. wMa. W lb. SoUt Ao *. tom.
to,» niiof*
*TlSirtoMX^» not ootot to a. foMrt, amt do w. ao«. Ppoa award’.
pta.imUlir«pto.th«wghto«toiWt»of Xottl Mdoom. apoa thair aonh
inwaut^ wlMia, OB tha low« toge «f Ua lo«.t,it ia tomma.
The Deodar forests fnin theBpin Ghat Bthttd to the Pmwa* Kotel, aad for
ndles to the sottth upon ihiaepuv of hlUe, i* Miaplr wiperb, and almost
nnUmited In extent, and oapabl* of being easUy wofked,
Tbe other pmos ere proportionately few, but hdip to form a very dense
**^The Horiab dUtriot is the baein of tbe Hariab fiver, that is formed
bythesoath-westombawof Sika, Bam (Spin Ghw), nod its two spurs
tbe Peiwar Kotat range runniiig ewithwerde, end the range that ends in
Mount Mahitige running n«*rir west. TU Hariab falls ialtt the Haaer
Dftrakht river a( AU Kheyl.
The flaxavDerakht river forms the baee to the trieogle with ibe two
range* of hiUs already spoten Of, end tone completes the bouftdarie* of the
HmiaU district. .
llie Hariab river takes Its rise from the eeversl streams that tU$ from the
Bonth-west faoe of Monnt Sika Bom (Spin Ghat)j it is sui^lied by tribu.
taries from the hills to its north and south until it leaekes AJi Kheyl. where
only the streams from the sooth and east of Mount Uatsuge fsll into it *a it
itseU join* tho Htt«*rl>*t»*iht, a mfiob larger stream. This unitod itrosm
sahsequenUy flows Uto the Burrum.
At Zabr-Dait Biltadhe rive* may be catted Hariab, as here atabcut 8,»(H)
feet the lifiris joined by aeveral streams of one siae. ,
Oa its soUtheni 0 * left bank, uutit the jii»a« »e*eh*s AH Kheyl, Oiera is
HnaeornoeulUv*tion.athe hill* oome down to tbe baahe of the river.
On tbe ught bank there is a great deal of eultivuttott, as (hofo ia a large
amount of gttod land on this side In plateMix, all of which is fairly oulti.
vateA from ttta biae of BMm Rom to AU Khayi.
Th* Isnd pibdttoes hat one erop during th* year-wheat, barley, muise,
rioe. mUlets, pfilees, tod Mover. ^ ^
Tohicco is oc^ouaUy grown, and aavawd nf the ttnenrbltaeem { no
tegetaWM,a 2 lttm,or oUweed*.
The elimate ia mnoh colder attd drier than ihat of KdtoMi^ with a amre
rigorons winter. \ .
The plane tree, J)iospv>‘^i bttd vine do not grow here. Tu* watnnt a* a
gcod-sUed tree boating frd» i* rmw; amatt treaa ire not uaeommoA In
the stream bed BaBafiapleiiito ish laiiie (tee, wjb^, wiiA,^ aatmlly ^Id
Sofia, are both cultivated to protoet emMkmaato for fvrigatito i^etoe.
It to^totoA to. • m • to
aQPU,(Hk.
wMm»
>W,"to I,—a
' aumala' gwtoiwtW.* ,to*i« rf ttiiaWi, «li , W, tokniaaaa.
iilM Ajrtiinfoto. mIMi i" til*, W to ,{togi. to
toi,ta)r.4 to %)> #1.' tolW liagl to tlii, to^aOt. tt A()#tork.>Tw.
M4BMlltolM>liVatotoMvif«Hr.,a.p.,w UmK .to«a«Mt M,«b
lilliiS"'1i^ th» ^ dMfftl is
4i0
pt
■ *5!U . __,-..- ^
TUfli CM#r m4 'WWtZfd 'fi^ lorsst
mAiifmt>pin\p tho
an4 irldj^ ' ' • '
MM(ma J^inw d#^t»y1ibsirsotte8
ilk u <)e«ii«iifift •omewhvr#^ l^^trii. AM^ 1^ to be
IftiiMi M'JtfblseA'^r« ^ * >'\ >< ' "
%ro ftt«iii9 b«w«X«;iak04<4«Aatoak«v^JM^ Bk^ptUrtt aiUt to tba vest
jM Oi HjftdfbiQttatfritO W ut«t t«ito M 4^Muto BtnU MfirdKa,
bafc I l^tf'‘l»tll^^ 00^0 bito * i!^Mt aad CiiUmoh
o^ifidnMa'^buib pul; nsat 411 1 4^Tsrbi^ tHsAsto«tf»«s t 4i|»(0wiii m
Mtpiti^iHfmkr^ itostli««,4i^«s44‘"t«b]y to «»• IcMmiitjr Moh#
^ lototto beie aatond pp to 14000 totoi bui: togbsr ito tbs noTthorn side
the toll# aft PisA so ttt«fl^itto94. and Utara to more meistora.
la ’p priMltioid ptUi ^ view» tbe gmat fdvP to bo attoobod to a botoitiesl
eiatoloattoiloltiJie Kiunim imd Harjat^ toUoye is its vegetobto produotoi
and toe valae Ihey qm^r poaaetis for sa^
The fimt of tbOM is limber* Tb^podar our Aaea6 ladiaa Uimalayan
timber trt^ fonnt dmiae forest, nui# ^Wtoeb it irUt bo fouud osn bs easily'
workod* ^ban li '.afe preoeai ao'I^tt to tbs alii^eii and quality of this
timber tbat ean be ebtoioed t mtons ^ exportatioa ai^ forsst oeuiervaaoy
are toe aabii^ ^oiw require to be studied. ^ .«.
Deodar. timbir need to be exported Item aear toe Kurrum river iu
Moaitnl torrltotftbydoattngdonra toeKotram r^TlioU w aear bauqu.
Dot this bas some ytora been giren up* •
Cu grato'tbeee vaileys bare heretofore had uo export trade, prodaciu^
no more gr$in toad vru sbsolutoly required for tooal eousumptioii. 1 may
say toe same of their froite, exoept perhaps walaata and amtoh f Diospyros).
'0m oanse ot toU is simidf ^pprtsHofk There is toad onougb to double
or trabto too produee,
With a very Uttle more than ordinary care of the water, as ii is
expended, oue-thitd more .ground oould be brought into cultivation; by
appliances of a obeep nature, os wooden troughs, oue •third more; and more
eapensive plant would enable it to be doubled.
'The very first effeeta of ourruleiu tots valley will ifaow itself oveu
this season m there being grain enough for our troops tooally produced,
and next year exportation will begin to take place towarJs tce Totijab
for exchange for cotton goods, which are at present expensive.
i cannot come to an/opinion as to whether tlie nuts of (ilerard's piuo
were exported as a real tirade article i'rcm the Hiuiab* I know that it is so
irom Khost,
'ihe natives use no oil; spHutersef the toots of Ctorard's pine or of the
stenui of Tiniw excsfia being used iu place of lights.
A crude tsr is made from the roots of toe above pines for local use.
This is their nearest approach to oil. It Is employed tot loi.al upplioatiun
to wounds and sorest
A Uttle silk IS pioonoed at Shaluzau and some other villagss ; but in this
there is no trade*
Trobably the substance in which most trade is done both on a large
scale and barter is houoy. This is exteosively exported by ihrough-oameis
to CabulaiidtoeKbostconutiy. Nearly evety hoase m a viUa^e nas its
bees from Kurrum to Ali Kheyl.
in a seUu(4fic poiut of view ihe great valuo o£ a thorough and careful
ressaich tn the vegetation of thu( altogother now to suiouce nutnet, i» lUe
matonal aisiStaacc ib will give to the botiec knuwjtetige of toe geographical
(Ultcibublon of plants, and toe meeting of the several fioias of Nurope,
Tenua, Afghatusvau, '0betan, iiunalayau, and Tuujab tropical, which 1
already ace tadiate loand toe dated Koh range as a focus, hasides euablmg
one teebtamamoxedetiuUdand exumsiye knowledge of toe pecuiuLiiuee
in toe dtstributictt of pluots depeudeui on oUiuatic xoucs, moie or less
inBoeiM by a moist ox dry atmosphere.
Kcomtoe fidO spedef 1 have already coUected, I can sec already the
immense TSlne likeiy, to accrue to seientldu hotmaists by toe eodaciions X
am now making, aud consider that thclilovetaiiieut saouid periuttof tho
subject being thoroughly worked out.
XHB GAUDBN.
A :BRACnOAJj HmXJ^ROaE-aAEDKiSEttS.
IfoSto inictm its readeri, that
M, aeok idtot tiMmitoya ^ lin which nnly toe amoko fram
wnod ilM hiM i^aeilNi Rtoe mauhriug o£
loito treite^ wlta iMibiilii toe proper w*y, which R tZhm imnbpili
by biui Xnr toqguMuutoe of aimU an itmy wtoUio. try toe experimenf.
RavtoK tjito vadeue plegto ef Ito depetU,
pi^t U toto ah tortoerit ^i^toer ettd,^ufik boUiog emtor toi it $ uemg
f i V i J
«4otto«^‘t Wi']4%^ vU<))t*rlUbs }
namely^ that of dexfreying the iixeeot life with which rode huehes
are infeitid:. v It, ie to W. hdnil tokt,
regerdmg thii| matter ito way into toe
enpperabuTidahee M toatot mip9 toltave latoty'cWtkA a «4it
amount'of miaohlef, te^roeo Itoea In |>aHfoUlar. ^|1to Huy hhgj or
bestie, fa toe peat there ixioit ipanerai and moto dreaded i me Wd|r
more desferuolivo then any other ioaeot fee man Jxaa to eontend
with, except perhaps the |d»yllexeifh j this last beluff. geoeraiiy
racogiiiaed ai^ the huebaiw^tt’A worst mmmy. To ehpw vthe
serioufl exienb of the mje^lidef impending oner rose duUivatove hi
France^ it was lately stated at a ntoetlnijf of the Odnkhf Jlortioul*
tttral Society of Pgiris^ by the head j^ardener btOhan fitly, that
the firrteof tlie bug were fast desitoytog Oka
hundmi and eighty-seven days* laboiir had'^bben*^«kpe)pided,'ou
the wdrk of clearing about mi gore Of grouudf dadh iAm
in It disabling 5,iDO0 ptr distu ; the total got rid of bSng
close upon a million. Another membei« stated that moire than
half B mil Hon had bqen ooUeoted on every hectare of his
oBiate,” It is lo be hoped, that those winged pUgoes will not fimi
ihejr way m force across the Oliannel, should the winter not
extinguish them, as they did long ago^ aoootomg to old reooiHls of
their Visitation. A writer in the Phihwopbioat Traussotions
states, that there fell into the Savern, on February 1$74, Such a
Tuiihitude oftfiese insects, tlrat they clogged and atfn>pmt the
water wheels” of the mills ; and the Tfautocrtooe Of the’Dublin
Society tikeWifto mention, that the country people Ofsomo^ parts of
Ireland Buffered so severely from the same canSe, “that they set
hre to wood some miles in length, whioU parted tWo adjaoent ienn-
ties, to prevent the iusecls dispersing Ut^insdlves any further that
wa 5 .” lu fact they would seem to have tltert been almost as great
a plague as locusts now are, in different parts of tho world.—
Athsmmm*
FORESTUY.
C OLONEL BEDDOME deserves great credit for his pereservance
in the matter of mahogany seed, lie has repeatedly failed,
on aoooont of bad seed, and now we learn that out of 34,000 seeds’
he has succeeded in raising 12,000 seedJingB, and he yet looks for
a few more. As the Madras climate seems adudtobly adapted
for the growth of this magnificent timber, we shall watch his
experiment with interest.
Os a recent visit to Prince’s Park, Liverpool, my attention
was attracted by a remarkably flue epeoimsu of Eucalmip$
ghbulut growing ou a bank with a south-east aspect. %c
rate ct growth appealed to mo to be somotliiog unusual
as well as the exceedingly symmetrical proportions of the bush
and its fine glossy foliage. I was therefore tempted to hmcire
of Mr. Mason, the oourlooua ourxtor of toe park, Boiosthing of the
liiBtory of the plant, and he has kindly iuniished me with the
following particulars. The height of tho plant is 20 feet, its
diamotei through fiom tip to tip of braiicKss at 3 feet from the
ground 10 feet, or equal to a circumference of 30 feet; girth of
Htem at 1 foot from tho ground 11 inohes, and at 4 feet Som the
ground inches. The plant has but one mam stem, wliioli is
perfectly Htraiglifc and uiiiform in growth all round, forming a
boftutful pyiamid. It was planted out iu the summer of 1876 u
Huiiill plant, and giew thaleaasoii to the height of 18 inohoaor 2
I'oet. ll aloud the winter of 1876-77 oninjureJ, and started into
vigorous giowtU in the spring of 1877, and made a growth toat
summer of 12 feet m length, clothed with buuohos to the ground
The Ups 01 pmiils of a few of the blanches wore slightly iinured
last winter, but net suiUuiontly to spoil the appearaaceof Urn tree
further Ihuu giving it a rather brown uppeftpaiioe. The lajured
pom{8 of tlie Hhoota were cut away last spring, and the plant haa
giown this summer to the dimensions stated above, which (ak far
as I know) le a i ate of growth seldom if ever equalled iu itoaJaud
—IT. Hind in “ LVirdcnsr’x VhronicU.”
FORESTS DIRECTLY INCREASE THE SarpLYOF
WATER IN THEIR NEIGHBOURHOOD.
T ub; French Foreaty Deparlmonfc, aooording to tho PolvUMion
ore satisfying themselves Uiat forests directly inenjose the
supply of water iu their neiglihourhood. From careful observatioria
at benUs and Nancy, they have decided that it roius more ahuu-
dauily >u wooded tfaots and that while iho leaves and branches
gtve back the water qmqlcly to the air^ they prevent rapid evapoiu-
ijoii from the grouud, end are time favourable to the formutiSii of
eprmgs. The effect of denudation, upon the supply of water is u
poml of Extreme imik^attbe, add ihdeed, almost involves the exiat-
euce.of countries like Epain and idfiudostau IVopef, where the fall
o| hrstor has perceptibly dmiinteheih The denudation had been
catitted too far was, anepwtod, hut about the method of .te effoor,
there i<mdle,se iispote* The Freuoli experimeats show
iW A^trehleee plain, such ae Uastlile threotons
Faujah h^d hkoome when we conquered it
gradually dat€
lute a
pl*;;
]«•» «oim|rjr;‘ |n^« j^* b»*n wii!^ im It, Wmi* -.Ut.
ona p^i^bly g^tii
«ocMI»%kliiira ptoitautio^Uk na^tr aWlt fti
thafr ptao 9 | wUik tlia axoejxtloji of a Utr troA bora aod thera
So (ha Bol«nwi4 M^i^an vallaya. I^Ha natoral oomoqiiaaoM of
this lolly aro now tuaklng dkamsekaa lett Tear after year a7al*
auohaa, aoirofailtof atoaes a(i4 mndi iouadatioaa of oYer-gwoUea
torveotiy are beaotaiag iikore and ukora freqaeai; brlaj^ug mUery
and dODolatiao ia tUair traia^ 'rtkoa the NaU atream oauaea
(arribla damaga ttaarly ovary year, dasiroylag aoroa upon a^kras of
▼iQayatdaandoroliar<i8,byoarrymgdpf7ii atones and rook upon
them Sa ita oearaa. Tempted by the high prioet offered by oat-
aide dealers, the peasantry of Brixen, Bo^en, and M.eran have sold
thoMsanda and thousands of maguiBoent walnut trees within the
last few;^earsi and now the well-known ohestuuts of the Tyrolese
moantatne are being similarly saorifioed. £veu the hiatorioal Hr
at Batson, which has long served as a landmark for mites around,
and wae known through tiie whole country side, has been felled
without sorupfb, in spite of all attempts to save it. These continu¬
ed denudations are leaving their mark upon the olimate. The
spring season is now far more severe than formerly, and the spots
at one time so muoh frequented by strangers on aooount of Uieir
mild elimato are now but little visited, being no longer sheltered
from ttie keen winds by thetc natural proteotion of forests and
wood,—iPariiMT.
FOBEST8 AND METEOROLOGT,
A n important paper in Potybiblion on this subject gives the
results of observations made daring the last six years under
trees and not far from the edge of a forest, and also in the plain
and far from all trees. 1. Forests increase the quantity of
uieteorlo vatem whioh fall on the ground, and thus favour the
growth of springs and of underground waters, 2, In a forest
region the ground reoeives as mueh, and more water undercover of
the trees than the uooovered ground of regions with little or no
wood* 3. The oover of the trees of a forest diminishes to a large
degree the evaporation of the water received by the ground, and
thus contributes to the maintenance of the moUturo of the latter
and to the regularity of the flow of water-sonroes. 4. The tem¬
perature in a forest is much less unequal than in the open, although
on the whole it may be a Utile losver ; but the minima are there ooii-
stanlly higW, and the maxima, lower than in regions not covered
with wood. These observations have been made in the neighUmir-
hood of Nancy, and by the pupils of the School of Forestry of that
city, under the direction of M. Mathieu, Sub-Director of the School.
On Uie other hand, M. Fautral, when Sub-Inspector of Forests at
S6u)is,made during four years, but on a different method, obaorva* ^
tioiia on forestal meteorology which fully and completely corrobo¬
rate in certain respects tUoae of M. Mathieu. The laws which
seem to follow from the figures given by M. Fautral, as well as an
inspection of the curves which graphically represeut them, are as
follow 1. It vuiUB more abundantly, under identical circum-
Htances" over forests than over nou-wooded ground, and most abun¬
dantly over forests with trees in a green oonditioii. 2. The
degree of saturation of the air by moisture is greater above forests
tbau over uon-wooded ground, and much greater over masses of
Pintu tylvr'itrii than over masses of leavoJ species. 3. The !
leafage and branches of leaved trees intercept one-third, and those
of resinous trees the half of the rain water, which afterwards
leturns to the atmosphere by evaporation. On the other hand,
these same leaves and branehes restrain the evaporation of the
water which reaches the ground, and that evaporation is nearly
four times less under a mass of leafed forest than in the open, and
two and one-third times only imdei a mass of pines. 4. The
laws of the change of temperature out of and under vrood are
similar to those which result from the otmervations of M. Mathieu.
The general conclusion seems to bo that forests regulate the func¬
tion of water, and exercise on the temperature, as on the atmos¬
phere, an effect of “ poudoref'^n ” and equilibiiuni.—Tr/nss.
..r'l- V. " " ‘ " " . .
MINEliALOOY-
A COMPANF has been formed at home to work the Punjab Goal,
and an Allahabad contemporary tells u$ that there is no coal io
the Punjab. We sincerely true the is wrong, as the Punjab is groah-'
iug under a perfect famine of tho article. At Lahore it ooSts over
Ks, 30 per ton, wbicli makes dear railway working. It seems rather
a strange proceeding, that a company should be termed in England
by gentlemen w%.U acquainted with India, to work a material that
i» itaid to have no existence m the district, and wo would ..be
inclined to Attribute to the noble Ohairmau, a much larger a
of good seuwe, than such a proceodiwg would iudioate. VYe tfdit'
therefore that our contemporary is ih «wor.
Iq 11asaf«eba«t^,‘ two dfl ‘and;, mie' ti
' *#erkl»g in the past' year.' iiypsi^,|roJi]| Ata%m yeeehtly
ooifestid^ the most hapbriiiihti mhita
distrksf* They are stated in tb> mpOrt io, bAfA
labourers during tho, year, tim Being 39 ^^ 47 %
31,772 tone more than hei 1077 - 73 ,, SiaeB ipAht^ifis of 044! teens
also extracted from the mines in kfahbhobm «and Palguiow, The.
cosl-flelde of these Iraots rsmahi praotioslly untoOfibed^owing to. the
absence of easy means of odmmunioatloh wltb thf rsiiof ^ngaL
Pergunnaha dheria and Howagurh ht Manbhoomi oompriee a vast
coal-field, the Area Of whlcB has been esUmatea by Bdolbgists at
200 square miles. ^
OUR ooAii n%hm.
A MAP of the coal diitrlets of lodia will shew that (he few coal
deposlti of India are eoa&oed to a b«ll^ strecohlng from near Che
Assam frontier south-west to Bombay, This belt oovers nearly five
degrees of tatltnde. but beoomesnnpromtstirg towards the teAaSierim
Provinces, and altogether diiappdare in oar pvesidepey, sbhih of tho
Kistnab. When Dr. Oldham* the flbperititendeat oi^ the Oeologtoal
Survey of Indie, wrote his report on the Ooal Deposits of India, be oame
to very unfavourable coaolttiions both as to the quantity and quality
of Indian ooal^imii laid it down authoritatively that a system of forest
cooservanoy became* iff oouseqaeiios. a matter of seriojis Importance.
It is fortunate for railway purposes that the mdet workable coat is io
close contiguity with the liners between Oaieulta and Bombay, aud that
Central India* ooal will be opened up to a very promising extent. The
Oflologleai flarvey did ludia vast good, hut there wai many fields that
it did not oare to iuveettgate, As an instaooe of (his neglect, we may
msntioiik the Itidiffetenoe to Captain Applegath's discovery of a very
good desedption of ooal in the Qodavery district. jEfie views were
ridiculed as nmuomaniac, and the officer under whom he served in the
KiBtoa divisioQ* and to whom his report was submitted, did not hesitate
to say that Appiegath was either the vletim of a delusion or himself
an aumitignted humbug of the first water. However poorly it treated
Francis Appiogarh's schemes, the Geological Butvey of India has done
Indian coat deposits justice, There are many districts, however, which
remain to be Investigatsd. and of nearly all of them report speaks well.
Nearly all the coal produced by the infnes has oome from surfaoel
worklugs or opeu quarries. The deepest pits, Dr. Oldham said, were
only seventy-five yards in depth; this is, oertamiy, an argument ia
favor of the mines ; it speaks irresistibly to the eredit of the eopnomy
of the day, but the fact muse not be overlooked, At the same time, that,
while such workings soon become exhausted, the exposure of the coal
left iu them must at* the same time deteriorate in vetue. The Bast
Indian Ball way oontraotors used a good deal of this Inferior coal, wo
are told, when oonstructiug their line, but the wantof rowii prevented
farther attempts lu this direotiao. The thiokness of the seams was
very encouraging, and striking off even half as not workable, a residua
is still left very promising Indeed. Dr. Oldham seemed to bare been a
very Nathaniel in this question o( good coal. He did not anywhere
deny that it was to be found in the districts named, but his reports of the
material were so dlsoouraging, that Gv>verameut failed to take such
aobtou, as it might have done, under differeat oouditlpas. His ooucln-
slon was that ludian ooal gave only one-half she heat ihkt Euglish
produce did ; that it required mote stowage and a greater number of
firemen, and Ibis handwriting on the wall was, u&fortnuately, accepted
as final. Optimiits though we may be eet down to be, our canal naviga¬
tion and demands for the article now point to a day, not very far
distant, when ooal shall bs added to the other resources of In lia, and
a loug list added to them of resources which Nature, with no namlstak*
abie haml, beokous us to Come up and enjoy. The importauce of Indian
ooal will ooiitiuuA to abide tor many days. The rail ways aloue, wliioh
have their ternini at Qaloiitta, will cuusume mure than half of this
preoiouN oroiluoe, and it is not unlikely that steamers will call for the
rest. When this produce comes to bs written off on the tables of onr
oommeroUl resources, steamer freights and charges will oome to he
reduced, nnl prises oome to be won in our black diamond lotteriee,
which will create a plutocracy that Iniiia muoh needs. A diiohavge
in full of all olatms will be hers, and rhe profit gained by the Coal wUl
be notbiag 1 "> the wider area over which her credit will be established^
Madra$ Mafi.
THE INDIAN SALt'RANGB,
T HB PaU Mall 9 azett« to hand by the last mail, has a very interesting
article on the Salt Range, ia the fonjab, ehlch faai long been known
as one of the most interceUng and important regions of BeHish India,
cUiefiy on aooount of ita highly fcssjUifetotts rocks and onormons deposit
of rock-salt, which, tor extent add parity; are eaid to hanoequaiUd lathe
whole world- Ito mineral wealth doubtllem early prompted the collae-
tion of iufCrmatiou regarding it; and years before ^e ecoqnest bf the
Punjab, British officers penetrated thither, often at great litk,and reinrUed
to report on its g aelegy. Within the Katb ten years it has been carefully
examined by Mr. Wynne, of the tndiatt Geological Snrvey, and his volu..
minbui and interesting report |hem on has ja«t appCstedl tho 0 ^t ftaug#
oeoupies historic’ grcuddi-<fb»c' extremity rcstlhg upon the Hydaspos^
or} dhelam^ ^ thb'^ Cthei^ itpCQ the Xodof. or VrhUe jts eastern
extonxion battla-^M of WtimwaUal^* where (hat fiMnons and
dmpeULte fikkt between l;he firifith, nades Brnd^ughijpud the Sikh army
^ ^ TT^-r-VT^u-'-T-r s-^-'r^’TY-^y -- f" -
|iUr.^r
poltii»n ' «diitii^ Salt M# ]^apar«
]{m ^« iiya^>riaa <kf
iHnil^told^ BaW t)lati>aa (lyiOi^ to t^a ftorCtt) M ^rouglioftt iU
]«ds^ of ftbotit^ 100 tikilesite ^eotlvittas attd Id^ aliffiii.
»Wi^' an avOTij^ of 2,000 labut^ on %h» ^«at iteii-doaatb jpUm
wbiU^ apmcEa aoathw«t4 tfl|t0a Ajfablaiii Soa* Mr* W;rftn« aonaiioca tVt ifci*
A l?oi^uW arror to i|p«a% ol tl|o |ango |0 exfcfoalof *o*om feUo wnd up
to t^o $ofod lob* in AlgteiaUQi «l t^a lalt tbero ii Wievod to be of au
o»fciret$r di^ant |i|;» W poaitlon* Ifli ditfowat panta of tba raaf^e m to bo
looQd l^tno iprifif Op hot apriog (intbo Bakhtavina)—tha water of which
if ooraiaA hr a (Ate Sim of stpanm^ anddapoalte i biaok tanaoioao ma<l used
hj tbo naSvaa at 4;a for bOtten olt^h, aod poteoUhm apvinga* Viewed
from the ooffiht the aapOot ef tea raoga la that of a mo&obonottaly uodulating
and oat Vary lofty ri0gaiVith bomo OoneidoaoQa enmtniia, oororad with
•ombby jatiglaor ahmbr j white, from the aoath the aoaroity of yegetetiou
and tea bright eolouriog of tba rod, purple, grey, orange, and wbitieh roetcs
of ihaetifll aod alopaepteseiit aatmg aooMt, l?ho dry and eua-pareUed
faea of the range radiatoi «o mueh absOkbed heat, that an enoampment at
Bome distanoe in the ptainO thouah'hot, ie eooler than one at its foot
Large deposits ol salt ate known te ooeur at Mordiia in the Foralan Gulf,
near the shpree of iho Caspian Sea, iu Persia, in Algeria, Gormany, and
America; bntthose of tho Indian Salt fiange teem^ardly btfetior in extent
and purity to any of these. It it by no means easy to attempt oven a roagh
estimate of the enormoui wealth of salt which is to be tennd hare, but it
an average thiokneie of only 135 feet and a width of t&reo miles be
assigned to the beds, then in the 130 miles along which these ate seen,
there may be a solid content of nearly lt> onbie miles. Baring the progress
of Mr. Wynne’s survey tliree mines were being worked on the eastern
side of the Indus, and the open queviiea of Kalabagh on the other side.
The largest mines are tho Mayo mines at Khowra, In these, vast bat
dangerous ohambmrs had been opened up by the old Sikh workmen, who
were so careless in their method of excavating that two heavy pillars
supporting the roof cf one chamber were left resting on a thick orust of
ealt spanning another large ohamber below. This eventually gave way in
1870, and the riiius of the fallen mass were so great that
qnite a crater was formed on the hill in which the minei are situated*
Ever unoe the advent of Qntlsh rule, a better system of working has been
introduoed; and. instead of gaining entrance to the mines, by a slippery
incline, one can now driVc in upon a tramway through a spacious passage,
in which duo provision has been made for ventilation. The old chambers
still romain to he contrasted with tho new ones, and when Ulununated with
ooloured or magnesium lights t^e effect of the brilliant erystal fiiccls and
stalaotitemaeaea In them m very pioturosque. Nob long ago gunpowder was
never used in these mines for blasting purposes, but now its advantages
are fally understood, ifiomthe Mayo mines Ur. Wart estimates that 300
lakhs of maunds, or more than a million toaa, have been removed, but
uotwithatauding the lengte of time daring which these miues have been
worked, and though each season adds a conoeutrio belt to the excavated
urea, they show as yet no signs of bo coming cahausted.
Fassmg by the Sardl aud Varoha mines, which are of less importance, a
few partioukrs may bo given respecting the KalabagU or trans-Iudus
quarries. These are all open workings in a thick group of salt bods, ranging
from 4ftt to 20ft. in thickness. They rnu oloug the right aide of the
Lnn or Goesai Nullah, the salt extending from the baso of the hill
aa high np as 200fU The outcrop runs for eeme two miles up tho gleui
and thero are fourteen working places or qnarries. A good idea of the
quantity of salt produced by the S alt Bange mmes will bo obiomed Irom the
Value of the aggregate receipts from the four mines for the four yeari; end¬
ing 1870«71. Those receipts averaged £888,144 annnally. Where the
workings have been must carefully surveyed, the salt has been found iu
sones, conalstlng of several dlstinot beds v/ithm distances of abont 800ft.
200A. and less of the top of the marl and gypsnin. There seems to bo a
larger development of sixtealled bad salt in the western than in the eastern
part of the district, but it must be xemeinberad that this bod salt would in
other distriote be extvemely valuable. Although arraogemeuts for tho
transport of the salt by wire tramway, and rail from Khewra ate in progress,
a very wasteful system of carriage atiU prevails. The sal tie teauoed to
rough spherical lamps to prevent the orneis from being rubbed off during
ite tranepoit in open nettings or hair-clotb bugs, and au enormous quantify
of it is thus wasted,
ihtril^pavfc*
gold g|ftV8 fildda' tiiU nnok^fwd
raiaod g^kdhaa oohtHlynfced
Thh oatiiaatea iHow « atead/ il,i74,83G itt /iUi|
quarter qontufj pr^ewHag l52!Q td lu laM; h8Ve»
yoars. •
petrolbom: as fuei,
A MG1T90D of using potkoldapEt as fuel for stehot boUdfs
beeu recently tfie4 at Pittsburg (U.S.) wUb, H is 88id,
complete encoeee ; and, aa oil can bo had anywhere te the Ttgion
of the wells for about 7&^> a barrel, the company who hold tho
patent helieve that tho invention will be readily taken up, eapoOially
by the owners of steamboats. It resembles, according to the
Journal of the Franklin luatitute, in ite priuoipal features,
many of the forms previously detcribed-^air, steam, and oilsprsy
being injected into a suitable iire-box. The qyray is said
to be immediately converted into inflammable gas, becoming a
pure, bright, powerful flame, devoid of amoke and producing
intense heat. To acootnpllsli this result extremely simple machi¬
nery is used. A small bole is drilled into the iron front of the
tire box, and into this passes a tube, which branches as it leaves
this point into two pipes. One of these oopneots with the boiler
itself, and the other with the reoej^tacto oontairiing crude oil. At
the junotiou of these pipes there is an aperture for the admission
of atmospheric air. yalves of peculiar construction r^ulate tho
quantity of steam or oil admitted into the furnaco. Tliis is all
tiio macUiaery required, but its operation, according to tho
FHisbar^ Telegraphy is wonderfully complete and remarkably
sucoQSsful. The little steainar Billg OolUm wee selected for the
test, and was fired up at 0 an. A preliminary blaze of wood
under the boiler raised the small quantity of steam necessary to
start thobarner into operation. The oil value was opened a
trifle, the steam valve ditto, Tlte petroleum trickled into the
feedpipe, was caught up by the steam, and both plunged into the
depth of tlie Are box, a mass of many-tengued, roaring, brilliant
flames. As the pressure of steam inoroased, this flame grew in
fury and intense beat roaring through the entire lengtli of the
boiler with a sound like the coming of a thunder-storm. The
needle of the 8team*«gatiffe climbed rapidly up the dial, and iu
twenty ininutealho safety-valve blew off at 120lh. pressure. Here
was a boat puffing througii the water with no sign Of smoke from
her chtimiey, no speck Of soot in flue or tire-box, no flreman, no
opening of faruace doors, uo dirt, no coal going in, no clinkers or
asiies to bo seen anywhere. A turn of the hand regulated the
terriblo flame thst seemed trying to overpower the limits of the
fttraaoe, and another turn of the hand brought the Are d /WO to a
quiet little flame a foot or two long. During the forenoon occu¬
pied by the test about 20 gallons of crude oil were oonsumed, and
it was osttmated that with oil at one dollar per barrel this fuel
was equivalent to coal at six cents, (quantity not stated) in heat-
producing value, other things being equal. But other things are
not equal by any means, the journal referred to declares, and
everything is in favour of oil os against coal. Tho labour aud
the expense of firing up ” are dispensed with, and the ©ugineer
can regulate the flame as be does the steam in his engines. The
daiiger from sparks and flyuig qinders is eutlrely done away with.
Tho space occupied by oil, as compared with an equal quantity of
coal, IS very much les*», and this much is gained for cargo. Farther
tho wear and tear u|)ou boilers, grate, bars, &c., is infinitely
lees ; and, it seems scarcely necessary to add, the comfort of
passengers is greatly eiihauced by tho absolute freedom from
diit ot all kinds. It is urged that to ocean going steamers this
device must prove of groat value. A tank of oil situated at a
remote end of tiie ship would hold fuel suflicioutfor a double trip
and supplant tho groat coalbunkers, with their attendant diit. It
is also maintamed that the new furnace is full of promise for
railway locomotives also.—Sociely of Arts Jomuial.
§ktter}i'
Balt, te not by any msans the only miueial produot of the Salt llaege.
Coal of 4 fair qaOlity Is fouadt 4hisfiy at Btiagauwala and Calabash; petto-
leani te aoi)riI.qaaniity at Jaba; bpildhMt* stones are obtuioedirota the floe-
grauMd saadsteass ot the purple staadsteue group, and onumental st<^es
frm the vOrtegateff huMstoao. Besides tbeae. gypsum exhte iu Quornwu^
quaauties, .aU<f aiu% gold, aud other miuetels are werkeil^ bat to m oouai-
deraWeaxteut^-^iadteniferafd* , ^
It is estimated thab tlm lotal product ol lha prooioaa mstals
•itico tba. dteOKWtety ol America liaiilteeb A2,0117,7343^0, of wibloh
gold haaooiiatitut<kl £||S22,440,0(^., The product in theeixtuenth
ceutuiy is giv.eu at £206,l2o,3SO,>dl'which gold oeuaiitnted the
larger proportion m the next cauiory «ie |trpdnct reached
€440,54^470, ol Vhioh gold uonstitateii a little more than oue-
TEA*
IS regret to learn that the tea industry in the Dehra D ion
dUtriote is meeting with but poor success ; in fact, that fjr
some time liow tea planters there have had no return for capital
laid out. We have positive proof of this in the Beport of the
Licende-tex operatioua',” which has just been pubiished by the
local Board of' Revenue ia whlph we read that Mr* Moss, the
Superintendent of the Boon reports that the tax on “ the Ua
indostej iiot bring in so much aa Mr. Hose anticipated, most
ofiheitte^eompanies proving bg their boohs that they wre mrhUig
m
a
wIM |MW<lg wilt iipjan X
fif ^«y Of OhPOutMWty, ONI W
wi(bino^tltUo,btf|;)>t{|Qrwt<Nl^ tl^y bftret»«wi 4<|fiiii
TMir«tl«ji|ooiqolo,^fIiilMj«iir)y #oma bUi(ttt or, ati»«f» oow ,
tt 1« T^-»^4«r ; tbeb bliwb unt) t«Htiy noil Ov*r/ jOor
R sbtMTt ittuitor $ Ulg Tory gtrRugtt.-^JP4fy>tiny
Tna falnro of tb4 Qoyiofi Too tnoy bo moot favor*
Ably aflMod by tho nows wUioh baa raaoued Colombo of
tioftoUatmao bo^iVeon Oayjoti propriotora oftea plaitfeaiiooa and
largo lea, daalora In leading pr^viuciat towna in tho CniM
Krttgdbm.^ It it aaid that in one ca^o an agroetnoot haa boon
entered into by Which all the tea produoe<) and maiiulaotufed
on a^eeftabi.^tateia to goto a Qlaagow firm, on tema wore
favorable than at preeent rule iu the retaU market in Oolomboi
whereM, everyone knowa, locally prodnced tea eeUe at a hieli
flgure*^80 far as tlie demand rcaolws, Alooril pap or roinarke
titat the example set will no doubt bd followed in other oasee,
for there fa plenty of scope outside of Hinclngdane, in Zioiidoii,
Manobeeter, Birndughawi Bristol, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and
Aberdeen, ijf anly the large tea dealers can be got at, as well as
in the oapitale of tlie Australian Oolonies ; and in this way
CeyloDtea, to highly esteemed wherever fairly tried, will get a
lepiitatiou which **,Qity** Brokers and experts way try in vain to
shake.
A VISIT TO THE TEA DISTBICT8.
I T has often beeo asked of late—Why does tea not pay? and
some very able letters have been written suggesting the reduc*
tioQ of some of the Brokers' and Agents* charges. Without stopping
to discuss the merits of this proposal, 1 will proceed to give my
experienbe of a short trip to one of the tea districts, and endeavour
to bring to notice what appears to me to be the prlnoipal reason
why the cost of production so often, in the present depressed state
of ths tea market, exceeds the return.
Early in tho movoing the Manager and myself went out to muster
the coolies gud set them to ths work of the day; this done, we wont
round and saw that everything was going on satisfaotorlly. This
took some Ume, and before we oould got back to the bungalow
tho sun was uncomfortably hot. Tho loorniug soon slipped away,
and 11<30 wsa on ui in what appeared an iiioredibly short time.
About this time 1 noticed men with their hoes shouUleroo making
tor the lines. Thinking these might be some of the Uzy one^, 1
diow my hosCs attention to the fact, but'was assured it was
nothing unusual, as the men had finished their daily laxk. At 12
the goug was stmek, the leaf*tduokers came in, and to the leaf*heuto
we went to weigh the leaf. Here, too, 1 noticed that the people
had luosliy completed their task, and in many cases ejscsedstZ it.
At 2 r.Hti the gong was again struck, and tho pluckors turned out,
and also such of the men as had not finished their task. About 5
P.M., the people were called in, and we went to weigh more leaf; this
lunc, however, I found au alteration iu the anaiigemeuis. A table
had been plaoed near the scene of operations, on which were
counted out a lot of pice. As each Woman's loaf was weighed, her
total quantity for the day was balled, and for all over and above
the task she was paid. The sums vaiied from six pie to six aiinaH,
This was called ticca" work, 1 have not much to record as to the
piogiess of ihe work besides this : it was hoeing and phtckiag
daily. Of course the manufacture was going on, and T was left to
amuse myself as best I could foi some hours daily, wiiilst my host
was away looking after his tea. 1 ehal) not forget the expression
of his face when ho returned one day esoeediugly “ put out** about
something. To every question 1 could tUiuk ot, [ could get replies
in lUQtiosyllables only. But at last bo gave vent to his feelings,
and sought relief iu cmvtiding to uio his troubles, Tho whole may
be suiuiiied up by staling that the villagorehad not been to work
for two days, and he had just heard that this was duo to Ins
neighbour having raised the rates. A shot I interval of unevenUul
days, and the incaunr comes up to^ report that four cookies had
absconded. OfiE go men in . :iii8 iu every direorion, Meantiiuo
lufuriuatiou was sought from e\<^ry conceivable source, but ail that
was obtained wasiui to the last U<us the ooalies had been seen. On
tiie fourth day the last pair of lim men scut to search returned,
stating that two boat loads of ceoHes had been takun down the rivur
the night succeeding that on which the coolies absconded. Tbete
being no clue to their'whereabouts, the pissumptiou that they too
wero m the boats predominated, and further search vvas GOU»*idere'i
usoloHs. 1 was destiuod yet to see ouemoro annhyanoe in ennnee*
tion with cooUsh. Tins lime three coolies came to tlie bungalow
stating that their agieemonts had expired, and uekiug for ihoir
discharge. They were asked why they wanted to leave. “To go
to our aountry." ** But you have not mousy to take you there,
how will you go ?*' A reply was given evading the question, and
thev were told to |?o to lUe lines and come agaiu two days heli^spi
Tii«u oimued a series of inquiries as to why these people wact 'Ml to
leave. No one knew; they wens well treated, bad easy A'ork,
faciliiieu for living cheap, ^ what mure dul ttiey want? Bui one,
wiseacre suggested they had been asked to go t c- - *i m ii ( ig
a small gaideu iii a jungly place* being opened out by - uhtorou
ga^% t)tere) ag toey had hauD
A* w<v be ^ m
piaasutoi hot it moat uot be. topptoadi We
wauf ^abuut to maisy g^eua,
vidit would adiAit, of the 4)fteroot ^huliia toggrd
garden work I did not'toe W
same five bobto ofi and umetoon off for Imetofiy ^ wia o^lloe for
ptuokbig leaf aeeuied the toK ^ wto Aoe
struck me very foretbly. f hotieed toma to
detail of proottsa of manufaetfjtre to gear)/toa^bhuae ^ went
to. It is not it«oee»ary, however, that 1 toould htoe atoto exaeBy
what I saw ; suffice It' to say ttoit the above .atate^f ibhrgt dees
exist. Aud what attack ino Waa^ the matmer in whldi ifie oon*
versaUon was changed by some of the plaidOra when it get
anywliere near “ simp,’* m it was tertoed, meaning anything
relating to ^hc garden ,* aud if 1 dropped f'ly Mnt that X waa a
stranger and felt Interested to saetog tea taanufaetured tovifaa<|iuite
ignored. 1 have wondered since what the motive could have heso*
Had the man some secret iu hia taa*Uouae, or Was he ashamed of its
arrangements ? But t am pleaked to' say that aiioh oases are very
isolated, and it wan a great relief to get away to the next garden,
where the very reverse to the above trsatiuM wus met with. I
was asked if 1 wool Hike to take a walk ° throogU the tea-house,
and when I got there wvery little detail waa pointed 'Outi X could
feel that I was in the company of'a man who takes a pride in his
work, aud, what Is more, feels hiutseif tpaster ol It. I caunot iu
this'paper enter further luto what I saw; { have atoeady pointed
out what i wanted, aud at an early date will give a brief sketoU
of my “ aj^er4Ucaghts and suggestions/'
F. E. t).
in Slatfman and Friead o/ /ndto.
Calcutta, Oiltoher SiSth, 1870.
TEA MARKET.
A LONDON oorrespondsttt writes i—Oouotry beyers having abstsloed
^ too long trom the markets, and having allowed their stocks to ran
out* thesU'CDg spurt in tea has been msintaLued, and the market having
been oleared of many uusound dsalera. is abls to take full advantage of
(he improvement. It li stated that a degree of fiymness berderlug upon
exeltemeut—euch as baa oot prevailed since the aeaaon 1870-71. during
the Franco^Oermeu war—baa charactefUed ibe market. Buying baa
beoouie genera), apeeulators lesdUg the wav to the commoner sorts of
tea, but is extended by the medium and fiqSit ktods, and the tone of the
market Is etiU esnguine. One trade reporter remarks that ** the total
quautitv iiketv to be exported from China Js etimated at U5,000,OQDtb.
and 38>000,000tb. are expected from ludla. A most important step in
the dimotion of Safer trading than baa been carried on in recent years
is the spreading of sUpmente over the season, galling ships are ouoe
more to aeoure a portion of the carrying trade.** Messrs, d. D, Btllar
U Oq.) m their olrenlar, remark that the eiatisUoi tor the last month
an agaiu strong, the bouded sleek in the kinadom on the 30tb altitao
beiug ustimatetl at dO.ODO.OOOlb. against 112 000.Q001b. last year. The
iTap»rtsfor the nine moutlis were 123,000,0001b agaiust 14&,7501b.daring
the first nine looutha of last year ; white the deliveries were
l6l,CK)0,()00tb, against 119.000,0001b. last year. The quantity on the
water IS aUu ooueiilerebly smaller than at the same time last year.
Accounts from Ghlua.statotbat theatooks at all toe ports have been
oleared at an advanoe of about 20 per o^Ot, upon prioeS ruling before
the rise, aud it is believed that fresh sullies will oome forward from the
country, attbough it is not expected that more iban oue^helf the
deficiency wiH be made up before the end of the season, the danger to
the trade and to the public generally being that large quanUdes of
re«drisd* wdlow, and other leaves will be manaCaoiiired aud shipped/'
The qaautiij' of tea forwarded (rota ShaOgheii and Femhow ,tp TiSOttiu
aud theporh of Ghiua for trausmissiem to X^ussla thlsyesri seev^ding
to latest ^ri leu mdv|eesi amounted to l2,700.0QOIb. dgaiolt %6^.OQ0fb^
ia«itycat, ahd by late telegraphic acoOuats the Bosslan bey’en had
secured ak m-t^oh atod and fine tea as they boUld. There Is, rherefofe
good basis for rite opinion that we are likely to experi«>nos a seareity of
ailgotnland Hns'eWs before the next eeSsou’s crop okn bi btougbtto
uiarkei.—Time* •// /ndto*
TflE CULTIVATION QF TBA IN THE UNITED
STATES.
T hebe eeem« to be an impresston in the XTnitefi fixates that if
ihi Araeribaus chooBC they, gtow hoythtofi. Sbme
American 'genUemen have demonstrptipii to thaif owd totItfjtoStiou
ihat tea can be grown, and they are making the inopt of the idea*
A iiaper was mcetitly read al the Atoefioan HortiooHoral Sqeiety
by Mr. WilUam Saundei'a,'. of ihe 'Agricnlttiyal Department of
WasUiiigtoii, upon the cttlNvation of the tea plant in the tlulted
States. Me. dattodcrsaaid Tlie ptant #ae growing- in a nnrsaiy
^ ill Oharlesto'wh^ab ha 1312, but perhafis tos^firsH serious eEoit
to introduce its onlttire v^i^ made about lfi48. Daring IB$$ the
ITuttod Btotto through theDbmmfM^oner of Pattots,
iutroduced abefit kdn thousand tea plants Ito&qChina. These Vere
Placed under cultivation, and were aoon increased Jo 80.000 plants,
WST..
r WiWfitew;
4»^4 IftoilHy* mwo
«!^;ar!S«S;5.»,{^,^
ill5 QtUil
!r ireariiaittjJwiwiC. Msik^h .n«flt
^ (m m^irii^iip «loir yoom ff'm Aorocopiioiit wore to
,0004110 «l^ft^fifto ol;,^ $x^ planVifwitU
, jtjuu, X^, foofl mplo<i(t|i MoibiOAttSotoii^ OMii^iiroil, * le^ioo of
'4; ((bOolfOPIl^opdOtta of MW oolo. orooM t>o ftiPPV ooftoioot for
^liiO;OOf^i^>ilp&ofe,or'OMOMo ia< yoorly oOom oo xotgt^t be
mmntpeii^ oovom
ShM<t f»f M tli^ oife
,i)r^t w* <—.111* .,«#N» .e(«{it>«|,'ttn
to, horn oboil4«
fi^ia KtM iTM
Iflo"
loqoir^lor o oJl aofc If St 4lioaj)g /oorf. It boo been oipply
oomons^co^d tbtt toot monufootai^.»;aq(i,pitots grown iaibis
eoiMitfyirool tbo Clfl^a 2 Mail
' / " /‘‘WFeE./' '
’ '' u&kusis Fci(o'''(^dri'aBi.
/Spll plttler vtidfff wlU perosa wltb kloiipL <ibf Mtr It #blfb t
U getUsfton ItsgeTy iatereoto^ la aoioe/eoUti^ (a Sotth lodls*
ogtlo girts Otyltn tbo, bsoimt ol bft pbtertttTon ,tii<l, etptileooe
4 .ooordr 0 |[, full WeigU to ibt foot tboi Iff, tbtpaU B«rteo with Mr
Crlebltt la vbi#lag tbe tppOsffweebt toaf'atistkf tt Httufe’s paafsb-
aieat for flols^loa of bar iswt of uftriHoa Ood pfodootton, we o§a
but tik oorreiMlOre to apply to Mr. 1!01ptitt*s lattOi^tbt tiiaalki oo this
snbjeot with' Which we aeoompaolail Mr« CriokUi'i, It saaoiiS fitpor-
iaot that w>6 Ibootd know what that psroeiltast of A«h if whiah pura
coffee ahoald yield, for in the omo of tea It U held ae beyOnd doubt
that the artiole Is dirty or adnlterated fa tbs proportioa ia whtob the
perseotage of ash eteeeds fife. It U, ws aoppose, POfS'bk tjiat
different modes and degrees of oaloinotioa night wmo^stt for a diifer-
eaoe ol aeh so great as that betweeo Mr. Qoohraa's 4 per oeht, and
Mr. Toiptttt:sfi4. ^ the latter tow proportion of ash is what para
coffee, properly treated onght to give, then the odudaSlQn ie Inevitahlei
that the apeelneo which gave four per cent, was niied with extranaout
lubitanoes of eome sort, perhape bed nerer besh properly freed ffom the
imrehnieat skill t ByoQffse,‘w«oertatnly uodtritaiid theoUaa beans
of Qomneroe, and not ooffea Ip parohneot, far less coflse dried In the
cherry. Profsuor Wffgbtsoo, of Olrenoester, etrongly recommended
the nee of katnat and ite eery rlobaase in common eait, (whtoti Coy Ion
produces abundantly, hut the rWe of which in Ceylon agriouitare the
uovernment monopoly debars) ssened rather a reooumeuaation. espe«
elaUy in tbe case of ooooanoi palm eultare where the nse of salt Is
** iodlosted.*' as the doctors say. Bat we Wmr a large Import would
lead to Cofsrnmant interference, lest tbe muriate of soda should be
separated from tbe mnrlate of potsah. Where potash fa neededt—and
no doubt ^s oircumstanosa of young estates, or thosa rich in decom<.
posing felspar ara eery different to those of old properties,-*then
withdnt adesblpo It Is better to nse the subatanae richest in the desl*
derated iatt, Mr. Xolputt adheres to the views on the neoessity of
potkih as an elsm^t In perfect coffee manures which be expressed in
bis original letters, ‘Those views attracted the attention not only of
Mr. Hughai but of Hr. Xitwes, tbe greatest authority living on agri*
eultnrai ohamistry, Letters from both have reached ns and until they
ara pnblUiied, (In an early issue,) wo deter auy remade we may
have to offer on potash as an application to Oeyloa coffee estates.
As to lime, w« have frequontiy suggested that tbe huge heaps of
aoonmolatsd pearl *'oyster^ shells at Silavatorra onght to be utilised,
they are of no ttfs for Buropean. msnufactortng purposes after
lying for any time. Perhaps weitherlug may bate lessened their
Aluo lor our purpose too, or the queiBons of labour and freight
may Intervshe. As regards the coral formaUone so common on onr
Coasts and thews of the portion of Bouthertl India opposite Colombo,
Ibay hhys bean, and are being largely utilised for lime, and ws
Miipset the only limit to ihstr larger nse is eostol sacrlagB, as road
and fallwsy o^ntaatoatlon is mcrssssdi Ibis objeetlon will be rsmoveth
ASiltsaaoograally mknstiarwksi-^^Mmprovas Mie msohanlcal oondition
of stiff dafiotta^ is soateslf matter of snrprisa that UstouWbo
xmiaidsd ssamaanfs, instead,of merely a dlgeswr and wl vent. It Is
not only ussfnl as sn applioaUcn /|r«<iMy to tho soil, hut ^
»Copieai” trsatmeut of Mress sffcotad by h$miUU^ vaHairia and ** black
bug.** lu the iattff csis Iba benefit Is'great and ^sedy. Mow that
OeyIon planters have bwii fnlly awakened Of the vaineoflUeMao
Improver Of sotls 4itd an enemy of btisat and fungoid bllghtaibera is no
need to drgenpoo na its llbmat but fudlbiods me. Above and beyond all,
moat hapSrtamt isama tbe information wbioh Mv. Tolputt affords
f«gavaitigtbeljiolbsdolMaildguano,^^X^ very abSeucs of ammonia,
whiohittodOobt^adshoaiBfoO ih*; lOw prlw m whisb lihiji iuhatance
iMlg fi Baglaad, jwodsrs it valnabls tons in Gsyloai lor a onltnrp which
needs IlMe, in tbs ampoafphmiMeaaimoially* wor« than i^cgen^c
matter. CoeWitnotha maoiuisd that a vsewl wwsyipg to Amirif^f
&lsAferttt«tJ.ssiS,5»s
lU u I .., .
• XUi toMw.will b« Ifnft a «Ni Om(«f«AaN ai*inii*aab /.i*
MuvuiMi «nJ9 09 nic caec cvefywaerc in cava, ms mmois in
the Ksthorljuias^ Indian osti mafc&^ ^l^ Will ho^e^y^fsSMllad.
FaoM tlio J$Md mnM «ro Mf n ^4 on 4hh Bith Bwj^teiiiher,
2d,000 pionls first ^naUty CoVeraiaaot' ooffso, and ^ OOO fiools
aenond qoality, woro sold by it .Madsag aft ' an
avorago respsotiv<dy of, and IHfi. goildora .par, plonl.
Qn tbo 29Ui Ssptombor,' 0^,000 Libodn, .iMMieu< bg|rlea were
sold by auction at, fat i^gUs wyinc Whft.lO ,|o 4
: g^hjlder oanWiaflV ' 1qb%. 4^. f
Qardons at mitensorg. In a laW to ini Waeyia,|9^&2ad on
tibOidh coffee, hthtek ii^«Tbo'pnty %h^'With*
held mie froni thooth^httdfng' thw of Liberia' ^ffee
Otherwise than by' Why ol expefihteht a groht olihiioo of
soooetui, was my^ Ignorance' of ffio taste pf the' beane, find of iho
market iralue Whf^ depends thereon, > L fattwo ^ howowor dikrtug
tho lost few days tried ociffeo gatheiod at Ohikagmstthr and had
it tried by others. Judgment was nnanlmoue an tar, ^at: ovary
one found that ift was as gbod as Java coffsa f aotena oTen,
found it better. *S!ja» pubBaUed ^uarkat value if Jd sio^daooo
with this, One great adv^^otagq of the .iLJibsrhm oppisa whioh I
did not ascertain until lately is,that It again bloseohui on old
wood whioh oommpfi ooffse Vefy seldom Or never does,
CACAO.
.. . ... . . . .I .
A OAOACI oatate in Trinidad of 330 eofes, having 33,000 treoa in
f uU hearing, was rsosntly put np to' attotioo. XhS Uda ran up
to £7,600, but this sum was declared V 4he aiicUcnser to bo below
the reserve price, and no' sale was effected. The proper^ is about
five miles from the port, up a good and assy road^ aud hss in addi¬
tion to tbs dwelling houa^ three Oaoao houses, two labof ora^ hoiiieof.
and three laborers* barracks—all under galvanised roofing knd
fioored. The reserve price was 40,000 ddla., or rather oVef a Wlbr a
free, the buildings going With and forming part of tliy^Jprioe.
Taking tbe ayeit^e value of cacao ait 12 dbls.' pe^ fanego TllOlb.
fing.), and the ahnuol average yield the'Usdal hue of Iflv. par free
(tho trees are planted at the uiuat Short' distanso Apart,''Which
aOcounts for tbo smalt field tbrougbout the'Mand). The'ordinary
crop would be 67,000fb. or'518 fauegav,' wdrth 3,21Q d4ii4aj« and
the cost of managmnent, of atook, labor, hags, rspaira to butldings,
&c., being usually considered covered when se neat town hy 4 dole,
per fansga; the net tnoome would he 4,144 dole, or about Ilf per
cent* on the capital embarked.
OAOAO PLANTINO.
As praeUadd ie the IfeM’ Indies,
T he fiueat variely of oscao is that from Veosaula geneially knovm ai
larrcoss cocoa. Ihe land iu this country fa generally well ouited for
the cultlvatio n, but so low that it ia expoaad to inundatioas with any oou-
aiderable rise of the rivers. The climate is at tbe same time very humid
and warm j the thermo meter oooasionally inarluiig7i^ cent. The vegetiAioa
is so vigorous that the sugateaua whiob,in the valley of Cacaooat requires
18 mouths to ripen, ie here cut attar ten months and StUias oooasmnally
the height of 27 feet. The syatem of urlgaiiou isuet praottsed, finitly
because it la ooetly, and secoadly, because the iamla seem to retain their
moisture iu the lieigUt of the laminer,
When Qommeucing a c aose plautatiou, the first step is neoetsarUy the
clearing and preparaiiun of the geounds. This is gsoerslly done is the
summer, which la the mOuthi of January, February and llaiiQh, lo that
all may be terminated before the first rains coamuBoe, in April and May.
Jtowa of plautatious are then set to give sheds to the ysuUg oaoao trees
until the ** buroacea*’ (speeiea of Erythrina) are ■dvaueed.suesgli to form
shade trees.
'Hke plautatiout are set at etated diabanoes so as not to crowd the young
trees, bat a great deal m thiS depends ou the nature of the soil and the
species of moao planted. In a virgin soil, whore tho tree if likely to
attain a good siae, the trees ate placed 14 or 16 feet apart, to thit io a
space of feet square there would be one at each angle of tbe sqaero.
This distanea is reduced where the soil ie poorer. Some planters by a
system of false eeo nomy phiut their trees closer; but this is a bad qyftem,
fur though there may be a greater number ol trees to the acre, the produc.
tiuu and vigour will he lesa from want of air. the tte^e will ahuot up thin
ftud weak and produce ISia fruit,
Theepecieakuowu as Trinidad Cacao, is father larger and birder
and requires more room, but It is usaolly planted in poor or impovarrieh.
edsoUs. It hea degeneiated mtudi, and ivUbw chiefiy disbihguisbed
from ffm Creole Cacao by ifta greater rcfslstauoe to atmospheric ebangea, and
by Ibe hbarSiM hod tsastment of its fruit.
If tbs gfouad Is fto be planted with bammss, as soon as it is possible
treoehssA^fi ftBsdq^tjn^Wipff the water. Nature can beat be followed in
this by affording litsiiltiss lor earryihg off the excess of water'arihlng from
the h^vy fsiiuu lu this sonsiBts ^e prluoipal work of the piauters of the
«i^ilBi%%.ttittiiep Si^ pin# i«#B|rW0M#nit##4
ntt«on tvM rtquiN* likfi proUntkt ^ttndn of ifiloitliP lro« tn thrfvo/
vuiAilw.jgofliiiOf {t{f« fboDMro 0 rfq(fiTiio iiis40| iMiio* iho bwmor
#imtftttl vnfltoei sli Int, Vttfc tho buet^ ^fOtonti it dttfliMp it« aftor tifo.
Ofllli thn# ti«»'i|iplftutod oltbor by wielHtii o» no#* in' tb« ftttervnllNlttreta
bo«o» iTMii Of about 9b to IMI fiet
U llA iwA^ i(to» tout tho o(»«Mtfob of ptopMlvir ili« pl*nt#!on ti
Otttt#ittttotoito##«dttodiof><mqotontoibmitabe#^ lothat
ibei «i «9 ba tontfy for ntoirtn^ «lMn abobt « ton Witlw old. Tho
tmk <^tvliiap1toiHu«T<Kt»lrM jiraat earo. to M to h«,f« n ball of oarbb roood
U, and dam nrait bo token not to injure the vootot for it theie ue danumred
tboi>l«nt dtoeo#. The younger the »tontoaretmi>«fered» tbebettotthef
BOoeeed* B to bettor to fotm e ptoutotton from aeedf, if the neoeeiety oero
ton bo ffiten to the toong groiring (me Vitoont too mneh ezpento* la
tormtog iee&bedi too dneit indte ere ohoien tolly ripe j toe^ lert opeoad
mlUi tore, lown not to tnlnintlte need, whfeli ere let e foot epnrt in furvove
about M Miei deep end iUgbtly eprlnkted orer wtlih earth, end then
Domed irito ptontoln' leeree* After dftm dayi toe leatei are remored, u
toeaiiedi wlH here aprouted. From toil tlino to iranip&nUng ell too care
neoeetory li to keep doim nrcede, whioh night oboke t|ie youog pUnta.
The tree re^uiree to be kept ftee tooto weede and uto, trhioh are fond of ita
young )eite<»eod boring gmbf,whieh attoek tbe bark.
At three Tears too treto begin to flower, and a year after they produce
some fmit, bat it 'i« not till aeven or eight yeera toat it glvea any good
Drop. The age of froiting'Tertetlei, in toe intoHoc of Central Amenoa, la
about eight yoen, in the tole of Quape aeTaOf and ahont Sgnador ikd the
banka of toe Rio Negro flve year#*
When toe tfeea btoln to ripen toeir fruit, they are vitttod er»ry fortnight,
to gi(M toe podt whiOh are ripe, and to trim too tree a UtUe. Thia ia
done by fomata and ohildreo. The woman detaeh the fruit pods with a
knife or chopper mounted on a long stiek, and toe ohitdren aolleo^ and
carry , them to the etofe, where the aeod# some twoufy-five to thirty-three
in each fru^h eto ektmotod. The fruit pods are of different ronne end riiea,
•ome nioe inebea or more in length am called ** oona* toogqeA*' o|kera
ahorter and rounder, but on the whole larger, are ealled **auiolitoe’* tojma
toe meat eoinm<*n, are a reddiah oolonri dark or light. The licit kind are
ooniidared tba beat beoanae toe bnik ia thinner, and the fmit oontaina mere
aaade. It ia generally a light red, but •ometimea white at flmt, and tnrna
a palish yellow when ripe.
When toe leeda have been removed from the pod toey are Tlaoed in
a eloaed atore bonae. in order that the vl4oenapu1p,^may beaepatated,
ladiy weather a single night will anffice for tiiis, out In wet weather
they may be left for two or three days without inoonreoienoe. They are
then dried in the air, ezpoaed to the sun in a oonrtyard or on drying
framea, being tamed abont from rtime to time with a rake. Right or
ten hours of aim is generally suflloieat} when this oannot be obtained,
the operation ia repeated on the following day, and they are housed at
noon when the ann la at toe hottest. They are left in the store to steam
or ferment for e day or two. If the ooooa ia the Trinidad variety, it
requires four days or more to ferment, wht^n it sMamea the odour,
colour, and tavto of Creole ooeoa, otherwise it becomes violet tinged
and acquirea a sharpand bilter flavour. Some growers expose the seeds
on Urge sfaeeli to dry, so that they can be quitnly and readily honsed
in case 01 rain ooourriag. When properly treated and dried, the ooooa
assames in the interior a blackish tint or somewhat of a brick, ita
ebaracteristlo aroma is well developed, the taste is agreeable and neotnonsj
toe interior of the seed assnmes the colour of the CoSmth raising
and It it is opened witli toe nail, traoes of the pod are seen.
This kind of ODcoa was that formerly so much oultivated in iheM pro*
Ttooes,and eonmidered the ohoieeat, being espeeiaUy demanded tff the
plantors by the Ouipnssnanian Discnyan Company, lb is net exaetlf the
kind wbieh is now sought after by shippers, who have a prejodiee in favour
of rad ooeoa for a natural or artiflctal oolenr. This is given aitoer by red
earto, briek dost, and ooeasiooBlly by vermilUon.
Between toe appearanSe of j fmit dud its ripeidiig, there is an interval
of nine months. *^6 average yie’ i of a tree msy be taken to be due pound
of ooooa. altoongh some assamc to be on# and a qaarter pound. In a
rioh virgin and Ikvonrable soil the tree will last toirty.five or forty years,
in poorar toil only twanty or lweiity.tive.-^t7i^loni TVme#,
CINCHONA.
__________ . i
A OOBRK&PONDRNT to the Ceylon Observer writoa %o iliow
tka value of oinoboua offloiDalu!| 1 may fell you ihai a prO'>
prietoT in Bambodda hae refuned i&500 per aero for bis, ag«i| from
3 to 4 years, I He values it at £620 so aore, and line a
acreage planted.^’ Wo can bpiieve thin, beoanse we hwd' tku
offer wan one of £40,000 lojr the property, wbioh was ref need I
tkrifdr* WefakvsiMi^fliMii^i # osk tklHiftir
^ ledte s good fiVoat to fhfIt'aliSto Igtaliiigee
sIMd be prodsobd itoT (toeapty # lo .plfkos t##b| of
milUoo« ta I^dis aud dim^ w^o «rs tio# yMdli df
too poor to |>urdiato quitiiiiio at ito buffiito ^ '
It was dsotared a toff days siitoO iff'tRs Jii" a .ooiitoiii-
mrary, that ttieto ora pkobaMy da ufti#/ M. fl#^tosu ftfilltotti of
mooliona #anta noff fu thediitoflbr stoted
soma time preedousty tk^Hffsn^ toitBtotoffOutdprdbably be about
the immber, but we are uoff aipmired on the best iothoril^, Mitt of
ohe who has taken tlie trouble to Ihstittite aud collect rdaia,%hat
by the end of the year, there fffU hkkk beSu ptontbd dut thirty
mitltoua of •eedlingS mAnt't^f^krnd that ffvo'years benee^ there
ffttl be fifty milllorie of gtowia# Ftom this uumbor, how¬
ever, ffe must mkke a libeifal alfbwihoe tortaitnrei, tohloH to aoine
oases irkouiit to fl% pdf ' oant,' The praaeitt efmsflmptton of
olnotiona bark throughout U#ih<^dis stated to be 10,000,0001h. ;
what U may become when the arti^e has deotlned to one-third
it# present value,^ if is not sasy to detormfne* But at the same
time we must sot torgOt that otoohoua mililvalion is making rapid
strides in Java and vorlont oarto of India, and It is quite probable
that in those tffO odhittribe tlikto may bo a lu^re proouotion equal
to that of deylon. Whether oiiftIvAtioa ahd^artifiqUl methods may
enable the oinohonainroffer of thdfntnre to Qg a large quantity
of the alkaloids wiihin the bark, Is at present. an Open question,
and it is no doubt that to obtain an enorwoosly tocreoaed produc¬
tion wilt demand the moet careful oultivation, and diat the future
atohty ol the uaarfcet to absorb the eutlre yield o| the world, will
depend the oheapness at wbieh febrifuges ctn bo supplied to
the wriTT&.
Fortunate, Indeed, are these proprietors fflm embarked in this
oultivatjon eerly to the day, and who now find, themselves in
possofsion of considerable tracts of tlie quinine yielding tree that
can be turned to account, whilst the value of the article ranges at
about its present rate, a certain fortune to the grower. Those wlio
follow innst be content, however, with a more moderate retoro,—
fndta Obe^rver,
SILK. .*
AILA MTHU B SILS.
T he 7 V 7 »^s gives the following account of the acclimatisation
of the Ailantbus silkworm
For a long time (ha mulberry silkworm lies been the sole
ptoduoer of silk known in Enrope, and no other species has been
able to rival it for the beauty of the silky staple of its Cocoon.
But now, after more than 30 years’ persistent epidemics, Uis really
at A ioSB that European producers attempt to niaiutidn here and
there, witlumt auy certainty for tlie (ollowtog year, a tow silkworm
nurseries. Oommerca seeks in China and Japan, where laboqr is
eo cheap, the greater poriimi of the silks ussa for weaving* These
silks, tiowever, are of inferior quality, the peoples of the extreme
East keeping with jealous cure their finest products for home use.
ThuH our silk stuffs are no longer the magnificent iissuos which
were the glory of French inanufACtories, and we may see every clay
in the shop windows cheap stuffs that have far more dreasisig'^’
than silk. In these oircuiustanoes French manufacturers have
been lookipg about to discover if iio substitute exists for ttie time-
honoured tnuiberry silkworm. For About a dozen years an
importeil moth has beootiie a Fesiich insect, living in a, free elate
and effeetigg Its reproduction wUhont any interference on the
part of fuaiu On the other hand, there Is ueoeseary for. tlia mring
of n#rtinry iHfcworin, the purchase of healUty eggs, « uumery,
and mnlhef^ trees, implying expeueee which lead to a greae tosa if
tlie rearing to a fafiure. Many persont may have observed fiyiug
about to the e veglug to the month of June, to the aquaree, aveanes,
and in gat .^ns, with ailanto plants to theneightioufhuod of Paris,
and even in Paris itself, a large month,' with wings variegated by
longitudinal bauds. In winter, there may be seen hanging to the
lettfieaa braiiolies long coqobiij^, of a pretty toeai|> ^ay. These are
. the work of the caterpillar ol c^(nt^ia^^ or m(anto pilkworm,
introduced into .France by the Aoolhnatiaatioii. under tha
direction of U* Gudfto-Mtotevtlto ^ The moth fe now ae ini^^
bornelw France as to its uaiivo baiMtato, <aK rohn#,. ee lam, and
AS welHotoored osin the uorto Al, lUtito and Ohtoiu fifo great
welcome hae hitherto been givewtff the new.oomer to France. Tha
cocoon ii aot very rtoh in silk, to to strongly ioomSled, endj on iliie
fgs(Kmiit,prdsent»vd!fEoatoieqin ffeavtog, being regarded ae good
ooiy tor prodaeing fioosiglk-^a inaterial of little Valftc^ Attests
have beea mad^ to^ It {bat ?he wtndtog yiMds only the alngle
thread of ihe cocooor^top fAue to be uaad, ogil requiring apecial and
qxpenatrt.toM^nb This quea^omhaanow^ huffever, been #lu&
up Aud amved by 91* to Doux. m hae suooeeiM 14 itome ektout
to aeplttifteg from tboink, pentotjdiig the ibi#idi to be
dfAwn mi^ gmA ^ Hkvrn,; sumt^ ^
i\m^ iitii^ w ^ \ ««
fmn»l wwtid uttu Mqa^ tl|A4 b«|m bgr .Uift
of aM iti^t Utrl^ P# rawjfe \be
only, Jkl^^3.^^♦t^ Itn *1b titllifpd fp ^wiiisf»
lntkl»«#M»o^tiiy mM*toX>ott«liai«t1^^ «nk
i« bbUiood irHb tho iNiwepiihii ii9dtli««pin«bftii4]^c«MM m
crd&np^ iik% tdlk, i6 tliAi tio pbjooiloo o«i) now be ritiad <m the
sco^e Odrezti,flues. The eiMoitpeiHi pi eflk jpvottiioedi etre of n pr,e(ty
blob^Polphir, epd nuke e|iefming etefli of ^m» ooleiir. Hoteover
both PrsQioh end Eatlieh dyera wUI know bow to gire Uie silk e
variety of eol^ni. The reering of thta tew eitkwom reqalree
neUhetf oikfe nor exji^ee. The %lld tooths look iftef thetuedvie^
end it ob^ retoftStiB to coltoet |lb» ooeoons et^teched to the leaves of
fltoeU breoobee. The, eilihto tree of^ Jepen, on which the worm
feeds, li el rspid frowlh, jmd edvoirebly edepted for oovering
w«Btoiq)eoef. '
silkT^mthTsea.
T he flee yields many precious things-^oorsl, ember, end pearls
-«bot it is not ffenerally known that in certain parts of the
Mediterrsneae a speoiefl of mussel is found, of which (he abells
ooiitaiii one of the most beautiful textile toetetiale known« These
shells are about t iUches long end S luohea braed, end each of
them contains a hank or byesus of the Abre, Weighing half a
dvachm, and at drat U pre»euta nothing peiticular to the eye,
being eoUed with mud and the remains of merin|i plsnf# But when
washed and combed the flbree are seen to he extremely loatrons,
glistening in the flunshioe in sliades varying from a golden yellow
to olive urowii. Spun and woven In tbe ordrnery manner, stock*
itigs, gloves, neckties, and similar articles can bs manufactured
from them, and they are likewise sDeclelty suited for mekiiig the
iiuest lace. At present tbo proauotioxt of thefls dbrea hardly
exceeds 200 killogramines (3 owt«, 3 qrs.) uyeSr. Specimens of
these curious mussels and their dnished prodneta were exhibited
at the recent Paris Exhibition, but they appear to have been
overlook6d.-<-ChMe/re Afaga^ine,
TOBACCO.
F OLLOWIKCI the example of Jamaica, Gape Colony is taking
steps to bring into the morkets of the world, in a manu'
factiirod state, tlie sopplies of tobacco, of which it is capable
of producing such large quantities and so good a quality. Tbe
tobacco plant fiourisbesin ^uth Africa, and considerable oropa are
1 eared annually, the produce of which is employed for manufactur-
iijg and fumigating purposes. As yet, however, the careless m>d
primitive methods of preparation have prevented the colonists
from smoking their home-grown tobacco or home-made oigers, and
laige quantities are siiDuslly imported from abroad. Jamaica
cigars are now, thanks to greater care in their manufacture,
making quite a name for ihemselves in the English markets ; and
there is no reason why (he Cape colonists should not, by showing
similar enterprise, glow enough tobacco and make sufSoiently good
cigars to supply at least their own wants, without Importing, if
not to export a oonstdorsbls quantity to other countries. An effort
is being made to establish a tobacco factory in King William’s
Town, wlien every care will be taken to ensure the proper
manipuletiou of the fragrant weed, and to place home grown
produce on an equality with foreign tobacco and cigars.-*Colontos
and Jndieh ,
TfliE POSITION OF TOBACCO CULTURE IN
INDIA.
rpHE foIl<twlDgpaper by K. gchilKmey^r, Aietsfant SaperiDteudent, Govern.
1 meat Farms, will he of krteieet to oar xeeders i -A proper rotation of
crops being aivantageoufl geueially, must bo perticulaily so for the enlti vetor
of tobacco, stoee tobaocc leqaiiM a great amount ol readily aooosstble
inorgeaie matter in the soil, especially potasli and lime. Although the
importeneeofcoUivatingtobaooo in rotation is admitted, there ney be
cireumetencee that justify the growth of this erop sucoeiBivety for several
ysevs in the flamkAetd; In America, tobacco is grown MKCeseivflly for
several years on W land, that is, virgin loll, where the elements of plent-
food exist in such nbuutecfl, that the tobiCQP o top may be thus cultivated
without for a time showing any notable decrense in y^d ; it is even seid
that rite ontoian) of (he sentuid year is htmvmr then thi^ of the Arst. In
Hungflfy and NoUsuA the best tobaceb is gtown fSbi niany yeato ih toceek*
Sion of the same lep^. There the plan is adopted partly ont of necessity
and pertly for ctiflienee. The smaU landowner Is often obliged to
grow tebSdto bn ^e eame Arid, beoflUfle U has mriy one pifloe of land ^
properly fitted f:^ ti^acbo cfllrivation } lor ths sake iti ContenieBoe he grows
bia tobacob eve^ yesir on the isme pteoe near hit ho meetoxA to allow him
to pay tbe oloseit httOflAihn to hisflrcp i he will. hoWo«eri.niinuTe heavUy.
Kessler, in Cartsrnbe, estivated tob»^<d«riag she (^seeUitye years in the
same Arid wlihout noticing any peieepyhle deoreato in yield or quality.
To admit of surii a fystem, Hie <dthag be very r^k tothe risments
essentlel Ito the ^uptoiwfiil growth pi tobiocA or hsaTfiy msnumd^ as is the
praotice tolollend^ ymtetiBy sstuflerilrimt^, whto toto^
on the suhae Arid in «ie^|Miion« the leavwedonethecbfltotolerge aftex
Fcotorimfoiegriniikiitohld4|i|toh:t^ attkough hAisetotoi^tofcNtt
Bttooflssfnily on the ssme land In •xtoeetion under special
the ofllrivator wUl And it AdtsstogiOfli to edopt sbUtopkh Of rtomn*'^
Cereahi end pulsto ato vpari well edsptodfirr eritlvatiou to Che cosrtodt
rotHtion* The r^wsons for this iithat^sstotooeoiemovet
photic arid from the moil, the ila tee miMit be enriflhed to the iteflat Sate*
neoeseary for the growth of esreele. It has alee been fo end that hflnp
tbr ivea partionlsTly well after tobacco^
Seteriionof‘8ytotee«»Aineagstihfl many lequlremfluti thai teted be ful¬
filled to onsure sueocee to iheeulrivation of iriMieoo, not the feast is the
proper fleleetiou of speries and variety. The oidtivetor asuit eetofn&ly
Gompere tba deteands that tbe dlAteeut variriaasmstoi and toe tefsus at bis
disposal to setiaty them before he makes his srieetion. Although tobaoeo Is A
hardy piaei end growe under varied oondiltoos, yet tobeoomeafemuBeralive
crop, the plant abould not ba plaoad under, ricoumataneeamttoh diarimUar to
these to which it is aeoustomed, By the agency of ihssa riroomatenesB, the
ohoraeterisUoa of the differeut aperies end varieties hsvt bsfn ehiefiy
developed ; the shsenoe of the agaats mutt necasaarlly involve eo alteraticn
in the product Thus Itls evident, that by impoitiiig read of a fine speries
directly from ita aativa land, the plants will nottetOto to th^saw habitat
all their aperial qualities, unlesB riimato, aril, end teeatmeat art nearly the
tame* It is true that some fine spericn of tobaoeo, which havd been intro¬
duced to Gorminy, Hnogaiy, Holland, etc., are succeiifiilly critlfated
there, and are highly valued $ but the high price this tobaoeo eomaaada
there to some ptaeee, to not ao much dua to thoia qualities for theseke of
whioh tbay are so highly astaemad in fbair native Umd**>toa arCaia^bot to
qualities reBulting ohiefiy^rom the mode of oulUvation. and the treatment
of the produee. By digging over bis ridh eUnvial soil two feet deep, and
manuring at the rate of ^ tone per acre, and paying the utmost attearion to
bis tobacoo, the Butobmim iq able to compete snoeeiifnlly with Fraaoe and
Hungary, mod laeaivea as much u Ba. 4t per KKft., and a gross tooomo
of Ba. 70U per acre plauted with tobaooo* Although thin shows how far
oUmatto dofi^nrias may, wirii regard to profitable eultivatioo, bo snpptonied
by iptriligeuoe, yet it must be admitted that this oan be done only under
peonliar cimunstaacesi and appliea esperirily totho eniati landholder, tu
selecting a sporiss of tobacoo, the oUmate mutt first be oousideied, As shown
above, fine end valuable tobacco toa produot of tropical eouniries. Inn
warm climate, poesesring a certain amount of humidity, by emplojtng
common means, a tobaeco may be latoed that yielda a profit not attatoabte
in leas favoured regions* A warm moist riimato admits the selection of those
speriei of tobacco, that command the highest prices ; if to this baadded a
•uitable toil apd proper treatment af the fc cbaoco, toe cultivation of tnie
plant yielde a profit not easily obtainable by the produorion of any ether
erop.
The followtog table shows toe price that the Austtian Governmaut paid
per lOOte. of imported tobeooo in 1863 {-«•
For Manila
tobaoeo
iH
88 floriue,*^
„ Havana
If
•««
«•«
78
i»
„ Earopean Turkish
II
««.
72
II
Cuba
#»
...
...
84
If
„ Asiatic Turkish
I*
•t*
M.
38
t»
„ Varinas (Kanaster)
11
•*•
48
„ Syrian
1*
■*.
...
66
11
„ Vlrguitan
II
86
II
„ Brasilian
II
...
28
II
„ Kentucky
»»
M.
• •*
85
I*
„ Java
„
M.
*•.
66
M
„ Maryland
11
...
...
29
II
„ Holland
•1
«•*
...
26
II
The highest price paid for Hungarian tobacco was only 22 fiorins pet
tOOIb. Ik will be noticed from this table tost there Is a great difitoranoe
to toe price, Ike Manilla and Havana varieties commended the highest
prices, but it must be remembered, tout some Havaua tobsoeos command a
much higher price than these figures show. The highest price to commanded
by toe tobacco rmsed to Vnelto, Abajo, on toe west coast of the Island of
Cuba, for wbtoh sometimes an much as 760 to paid for 1001b., anib aa
muob •• a rupee is paid for a cigar. For tobaooo raised in the intonoii
Bs. 6 per 1b. to frequently paid to Bremen.
Tbe Frenoh Government arid nearly 200,000 kilogrammes of imported
geunine Havana cigsrs to toe yosr 1867, at an average price of 50 franos
per kilogrsmine. It to calcnlatsd' that 260 rigere weigh eus kilegramme
(abocs 2‘ilb.), Bl.snUaiwero sold at the rate of 20 aud Ifi canliuesper
oigar. As of all tobaocop, toe Havana varieties command the highest prices,
the ottltivatof nearly everywhere attempts to introduce and to cultivate
these vatiriiei; the toba^i however, sp eedily dsgeneiatei and forma new
varieties if the riiinatio conditions, Ac., are not tovonrable. It vroulfi
sppeat that Havana tobaocoi ate not properly oUssified as yet— they
apparently belong to several spectoa.
The ITiigiuia tobacoo fKtootoMa omnnaiiMia) was prevkmsly extensively
«uuivate4^ but bos of lata baenftequeutlydUptooed by toe Maryland species.
It to, however, still muto tovbut^ by eultifalors in temperate climates, as
it does not Vequtoe a biigh temperature. ‘Virginian tobaooo to, pn accoUut
of its boknlpai flhafjSdterietics»usnaUy not much liked by the maonfaotureto
of cigars. As iha^ priue of this tobioeo ii^toer low, it m not so well suited
for exp^ ha ,tos' mdo^hytdU speries. Hunganan tobaooo (Ktoriiowa
rurimalrtooUDStoaradto be a veiy hardy, buta less vsloable spsriss than
P'"^riteiteto werih aboutSa
t'*''' ‘ i ■' ' *'-' ? ^ ' '' ': M c\
A1^ I||i^pigfi4lir,iq^^ 4||(t»«|i^%)i^lif
ia$AmAm 1| iMit Wit
R^^«^vt«»44 #M^|il(M4 ^ fibi MA vriAb «btt1»)d^b• mA
iotiMr,lMiM9jb <if t»m ^
%p$viiim.mAi^u Tb«te«r the iM«dfttl«f« of ,Uni vttbeht
iliiiiaar will bTon^ti; (lt« Uaf» tht f«w«r ot IM f^i^tbtitorA tom* tlif^iBom
d< Ifb' «l tobiom* ol^oMiiilitoMi 1»mng equol* tad
bti^ii^tW itrlQs itf Tb«<to ftoumciifiMr eijsftm
^ 4«m fipi»ftobto ibo itmm* N PMb M Urn Hom«
to optbliig to tom^om<tlto^bAtoAiMl iltormtonr tbe^Bnett btouuitto DmI wtnOA
Ks d but Uiitli nloi tobiniillil^retonit bdltotokbto toittproto bjr
minimal to a mktoto OAtnifc <Aeto«to to finfoar. Of bU
SkoUmt^ mmtAyU^ tomsldimd to tKiMeM Oie qttilitito that Aitbiog^itli
b gopd tojtom to tbAbii|tot4«Sto«*. d thB.fiA?tiiB tobAoeos bBt«»D|r
p tbto Aptoim* M Alto thA Ohio, tb« Amoicriifoft* /Turktolif And the l^utottt
«bfte« 0 tft,, Tbe Wtimtioaoftoto torgtit proitovttoiii overT^
r«Aiv«9dtoAMoibif ofjVtitotiM^ MibHriritttoi IflotABtot Aitoofdliigly.
i*lpn0^A light Atoble toll bttog tba btit mdaptod for tobteeo
uUiVAttoA gtoAMUy. to ^ttitonto^y fitted for rBit&tg ptoato to the
arieiy* To obtola tluti;to« eo&l iatoofied for A nmvsy fboald bo broken
ip to thAfieptb o£ 14 toekioinqtoontlui betofAthe eowitig tiMon^' A drain
hottIdbAAag round too Bnitoi|i1lnd>the toUobtotoed. niUtoafi to raiiiagtbA
arfAM* TbO'. beto ItHA top tMiMptontiQg totooeo to «bA field to^ tbit ntlgb*
)OQthood^]W<»fi4'beisttaMdtotolr after tkAiio»tb*eAttiiAiaa $ the pt«&tA «ro«ildi
hen moet peobBbto reach aMAaritjr without iht Aid of irrigAtioa; the
aoiBtuee to the eoU end thAbeAry dews at that title being aofloieot | end,
A for the ptodaotUneol^Afiflideefr AinoUoUwate it eoaiiddted htoeatAry,
bevAlneof thflouttarn wontd be ifinoh enhentod* If, ho#e?en tbe toed
ltd to be eown before the moaeoooi the yoiiiig tender plaati» hnlese oarefuliy
heltered Irom the wtod end heavy nXwti woeld uott probably taeeamb to
heiootoatontyofthevtitherii It may thecofore ^ be iitatoed that where
he taint are very heaPy^ the time for eowtog ia India' It immediately after
be heavy vain of Uto moaaoua it •v«k. The lotl ahontd tlierefo lOf to pi moO
njoytogthetheiiorth-eattmotttDOa UkeHadrai. b4 btob«a ftp not lator
hen the and of Aagaib UaldMtheeoU ba vary rioh in ‘ hvttttt, it ehould
p 6 heavilf qumnred wilhwtUpieterved fariii. 9 ^uiaoare eoon afierwardt.
L'he eoU «d a tobaoeo Bttrtery eaaaok oontain too mooh organto matter j; it
t aaid that one oontaialng ae mvioh at per oetit of tbit adbitanee
trodiieed the moat vigoroat plantt wbtob developed a great number of
ibrooa roota, A toil ocmtoiniitg mueh hnmat will prevent to a great
pKtont the formation of a anrfaoe ernet whlob it ao detrimental to the
levelopraent of the planti dnring their early growth* and will also faellttate
the extraotion of (he idanta when trastplaatiag takot plde^. After a lew
eeekt have eltpaed the aoil thonld be dug over e teoond tiUi^ jtnd the Whole
'edttoed to a fine tilth* The land may now remain untoaobed until the
■owing time, nnlete weeds thonld spring up t tfaeie mnit bo eradioated*
The area required for a nnrtery depends op the area of ground to be
planted, and on the dittanee tba plantt require to be planted to the field
To plant ao sere with tohaooo plantt two toet apart in each direction, lfi,89(l |
Lhree feet in one and two in (he othardireetlon, 7*2S(k and to plants
Lhreo feet apart in each direetion, 4,fii0 plante are required. To ensure a
healthy growth of the youugplaute, about a square Inoh tpaea thoifid be
lUottod to each ia the ourtery* Taking the number of 7 *260 plantf at that
required for an acre, and givingeach^ plant ohe equare inch room, an area
of 7,000 square umhea or 50 equate leet, would be required to raise plants
luffiioient for acre. At, however, the plautt am apt to be injurod
duxiug their first growth, aud many are rendered utelew to lifting them
for traniplontittg, at alto a niuber of plants miut be kept at reserve to
replace those that die after traaephnittog, the provident cultivator will do
well to raise doable the number of pla&ts aotwatly needed. It may, there¬
fore, be laid down that 100 square feet iX nursery bed is required to raise
plante taffloient for an acre.
The amount of seed required to tidK plaits tor an aore depends Chiefiy
OQ the Vitslity> of tbe ecod. An ounce of tobaooo seed contains about
100,000 gsatos, so that, on the supposition that a plant oau be mlMd from
saoh grain, nearly seven acres could be planted with the seedlings rtissd
from one ounce pf seed, .aeooAitog to the fovegotog ealOolaUoa. Ae.
however, even the best tobsMO ,seed hsi(nqtA verytogb perpentoge of
vitality, between half anoancdatid aue Of toed to geaerb4y sowa
to predaea tbo plaato teqairSd fto au'icrfk.
The time Qtsowkif having aeiived, eheH nuraecy ehould' be divided to
hedN, The most eouveotoat. arrangemssk weald be, for ithO' SakA ot
-- _ -----ju above, Phtototor
halt aa acre can easily Vatsed, AS even witil a emaU tobacco ptoh^tico,
eeversl dsge are required ibc troasplauting, ell the beds Sheum' act‘be
•own at one time, but vattoas plctq should be eowu at]totsrvalS Clm tow
dayA Thw will also Iftoeu the vuk of the youpg plants Wng alldstoil^
by astornf. iBM6Cte,Aa. Before eowiog the seed, the eof Itoomd be' qdg
over to the depth of sto inches and levelled with a rakC, thk sSM\i(Sr<'
tbeu be sown: evenly cm. the surface and beaUa down slightiy wi#tbe^
hand dr otherwite. The seed bemg very eultivstora mjigdt
with aehei Sq order to be utde to dlsinbuto it regularly over thft hcL .
The reed xnuw be coveted Only elightly; the best way to do (biiT SS'
Itrew some fine eemptoft manure over it. Ants, whieh often dbevroyl^'
seedA, maybe, hept qff. by spiitok^iwmmeto^^ bed.
eome cut Straw may b| al read on ^ surtojBA To nrotect the uurssiy Itomin
the eao end lam, the whtde^toouia be covered with a loi^tnade otstiaWv <
leaveA.or doth suppottel by potoA ^^his roof etiould be oitijr a
tiom t^ gcouad. The soil of tbe ntitoSIX, topto ..be, kept moist'
p1aiM,iu.AAepstoto bad* ^It 'tS' qaivef^*T;je^|fte^i^^'Asto;
Stags of growth. WhsiilbSpli^ars al^ttiW ww< toquiTe,
leM attsutton, and tooeld fit^atordd keto f^totoly to hatosn them
befora ttamplaiktiog. Ahy wsyds a^dbg moto ea remtoed, wd tosedli
itnnrious to the plants must be killed. In about seven or eight ’ weeks
after sowing, the plants will befi»^iitotoplantieg,-*PUeiwy
_ APVEBMtillm.
THE INDU E AflBlO gmiai;
of Sub«osrti»1ila4,
/a/r^to.—Qnejfeaf, toolad^g postoge,,..* Jts. Ifi 0
Jwltor^A**-^Oitoyewr ^ », *•* ,, .13 3
Siligto q9P3r,.43.1*
, ilLdTertietoOpieatia.
Frohboy fiaok Page.Bs. fil pey:tttoath.
OrdlmN^Page. .. 33 „
•” ” JJ «
4 J'Age ... .. li „ .
10 dcAf. Yidi/kpHon on 12 month$^ contrmU.
_ _ Agwati in 3Uoa4^;
OBOROK STBKBT, Bbq., ... Camhilk
F. AL0AB, Feq,, ...8, CUvmU4ah0^ Xcnrfca, MX*
KICBOLLS 6c 00., ... 1, W%it9ftiar*t*Hr00tt S.C*
BATBB HBirOF A 00.4, OldJ$my, J^tmden, JB.C.'
Hiad OvviOAx^, CaowBteauas, OahourrA.
Se BOMBAY BETIEW
AN0
INDUN ADVERTISER.
T his journal is pubUshed oo Saturdays, and is sent to all
PARTS ot iNPiA y* its object being to promote the public
interest impartially, untrameilea by local or class Influeuees
Animal Sabtioription (post paid) ... Hq. 20
HwywlF do* do. ... „ u
Aoitim:
Calodtta ... *.* Wyman &Oo.
MaPRAB ••• Higgjnbotbgiut& Co*
BOtibAt ... ... *.* W.^aliiop&Oo.
THB BOOTH OF INDIA OB®BBVER.
PuAtish^d hi-wtihly at Octocotoufl^
The Head-Quarters of the Madras Government Ihr the
grreater part of the
Is a Journal devoted to the planting inteirests of Southern Indie.
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
(S&otoitoe pf fPitagp:^
Per iqwem
half-year
„ qoaetor
rf mensem
Sigotoftoe pf jfPftayp^
AdvaaoA
... jae,30 0 0
... u 10 0 'O'
... ,,500
... „ 3 0 0
Arrears.
Rs. 38 p 0
H U 0 O
»» . T 0 0
2 8 0
troB
'roprietor*
ABYsnOnAs 'Tuna.wwu.a
ira.QeQitOS SAVKULBY. m liOAdMi H.
iHL li^bhe sole LmeniM tor 4h«ae Wells in Indto* M aWpUoatioei
THE OeVl^QN AMD INDIA
planting. OIRRCTORY
. , AKslAiineoeA '
it A. *HD A FXSiGItrSOW.
.(.Uw,.' fat .Ml* Oi
Nlifwiij! ' o»,lM m*4temaMnj.
i, ™>lrt /
MimBAL(>Gr, ANi> sTAtrMm. =
?; YOt;;IV.l
CALCCTTA: MONBAt, l«r BBCKMBER 1879 .
.XNo. h.
• - AMKRTISIMENTS.
...iM. .n', ti .—
(5ITY LINE OF ^STEAMERS.
For Loudon diroet Sues Cunal.'*'
“Cityof Oxfonl ’*
** Oity of Onmbr-idge’'
** CUy .of lil^ea ”
** CJty of MftDeh<Bt«t”
**atyQfOiurtbage^'
«C3ifcy <st CWiterbary”
«CityofVottiQ*«
** City of I^ndoo **
« City of BdmWgb ”
**CityofKUiog«
City of Ag^a*»
Ton»* 'Captidtii.
itU Thorny
2S20 Moffiii:
^290, Oordoii*
aiaa MiUtr.
%m Jack.
S2ia Kttr.
S207 „ Barei#.,
8212 MoNoil.
9212 Audorioa.
8246 Bamtt.
8412 BoUertioQ.
Tbe CC^ of Khios will leave about the lOtb Deoeinber, ttod will be
followed by tho Vittf Ji4(knhu^sh witbru a fortsitrhti
GLADSTONE, WYLLIE A C0„
Ageuta. V
EDUCATIONAL.
EBUOA-TIOlsr
WITH 8IRNAL ADVANTAGES.
IN TAB HBALTHIBST LOOai^lTY OW TnB HBAttT&ZEBT FAHT OF TUB BABTlt*
L ieutenant-colonel e. f. akoelq« aa ez^staff ogioer f t
the fioyal Amy in Xudie* .who r«oeiitlf.mi»i(l to »et^ m Tuetnaniii,
has eeleoted oe bUi permaheot abode the town ol" FOB&llix at the nieutb
of the iferaey river, and hae made eKfaugemouU for vhe edneaiioa ol hie
own aone and thoee of geutlemen i'u tbe neighbourhood; and these
arrangemente are each oe to enable him to extend the advautagee tUue
teoured Co tho aone of gentlemeh in India.
The eone ol OfMr* and Cirdiana iu India will be received * into
Colonel Augelo'e own family^ and will proeecute a coatee of atody whioU
will eompriBo all the branohen itmladed in the carricalnm of a fitaUclase
academy. ‘*-
TERMS:
Boys iuid «7 12 y«m of age.
Reaident boardera ... ... ... gSb pet annum.
Boys above IIH years of age,
Beaident boardera ... ... **• iSdO pet^ annum.
No extra ohargea except for Muaie and Drawing. The courae of
iuBtruction wtU include uuUtary drill and gyumaeiib).
Paventa aooompaoying their children from IndiiL can have acoom*
modation aecured for thm At M9m oi the nelghbhdn&g boataiug4oueea
the average charge being 8ba, a wetIc*
AddreM, for any further information. Dr, A. 0. Fraaer. Idagiairote,
F«C., Poonah, Bombay PreefdeMby \ or A-^lth Fraeer, Eaq*, B.C.8.,
Aaeiatant Seeretary to Chief Comuiaaioner, Chufittl Provhicei, Nagpore,
or Lieatenant*Colon«l Angelo, StAnedtoueei Fermby, on the Mereny,
Taemanla.
P.S,—A paaelfor advantage it offtrod to, thm TamfA'aa, fa /mZfa, toAo
Aaot ft hi to leBta fn Paimaipfa ut tAt tamlnatfoh o/ /adfaiii
carter, ^tnfiy hr ieoefi^^nd V Ita m«Mi«ere '/br^a tiarr in the
CoZono, es^hUtlies a tffia to 'ifrte pmut iA# load to lehfeA aeoS
MmUtf maiu ha awtAdad at Mee iha WatH Imd Act-r tAat it
. ^ MFi dwp GiSoer #CHir||iiunef»'/«afa, gr«|mafnp loiittZefiiTifjM^
ratfremewf.Awffi. ahft pMo toritieoi^ mtfSe fhe taer# fa the \
tVZofiy b^ore lie griab jintd fi gtii^ .bntr^te hint In m m \
Jggjwoe le^ to. 1^, m ywjf, a# due ;
A LADYg&d>aaDtlomA& fSlIt&UifabM'L^ #ttilirg to nh4l»^
e happy OhrittieiihoiitnpjroTidefk . . .
ThefiijgMToiefinioM'tin he.fentlehed, ' / V '
COLLEGE OF ST. .PAUL,
Bbony Btratford, Biuiloi. •
riSZTOIt: TJIIJ HI^SIIOJP OF OXF^VHD,
Warden :
Rev. \V. K SHOOT, M,A.,
PlELLOW AKO FOBMBBLY TtTJfOIt OF NkW OOLL«»g, OTFOBU, LATH
Chaplain anU Insthdotob, itoYAL MatTAtir Acadeby,
Woolwich.
Aasistaut HatetePB.
mttM F^luh :
F. COOPEA, U.A. (Hun-WAUDBN AND BUBBAB), BtOOEgN QUflEN'B
Oollbok, Oafobd. .
Kietotfy and Xtiteratare. Uathematioel s
Jjeotnree; F> Mbdrleu, b.a., Clare College,
8t. G. stock, u.Am Pembroke College, Cumbodge,
Oxford. W. Aldersoti, 3 .a., Clare College.
St. Awdry, New College, Cambridge,
Oxford, ICttaiOl
H. Mackenzie, 8.A.»New College, Bt. O, Rais, formerly of Lanclug
Oxford. ' Ooltdgb.
Modem Baiuftiaffe i Brawiuir:
YACim, A. AGLfo.
30vi3I Bemeaut i
SERGEANT LOVETT, b.e,
I OT, PAUVS COLLEGE ta intended to jup^dy a publle School education
[ M at a moderate cent. The teacUiijg ia atricLly in nocordance with the
priticiplca of the Church of EuglaHd.
Doyeare prepared fur the UnivereiUos, for Woolwioh. an! other com-
petitive examitiationit, and, if re^uM, for Morrnutile purculta. The
luoliftive charge for Boar«f and Tuition, Washing. Medical Attendance, Ao.,
ic sixty Guineas a mar.
Poptle feociv^m January, April, aud‘September. All appUealiona ahonld
be niHile to tho Warden or Sub^Wardlea.
A LADY of the Church of England, who reaidei in n ebeltered
j\. Home, receives 9 or A yonag nhiidreu from 3 to 10 years
of age lo be ednoatod with her own little ones. They receive a
Mother'e oaro. with Educational Budimenta in Englieb, French,
Latin, Musio, Singing, and Drawing. liurae or Carriage oxerciee oan
he had if required for delioaie children. Terma from 33 Gulneaa per
annoni according to requirements,
Photo of Itealdencc and refereucea from Clergymen and Parents
of children oan be bad on appllimtioo. Addreas, Hre. John Allen
Smith, Meon Hall, Ohipping Oatupdeu, GloaocAterehire.
20
...... ...
BITVATIOKS VACANT ANI» WANTBN.
6 liuei ... ... ... ... £ 0 5 0
And be/, per Une for every addilioual liue^Average U wofda to a line.
TO INVjaSTOBS*
A Nexeellentopporianityoconrf for Securing a Half Sham Jn a Well
established Tcp Nmte, fit«atedina.iuoat hoAltby part of the
Neiigberriea, nod only 90 hours by cart and rail from tho nearest sea.*
pen. Lahoas and Fuel are both nhundant in ^e nelghlHMU'hoedt
The Estate which ^ upwards of one buudred acres fie, extent,, oempvlse
alaefs w«U*built hon«a withecabies and offices cOfp^Xe/IhUfbflea, ko ,
With omchinniry worked by water power* Abotif Sf^y<^tww‘ ’per eetit.
of the homage is under tea, more lEau hell of 4liieli li> In tdlL hearing
besides ABbottweuti^odsand Gum and sngieOlnah^a trees
on tbe j^Atatipn. f rloe of Bbare, 62^790 Sierliuif.
rbtiiAlM Mie other ^Lf ahaca could probably be arranged
or if destrei y, ‘ « " * ' *
, For further pariichUrvhp^y io IfiobotUdr Co.f $, Old Court Houst-
ahrast, Oatoutta ; FleetHitteeth Loodoo, E. 0.
A GENTLEM^If expertno^ i» iba caUivatlun and preparation
A; .m flax, i« oped to atihb'gAgehiantduring tbe cnaaing season.
Apply to e«ia ef s: M. J., W» Jwkion^ GhAt-itrsef,
; CaicBttSy . .
li
r, ' i •' I?’ 1 '' t , V '
' ' ' '' ' U’* ft^ ,
‘;' 'TaE,'l#iAH'i4»IC!ILTimiST*,j
! A ' I
BAUKS, 4ic»
OTCH0LL8'& CO.,
£Am tmXUL
nHAH()ui>,SMmii:8HiFnmieEm
LONPON:
I. WBXXEntlAR’B’BT&SBT, 7LBET-STREET, S,0.
MA^roBBsan^ i^||8„A»8BB&»oa company.
I StSITltANCIfii every
deeori^dti of Fioyeiiy ii» Bei^iSK Fj^-doont^
For rAtei apply to
EKTXIiBWBLI/, BULLEN & CO.,
d0enti ta Cukuita,
MEDICINES. I
DR, JENNER^S PHOSPHOROUS
OALOUTTA!
8, OIiD OOFET HOFSE^tEBEX.
» General Agency and Shipping Department.
PauMgM anjiragod. Goods otstred for import or export, and forwarded,
Misoidlaaeous Fareiuues efEeoted, and all Pertoaal Agoney condacted ettber
in London or Calentta.
Banking and Financial Agency.
Fz:xbd DaPOBiTS.
Sums reeeived on 0xod deposit subjeot to notice of withdrawal. InteroBt
allowed at the following rates t—
BepBjahle ftt d montbs" notice ... «»• 6 per cent.
„ at 12 months’Dotiee ... ... d t*
„ at 2 years'noiioe ... ••• 2 .*
Pay Bills, Pensions, and Allowances drawn, Premiums on Life Polioles paid
on due dates, and SUls collected.
Government Paper and Securities
Kept in safe custody. Intei'Cit and Dividends roaltEed on due dates and
disposed of as desired* Purchases oud Sales effected at the best market
rates*
Bxohange.
Gterliog Bills negotiated, and remittances made by Bills on our Oalcutta
House, or by Bank Draft. Bpevial attenHon paid to family remittanocs,
the first of Bzebauge, when desired, sent direct to the payee*
Ohargea
4 per cent, on purchase or sole of Stocks, Bbares, Bills, Ao., on realisation
et interest and dividends, and delivery of Securities cut of safe custody.
1 per cent on realisation of Pay Blits, FeasionB, Ac*
2k per cent, on General Agency Business*
NIOHOLLS & COMPANY,
P BOVIDBS the hawkii ijtteca with nerve, and brain
food j and Oharddai famishes the elements of vitality, health,
aud strength. 0r. Jesmer'g Fhoaphorons end Ohareoal .are
certain remedies for melanoholia, nervous prostration, oonsumptiouj
end impaired digestion, from whatever cause arising. Depot, 9,
Spenoei^ttreet, Park>road, Battersea, 6.W., London, In bottles,
2s* 9d„ 4#* 6d., Ui.| and 22#, From any chemist, or by post, Dr,
';^dimer% Fhosphorciis and Ohareoal ia a marvellous remedy for
the Lobs of Eerve Bowor and the Arrest of Fhysioal Decayi
from whatever cause arising; it is iaveloable, aud acta as a ebarm
in Conaumption, ExhausUoil, Ac. Ko Medteine known con¬
tains so much Phosphates, Soda, Hagnesta, Lime, Chloride of Potas-
stum, Iron, pure aud uaozydtzed Phosphorous, all of which are
euientifioally combined la this eisenoe, and each of whioh are collec¬
tively eisentlal to the restoration ol lost funotlon.
It has received the sanction 6f Sir Benjamin Urodie, Sir William
Lawrenoe* Sir Thomas Watsooi Sir Charles Looook, the Co liege of
Fhyiloians, Sir James Fergossoo, Sir Philip Orampton, Sir Edward
Lasketb, Sir James Clark, Dr, Uliler, and Dr. Lankester. Order
Dr. Jeuner's PhoaphoroUB and Oharooel, and see that it bears
the oorreot sddmss of the London Depot, 9, Spenoer-street, Park •
load, Battersea, S W.; all others gre a fraud. This is duly regis¬
tered under the Trade Marks Acf. Order Dr. Jenner’a Phospboroas
and OUarcoal, and take no other. Order of any Chemist iu the
World. London Agents : fiOBBLAY Sc SONS, Uarringtou-stroet,
and all the Patent Medicine Houses.
TES BLOOD IS THE LIFE.**
CLARKE'S
“WORLD-FAMED BLOOD MIXTURE.”
iottdon and Cedmtta.
ROYAL INSURANCE COMPANY.
llic Annual UuUng of the Compant^ was held
August lsf| 1879*
LIFE DEPARTMENT.
rilllK total Income from Preuiiotns in 1878 amounted to
X £246,514, and Interest on Investments to £90,248. The
Oiairns by l>e»nth and Matured Folieies were £156,841. After
pay menu o! ail claims aud expenses, £143,104 has been added
to the Life Funds- whioh uow amount to £2,389,907.
The Funds of the Oompsuy now staudg as follows
Capital paid up -*• 289J546 O O
Fire Fund •» «- 500,000 O O
Reserve Fund •.*- ... 800,000 O O
Balance* Profit and Loss 69,707 11 O
LiikFund ... 2,089,907 3 U
Total Funds In band ... ^64,049,159 14 11
The HshiHty of the SUaroboUlere of the *^Boyal? Is unlimited*
Perseus assured in ibis y are not liable as
Bhareholders of the Company.
TRADg MARK
"BLOOD MIX TURp.”
THE GREAT BLOOD PURIFIER AND RESTORER,
ITIOB cloansing nnd clearing the blood from all impurities, cannot be
1; too highly recommended.
For Scvofnla, Sonrvy, Skin Diseases, and Sores of all kinds it is
uever.fahing and permanent onro*
It
Cures old Soros.
Cms Uioorated Sores on the Neck,
Cures Ulcerated Sore Legs*
Cores Blackhe^s, or Pimples on the Face,
Cotes Scurvy Sores,
Cures Canoeroue Ule#rs.
Cures Blood and Skin Diseases.
Cures Glandular Swetliogs*
Clears the Blood from all impure Halter, from wbatevez oanse
arisiDg*
As this mixture ie wleasont to the tasty 4 .a»d warrantod free from any-
tMng injnrious to the most delicate oooststntion of either tax, the Pt^.
prietor foUcits «nffe.<«r8 to give it a trial te test its value, ^ '
Thousands of TtoiimomMa ftota aU parts.
Sold in Bottles fkn Bd, eeofi, and in eases. Containing six times the quan¬
tity, 11#. eacdi—aufiloitot'toeffoot a iN^ oureiu the gnat mejorlty
of long-standiug oases* BY ALL CHEMISTS and PATENT MBDIOINIS
VENDORS tiirons^ottt the world.
*8sto Prtfristor, P. J. OtAUKP, CkemUt
APOTHECARIBSI' hall, LINCOLN, ENGLAND.
to
TEEL, JACOB & OC a« guts,
ONE BOX OF OLARKB'e^ E 41 FILLS
I *
1 6 warrantod to cure all diamtargM from thv Urinary Or^os in either
sex, acquired or oonatUuUoBBl. gravel,sand pains in toe_b«!k* Sold
18l79j
THE P)I 4 ^ iC^BI^miST.
w o i f ji ' h I
NBWIiT
imn miMarm u»t
S AND BPIBITS.
WINES.
' '
roBts rsoa fobtuoal.
rerooRs.
Ciitle
lA
PORT.
4 years In wood
.. Sals
0
Cattle
A
PORT.
0 yean in wood
.. ,, ao
0
Coatls
B
PORT.
8 years In wood
92
0
Cattle
0
PORT, Prtilty
11 yean In wood
.. „ 25
0
Cattle
E
PORT. Pmlty
10 years in wood
.. .. 98
0
Castle
<1
PORT. Dry
( 40 years in wood 1
( very light in oOlor |
«« „ fs
0
pOBTB FBOM 8FAIM.
Cattle
1
PORT Spanlth
3 years oia
.. Kb. 10
e
8HERBIE8 FBOM SFAIK.
Castle
lA
. Pale SHERRY
8 years old
.. Es. IS
0
Cattle
A
Pale SHERRY
4 years old
.. „ 10
0
Castle
O
Palo SHERRY
6 years old
.. „ 22
9.
Castle
Q
Pate Amooiltlado SHERRY 8 years old
96
0
Castle
1
Pale Amontillado SHERRY 11 years old
.. „ SO
0
Castle
R
Palo Amontillado SHERRY 19 years old
.. ,.97
0
OLABBTS FEOU BIUKCB.
Superior Sevorage Clatote:
Far Oaio.
CVtIe A
Castle O
gtft. 2 doB. pt,
CLARET * Well matowUMJd upwards) Es, 14 o 16 o
CLARET^ ofl2M«oti)uiabottlo« i 17 0 19 0
CLARET (
SMKEIiINa SA17M0B FBOM FBANOB.
Ca-^tli SAUMUR SILVER FOIL » 9*
CRBtle SAUMUR COLD FOIL .97
SPIRITS.
OINS.
Castle OE Uasweetcnod GIN» ^7underpToot ..
Cautlo Proof Unsweebeaod GINi P>f4ot
WHISKIBS—BOOTOH AND IBISH,
CMtle 80 Sootob WHISKEY ptoof.retjr old
OftBtlo DO IiW* WHISKEY proof, very old
COGNAC BBANDllfiB.
Castle E Palo Ooffnuo BRANDYf 17 uader proof
Ooatle F Pale Cognac BRANOY» proof, old ..
Castle FO PalcOognno BRANDY> Proof, very old
Castlo (U'OrBxtrait dn Vln) proof, bottled in Cognac,extreme'
ly old, and very rare ..
24t 0
29 0
Feroaie,
Kb. 20 0
» 21 0
Tbe following are loae ot the adventagea of W, A A. Gilbey'a
ejitem of baalueaa
VALU£:.-<-Th8 extent oi W, k A. Gilbey'a purehaaes euabiea tbem
to giva tbe beat value to tbe publio. the duly pay manta shear thnt
a twentieth part ot the Foreign Winea ooniumed in the United
Kingdom la anpplied from their Stock.
QUALITY.— Quality is goaranted by W, A A. Gllbey, and is tbe
tame whether tbe Winei and Sptrita are obtained direct from their
head Batabliahment or from any of tbetr Agents. The purity end
genttiDeneaa ot all the above Wines are guaranteed in aooordauoe
with Act ot ParUameni 38 and 39 Vic. Oapt. 63.
HRABUBE.—W. A A.QUbey have always adhered bo tbe standard
of bottle meaaure reeentiy reoogoieed by Government, vie —
6 bottles contain One Gallon; 12 halt bottles contain One Gallon.
TEBUB.—OeshtonewODoatitnantSiSOdayt (o known and ap.
proved Ctonatitnente. Every arGela hOb approved ot received back
after 24 bonra.
KlOHOLIiB AHD OOMFAKT.
8, out Court Mnuo^itroet,
CAUlVtUt Wutl OoDOWNSt 2, GlUHT^WNB.
Sol* wo*!***!* Af**t* a>re«asftl aa.*W. noiinow.
SiA-dgmlt, WhoUiale imd S 0 iail
lOBD a 00.> Qovinin{i*T>K.oo(, OAumm. .
GXNBm TBaOINO A^U-nCH,* Uu,
PBUUDXJS a od, AUAVAMt
AJODBBA FB^miAQ. & BBOa) Xtn^, UOimittrORA
. % A tflTTBB a xio.i UVMOmt.
CQ„
■SOtM AOiBgfiL.
HeWaiwfc ACo/i Dry Stonopoie.,, Of qnarte Re. 52 .6
*» w i» ; ' ^nts M Oi 0
Buf^o EdtercGir 4k Oo.*A
PfiyaU Cevjia 1874, very atf ' ,u quarts Ei. 4« o
Bag. CUquetftetme . 50 0
Ditto ditto ^ ^ pjijtg 32 5
HOOKS.
O* H. ?apfttnuaii». Solm. Mains.
PURVEYOR TO H. B. H, THR PBINOE OP WALES.
AKD SOLB OWEfBB OF TBB OTTEfiK TXOTOBIA. BBM.
Rs. IS
.. 18
». n
M 24
„ 33
.. 28
.. 80
» 40
Re. 14
:: H
28
Laiibcnlieioier
Geitenheimer
LiebfraueamilcU
Bteinwam IBoxbeutal) ..
Riideahenaer
Hoebbeimer Berg.
Alarcobruimer
KoBuigiu Victoria Berg. ...
Heinrich Brack, Binffan.
Bodenbeimer .
Zeltmger .
KdDDigabachor
Niereteluer .
Hoebbeimer .
Rudaebeimer .
R. SohlamberRer*a Voeeleuer.
Chateau ViHany ... per docen Hi, It 0
F. Deaaciadier dk Oo.*8 Jarnao Ooffuac.
Fine old pale licaady ... ... per doseii Be, 22 0
Vienna Beer.
J» JDreAer's Brstssriea, Schweehat and TVfsffa
, Per CMC 4 doaea quarts ... ... ... Ua. 25 0
I, 7 „ pints ... ... ... ,, 28 0
Norwegian Pale Ale.
Frydeniund per case 3 dozen quarts Bs. 18 8
Kamar „ 3 ... ,, 18 8
RiognesACo. S ,, . 12 tt
Straaaburger Beer ... pints per dosen „ ,i 6 8
Sherry,
F. W* Ooaen’a Red Seal, per dosen **• ... ^ 20 0
Martini Sola ds Oo.
Vermouth, Italian ... ... „ 30 0
MISCELLANEOUS.
THE
CALCUTTA MUSICAL ESTABLISHMENT,
No. 13/1» Oovemment-plaoe, Bast.
(Late BURKINYOUNG & CO.)
FOtTNDEJO, AM, 1814.
pBOFimsTon—‘OHAELES GOULD.
THB SMITH AMBRIOAN ORaAN,
W7toll^ new designs an(f elective camhinations in Reed Organs,
1 UIE American Organ has been, and still is, the moat popular aud
, valued instrament for Churches and Chanels* Immense numbers
of them aro used in public worship, and it has been found that no other
Reed Organs have so much sustaiuing power joined with such meiodious
Qualitv of tone.
Style No. 10* Smn Stops.
This Style is furnished with two complete seta of reeds of five Octaves.
Each set is divided and has a separate stop, for the upper and lower half.
The upper half of tbe drat set of reeds is named Flute, and tbe lower
half Principal. In the second set the upper halt is named Dnlciana, and
the lower Diapason. The first set is an Octavo higher in pitch than the
second, so that the instrument has practically a compass of six Octaves.
By havieg the sets divided, it will be seen that more effect can be
produced. The remaining stops are Tremelo, Diapason Forte, and
rrincipal Forte. [ATee Vf»kt Ms, 400.
Style No. 16, Ten mops.
This instrument hoe two*and>a-hRlf seta of rasas, and an Oetave of
Bub-bass. It has ten stops, vis,, Diapason, Dulciana, Flute, Principal
Kulophon, Sub-bass, Tremelo, Principal Fort& Diapason Forte, and
Oetave Ooopler. The Wt stop doubLes the power of tbe Organ, and with iho
aid of the Sub-bass renders it a powerful end effective instruinena ibt
Churches and Halls; at the same time its power is opt obtuned at any
eacriflee of delicacy, and it will be found a most desirable instrument fo^
t KO- 20-
This inr^rument has three complete' sets of reeds* Two of the sets «r«
like these in the preceding Styles, having the Principal and Forte
Diapason and Ditloiana .stops. The third set U new gad distinet in
" * '• '* •* * “ tower half
siQootlmese,
_ .. the twett are
-iCUi. one thgt vRI he am>roved by persons of leftaed
{Net sksh, Ms, 700,
iVtA**1^»#kQT0jprkei8ipemlilliiV« of pecking cheygef.
4 ^ "
THE BENGAL PHftTEyiNG CU,. ;
OSKBEAL SEASBBS AHS OOlUliBS^V AOSBIB.
6t-3, Moaiolpal Mtalut.
.
] to ‘ vr ^
JAMES GiBBS & COMPAMY,
T)EQV1810NS» lodiau coiuiltuButtf erook«r;» itUiii olotbei,
A and ev«ry daaorjptiou ol housahold reiiuSaitet aappliei! it the euij» aiA«uBAci'u»jsiw w
Joweit Bacifr aad Markat rataii ^
ft FAVSHT ,
Terns fitriotly Casb.
la oBdkw te gilii: aonfidiOBi w aodartaka to dotpatefa goodf, on A M M 0 N I A * F I X D* GU A N 0^,
raoeipt of tha firtt balToi of eurranoy notpB or draft for thirty dayi; by ■ . - i ' 3
$OLS MAtmAOTUaKfta OF tElft
this arrangement oar conaiituenls nill hare the option of approfiug or'
rejeotlog the artioLea inppUed.
Country Produce, sold on Commission.
, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
T HK liiboraiory of the noderalgned is open for all deaeriptlonB of
obemieal analysis (eLiher complete or for particalar constituents
only), iaclnding wateii, minerals, ores, agrleuUaral, and maoufaotnred
products, kQ.
SPECIALITY.
A NALYBfIS of soils and manuroa and reports upon the Improremont
of landed estates.
Fee for analysis of eoUi, inoluding report ... Ba
Do. do. of manures 16 to 82.
EUGENE 0. SCHEOTTKY,
AUTBOB or
2’Jis 0 / Matioml m applied (« TndUt and Us
Staple Products^'* 4’<>»
Oalontta, 35, Ohowringbee.road.
Tiui OhMiiwi iAa bMt ]iiunn In «a». 1
*
ALSO MANUFAOroaUBS OF THE B10HK8T CUSS OF
OH:1Z!MI0AX MAISrURES.
The results have griven tmitferi^al satisfaction and prove
the Manures to be the cheapest yet sold.
FljLL PlETICULAES OBTAINED ON APPLICATION.
HBAB OPFIOB:
MABK-LANE, LONDON, E.C.
(' Kma-stasar hjAa bkutol.
Brauoh OfiMi i i
1 42 , OBOBeiMntEBr n,YMOTJIH.
W0BS8I
Victoria Docks, London; & Cattledown, Plymouth.
VEGETABLE ASH MANURE,
becommbnded fob
corrass jixia xirBxao,
Manufactured from the Ashes of CowMluug, Horsenlun/y, &c., supplomentod by Bone-dust and Potash Salt,
It is mentially a naumhiiigj not a forcing Mmurt*
The manure has been greatly improved by the successful separation of most of the useless matter and, as now manufaotured
^ 30 per cent, of aoloble Alkalies (Ohloride of PotasHium and Sodium, aud Sulphate of Potash).
20 „ Liuie and MagneBia. .
7 „ Phosphoric Acid, equal to 15 per esnt of Phosphate of Lime,
The remainder being Sulphuric Acid, Iron, Uarbonto Acid, organic nitrogenous matter and Silica,
The manufacturers are indebted to Messrs. OilUnders, Aibutbnot A Co. for the following B!:atraot from the Fortnightly Eepert of
the Manager ^^Durkhola Tea Estate,'* dated 2ad October 1878.
MANURE EXl^^iRIMENTB.
TWO PLOTS, OF 2,783 TEA BUS.IKS, BACH YIELDED LEAF,
VtgeiahU Ash
ifimurs.
**Uptddate<^fMMt^ort ... ... ... ... ...
ihriTtg ihe f<^kiightimder Itepnri ... ... ... ... ... 260lh.
No
Manvfi*
l,09eib.
mih.
1,29m’*
“ Total up to daU l,D7a*w» . ••• l,29Hh»
Thai is 30 percent, increase in faronr of the manured portion, . . . . ,* <i . «
The tnanure was applied in Blaroh last, at the rate of lOewts. per acre, and can soaroely be naiato have exerted its full influence ^
** ^ The Manager, ** MuUa Kuttyoor Tea Conoora” writes; under date September 19th, 1878, to Mess^ &o8g»
** The Vsgeiabk Ash Manure Jt got up fi*oni you as a sample, / Mm tried oii some sickly hushes, md Us efeel Ms eerkumy oeen
beneficial.'*
Bold in strong bags, ready for sbipmsnt, at Bs. 50 put ton, inclusive of bags.
A «Ull further oouoentrated manure, coatoining iOpi^oeAf. ifsolulble AlkiHes and, additionally, 2 to 2J per cent, of Nitrogen, speoiallv
salted for Oofl:ee, at Br. 65 per too. »
, BECia,'6mOP'tCQ;.
, S^Agtoto,
P)i6S,
. kciHiCULT OBIST.
ie«. 2.
jm.
directing t1
M^ney,
THB
HOWTOBE WEALTHY
f0iitag0$
_ I* . ,'2^4
liorttivi« f«r wetylwdy^, ootoUitiiidis 4«mH-
Pfftctiual ri^nta Suggeetmti for ^neoena hx h\t*%
ty« wid ioeiwiB«-iiaw? to Boim, Save* Jfn»c««, and increase
%
ISTORY OF THB FBMAtB fiJBX.
Tfi-y <W<ene and InUr^tting,
Price, vritb Poetege Re, 1>H
THE PHtLOSOPHir OF BEAUXIT.
* Pneo A«, 8i v^ith PoMoi^e Ae, 10,
JifstaJMsfc
fnmt m
/n<2t«i«
dee*
on ap-
CAea})«s«
and! d^est-
Buj^t'Aving, rrinUi:t{|r» and Book Binding of every
criptioii execnied tinder European etmennietidence. ReUmatea o
plioatioa, Lewie ft Co«> 2, Old Conrl House Corner, Calcut
JL^JWTS & CO.
2 , Ol]> Court lloutfio Oorkkr. Calcutta
^sujoj/ii^rs of Goods of all dosoriptionK
FOR BALE.
8UTTONS’ FLOWER 8BB08.
• **
Appl^ at the Office of Oiis Paper,
FOR SALE.
rpUR Lackadio Estate, situated at the bedd of (he Tambracherrv Gbdt
J ttitrl jminedintoly on the QovernTuoufc road to CaJaout, compTiaing by
BUi'vcv acres of land, a considerable portion of which is virgin forest
oijil 37 acres ot Cofl'ee. , .
The Estate is admirably anjted f^gtfuviifflnUirftlf' 11 *f*
and Tea ^.rvi^ir r, ^
'Dtere mo on the Estate an exeetlent Bungalow and Store, both of
permanout cunslructiou, Umber pulpiQg4i0tt8e, and water wheel.
For particulars apply to
HINDE&iCO.,
Plantaliou Uoase Works,
* Calicut.
Fp K SA JLK.
N ElLGHEURlEij, Modraa.'^'Ati Estate, consisting of 525 acres, altitude
7,nil0 feet 12 miles from Outaoaxnund by the new Goverutnetit Catt-
rnad and 3 miles by the old one. These two roads form the boundaries of
thfi Estate, iiftordm.,' 7 miIos> of carna-'e way louud the properly—Gl,nOd
Hybrid Tea plants, 6,0t 0 Coiulamitua Cinchona plMits, 3,000 Gum plants,
and about 10 acres of Black-watlle worn plauteil out during last *oason,
T)ic Nursenos contiuu 500,000 Tea plants, 200,000 Cinoiioua plants, and
SO,000 Au'^tralian Gum plants for next sea^toin’s planting. There are lines
foi 120 ooolii'S and a temporary Bungalow. The climate is good, and all
that chu bo desired by an European resident Proprietor, as well as for tho
production of high class Tens and Quiuino-yielding Cinchonsa Largo and
Small Game are to be found wiihiu easy distances. For terms, fte„ apply
to—
0. J. BARTER, TvilooHUt Madras*
TO IN VBBT OBB,
FOn SALE.
A half share in a largo Mangoe Plantation, four miles from
Bangalore. The PlsnlaUoti oonUins upwards of TWO
thousand Graft Mangoe Trees planted In 1873 and ISTI.
Forp.rticul«..pp.,.o j p
, Oiarlton Ball,
Bangalore.
FIRE BRICKS.
R AHBEOUi^aE FIRE BBICICS as supplied to Governraent and
tbe various Railways, Iron W'orks, Ooal, Gas, and Steam Naviga¬
tion Oom pan tea. Price,—Rs. U per 100. . «
Katract from Official Report of tests made *t Hy M. Oaloi^ by
Throdobe W. IL HxiauER, K8Q,. ff oa., Officiating Deputy
Superiiiiendeut, Geological Survey, India, . , - , *» ji
“ Th{‘ Fire Brteks tooted hy me wore ftimishsa hy the F%rm of
Mosm.^BffliN AWn. * * ♦ mat rials «e<i de
atf tenj refraetory and eapM of f^sistiny tlyk to^ardturOiem^
tonsihly futnny, * o d eomparfd wHh btonrbrtdge Fire,
Brteh are emeniMt suf^erwr,"'
The Bpeoimena were subjacted to a tomperatpre of otjr 8,000 dege
Fabr., the smelting pnint of Cait-iroa beii^ 2,7^9 dm*
Apply for the above and for Raneegunga Salt Gtai^ Stonaware
and imperishable Drainage Pipes to
BURN & CO..,
7, ButiiigB>«treet> Oalonttk, at Uaa,egaB|e
/ Settmi Wotki, BuMwgAage.
. • a. 1. B„
: .THB
irauN .m gazette :
THS VSA FLAlltSKB' ft BHABEHOLUERS* OHSOMIOLB:
DKXlDTBD TO THU tKTEnv<'e OF
TEA OWNERa TEA PLANTERS. 8 ^ TEA SHAREHOLDERS
And to all niatiers conirruiny the Tea Tndndry ff India,
Fnblislied on the Fir^ and TRIsd Fridays of aaoR Month,
AT TUB (iFFIGB, 10, HARB^KTllBBT, OALOOTTA.
Rate of Subaoriptioii ’•
Halit-YEAULT in AovANca
Vol VI. mil commence with ihene'nt Bo,
yisA-R lem
tts,'?
Contents of Ho. U» VoL V.
Nu 5P OF TiiK eaiaas,
Editorial 4iWelcs—-
Leaf Disease.
Chinese Couhos.
Original Ai Holes.
The Kewul * of ‘‘
Tea Companies' lieports.
FdUorial Fcteit,
Upper Assam.
Original Voett'y^
The Song of the Tea,
Co, respondence-*
Cooly liows.
Free Labour System of Emigra¬
tion.
ICtnmoud's Rolling Machine—
Disfoloration of Leaf
The use of blood as Manure.
Introduction of Jnd>an Tea U
America and Australia,
.Seiertiofts—
The State of the Tea Market.
Tea Fraud ui China,
M.iiiiire«.
TlK^Tea Market.
Opinum on linliau Tea.
London C»rcn^<n..
Ooi t«tttaofiro.l2, VoI.V.
MUoiial difw'Je*—
On ClassiOcaiioti.
New Market for o«r Cheap Tea,
Largo l)r©»k»—t’pw kiqds.
Tea Ci.mpanies* iUpocts,
Editorial Notes,
Julpiguri.
Conespondmoe'*"
Stall-fed Mflourn.
Cooly Ueeruiting for Assam.
The Lnboar difficul y.
'* Tho Eiionlyptun 'iiee."
Tte-eiigsgeuieiit of Coolies,
IrriKatioii Matters.
Cuoly Itows
Drainage of Tea Laud.
Kinuioti'l'a Mrtohlue
A Justdioition.
On the Inlerch.inge of Tdeas,
Tea drying Maoliiaery.
Ab to Drainage of Tea Laud,
Selections^
Oocasuin f >r a Tea Deum,
Tea Jilighis,
The Eucalyptus Tree.
Lmlori Chculars,
Money AchutHoh'Iuts.
10, HARE-S'rr».BET. OALOTTTTA,
X)tJTOII BIJI-BS.
JUST KEOEIVBD,
IN EXCELLENT CONDITION:
llyacinths, single nod double, named vaxU'tios,|eacb
Ditto, mixed
Tulips, single and double, named varieties
Ditto, unxed
Polyanthus Karoissus, named
Narcissus, species named
Jonquils, double largo
Ditto, single large
Anemones, double, red
Ransnoulos, Pf'rstau, double, named
Li Hum Auratum
LUium of sortB, named
STANLEY, PUl CFi N D C(iMPAN
7, Store-road, Batbjgnnije,
Calcutta.
87Lh Noverolier 1878,
Ka. A,
i> ii
0 8
0 (»
0 *
0 8
0 n
0 s
<b
0
(I
i
>
Y,
RAKFFOUNG F
FIRE BRICKS
kKD
PRAINAGE PIPES.
Api»ly to
BURN & CO.,
CALCUTTA.
VI
THE INDIAN AGRlCtJLTtmiST.
Dseomber li W9.
WILL SHOHTLT BE PUSltSffSD IHiXi^koOIf.
THE STATESMAN. ^
' A me ^ekly paper deeoU^ I the SemeUm p^itical g^>tione, W eepeMU, tc a mei^ of tU
economic <mA odLLlratim rc/orm» ealUdforthe pteeent canditim of India, <««i <««•
FH£2!n> OF iteoxi. in Calcutta,
T tfBBia WG tttttyoogAtttroABOMirhy sueb » paper, ai ire propoit
to wtaWidli. should reoeiw the support o< our
When the Gorammeut of India ires
Directors to the Crown, it was inevitahle that, sooner or latar. the imUatire
“ p.)i<9 »C l«l.l«*lo» .ho«l4rf»o
Tlw .ttbi. tr«rt« Uirt the .uthot.i.» la
irt>il*ft(BBtliil*a«aaoa.adiiia>««wnooat Uoib«,IU ladiaa Oot.™
nwb ia Loaflaa Uoiaw iBot. <I»p«Bo th*a ewr. A 0««r..a.«t wluA
ruloa India Iiom Caleatta cannot eatltely olose its pyes
aS^M ot iU mwWMi apoB Ih. people i Vat aa itteepoaeiMe
attemptlog to «awo ladle from Doiraiag-etreet, J
It «.B know nothing of the wenle of the people, eaoept
gethetedltomoffloielrepofta poeperedto u » iml iK
enl, *.y to correct thi. evil,!, to rale, up to B^d ut eal.ghtcned
^.ereetia Indie, by»«klng kaotm. f«>m ft.. «.d aab..».d »a«M of
iBlonaaaen.th.TerMahle.tatecfth. coonlrymdthe oharMtet of the
■dmiaietlaUon. In order to do tht. e«ectaally, it te ^utlal that the
London joarnel ehould have it. tool., .0 to .peak, m India FM
WeeUrn tdca. ate a toWeat of Iremoudona power i and a^"
inilneuco, Indiaie diangmu with n rapidity which mnet he watc^ to
he nnderetood. It reenlU from thie, that an EaglUh jontnal damng to
dieeeminate Uie troth regarding India, niuel obtain lie information fteah
wd freeh, fioiu writera in immejinte eonlaot with the feeW. cnoictiona,
wieliee.nnd aepimtione which they delineale. By the reUbHehmmt of
London StaUman, indiceol connecUon with n fltafermon in Oaleuttn,
Uii3 object would be scoomplisheda
Aitdin, all bletoty bears teettinony to the faot, that a ttovotnment not
expooedtoUiohracingalnieaphete of free oriticbm, beoonvaa oorropt
and iueBldent. Among Sogliahmen at Idaet, tliia nmv he-eeumed as a
political nriom. W. ehonld all of u. feel, that T pereoiml ruie were
no m England, the national greatne* and prosperity wonld ewifriy
millior and bo lost And yot, by e curious mconnetency, it le by menne
of peteonnl irtoepon.ible rule, that wc bare tliongUt to eocuro the
prowerity of India, and the hnppmeaa of its people. Turn political
wraclrhaenot come to pa... KagUdimcn ontrneW with despntm
Bcucr bare too often euocnmbcd to its oorrnpting inUnsncee. they
hare learnod to believe that in IheW oaee might waa right, tlini becauee
they uere ontruated with a miasion to eiovato and improve the people of
Indie, they might, m their deelmgs with that people, diepeuee with
those moral lawewithottt which no olcvation of character le poeeible.
Everything ww to ha donc/«r the people ; notUihg was to be dime bn
tl. people* And tbo oonsequeuoe bus been, tU»t Uio piopb of ludlu
have been treated by us aa a oorpui on which admittistratire theo.
riits and orotohet-mongorg had full power to eitponmanlaa they ploasod.
ThoToUaflbeeiiDoltlieroouUoalty of prinoiple. nor conaistont parpoao
inoutodmmistration, but a series of vast expenmonts, preolpUate in
their iufloptioo, and disastrous in their conseiucncos. Thus it la that
at the close of a oontury of British rule, carried on to a ceaseless chorus
of 8oU-congratu\atiOtt, we find these siugular effects A profound gulf
oxistiug between rulers and ruled ; a poasuitry sunk in poverty and
iadebteduosi, and swept away in mUhong by periodical faminea ; an
army, the most costly in the World, and yet so dehoient lu organiiaUoii
that we oaunot, lo thrt, inontU^coUeot Sd.OOO men on out own Crontior;
a heavy public debt, an m creasing expenditure, and the Empire ou the
very verg. of bankrnpfcoj We do noHay that Una oompriiea the whole
of the picture, or that there are not brighter eocues to m found in jt,
But this wsdo say, that the above iaots aro strioUy true, and the
demand that we should cease from contemplating, Narcicias^tike, ous
own perfeetiens, and try to aeeertain how and why we have eo grievonily
failed. Bat this again is impossible, valess n clearer and more
accurate knowledge of India xi generated in England then at present
prevails there.
tastly, each saeceeding year exhibite more dearly that the entire
Foreign policy of Great Britain revolves round onr Indian Bmpiro.
Peace or war in the mother country depends upon the opinions formed
by the Governnfant of the day, as to the degree of peril which menaces
India from this or that Power, At this very time we are engaged in a
war, the .injustice and cowardice of which are patent, because Lord
Bcaoonsfiold and bis oolleagnes think that eomething must be done to
(dieck the progress of Bussia in Oeotrsl Aata. Urged ouward by this
vague dhsire to do something, they eiUauge the Amir Shore All by
persistently menacing his indepeadenee { and then make that estrange-
iTKi'r.t I he justification for carrying their menaces into execution. Even
assaming that Englishmen were willing to overlook the profligacy of
snoh a potiCF, they cannot afford to treat it with indifference. For it
is certain'lAh^the eesti of an oeoapation^ Afghanistan will have to
be defrayed by them. The ** eeieutifle froutiei *' is a meaningleis
absnrdity. If we annex any portion of Alglisnistan. we shall be
eompelled, at no distant date, to annex the whole. It is absolutely
certain that India will not be able to furnish the funds for such an
acquisition ; and the burden must therefore fall upon Great britam.
Are the British tax<payera willing to pay ten millions a year for the
doubtful advantage of a ** aoientiiic frontier P” Eighteen months ago
the Calcutta ifilatssman detected the desigds of Lord Beaoonsfield^s
Government, and warned its readers ot what*wae ooming. But m Indiiin
official oiroles its warnings were unheeded, and in England unheard.
Had there been in Loudon suCh an organ of information rogoxdiog
India, it is woll>nigh oditain that the present war would have boea
averted. For at every step the misrepresentations of Government
wonld hare been brashed aside, and their veritable policy laid bare ; a
healthy and enlightened public opinion would have had time to form ;
‘ and Lord BoaconafielJ'd policy of sarprising *’ the country into a war
would have been rendered impossible.
But though India will bo our speciality, the paper we establish will
nob bo exclusively Indian, but will deal with tho whole range of
English Politics, domestic as well as foreign, insular as well aa
Imperial* Hooial quesblous and onrrent literature will also receive Lhoir
due share of regard thorein. What we aim at is a high class Liberal
paper, interested lU all matters in which the nation at large is Interested,
disoussing them in the light of advanced Liberal principles, and
accepting of tho expression of our policy, the old Liberal sentiment'^
*• The cause of Civil ami fteligioiis Liberty alt over the world.”
'The idea is to establish a weekly organ of advanced Liberalism
Coniluctsd by earnest Ohriatinn gentlemen whose interest in Indian
affairs is paramount by the circumstance of their oonneotion with tha
eottu^ry, and exact knowledge of its affairs and administration, U will
cente n a Weekly aummary of the latest nerwfrom all the Indian paper#,
broogutdowftto date by the latest telograjfiiio advices, and reviewed
in their light* There is no such paper now, and the concaption is
believe! t*, be a sound one. Our hope is to awaken by mean# of the
paper, a deeper interest in India, and a higher sense of our respon-
sibilities as its rulers, than unhappily at present exist# | and to do tina
by floating Indian affairs into public notice, on the strength of the
ImperUli&d domestia iateresto lAich they so vitally effect.
llUlliOViptioilff ill i»oludi»g tO XndtEi Xtff* IP jfc yWi*-
1X5ND01# bFiriOE.-ai^S. STRAND. . .
D^tnWlJm. . TEE HSWi^ AaRIOllLTCRlST.
TO FI.ANTBUEIS AND AOBildULTUBIBm
'OOB ^be lUnitrated fipf^oiSotittoti of! UdDRY, Mdntdlav's AgrtttttUtYal
Ju Work#, to the /h4Ub Aft'ionUuritt OBoa
Pride,10 per oopy*
LIBERIAN OOFBBE PLANTS.
VOUKG plstttsof LibedwOofle«foriudeAt oae-foarib of the fiogtidi
JL pncoa^^iA.
n« A
G,000 ptaafee #, ... «*. ««. 0 8 each
I,d00 II I. ... .. M. j Hi 0 10 II
$00 If II *«• Ht 0 12 II
lOO ,1 11 ..., •(« tf* 0 14 ,i
Under 100 „ n ... 1 0 „
Delivered to any fUilway Station or address io Oalonita, paeteget free*
SmidU qaaitiilie* o.tta fa« aont oiA at onoe, and orden for large <)U4ttati«s eaa
Ue regielercd now for forward delivery.
TennB'-CaBli on delivery.
Karly applicatioa should be made to
T.,
Chre of the Manager,
TO A0BI0m.TDBI8TS, FABME&S.. A FEANXBB8.
WlSiNOXNa WIRH3,
soiw ojf^rAm^xD.
rrUN AND QUARTEIB MILES
Per sale at one-third coat price*
^ ‘ Apply to 1. 0.,
Kiesenguttgd, Nuddea.
FOR SALE.
OHLENDORFP’8
TEA FERTILIZER.
CONTAIJMINQ
6 per oeat. Ammoaia.
]S „ PboBpbiite of liims (laostly aoluble).
“INVINCIBLE ”
TMIv
LIGHTEST 1 SIMPLEST, ant. -cm
• CHEAPEST 1 ECONOMICAL
CENTRIFUfiAL PUMP
• IN THE WORLD
EEGUIRES NO FOOT VALVES.
NEVEE GETS STOPPED XJP.
ITO SBlfDS* can he HWIVRLKED to any
ANOLI, WITHOU'l DIS'I 0 RBIn6 BED-FLATE
fi „ N .ft .SdTphale ofT'^ah.
EDB & HonSON,
Aj^ents for Messrs. OldoiidotfF & (Jo.,
No. 0, Nevr Cliinn U&EuAt.alreet.
For full PartuuJarw apply to
JOHN & HENRY GWYNNE,
ENGINEERS,
89, CANNON STREET A HAMMERSMITH IRON WORKS.
LONDON.
Catalogues can be obtained on applieatlou at thoOince of this Journal.
JEBEN8’ PATENT
Swift and Sure Transplanting Tools.
7 £OSFEOXtrSEB NOW BEADY AMD MAY BE BAD OB AFFUOATION TO THE MABHFA0TDBEB8.
T. E. THOMSON & CO.,
9, i:splanajdm:-eoif, Calcutta.
S OME of the advanta/rt'S of those tools ai’o tho security that, with very ordinary care, no injury can be done to
plants and roots, and the swiftness, simplicity, and cheapness of working. T)ie growth of the plant is not at all
arrested in transplanting ; it grows as if it had not been shitted. Transplanting can bo done at all times with little
ref^ard to ’weather. No vacancies or weakly trees Ironi injured roots. The greatest care has boon taken to strenglhen
alfw'orking parts. Specially devised to be put into the hands of the coolie,
Mr. o. W* Mountjoy of Paiidawbrang, Arraoan, 'writes as follows regarding these tools :—
“ The Transplanter has in working proved to be a complete success. Almost all the reuiauuug seedlings havo
been transplanted by the aid of }our instrument, without the slightest injury to their roots or check to their
growth. The fact is, tlio young plants do not know that they have been transpVintod, and now that sunshine has
succeeded the late very lioavy rains, new and vigorous growth is bursting out” from all the seedlings that were
transplanted by means of your Transplanter. No Manager of a Tea or Oofi’eo plantation, who had onoc seen this
instrument at work, would ever again be like^ to recur to transplanting by hand, and not a single seedling should dio
w4en removed from the nursery and carried to its place of ultimate growth by means of your Transporter. Your
Transplanting Apparatus is better than baskets, and has moreover the great recommendation of being very economical.
Your Xransplimter wiU, with moderate care, last for many years, aud combines thorough economy with thorough
eliiciency.*’
OKDBES are now being booked and will be executed in suooession as received by the Manufacturers and Agents
to the Patentee. T. B. THOMSON di 0, BSPXiANADB-KO W, OAXiOUTTA, to whom orders should be
sent accompanied by 0ASH or Draft on Calcutta ilgeut.
Nursery Trapsplantera, oomplete# with Que Transporter ... NBTOASH Hs. IS
Bxtra!l^nsporte]»ClatqueiUtykea^^.. Be* 1
Xh$ Trmi^ULvTm ars all marM m the c^lind^r*
PATENT.
C. A. JEBENS.
; JSWIJPf AND JSUSJS,
TffE ^ ^IfacemW h t^p .
MAWolim'Jsa.
OOJIKWAU..
corouiitti.
JJSXiVa. — -
HATWARP, TYLER AND COMPANY,
80I.B 3KAXSAS OF ,
RIDER’S HOT AIR ENGINES.
advantages.
IMPOSSIBILITY OF EXPLOSION.
rreedom from noise, dirt*
does not REQLTBB any SKILI/ED LABOll
Eavkwi, Bukrby, June IStli, 1877.
MbSSBB. HAYWAU5>,TYLEIt & Co.
Gentlemen,—The “ Ui<ler’' Hot Air En-
Ijino youBUpplietl some months eiuco is work-
10^5 very BatisfActorily. The eost of fuel m
very trinin^f. The only attention it haft had
has been that of the gurtienei*s boy, 1C yeaiu
of age. 1 consider it the most economical
E omping power I ha^e ever seen, I should
e ploaseif to show it to any one you may
fiend to see it.
Yours truly, Wm, Kiluck.
'‘Daily Tblsobam Omc3E,’^ Wr.si{BAr'ii,
May yth, ls77.
Messrs. Hayward, Tyler & Co., Lonjion.
Gontlomeu,—TheOno-Ilorse Hot Air Eit-
gino is now m daily woik, printing oil tlio
“ Daily Telegram” ipiite eatistaolouly.
Yours tiuly, T. V. tSuiiFiELD,
Specially adttiteU <ot Puuii'itig
tar _
■WOEKIKO PVNKAHS, HOUSEHOX-D USE. OR IREIOATION.
patent “0NTVEESAL” STEAM PUMPS,
ntwaATioii, minino, or pumping purposes.
flCWSOTO!), Fcbmaty 4tl>, 18 TI.
Mew-k Il,v\\\ABi>,Tvi.Kft&Oo.
(iEN'riEMRN, ^ 4,i,-1Jiiiv7
lu reply to yonr nniuiry, the l.> by
I onu Sirolco Vmnp, EWs. Tlnywmd, lyl^r
* Oo MiplJii'd ns w'*'* "’"''''"S
Mvwoll ' 7 feet suction, and toi’cmg tho
vatm 180 feet po*Ta«‘dicular, >Yilh 401b. o
‘’“itclo-e in wo lmd ono
n I-
fei ' Btwko, aiwl finng «* boilers, 3B te«t by
4I,.ot,t«clmoil,no'V wo only reqn..« two
I iUbIiovo I.O.IO-.S 10.10 tl.0 sooiowork
V„tl, miicl. less OTnoyante ana atf'iitiou.
1 oiu, Gcutlonuu, yoiii' tally,
J(>UN MAKPLES,
1 !r.(iino..r o! J Mid «• E^kuigtou
CoUiencs.
nuDDERsrm.o, January 5, 1^77.
EIicssrs. JIavvvaud, Tylku*& Co
Dicau Sirs,
In reply to yt/urin of 4 th meiiant,
we beg to uay that tho Stoam riiin['
answorfl perfectly well as a IS team File
Engine. It liaa now been in use over 4
years, and we hncl it to answer (piite .'is
well now as it did at lirst.
Yours truly,
Pro. B. VICKERMAN & SONS,
TOM CROWE.
HOJRIZONTAL «T13
HJJiBKS AUTOMATIC
am jenqintes.
FOR YANABLB LOADS.
84. 06. London, ,
mbUN AGRICULTURIST. .
ix
THE OHIfillTM '
ESIAB,LISHME11T or IKJJlA.
T. E. THOMSON & GO.,
9, tfll*i.AilAilE-IIOW/(i AteUTTA.
IMPORTERS OF
MACfilNERY, EMISEHS’ km PLiNTERS’ TOOLS OE ilL Rim
Claytoa and Suttleworth’s Portable En^nes, 6, 8,
10, and 12 H.P.
Punching and Shearing Machines.
Improved Saw-fiharpening Machines for Frame and
Circular Saws-
Seller’s Bolt and Nut Screwing Machines.
Drilling Machines with Feed Motion and Rismg
Table.
Bench Drills for Hand Power, 15’^ 20”, 25”.
Do. for Hand or Steam Power, 42".
Slotting Machines.
Lathes—Self-acting, Slide, Screw-cutting, and
Surfacing.
Foot Lathes.
Lathe Carriers.
Asbesto’s Packing.
Circular Saw Benches for 3.6” and 42” Saws, and
with Patent Self-acting Drags.
Circular Saw Spindles.
Crab Winches with and wittout bre^, to lift 4, 6,
8, and 10 tons.
Brick, Tile, and Pipe Maebiues.
Improved Brick Presring Matddnea.
Screw Jacks— Bottle, Tripod, Haley’s Patent, and
Traversii^
Iron Pulley Blocks for Rope and Chain. *
WeBton'’s Patent Differential Pulley Blocks.
Blast Fans, Silent, for 16 and 80 Fires.
Soda-water Machines to make 100 and 150 dozens
a day.
Soda-water Bottling Machines.
Parallel Vices.
Tube Vices, with and without side gate.
Boiler Bears.
Duplex Punches.
Indigo Press Screws with Brass Nuts.
Appold’s Centrifugal Pumps.
Cham Pumps.
“ Special ” Steam Pumps.
Steam and Horse Ploughs, Harrows,and Hoes,
Fire and Garden Engines.
Rice Shelling Machines.
Flour Mills for Hand, Cattle, or Steam Power,
Flour Dressing Machines.
Chaff-cutting Machines.
Corn Crushers with fluted Rollers,
Prize Com Crushers with Smooth Hollers for
Crushing Oats, Linseed, Malt, Barley, Gram,
and for Eibbling Beans, Maize, Ac,
Cart and Portable Weighing Machines.
Domestic ditto ditto with and
without weights.
Salter's Spring Balances.
large Stodc •Iwajr* on hand of .Vast flUieflUdd Vilea aod Vatant Woodseraws, Locks, Bolts,
Stngaa» Balia, Clrnid, SrattyBtaal, Braas, eon>et>»*ilio» Tin, X«ad, OU, Painta,
And siurpMjilit^
Prices and parimk^s on abdication.
X THE INDIAN AGRICULTDBIST. December 1,1879. .
PH(ENO: IBOIN W<)BKS,
. CALCUTTA.
THE OLDEST EN 6 INE 1 BING BSTABLISHMElifT & INDIA.
JESSOP & GO.,
GivU and Mechanical Engineers, Contractors, Brass and Iron Founders, Meklt Mmhmts,
Forged and Oast Iron Work) BoilerS) Macbinerj for Jute, CottoD) and BiceMillSt OollierleS) Indjgo OonoernS) T6n6ardenS)dbc.)Co1Rmotors
and Briok-making Blant) and every class of Iron and Brass Work made to order.
^ SOLE AGENTS FOR
Eobey Sl Co.’s celebrated Portable ond Fixed Engines and Machineiy, Gwynne k Oo.’s Centrifugal PtunpS| Gould’s
^ Eotaiy Pumps, and Bobinson’s Patent Steam Traps. '
»
Imporim and Uanufacirn'm of mry description of Steam Engines and Machinery^
Bobey & Co.'s Portable, Ilorizonta] Fixed, and Patent "Bobey'* Semi-fixed Bogioes, Combined Vertical Englaea and Boilers, Land
and Marine Boilers, Gould's notary Power Puw|w, Hand Lift and Force Pumps,''GwyniJe’s Centrifugal Pumps, Tang 3 ^e’i
“Special" Steam Pump, “ Vauxball ” Donkey Pumps, Flour Mills, SoOrl^ea Mills, Png Mills, Brick-making Maohinos,
Boad Boilers, Baw Benebos, Storey's Patent l^orkeo dewing Machines and Double Acting Helical
Excavators, Slide Surfacing and Screw Cutting Lathes, Drilling M^obines, Punohing and
Shearing, Slotting and Screwing Machines, Emery Grindtt^jMaeliines, Spencer's
Hand Drilling Macbinea CliaF Cutting Kaohlnos^ p^edy^i Pateut
Bar Shears, Selkirk's Bollw Tube Beadert, Steam
Pressure Becorders, Eiectrio Pens, Eichard’s
Engine Indloatom, Gifford's Injectors,
Cooking Stoves, Fire
Proof Batha
These Pumps, as largely
supplied to Government
in the Commissariat and
Btate Railway Depart¬
ments. are unequalled for
ease of working and large
outturn.
They invariably give satis¬
faction and can be strongly
recommended. Four siges
to discharge 900, 1,200,
1,600, and 1,600 gallons
per hour respectively.
THE GOULD'S HAND ROTART LIFT AND FORCE PUMPS.
INDIGO AND TEA PLANTERS' IMPLEMENTS AND STORES.
Indigo Screws, Indigo Beaters Indigo Pans, Indigo Pumps, Howaid’s Patent D and Turnwreat Ploughs, Eodallies, Pruning and
Budding Knivea, Grubbing iloee, Assam Daws and Foiks, Bill HoOks, American Felling Axes, Soissora, Shears, Saws, Mowing
Machines, Tea Sieves, Teft Lsad Solder, Galvanized Netting, Iron and Brass Wire Gauze, Leather and India-rubber
Belting, Tool Chesis, Grindstones,' Indla-rubbi^ SucUon and Delivery Hose, Canvas Hose, French Wire
and other Nails, Hoop Iron, Platform Weighing Machines, Spring Balances, Gram and Oat Ontsbing
Macliinea, Maximum and Minimum Tliermometers, Stwl Band Chains for land; measnrihjp
engxWhsbs' tools ajtd sto&ss or all xan %
Duplex Punches, Boiler Bears, Lifting Jacks, Stocks and Dies, Batohet Braoes, Tube Expanders and Outters, Engine, Spindle, and Small
Machine Counters, Vacuum and Pressure Gauges, Hydraulic Gauges, Boiler Tubes, Steam and EydrauHo Piping, Boiler Cooks and
Fittings, Triple Acting Hatchet Braoes, Horse Power Computing Scales, Angntar Bit Stocks, Stephen's Ameriean Parallel
Vices, Adjustable Clamps, Adjustable Iron Block Planes, Cranes, Voidable (Ml, *<CHliiia»" Pips Wrenches,
Berapers, Paieot (^lass Culteri*, Boiler Rivsti,' B^a and Nut^ Oodoh auA Wood Screws, &o., &c.
Always on bands large Stock, of Plato, Bar, Angle, an# Gorjmgated Iroiii. Steel, Brass, Copper, Pig Iron, Foundry
Coke, Smithy Qosl, Fite Ikioks, and Fire Clay. ^
'4|r
I
DeeemW 1, 1879.
INDIAN AGRICULTORIST.
S. OWENS & CO.,
, ."^J^yplITEFRI AR’S-STREET.'LONBON.
* ^ ^ I HYORAUUO ENQINEERS-AND MANUFApTURERS OP
fifKlffG JlfACHINBBY OP BVBEY DBSCBIPTION
tos StSAU, WATSR, TT/SJ} CATTIS, AND HAJflTAl POmB.
, BTDBAnUCEAMD BOBBW PBBSSBS, OIL MILL MAOHINBRT. HTDBAULIO LIFTS, Ac.
SOLB iUEmS FOA QBAIT BBUjUS OF
BLUCB'8 rAtJOn mSSOV'ACtXBO BTBAXI-FUXP, MOBS TSAJT 10,000 ZX INKi.
TAa fellotlrtitf on temt of tlie fuvm ttoii advanlajtt of (Aa JBteita Punv^
It will fliMl •! «S 7 palat
of
U m 4 cs tm Of flow*
wUb Um MUtto efrtain^ Of
ootloika
It it ooonomiooU
loui on Uio Slide Valve.
^ It h wd du^
Houi Povvez Lover
Detsohed.
It it interohiiijioabl# In
all its working
ltwiUdeUi^?Oi^^|M^
than any other t^oMp.
It it made of bett mate*
rials in the most workman¬
like manner,
Can he worked at 200
strokes per bour» or 20
strokes per minute.
BLARE'S PATENT
0 iieot*AioUaB Steam Pump and Boiler Feeder.
DouMc'barrcl Ooutrooiom* Pamps,
for hsud or steam powov.
Oil UU 1 «, for Steam or Cattle Power.
Double-barrel Pire BugUie, lyj
Uaualmut, Foutorlest Ao.
Deep-won PiitepBi for Vertical Combined Steam
Hocee or BoBook power* Sn^e* Boiler, and Deep*
wen Pumps.
DoaUe-barrel Foroo
Pumpa iu Frame.
Improved Steam Boring
Apparstua* also
%emi«c TOO!.*.
leriptioQ, for Artaaiou Wells.
fsliiFoimdationa^Ac.
17 coj>*wcll Pamp
or Hottd Power.
Fire Ifiuaiiift.fof Towns, Bailway Force Pumpa oa
Statioua, Ac. Barrow.
WfOttglit Iron
Portable Fumps<
Patent Omttlfttgal Pumps, for ConhfSobot's
ttw, or Irrigation work.
Oopblron House
orQsrdeaPomp.
Portable Irrigators for Dorm
or Steam Power*
BLAXE’S PAIEir.DiPCI-ACme STEAM PUMP AND VEETICAi BOILER
FOE IEEIGAHOH PWBPOSES,
niztm tAifsn, WATSR’apppLr to PZAifTAp(^t, smalz romta oa vizzAOXa,
i . WflITEFRIAR’S IRONWORKS, WflllBFmBpT., msI-SXJiEKI, LONDON.
oarALoeuss and mxiiiATil tiiiite mr ^aioaxiw.
4
XU
THE INDIAN AQEIOTILTHW^T.
COLLINS AND COMPANY^
ESTABLISHED 1826. '*>
MAI?rXJTrA.CTUREB8 OF -
AXES, HATCHETS, ADZES, HOES, EAItWAY AND MINING TOOIS
OF fttTRA FINE QUALITY AND FINISH.
AT THB
VAM8 BXPOSXXXON 1878
THB OOliLINS' TOOLS
Sectived (Ae Iliyheet Award, a Gold Medal,
ALSO MANUFAOTUREBSOy THE
8BST AaxsaxCAxr stbbx px.ouo|xs,
AND
LABOUR SAVING- PLOUGHIINO MACHINES.
Tho Collins Plongba aro made from best Cast Steel, cast in form, are of flinty hardness and highly poUshed. They are
light, strong, keen cutting, easy of draught and durable.
oorrespondenoe solicited.
FULL ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUES SENT FREE.
AVnSEBS :
COLLINS & GO.
Via Brindisi— 212, Water-atreet, New York City, United States, America.
BIRD & CO.,
MANUFAUTURERS OF Til B
PATBXIT XaXPBOVBB I.BATBBR—
OIL^PBOOF, WATMR*PROOF, JMPISRISBABLB,
WORKS:-
LIME-HOTJSB, LONDON, E.
T ins T^smthrt ia Babmitted to a patent procew, rendarinff it stronger,
“moMda»wr»Xirp.t»lo;. todl,iiip.»dh«.l. B;bigwater
proof, It I. puliculerly edepted to **'’“•'* ««»««<'•.
ud in the hot end moltt atmonphoto ol the Itopics.
, THB BANDS
opeo, Ibli Leethei will bo tottnd Invaleiblo.
THB HOSB PIPING.
thbbuokbtb
Are l..od«m.ir, •troDgor, end lighfor, «td will l«t loafot then thon
»gde ol wood or Iron. h^rI^BSS , , ^
Wfll be« oapoeor. to •[;• bo>.r'«Mem.
with 8 dry oloib ; neither “J*, JL^ Heavy Haroets, tboogh
BOOT AND SHOB PtTBPOSBS.
TbI* Palwtt Le»lh« will b« foo.d most «^X”Mo».'fU«
the Tatlone departroenlB ol Anuy, Tetainlng its spe j
?‘{r4Tn'’A"ftir,f in™- So* Tbf.
win bo *f<M>nd p»rtioul«V odoptod tor uw in
iTpb!" eTiUt™. •!•*" ‘b« 8 '“‘
to ordineiy PUBPOaBS.
A .A niiwihprltiifi otliar purpoeei to widoh thi« Leether
THE CARBOLIC
SANITARY COMPANY,
LONDON.
MaHOrAOTUBBBB 0 » THB
GOVERNMENT PINK CARBOLIC POWDER.
THB
GOVERNMENT FLUID DlSINPSOTANT
CORlMSON),1n large glaea hottlra,
TH»
GOVB&NMIiXtT CAMOUC SmUXB.
carbolics ACIDi
In glsBi boUles. Same prittea as Orimioii Plaid. la balk (dark),
airav aolotired.
the GOVBlRNMENf OABBOLIO SOFT SOAP,
In tiai. 7 tb. Hnl, Uth. tins, 20 th. tins. 6 &lh, k«g 8 .
\
agents WANTEO. ^