Análisis de potenciales nuevos biomarcadores de congestión pulmonar y sistémica en insuficiencia cardiaca
- Autores: Isabel Torres Courchoud
- Directores de la Tesis: Juan Ignacio Pérez Calvo (dir. tes.)
- Lectura: En la Universidad de Zaragoza ( España ) en 2018
- Idioma: español
- Tribunal Calificador de la Tesis: Gregorio Tiberio López (presid.), José Luis Morales Rull (secret.), Claudia Josa Laorden (voc.)
- Programa de doctorado: Programa de Doctorado en Medicina por la Universidad de Zaragoza
- Materias:
- Enlaces
- Tesis en acceso abierto en: Zaguán
- Resumen
La congestión, tanto sistémica como pulmonar, juega un papel determinante en la mediación del daño o disfunción orgánica, durante las descompensaciones de la insuficiencia cardiaca (IC). La activación inmune o de mecanismos inflamatorios puede generar concentraciones circulantes detectables de algunos biomarcadores que podrían estar relacionados con el daño tisular y por consiguiente con el pronóstico.
La congestión pulmonar podría estimular la actividad macrofágica alveolar y la sistémica generar una pérdida de eficacia de la mucosa intestinal y permitir el paso de endotoxinas al torrente circulatorio con la consiguiente activación inmune.
Postulamos que la Enzima Conversora de Angiotensina (ECA) procedente de los macrófagos alveolares y la Procalcitonina (PCT) como expresión de la pérdida de la función de barrera del epitelio intestinal, son marcadores subrogados de gravedad durante los episodios de descompensación de IC.
1. McMurray JJ, Adamopoulos S, Anker SD, Auricchio A, Böhm M, Dickstein K et al. ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2012. Eur J Heart Fail. 2012;14(8):803–69.
2. Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, Bueno H, Cleland JG, Coats AJ et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2016;18(8):891–975.
3. Maggioni AP. Epidemiology of Heart Failure in Europe. Heart Fail Clin. 2015;11(4):625–35.
4. Sayago-Silva I, García-López F, Segovia-Cubero J. Epidemiología de la insuficiencia cardiaca en España en los últimos 20 años. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2013;66(8):649–56.
5. Delgado JF, Oliva J, Llano M, Pascual-Figal D, Grillo JJ, Comín-Colet J et al. Costes sanitarios y no sanitarios de personas que padecen insuficiencia cardiaca crónica sintomática en España. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2014;67(8):643–50.
6. European Study Group on Diastolic Heart Failure. How to diagnose diastolic heart failure. Eur Heart J. 1998;19(7):990–1003.
7. Brutsaert DL, De Keulenaer GW. Diastolic heart failure: a myth. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2006;21(3):240–8.
8. Raphael C, Briscoe C, Davies J, Ian Whinnett Z, Manisty C, Sutton R et al. Limitations of the New York Heart Association functional classification system and self-reported walking distances in chronic heart failure. Heart. 2007;93(4):476–82.
9. Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG et al. ACC/AHA 2005 Guideline Update for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). Circulation. 2005;112(12):e154-235. 10. Kemp CD, Conte JV. The pathophysiology of heart failure. Cardiovasc Pathol. 2012;21(5):365–71.
11. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Adams RJ, Berry JD, Brown TM et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2011 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123(4):e18-209.
12. Dzau VJ, Antman EM, Black HR, Hayes DL, Manson JE, Plutzky J et al. The cardiovascular disease continuum validated: Clinical evidence of improved patient outcomes: Part I: Pathophysiology and clinical trial evidence (risk factors through stable coronary artery disease). Circulation. 2006;114(25):2850–70. 13. Francis GS. Pathophysiology of chronic heart failure. Am J Med. 2001;110(7 Suppl 1):S37-46. 14. Guadalajara Boo JF. Entendiendo la insuficiencia cardiaca. Arch Cardiol Mex. 2006;76(4):431–47.
15. Chaggar PS, Malkin CJ, Shaw SM, Williams SG, Channer KS. Neuroendocrine effects on the heart and targets for therapeutic manipulation in heart failure. Cardiovasc Ther. 2009;27(3):187–93.
16. Rea ME, Dunlap ME. Renal hemodynamics in heart failure: implications for treatment. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2008;17(1):87–92.
17. Robledo GG, Cantillo DS, Comín Colet J. La hiponatremia en la insuficiencia cardíaca: Fisiopatología y enfoque farmacológico. Endocrinol Nutr. 2010;57 Supl 2:10-4.
18. Rusinaru D, Tribouilloy C, Berry C, Richards AM, Whalley GA, Earle N et al. Relationship of serum sodium concentration to mortality in a wide spectrum of heart failure patients with preserved and with reduced ejection fraction: An individual patient data meta-analysis†: Meta-Analysis Global Group in Chronic heart failure (MAGGIC). Eur J Heart Fail. 2012;14(10):1139–46.
19. Gheorghiade M, Abraham WT, Albert NM, Gattis Stough W, Greenberg BH, O’Connor CM et al. Relationship between admission serum sodium concentration and clinical outcomes in patients hospitalized for heart failure: An analysis from the OPTIMIZE-HF registry. Eur Heart J. 2007;28(8):980–8. 20. Cataliotti A, Chen HH, Redfield MM, Burnett JC Jr. Natriuretic peptides as regulators of myocardial structure and function: pathophysiologic and therapeutic implications. Heart Fail Clin. 2006;2(3):269–76.
21. Chen HH, Burnett JC Jr. Therapeutic Potential for Existing and Novel Forms of Natriuretic Peptides. Heart Fail Clin. 2006;2(3):365–73.
22. Correa de Sa DD, Chen HH. The role of natriuretic peptides in heart failure. Curr Heart Fail Rep. 2008;5(3):177–84.
23. Chen HH, Burnett JC. Natriuretic peptides in the pathophysiology of congestive heart failure. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2000;2(3):198–205. 24. Volpe M. Natriuretic peptides and cardio-renal disease. Int J Cardiol. 2014;176(3):630–9.
25. Inoue T, Nonoguchi H, Tomita K. Physiological effects of vasopressin and atrial natriuretic peptide in the collecting duct. Cardiovasc Res. 2001;51(3):470–80.
26. Deftereos S, Giannopoulos G, Panagopoulou V, Bouras G, Raisakis K, Kossyvakis C et al. Anti-inflammatory treatment with colchicine instable chronic heart failure:a prospective, randomized study. JACC Heart Fail. 2014;2(2):131–7.
27. Filella X, Molina R, Ballesta AM. Estructura y función de las citocinas. Med Integr. 2002;39(2):63–71.
28. Dick SA, Epelman S. Chronic Heart Failure and Inflammation: What Do We Really Know? Circ Res. 2016;119(1):159–76.
29. Boulogne M, Sadoune M, Launay JM, Baudet M, Cohen-Solal A, Logeart D. Inflammation versus mechanical stretch biomarkers over time in acutely decompensated heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Int J Cardiol. 2017;226:53–9.
30. Candia AM, Villacorta H Jr, Mesquita ET. Immune-inflammatory activation in heart failure. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2007;89(3):183–90.
31. Briasoulis A, Androulakis E, Christophides T, Tousoulis D. The role of inflammation and cell death in the pathogenesis, progression and treatment of heart failure. Heart Fail Rev. 2016;21(2):169–76.
32. Paredes CA, Vega J, de León A, Kanacri A, Castro P, Baeza R. Utilidad de los biomarcadores en insuficiencia cardiaca en la práctica clínica. Rev Med Chil. 2013;141(12):1560–9.
33. Anker SD, von Haehling S. Inflammatory mediators in chronic heart failure: an overview. Heart. 2004;90(4):464–70.
34. Paulus WJ, Tschöpe C. A novel paradigm for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: comorbidities drive myocardial dysfunction and remodeling through coronary microvascular endothelial inflammation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62(4):263–71.
35. Konradi J, Mollenhauer M, Baldus S, Klinke A. Redox-sensitive mechanisms underlying vascular dysfunction in heart failure. Free Radic Res. 2015;49(6):721–42.
36. Braunwald E. Biomarkers in heart failure management. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(20):2148–59.
37. Pappas L, Filippatos G. Congestión pulmonar en la insuficiencia cardiaca aguda: de la hemodinámica a la lesión pulmonar y la disfunción de la barrera alveolocapilar. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2011;64(9):735–8.
38. Mueller C, Laule-Kilian K, Christ A, Brunner-La Rocca HP, Perruchoud AP. Inflammation and long-term mortality in acute congestive heart failure. Am Heart J. 2006;151(4):845–50.
39. Cohn JN, Ferrari R, Sharpe N. Cardiac remodeling--concepts and clinical implications: a consensus paper from an international forum on cardiac remodeling. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35(3):569–82.
40. Rivera M, Taléns-Visconti R, Jordán A, Sirera R, Sevilla B, Climent V et al. Remodelado miocárdico y activación inmunitaria en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2006;59(9):911–8.
41. Motiwala SR, Gaggin HK. Biomarkers to Predict Reverse Remodeling and Myocardial Recovery in Heart Failure. Curr Heart Fail Rep. 2016;13(5):207–18.
42. De Pasquale CG. Proteína surfactante tipo B en la insuficiencia cardiaca crónica: un examen de la barrera alveolocapilar. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2009;62(2):117–9.
43. West JB, Tsukimoto K, Mathieu-Costello O, Prediletto R. Stress failure in pulmonary capillaries. J Appl Physiol. 1991;70(4):1731–42.
44. Picano E, Gargani L, Gheorghiade M. Why, when, and how to assess pulmonary congestion in heart failure: pathophysiological, clinical, and methodological implications. Heart Fail Rev. 2010;15(1):63–72.
45. De Pasquale CG, Arnolda LF, Doyle IR, Aylward PE, Chew DP, Bersten AD. Plasma surfactant protein-B: a novel biomarker in chronic heart failure. Circulation. 2004;110(9):1091–6.
46. Gheorghiade M, Filippatos G, De Luca L, Burnett J. Congestion in acute heart failure syndromes: an essential target of evaluation and treatment. Am J Med. 2006;119(12 Suppl 1):S3-10.
47. Anguita M, Castillo JC, Ruiz M, Castillo F, Jiménez-Navarro M, Crespo M et al. Diferencias en el pronóstico de la insuficiencia cardiaca con función sistólica conservada o deprimida en pacientes mayores de 70 años que toman bloqueadores beta. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2012;65(1):22–8.
48. Formiga F, Manito N, Pujol R. Insuficiencia cardiaca terminal. Med Clin (Barc). 2007;128(7):263–7.
49. Pons F, Lupón J, Urrutia A, González B, Crespo E, Díez C et al. Mortalidad y causas de muerte en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca: experiencia de una unidad especializada multidisciplinaria. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2010;63(3):303–14.
50. Loncar G, Tscholl V, Tahirovic E, Sekularac N, Marx A, Obradovic D et al. Should procalcitonin be measured routinely in acute decompensated heart failure? Biomark Med. 2015;9(7):651–9.
51. Solomon SD, Dobson J, Pocock S, Skali H, McMurray JJ, Granger CB et al. Influence of nonfatal hospitalization for heart failure on subsequent mortality in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 2007;116(13):1482–7.
52. Martín-Ventura JL, Blanco-Colio LM, Tuñón J, Muñoz-García B, Madrigal-Matute J, Moreno JA et al. Biomarcadores en la medicina cardiovascular. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2009;62(6):677–88.
53. Strimbu K, Tavel JA. What are Biomarkers? Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2010;5(6):463–6.
54. Richards AM. Nuevos biomarcadores en la insuficiencia cardiaca: aplicaciones en el diagnóstico, pronóstico y pautas de tratamiento. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2010;63(6):635–9.
55. Iqbal N, Alim KS, Aramin H, Iqbal F, Green E, Higginbotham E et al. Novel biomarkers for heart failure. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2013;11(9):1155–69.
56. Morrow DA, de Lemos JA. Benchmarks for the assessment of novel cardiovascular biomarkers. Circulation. 2007;115(8):949–52.
57. Mallick A, Januzzi JL Jr. Biomarcadores en la insuficiencia cardiaca aguda. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2015;68(6):514–25.
58. Gaggin HK, Januzzi JL Jr. Biomarkers and diagnostics in heart failure. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013;1832(12):2442–50.
59. Agewall S, Giannitsis E, Jernberg T, Katus H. Troponin elevation in coronary vs. non-coronary disease. Eur Heart J. 2011;32(4):404–11.
60. Latini R, Masson S. Valor pronóstico de las troponinas circulantes en la insuficiencia cardiaca. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2008;61(7):667–9.
61. Pascual-Figal DA, Casas T, Ordonez-Llanos J, Manzano-Fernández S, Bonaque JC, Boronat M et al. Highly sensitive troponin T for risk stratification of acutely destabilized heart failure. Am Heart J. 2012;163(6):1002–10.
62. Kociol RD, Pang PS, Gheorghiade M, Fonarow GC, O’Connor CM, Felker GM. Troponin elevation in heart failure: prevalence, mechanisms, and clinical implications. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(14):1071–8.
63. Niebauer J, Volk HD, Kemp M, Dominguez M, Schumann RR, Rauchhaus M et al. Endotoxin and immune activation in chronic heart failure: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 1999;353(9167):1838–42.
64. Seta Y, Shan K, Bozkurt B, Oral H, Mann DL. Basic mechanisms in heart failure: the cytokine hypothesis. J Card Fail. 1996;2(3):243–9.
65. Alonso-Martínez JL, Llorente-Diez B, Echegaray-Agara M, Olaz-Preciado F, Urbieta-Echezarreta M, González-Arencibia C et al. C-reactive protein as a predictor of improvement and readmission in heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2002;4(3):331–6.
66. Núñez J, Miñana G, Núñez E, Chorro FJ, Bodí V, Sanchis J. Clinical utility of antigen carbohydrate 125 in heart failure. Heart Fail Rev. 2014;19(5):575–84.
67. Miñana Escrivá G, Núñez J, Sanchis J, Bodi V, Núñez E, Chorro FJ et al. Mediciones seriadas de antígeno carbohidrato 125 tras un ingreso por insuficiencia cardiaca aguda y riesgo de reingreso precoz. Med Clin (Barc). 2012;139(11):479–86.
68. D’Aloia A, Faggiano P, Aurigemma G, Bontempi L, Ruggeri G, Metra M et al. Serum levels of carbohydrate antigen 125 in patients with chronic heart failure: relation to clinical severity, hemodynamic and doppler echocardiographic abnormalities, and short-term prognosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(10):1805–11.
69. Monteiro S, Franco F, Costa S, Monteiro P, Vieira H, Coelho L et al. Prognostic value of CA125 in advanced heart failure patients. Int J Cardiol. 2010;140(1):115–8.
70. Jessup M, Brozena S. Heart Failure. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(20):2007–18.
71. Morales-Olivas FJ, Estañ L. La actividad de la renina plasmática. Papel de la inhibición directa de la renina. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2011;11 Supl D:3–7.
72. Patel VB, Zhong JC, Grant MB, Oudit GY. Role of the ACE2/Angiotensin 1–7 axis of the Renin-Angiotensin System in Heart Failure. Circ Res. 2016;118(8):1313–6.
73. Burrel L. RENIN ANGIOTENSIN PATHWAY BEYOND ACE AND ANGIOTENSIN II RECEPTORS: HOW IT RELATES TO THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF HYPERTENSION. J Hypertens. 2016;34(Suppl 1):e367.
74. Fyhrquist F, Saijonmaa O. Renin-angiotensin system revisited. J Intern Med. 2008;264(3):224–36.
75. Castro-Chaves P, Leite-Moreira AF. Sistema Renina-Angiotensina e seu Papel na Fisiopatología e Terapeutica Cardiovascular. Rev Port Cardiol. 2004;23 Supl 2:II61-77.
76. Alvarez I, Flórez Y. Pathophysiological effects of rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system on congestive heart failure in dogs. Rev Colomb Ciencias Pecu. 2012;25(3):511–22.
77. van de Wal RM, Plokker HW, Lok DJ, Boomsma F, van der Horst FA, van Veldhuisen DJ et al. Determinants of increased angiotensin II levels in severe chronic heart failure patients despite ACE inhibition. Int J Cardiol. 2006;106(3):367–72.
78. Roig E, Perez-Villa F, Morales M, Jiménez W, Orús J, Heras M et al. Clinical implications of increased plasma angiotensin II despite ACE inhibitor therapy in patients with congestive heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2000;21(1):53–7.
79. Yilin Z, Yandong N, Faguang J. Role of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and ACE2 in a rat model of smoke inhalation induced acute respiratory distress syndrome. Burns. 2015;41(7):1468–77.
80. Prat Americh C, Domínguez Benítez J. Procalcitonina y marcadores de infección. Ed Cont Lab Clín. 2004;7:38–43.
81. Villanueva MP, Mollar A, Palau P, Carratalá A, Núñez E, Santas E et al. Procalcitonin and long-term prognosis after an admission for acute heart failure. Eur J Intern Med. 2015;26(1):42–8.
82. Kafkas N, Venetsanou K, Patsilinakos S, Voudris V, Antonatos D, Kelesidis K et al. Procalcitonin in acute myocardial infarction. Acute Card Care. 2008;10(1):30–6.
83. Möckel M, Searle J, Maisel A. The role of procalcitonin in acute heart failure patients. ESC Heart Fail. 2017;4(3):203–8.
84. Lee NS, Daniels LB. Personalized CHF treatment: PCT to guide therapy in heart failure patients. Int J Cardiol. 2014;176(2):307–8.
85. Wang W, Zhang X, Ge N, Liu J, Yuan H, Zhang P et al. Procalcitonin testing for diagnosis and short-term prognosis in bacterial infection complicated by congestive heart failure: a multicenter analysis of 4,698 cases. Crit Care. 2014;18(1):R4.
86. Sandek A, Bjarnason I, Volk HD, Crane R, Meddings JB, Niebauer J et al. Studies on bacterial endotoxin and intestinal absorption function in patients with chronic heart failure. Int J Cardiol. 2012;157(1):80–5.
87. von Haehling S, Schefold JC, Lainscak M, Doehner W, Anker SD. Inflammatory biomarkers in heart failure revisited: much more than innocent bystanders. Heart Fail Clin. 2009;5(4):549–60.
88. Górriz Teruel JL, Beltrán Catalán S. Valoración de afección renal, disfunción renal aguda e hiperpotasemia por fármacos usados en cardiología y nefrotoxicidad por contrastes. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2011;64(12):1182–92.
89. Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, Molitoris BA, Ronco C, Warnock DG et al. Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 2007;11(2):R31.
90. Montes-Santiago J, Arévalo Lorido JC, Cerqueiro González JM. Epidemiología de la insuficiencia cardíaca aguda. Med Clin (Barc). 2014;142 Supl 1:3–8.
91. Wong CY, Chaudhry SI, Desai MM, Krumholz HM. Trends in comorbidity, disability, and polypharmacy in heart failure. Am J Med. 2011;124(2):136–43.
92. Ruiz-Laiglesia FJ, Sánchez-Marteles M, Pérez-Calvo JI, Formiga F, Bartolomé-Satué JA, Armengou-Arxé A et al. Comorbidity in heart failure. Results of the Spanish RICA registry. QJM. 2014;107(12):989–94.
93. Montero Pérez-Barquero M, Conthe Gutiérrez P, Román Sánchez P, García Alegría J, Forteza-Rey J. Comorbilidad de los pacientes ingresados por insuficiencia cardiaca en los servicios de medicina interna. Rev Clin Esp. 2010;210(4):149–58.
94. Castro Beiras A, Barge Caballero E. Concepto y pronóstico de insuficiencia cardiaca con fracción de eyección normal. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2006;6 Supl F:9–14.
95. Owan TE, Hodge DO, Herges RM, Jacobsen SJ, Roger VL, Redfield MM. Trends in prevalence and outcome of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jul 20;355(3):251–9.
96. Gómez-Otero I, Ferrero-Gregori A, Varela Román A, Seijas Amigo J, Pascual-Figal DA, Delgado Jiménez J et al. La fracción de eyección intermedia no permite estratificar el riesgo de los pacientes hospitalizados por insuficiencia cardiaca. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2017;70(5):338–46.
97. Guisado-Espartero M, Salamanca-Bautista P, Aramburu-Bodas O, Conde Martel A, Arias Jiménez JL, Llàcer Iborra P et al. HEART FAILURE WITH MID-RANGE EJECTION FRACTION IN PATIENTS ADMITTED TO INTERNAL MEDICINE DEPARTMENTS: FINDINGS FROM THE RICA REGISTRY. Int J Cardiol 2017 [Epub Ahead of print].
98. Casado J, Montero M, Formiga F, Camafort M, Sánchez C, Muela A, et al. Función renal en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca: valor pronóstico. Rev Clin Esp. 2012;212(3):119–26.
99. Rubio Gracia J, Sánchez Marteles M, Pérez Calvo JI. Implicación de la congestión venosa sistémica en la insuficiencia cardíaca. Rev Clin Esp. 2017;217(3):161–9.
100. Formiga F, Chivite D, Conde A, Ruiz-Laiglesia F, González Franco A, Pérez Bocanegra C, et al. Basal functional status predicts three-monthmortality after a heart failure hospitalization in elderly patients - the prospective RICA study. Int J Cardiol. 2014;172(1):127–31.
101. González-García A, Montero Pérez-Barquero M, Formiga F, González-Juanatey JR, Quesada MA, Epelde F et al. ¿Se ha incrementado el uso de bloqueadores beta en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca en medicina interna? Implicaciones pronósticas: registro RICA. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2014;67(3):196–202.
102. Fernández-Bergés D, Consuegra-Sánchez L, Félix-Redondo FJ, Robles NR, Galán Montejano M, Lozano-Mera L. Características clínicas y mortalidad de la insuficiencia cardiaca. Estudio INCAex. Rev Clin Esp (Barc). 2013;213(1):16–24.
103. López Castro J, Almazán Ortega R, Pérez De Juan Romero M, González Juanatey JR. Factores pronósticos de mortalidad de la insuficiencia cardíaca en una cohorte del noroeste de España. Estudio EPICOUR. Rev Clin Esp. 2010;210(9):438–47.
104. Barrios Alonso V, Campuzano Ruiz R. Utilidad de los antagonistas de los receptores de angiotensina II en la insuficiencia cardíaca. Rev Clin Esp. 2003;203(1):28–32.
105. Nakada Y, Takahama H, Kanzaki H, Sugano Y, Hasegawa T, Ohara T et al. The predictability of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system factors for clinical outcome in patients with acute decompensated heart failure. Heart Vessels. 2016;31(6):925–31.
106. Fernández L. Insuficiencia cardíaca. An Pediatr Contin. 2005;3(2):79–86.
107. Nieto J, Robles NR, Liébana A. El sistema renina-angiotensina : ¿hasta dónde se expande?, ¿es posible bloquearlo? Nefrol Sup Ext. 2011;2(5):48–56.
108. Levy BI. How to explain the differences between renin angiotensin system modulators. Am J Hypertens. 2005;18(9 Pt 2):134-41.
109. Kjaer A, Hesse B. Heart failure and neuroendocrine activation: diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic perspectives. Clin Physiol. 2001;21(6):661–72.
110. Hisatake S, Kiuchi S, Kabuki T, Oka T, Dobashi S, Ikeda T. Serum angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 concentration and angiotensin-(1–7) concentration in patients with acute heart failure patients requiring emergency hospitalization. Heart Vessels. 2017;32(3):303–8.
111. SOLVD Investigators, Yusuf S, Pitt B, Davis CE, Hood WB, Cohn JN. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1991;325(5):293–302.
112. Granger CB, Mcmurray JJ, Yusuf S, Held P, Michelson EL, Olofsson B et al. Effects of candesartan in patients with chronic heart failure and reduced left-ventricular systolic function intolerant to angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors: the CHARM-Alternative trial. Lancet. 2003;362(9386):772–6.
113. Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure: Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(10):709–17.
114. Schroten NF, Gaillard CA, van Veldhuisen DJ, Szymanski MK, Hillege HL, de Boer RA. New roles for renin and prorenin in heart failure and cardiorenal crosstalk. Heart Fail Rev. 2012;17(2):191–201.
115. Ueda T, Kawakami R, Nishida T, Onoue K, Soeda T, Okayama S et al. Plasma renin activity is a strong and independent prognostic indicator in patients with acute decompensated heart failure treated with renin-angiotensin system inhibitors. Circ J. 2015;79(6):1307–14.
116. Tsutamoto T, Sakai H, Tanaka T, Fujii M, Yamamoto T, Wada A et al. Comparison of active renin concentration and plasma renin activity as a prognostic predictor in patients with heart failure. Circ J. 2007;71(6):915–21.
117. Ortiz-Pérez JT, Riera M, Bosch X, De Caralt TM, Perea RJ, Pascual J et al. Role of circulating angiotensin converting enzyme 2 in left ventricular remodeling following myocardial infarction: a prospective controlled study. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e61695.
118. Epelman S, Tang WH, Chen SY, Van Lente F, Francis GS, Sen S. Detection of soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in heart failure: insights into the endogenous counter-regulatory pathway of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(9):750–4.
119. Cohen Solal A, Jondeau G, Beauvais F, Berdeaux A. Beneficial effects of carvedilol on angiotensin-converting enzyme activity and renin plasma levels in patients with chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2004;6(4):463–6.
120. Ames MK, Atkins CE, Lantis AC, zum Brunnen J. Evaluation of subacute change in RAAS activity (as indicated by urinary aldosterone:creatinine, after pharmacologic provocation) and the response to ACE inhibition. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. 2016;17(1):1–12.
121. Mentz RJ, Stevens SR, DeVore AD, Lala A, Vader JM, AbouEzzeddine OF et al. Decongestion strategies and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation in acute heart failure. JACC Heart Fail. 2015;3(2):97–107.
122. Lapointe N, Rouleau JL. Activation of vascular tissue angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in heart failure. Effects of ACE inhibitors. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39(5):776–9.
123. Farquharson CA, Struthers AD. Gradual reactivation over time of vascular tissue angiotensin I to angiotensin II conversion during chronic lisinopril therapy in chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39(5):767–75.
124. Fraccarollo D, Galuppo P, Hildemann S, Christ M, Ertl G, Bauersachs J. Additive improvement of left ventricular remodeling and neurohormonal activation by aldosterone receptor blockade with eplerenone and ACE inhibition in rats with myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(9):1666–73.
125. Athyros VG, Mikhailidis DP, Kakafika AI, Tziomalos K, Karagiannis A. Angiotensin II reactivation and aldosterone escape phenomena in renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade: Is oral renin inhibition the solution? Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2007;8(5):529–35.
126. Becari C, Oliveira EB, Salgado MC. Alternative pathways for angiotensin II generation in the cardiovascular system. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2011;44(9):914–9.
127. Epstein M, Reaven NL, Funk SE, Mcgaughey KJ, Oestreicher N, Knispel J. Evaluation of the treatment gap between clinical guidelines and the utilization of renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system inhibitors. Am J Manag Care. 2015;21(11 Suppl):s212-20.
128. Fagyas M, Úri K, Siket IM, Daragó A, Boczán J, Bányai E et al. New perspectives in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) I: endogenous angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition. PLoS One. 2014;9(4):e87843.
129. Miguel-Bayarri V, Casanoves-Laparra EB, Pallás-Beneyto L, Sancho-Chinesta S, Martín-Osorio LF, Tormo-Calandín C et al. Valor pronóstico de los biomarcadores procalcitonina, interleukina 6 y proteína C reactiva en la sepsis grave. Med Intensiva. 2012;36(8):556–62.
130. Name Bayona O, Fernández López A, Luaces Cubells C. Procalcitonina: una nueva herramienta diagnóstica en la infección bacteriana. Med Clin (Barc). 2002;119(18):707–14.
131. Taylor R, Jones A, Kelly S, Simpson M, Mabey J. A Review of the Value of Procalcitonin as a Marker of Infection. Cureus. 2017;9(4):e1148.
132. Montoya González C, Hernández Luna A, Villalobos Silva JA, Aguirre Sánchez J, Franco Granillo J. Utilidad de procalcitonina como marcador diagnóstico temprano en choque séptico. Rev Asoc Mex Med Crit y Ter Int. 2009;23(4):211–7.
133. Rhee C. Using procalcitonin to guide antibiotic therapy. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;4(1):1–10.
134. Mollar A, Villanueva MP, Carratalá A, Núñez E, Sanchis J, Núñez J. Determinants of procalcitonin concentration in acute heart failure. Int J Cardiol. 2014;177(2):532–4.
135. Zúñiga E, Ecobar R, Arango A, Pardo JM, Espinosa AF, Bernal LE et al. Niveles séricos de procalcitonina y sepsis en el posoperatorio inmediato de diversos tipos de cirugía. Acta Med Colomb. 2009;34(1):17–22.
136. Barba Evia JR. Procalcitonina. Su papel como biomarcador de sepsis. Rev Mex Patol Clin. 2008;55(3):157–67.
137. Meisner M. Update on Procalcitonin Measurements. Ann Lab Med. 2014;34(4):263–73.
138. Meisner M, Schmidt J, Hüttner H, Tschaikowsky K. The natural elimination rate of procalcitonin in patients with normal and impaired renal function. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26 Supl 2:212-6.
139. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Anavekar N, Bellomo R. Cardiorenal Syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(19):1527–39.
140. Schrier RW, Abraham WT. Hormones and hemodynamics in heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(8):577–85.
141. Filippatos G, Farmakis D, Parissis J. Renal dysfunction and heart failure: things are seldom what they seem. Eur Heart J. 2014;35(7):416–8.
142. Afsar B, Ortiz A, Covic A, Solak Y, Goldsmith D, Kanbay M. Focus on renal congestion in heart failure. Clin Kidney J. 2016;9(1):39–47.
143. Mullens W, Abrahams Z, Francis GS, Sokos G, Taylor DO, Starling RC et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(7):589–96.
144. Damman K, van Deursen VM, Navis G, Voors AA, van Veldhuisen DJ, Hillege HL. Increased central venous pressure is associated with impaired renal function and mortality in a broad spectrum of patients with cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(7):582–8.
145. Krack A, Sharma R, Figulla HR, Anker SD. The importance of the gastrointestinal system in the pathogenesis of heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(22):2368–74.
146. Lu XL, Xiao ZH, Yang MY, Zhu YM. Diagnostic value of serum procalcitonin in patients with chronic renal insufficiency: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nephrol Dial Transpl. 2013;28(1):122–9.
147. Dionisio-Coronel YB, López-Forero WE, Solis Ovando F, Julián-Jiménez A. Poder diagnóstico de la procalcitonina e insuficiencia renal. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2016;34(4):275–6.
148. Sitter T, Schmidt M, Schneider S, Schiffl H. Differential diagnosis of bacterial infection and inflammatory response in kidney diseases using procalcitonin. J Nephrol. 2002;15(3):297–301.
149. Heredia-Rodríguez M, Bustamante-Munguira J, Fierro I, Lorenzo M, Jorge-Monjas P, Gómez-Sánchez E et al. Procalcitonin cannot be used as a biomarker of infection in heart surgery patients with acute kidney injury. J Crit Care. 2016;33:233–9.
150. Amour J, Birenbaum A, Langeron O, Le Manach Y, Bertrand M, Coriat P et al. Influence of renal dysfunction on the accuracy of procalcitonin for the diagnosis of postoperative infection after vascular surgery. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(4):1147–54.
151. El-Sayed D, Grotts J, Golgert WA, Sugar AM et al. Sensitivity and specificity of procalcitonin in predicting bacterial infections in patients with renal impairment. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2014;1(2):1–7.
152. Steinbach G, Bölke E, Grünert A, Störck M, Orth K. Procalcitonin in patients with acute and chronic renal insufficiency. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2004;116(24):849–53.
153. Meisner M, Lohs T, Huettemann E, Schmidt J, Hueller M, Reinhart K et al. The plasma elimination rate and urinary secretion of procalcitonin in patients with normal and impaired renal function. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2001;18(2):79–87.
154. Almenar Bonet L, Martínez-Dolz L. Péptidos natriuréticos en insuficiencia cardiaca. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2006;6 Supl F:15–26.
155. Kim HN, Januzzi JL Jr. Natriuretic peptide testing in heart failure. Circulation. 2011;123(18):2015–9.
156. Jiménez-Navarro M, Delgado Jiménez J, Rivera Otero M, Roig Minguell E, Segovia Cubero J, Almenar Bonet L et al. Utilidad de los péptidos natriuréticos en la insuficiencia cardíaca. Med Clin (Barc). 2008;130(15):591–6.
157. Varol E, Ozaydin M, Dogan A, Kosar F. Tumour marker levels in patients with chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2005;7(5):840–3.
158. Núñez J, Núñez E, Sanchis J, Bodí V, Fonarow GC, Miñana G et al. Antigen carbohydrate 125 and brain natriuretic peptide serial measurements for risk stratification following an episode of acute heart failure. Int J Cardiol. 2012;159(1):21–8.
159. Pérez-Calvo JI, Morales Rull JL, Ruiz Ruiz FJ. La cistatina C: una proteína para la insuficiencia cardíaca. Med Clin (Barc). 2011;136(4):158–62.
160. Constantin I, Varela CF, del Castillo SL, Romeo F, Guzzetti E, Citterio PL et al. Cistatina C como predictor de síndrome cardiorrenal y mal pronóstico en pacientes internados por insuficiencia cardíaca aguda y función renal normal. Rev Argent Cardiol. 2016;84(1):15–20.
161. Damman K, van der Harst P, Smilde TD, Voors AA, Navis G, van Veldhuisen DJ et al. Use of cystatin C levels in estimating renal function and prognosis in patients with chronic systolic heart failure. Heart. 2012;98(4):319–24.
162. Canbay A, Celeb OO, Celebi S, Aydogdu S, Diker E. Procalcitonin: a marker of heart failure. Acta Cardiol. 2015;70(4):473–8.
163. Travaglino F, Russo V, De Berardinis B, Numeroso F, Catania P, Cervellin G et al. Thirty and ninety days mortality predictive value of admission and in-hospital procalcitonin and mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin testing in patients with dyspnea. Results from the VERyfing DYspnea trial. Am J Emerg Med. 2014;32(4):334–41.
164. Pocock SJ, Ariti CA, McMurray JJ, Maggioni A, Kober L, Squire IB et al. Predicting survival in heart failure: a risk score based on 39 372 patients from 30 studies. Eur Heart J. 2013;34(19):1404–13.
165. Barlera S, Tavazzi L, Franzosi MG, Marchioli R, Raimondi E, Masson S et al. Predictors of mortality in 6975 patients with chronic heart failure in the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Streptochinasi nell’Infarto Miocardico-Heart Failure trial: proposal for a nomogram. Circ Heart Fail. 2013;6(1):31–9.
166. Jin M, Wei S, Gao R, Wang K, Xu X, Yao W et al. Predictors of Long-Term Mortality in Patients With Acute Heart Failure. Int Heart J. 2017;58(3):409–15.
167. Carrasco-Sánchez FJ, Pérez-Calvo JI, Morales-Rull JL, Galisteo-Almeda L, Páez-Rubio I, Barón-Franco B et al. Heart failure mortality according to acute variations in N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide and cystatin C levels. J Cardiovasc Med. 2014;15(2):115–21.
168. Pérez-Calvo JI, Ruiz-Ruiz FJ, Carrasco-Sánchez FJ, Morales-Rull JL, Manzano-Fernández S, Galisteo-Almeda L et al. Prognostic value of serum cystatin C and N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide in patients with acute heart failure. Eur J Intern Med. 2012;23(7):599–603.
169. Gottdiener JS, McClelland RL, Marshall R, Shemanski L, Furberg CD, Kitzman D et al. Outcome of congestive heart failure in elderly persons: influence of left ventricular systolic function. The Cardiovascular Health Study. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137(8):631–9.
170. Doughty RN. Pronóstico de los pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca y fracción de eyección preservada. ¿Es el mismo que con fracción de eyección baja? Rev Esp Cardiol. 2011;64(8):646–8.
171. Coles AH, Tisminetzky M, Yarzebski J, Lessard D, Gore JM, Darling CE et al. Magnitude of and prognostic factors associated with 1-year mortality after hospital discharge for acute decompensated heart failure based on ejection fraction findings. J Am Heart Assoc. 2015;4(12):1–10.
172. Vivancos Delgado R, Rodríguez Rodríguez JC. Etiología y pronóstico de la insuficiencia cardíaca. Med Integr. 2002;39(10):444–53.
173. Mangla A, Kane J, Beaty E, Richardson D, Powell LH, Calvin JE Jr. Comparison of predictors of heart failure-related hospitalization or death in patients with versus without preserved left ventricular. Am J Cardiol. 2013;112(12):1907-12.