Power Grids and Instrument Transformers up to 150 kHz: A Review of Literature and Standards
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Scientific Literature Review
2.1. Typical Amplitude and Frequency of HFDs
2.2. Measurement Methods
- The susceptibility to noise: some methods are less immune to noise and may lose accuracy in estimating high-amplitude HFDs.
- Computational complexity: some methods require more mathematical operations during processing, affecting their efficiency.
- Measurement equipment: the sampling rate, resolution, and accuracy class of measurement equipment can affect the accuracy of methods.
- Calibration process and data processing techniques can also contribute to the variation in accuracy and resolution.
- Transducers and sensors: all of the measurement methods are influenced by the accuracy and precision of the transducers and sensors.
2.3. Propagation of HFDs: Grid Impedance Measurement
- A windowed Fourier transform is a commonly used method to improve the calculation precision and anti-interference ability of grid impedance detection [63].
- A three-stage interpolation-based measurement method, using cubic spline interpolation and Hanning-window-based interpolated discrete Fourier transform (IpDFT), can remove undesired components and deal with spectral leakage caused by FFT [64].
- Spectral excitation currents can be used to identify grid impedance, and different measurement systems have been successfully developed for different voltage levels [65].
- A time–frequency distribution method using a single rectangular pulse injection is employed for grid impedance estimation in the frequency range of HFD [66].
- Advanced methods for characterizing LV grid access impedance in the frequency range assigned to Narrow-band power-line communications (NB-PLC) have been developed and validated [59].
2.4. HFD Mitigation Strategies
- Filters, such as EMC (electromagnetic compatibility) filters, can mitigate the HFDs by creating a low-impedance path for high-frequency signals, thus preventing their propagation into LV and MV grids [68].
- Resonance control strategies can mitigate the HFD propagation [3].
- Impedance control strategies can mitigate HFDs by managing the impedance of the grid and connected devices to counteract the propagation [62].
- Passive filters are widely used for harmonic filtering and offer several advantages, including energy saving and reductions in power demand [69].
- Active filters are effective in compensating for current and voltage harmonics, reactive power, and voltage imbalance in three-phase systems [70].
- Distributed multiple low-voltage filters can be deployed in random locations of a distribution system to mitigate harmonic distortions [71].
- Passive zero-sequence harmonic filters can trap two harmonics with one filter and are effective in mitigating zero-sequence harmonics [72].
3. Standard Review
3.1. IEC and IEEE International Standards
3.2. The IEC 61869-1 Edition 2 Standard
3.3. IEC Technical Committees
4. Previous European Research Projects Review
4.1. Smart Grid II
4.2. SupraEMI
4.3. MyRailS
- A sinusoidal high voltage up to 25 kV, 50 Hz, or 15 kV 16.7 Hz, with up to 5 kHz harmonic content.
- A sinusoidal current (50 Hz or 16.7 Hz) up to a 500 A RMS value and up to 5 kHz harmonic content.
4.4. Future Grid II
- Establish calibration methods to support testing of digital instrument transformers.
- Provide references for instruments with digital input or output.
- Develop tools for devices that exploit sampled values in digital substations.
- Create traceable references for the verification of time and synchronization methods.
4.5. IT4PQ
- Developing reference measuring systems and methodologies to establish reference systems for ITs and assess their contribution to PQ indices’ uncertainty.
- Establishing methods and procedures for calibrating ITs, including adherence to grid PQ disturbance limits outlined in current standards.
- Defining an “IT PQ Accuracy Class” for different types of ITs and PQ phenomena, based on identifying an overarching PQ performance index (PI) for ITs and its corresponding accuracy thresholds.
- Assessing IT behavior under realistic conditions, such as the simultaneous presence of various influencing factors.
5. Main Findings and Future Works
- In-force Standards and Spectral Content Classification: Current standards focused on the quality of electrical power supplied by public distribution networks do not establish explicit limits in terms of amplitudes and occurrence for phenomena with spectral contents in the 9–150 kHz range. These standards primarily classify such phenomena without providing detailed guidelines or limits. This lack of regulation presents a challenge for maintaining consistent power quality across different regions and systems, potentially leading to varying levels of susceptibility to HFDs.
- Measurement Methodologies and Indices: On the other hand, standards addressing PQ disturbance measurements offer methodologies and indices for detecting and reporting HFD. However, these methodologies may not be comprehensive enough to cover all the scenarios and types of disturbances. Regarding the standards related to ITs, the Edition 2 of IEC 61869-1 [27] provides extensions of the accuracy classes up to 500 kHz, but it completely lacks information about methods, procedures, and test waveforms for the metrological characterization of ITs. This gap in standards means that, although ITs are a key element for accurate PQ assessments, there could be cases in which they may not be fully reliable for measuring high-frequency phenomena.
- Advanced Sensing Technologies: Developing more sensitive and accurate sensors for detecting high-frequency disturbances is crucial. Innovations in sensor materials and designs could enhance the detection capabilities for HFDs, providing higher measurement accuracy.
- Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): The application of AI and ML algorithms can revolutionize the analysis and interpretation of HFD data. These technologies can help in identifying patterns, predicting occurrences, and distinguishing between different types of disturbances. ML models can be trained to recognize specific HFD signatures, aiding in quicker and more accurate diagnosis of power quality issues.
- Enhanced Signal Processing Techniques: Research into advanced signal processing methods, such as wavelet transforms and adaptive filtering, can improve the extraction and analysis of high-frequency components from electrical signals. These techniques can help in isolating HFDs from other noise and providing a clearer understanding of their characteristics.
- Development of New Standards and Regulations: Collaboration between research institutions, industry stakeholders, and regulatory bodies is essential for developing new standards that address the measurement and mitigation of HFDs. These standards should include clear guidelines on acceptable limits, measurement methodologies, and reporting practices, ensuring a unified approach to managing HFDs.
- Integrated Circuit Design Improvements: Enhancing the design of power electronic devices to minimize the generation of HFDs is another critical area of research. This could involve optimizing the switching frequencies, improving circuit layouts, and incorporating advanced filtering techniques to reduce the emission of high-frequency disturbances.
- Grid Modernization and Smart Grids: The transition to smart grids offers opportunities to integrate advanced monitoring and control systems capable of detecting and mitigating HFDs in real time. Smart grid technologies can facilitate dynamic adjustments to operating conditions, minimizing the impact of disturbances on the overall power quality.
- High-Frequency Filter Development: Designing and implementing high-frequency filters specifically tailored to the 9–150 kHz range can help in mitigating the effects of HFDs. These filters can be integrated into power electronic devices or deployed at critical points in the power network to suppress unwanted disturbances.
- Simulation, Modeling, and Digital Twins: Advanced simulation tools and models can provide valuable insights into the behavior of HFDs under various conditions. By simulating different scenarios, researchers can better understand the factors influencing HFD generation and propagation, guiding the development of more effective mitigation strategies.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reviewed International Standards | |
---|---|
Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution networks | EN 50160 IEC 62749 |
Recommended practice for monitoring electric power quality | IEEE 1159 |
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) | IEC 61000 |
Instrument transformers | IEC 61869 IEC 60044 |
IEC Technical Committee | Scope |
---|---|
TC8-SC8A Grid integration of renewable energy generation | Standardization for grid integration of variable power generation from renewable sources, with emphasis on overall system aspects of grids. |
TC 13 Electrical energy measurement and control | Standardization in the field of AC and/or DC electrical energy measurement and control, for smart metering equipment used in smart grids. |
TC 17 High-voltage switchgear and control gear | Standardization of TS 1 and TR 2, covering high-voltage switchgear and control gear. |
TC 38 Instrument transformers | Standardization in the field of AC and/or DC current and/or voltage instrument transformers. |
TC 22-SC22F Power electronics for electrical transmission and distribution systems | Standardization of electronic power conversion and/or semiconductor switching equipment. |
TC 51 Magnetic components, ferrite, and magnetic powder materials | Standardization of magnetic components, ferrite, and magnetic powder materials. |
TC 77-SC77A EMC low-frequency phenomena | Standardization in the field of electromagnetic compatibility. |
TC 85 Measuring equipment for electrical and electromagnetic quantities | Standardization of equipment, systems, and methods used in the fields of measurement, recurrent tests, monitoring, generation, and analysis of steady-state and dynamic electrical quantities. |
TC 95 Measuring relays and protection equipment | Standardization of measuring relays, protection equipment, and protection functions. |
Installation Type Included | Power Quality Parameters to Be Concerned |
---|---|
Wind farm | Flicker, harmonics (inter-harmonics) |
PV station | Harmonics, disturbances > 2 kHz |
AC electrified railway | Unbalance, harmonics, voltage dip |
DC electrified railway | Harmonics |
AC electric arc furnace | Harmonics (inter-harmonics), flicker, unbalance |
DC electric arc furnace | Harmonics, flicker |
Induction heating furnace | Harmonics (inter-harmonics), flicker |
Polysilicon ingot furnace, monocrystal oven, crucible oven | Harmonics |
AC/DC rolling mill | Harmonics (inter-harmonics), flicker |
Electric welding machine | Harmonics, flicker, unbalance |
Electrolysis | Harmonics |
Electric shovel, cargo lifter, and gantry crane | Harmonics |
Adjustable speed drive (ASD) | Harmonics (inter-harmonics), flicker |
Switched mode power supply | Harmonics |
EV charger | Harmonics |
Energy-efficient lighting | Harmonics |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Agazar, M.; D’Avanzo, G.; Frigo, G.; Giordano, D.; Iodice, C.; Letizia, P.S.; Luiso, M.; Mariscotti, A.; Mingotti, A.; Munoz, F.; et al. Power Grids and Instrument Transformers up to 150 kHz: A Review of Literature and Standards. Sensors 2024, 24, 4148. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134148
Agazar M, D’Avanzo G, Frigo G, Giordano D, Iodice C, Letizia PS, Luiso M, Mariscotti A, Mingotti A, Munoz F, et al. Power Grids and Instrument Transformers up to 150 kHz: A Review of Literature and Standards. Sensors. 2024; 24(13):4148. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134148
Chicago/Turabian StyleAgazar, Mohamed, Giovanni D’Avanzo, Guglielmo Frigo, Domenico Giordano, Claudio Iodice, Palma Sara Letizia, Mario Luiso, Andrea Mariscotti, Alessandro Mingotti, Fabio Munoz, and et al. 2024. "Power Grids and Instrument Transformers up to 150 kHz: A Review of Literature and Standards" Sensors 24, no. 13: 4148. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134148
APA StyleAgazar, M., D’Avanzo, G., Frigo, G., Giordano, D., Iodice, C., Letizia, P. S., Luiso, M., Mariscotti, A., Mingotti, A., Munoz, F., Palladini, D., Rietveld, G., & van den Brom, H. (2024). Power Grids and Instrument Transformers up to 150 kHz: A Review of Literature and Standards. Sensors, 24(13), 4148. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134148