The historic center of Alexandria is known as Old Town Alexandria, or simply "Old Town". With its concentration of boutiques, restaurants, antique shops and theaters, it is a major draw for city residents and visitors. Like Old Town, many Alexandria neighborhoods are compact and walkable. A large portion of adjacent Fairfax County, mostly south but also west of the city, has Alexandria mailing addresses. However, this area is under the jurisdiction of Fairfax County's government and separate from the independent city.[5] The city is therefore sometimes referred to as the "City of Alexandria" to avoid confusion.
In the summer of 1608, English settler John Smith explored the Potomac River and came into contact with the Patawomeck (loosely affiliated with the Powhatan) and Doeg tribes who lived on the Virginia side, as well as on Theodore Roosevelt Island, and the Piscataway (also known as the Conoy), who resided on the Maryland side.[7] On this visit, Smith recorded the presence of a settlement called Assaomeck near the south bank of what is now Hunting Creek.[8]
An 1878 map of Alexandria County, including what is now Arlington County and the City of Alexandria. Map includes the names of property owners at that time. City boundaries roughly correspond with Old Town.
On October 21, 1669, a patent granted 6,000 acres (24 km2) to Robert Howsing for transporting 120 people to the Colony of Virginia.[9]: 5 That tract later became the City of Alexandria.[9]: 5 Virginia's comprehensive Tobacco Inspection Law of 1730 mandated that all tobacco grown in the colony must be brought to locally designated public warehouses for inspection before sale. One of the sites designated for a warehouse on the upper Potomac River was at the mouth of Hunting Creek.[10] However, the ground proved to be unsuitable, and the warehouse was built half a mile up-river, where the water was deep near the shore.
Following the 1745 settlement of the Colony of Virginia's 10-year dispute with Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron over the western boundary of the Northern Neck Proprietary, when the Privy Council in London found in favor of Lord Fairfax's expanded claim, some of the Fairfax County gentry formed the Ohio Company of Virginia. They intended to conduct trade into the interior of America, and they required a trading center near the head of navigation on the Potomac. The best location was Hunting Creek tobacco warehouse, since the deep water could easily accommodate sailing ships. Many local tobacco planters, however, wanted a new town further up Hunting Creek, away from nonproductive fields along the river.[11]
Around 1746, Captain Philip Alexander II (1704–1753) moved to what is south of present Duke Street in Alexandria. His estate, which consisted of 500 acres (2.0 km2), was bounded by Hunting Creek, Hooff's Run, the Potomac River, and approximately the line which would become Cameron Street. At the opening of Virginia's 1748–49 legislative session, there was a petition submitted in the House of Burgesses on November 1, 1748, that the "inhabitants of Fairfax (Co.) praying that a town may be established at Hunting Creek Warehouse on Potowmack River," since Hugh West was the owner of the warehouse. The petition was introduced by Lawrence Washington, the representative for Fairfax County, the son-in-law of William Fairfax, and a founding member of the Ohio Company. To support the company's push for a town on the river, Lawrence's younger brother George Washington, an aspiring surveyor, made a sketch of the shoreline touting the advantages of the tobacco warehouse site.[12]
Since the river site was amidst his estate, Philip opposed the idea and strongly favored a site at the head of Hunting Creek (also known as Great Hunting Creek). It has been said that in order to avoid a predicament the petitioners offered to name the new town Alexandria, in honor of Philip's family. As a result, Philip and his cousin Captain John Alexander (1711–1763) gave land to assist in the development of Alexandria and are thus listed as the founders. This John was the son of Robert Alexander II (1688–1735). On May 2, 1749, the House of Burgesses approved the river location and ordered "Mr. Washington do go up with a Message to the Council and acquaint them that this House have agreed to the Amendments titled An Act for erecting a Town at Hunting Creek Warehouse, in the County of Fairfax."[13] A "Public Vendue" (auction) was advertised for July, and the county surveyor laid out street lanes and town lots. The auction was conducted on July 13–14, 1749.
Almost immediately upon establishment, the town founders called the new town "Belhaven", believed to be in honor of a Scottish patriot, John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven and Stenton, the Northern Neck tobacco trade being then dominated by Scots. The name Belhaven was used in official lotteries to raise money for a Church and Market House, but it was never approved by the legislature and fell out of favor in the mid-1750s.[14] The town of Alexandria did not become incorporated until 1779.
In March 1785, commissioners from Virginia and Maryland met in Alexandria to discuss the commercial relations of the two states, finishing their business at Mount Vernon. The Mount Vernon Conference concluded on March 28 with an agreement for freedom of trade and freedom of navigation of the Potomac River. The Maryland legislature, in ratifying this agreement on November 22, proposed a conference among representatives from all the states to consider the adoption of definite commercial regulations. This led to the calling of the Annapolis Convention of 1786, which in turn led to the calling of the Federal Convention of 1787.[15]
Alexandria waterfront in 1836. Alexandria's was a prosperous trading port throughout the history of the early United States. Robert E. Lee grew up in Alexandria.
A portion of the City of Alexandria—most of the area now known as Old Town as well as the areas of the city northeast of what is now King Street—and all of today's Arlington County share the distinction of having been the portion of Virginia ceded to the U.S. Government in 1791 to help form the new District of Columbia. Over time, a movement grew to separate what was called "Alexandria County" from the District of Columbia. As competition grew with the port of Georgetown and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal fostered development on the north side of the Potomac River, Alexandria's economy stagnated; at the same time, residents had lost any representation in Congress and the right to vote and were disappointed with the negligible economic benefit (on the Alexandria side) of being part of the national capital. Alexandria still had an important port and market in the slave trade, and as talk increased of abolishing slavery in the national capital, there was concern that Alexandria's economy would suffer greatly if this step were taken. After a referendum, voters petitioned Congress and Virginia to return the portion of the District of Columbia south of the Potomac River (Alexandria County) to Virginia. On July 9, 1846, Congress retroceded Alexandria County to Virginia.[21] The City of Alexandria was re-chartered in 1852 and became independent of Alexandria County in 1870. The remaining portion of Alexandria County changed its name to Arlington County in 1920.
Map of Alexandria showing the forts that were constructed to defend Washington during the American Civil WarAn 1863 aerial view view of Alexandria from the Potomac River with Fort Ellsworth visible on the hill in the center background
The first fatalities of the North and South in the American Civil War occurred in Alexandria. Within a month of the Battle of Fort Sumter, the Civil War's first battle, Union Army troops occupied Alexandria, landing troops at the base of King Street on the Potomac River on May 24, 1861. A few blocks up King Street from their landing site, the commander of the New York Fire Zouaves, Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth, sortied with a small detachment to remove a large Confederate flag displayed on the roof of the Marshall House Inn that had been visible from the White House. While descending from the roof, Ellsworth was shot dead by James W. Jackson, the hotel's proprietor. One of Ellsworth's soldiers immediately killed Jackson.[22][23] Ellsworth was publicized as a Union martyr, and the incident generated great excitement in the North, with many children being named for him.[22][23] Jackson's death defending his home caused a similar sensation in the South.[22][24]
Alexandria remained under military occupation until the end of the Civil War. Fort Ward, one of a ring of forts built by the Union army for the defense of Washington, D.C., is located inside the boundaries of present-day Alexandria.[25] There were five military prisons in the city, the largest being the Washington Street Military Prison.[26][27] After the creation by Washington of the state of West Virginia in 1863 and until the close of the war, Alexandria was the seat of the so-called Restored Government of Virginia, also known as the "Alexandria Government".[15] During the Union occupation, a recurring contention between the Alexandria citizenry and the military occupiers was the Union army's periodic insistence that church services include prayers for the President of the United States. Failure to do so resulted in incidents including the arrest of ministers in their church.
In 1861 and 1862, escaped African American slaves poured into Alexandria. Safely behind Union lines, the cities of Alexandria and Washington offered comparative freedom and employment. Alexandria became a major supply depot and transport and hospital center for the Union army.[28] Until the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, escaped slaves legally remained the property of their owners. Therefore, they were labeled contrabands to avoid returning them to their masters. Contrabands worked for the Union army in various support roles.
After all slaves in the seceding states were liberated, even more African Americans came to Alexandria. By the fall of 1863, the population of Alexandria had exploded to 18,000—an increase of 10,000 people in 16 months.[28]
As of ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment, Alexandria County's black population was more than 8,700, or about half the total number of residents in the county. This newly enfranchised constituency provided the support necessary to elect the first black Alexandrians to the City Council and the Virginia Legislature.[29]
In the waning years of the 19th century, Alexandria suffered its two documented lynchings. The first, in 1897, was Joseph H. McCoy and the second, in 1899, was Benjamin Thomas. Both were Black male teenagers accused, but never convicted, of assaulting young white girls that were known to them. They were both kidnapped from jail and hanged by mobs.[30]
At the turn of the 20th century the most common production in the city was glass, fertilizer, beer, and leather. The glass often went into beer bottles. Much of the Virginia Glass Company effort went to supply the demands of the Robert Portner Brewing Company, until fire destroyed the St. Asaph Street plant on February 18, 1905. The Old Dominion Glass Company also had a glass works fall to fire, then built a new one. The Belle Pre Bottle Company held a monopoly on a milk bottle that they patented, yet that organization only lasted 10 years.[31] Most businesses were smaller where the business occupied the first floor of a building and the owner and family lived above.[32]: 50 Prohibition closed Portner Brewing in 1916.[32]: 50
In 1965, the city integrated schools.[42]: 69 In 1971, the city consolidated all high school junior and senior students into T. C. Williams High School. Freshman and sophomore students were assigned to attend either Francis C Hammond or George Washington, formerly four-year high schools, as part of a system-wide overhaul of the public school system, beginning with kindergarten classes, in an attempt to racially "balance" student population throughout the city's public schools to better reflect the city's racial makeup. The plan was known as the "K-6, 2, 2, 2 plan". Classes were broken out, beginning with kindergarten through sixth grade; then seventh through eighth; then freshman and sophomore classes; and finally junior and senior classes, with the changes including being moved to a different school building.[42]: 69 The same year that head coach Herman Boone joined the school and lead the football team to a 13–0 season, a state championship, and a national championship runner-up; the basis for the 2000 film Remember the Titans where Boone was portrayed by Denzel Washington.[43]
Until 2014, local legislation mandated that all new north–south streets in the city be named for Confederate military leaders.[45] Efforts have increased in recent years to expedite the renaming of these streets with Mayor Justin Wilson and the City Council setting a goal of renaming three of these streets annually.[46] In 2019, the name of U.S. 1 was changed from Jefferson Davis Highway to Richmond Highway.[47]
In November 2020, the school board unanimously voted to rename T. C. Williams High School and Matthew Maury Elementary School. The high school was renamed Alexandria City High School and Maury Elementary was renamed Naomi L. Brooks Elementary School, effective July 1, 2021.[48][49]
Hoffman Town Center in Alexandria in September 2021The Thornton in Alexandria in October 2019
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 15.5 square miles (40.1 km2), of which 15.0 square miles (38.9 km2) is land and 0.42 square miles (1.1 km2), or 2.85%, is water.[52] Alexandria is bounded on the east by the Potomac River (which forms the boundary between the city and Washington, D.C. and Prince George's County, Maryland), on the north and northwest by Arlington County, and on the south by Fairfax County. The western portions of the city were annexed from those two entities beginning in the 1930s.[53]
The addressing system in Alexandria is not uniform and reflects the consolidation of several originally separate communities into a single city. In Old Town Alexandria, building numbers are assigned north and south from King Street and west (only) from the Potomac River. In the areas formerly in the town of Potomac, such as Del Ray and St. Elmo, building numbers are assigned east and west from Commonwealth Avenue and north (only) from King Street. In the western parts of the city, building numbers are assigned north and south from Duke Street.
The ZIP Code prefix 223 uniquely identifies the Alexandria postal area.[citation needed] However, the Alexandria postal area extends into Fairfax County and includes addresses outside of the city. Delivery areas have ZIP Codes 22301, 22302, 22303, 22304, 22305, 22306, 22307, 22308, 22309, 22310, 22311, 22312, 22314, and 22315, with other ZIP Codes in use for post office boxes and large mailers (22313, 22331, 22332, 22333).
As of 2024, the City of Alexandria is divided into 19 "Small Area Plans" and 11 additional overlapping plans.[54] These areas and their component neighborhoods include:
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alexandria has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.[75]
Alexandria city, Virginia – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
At the 2010 census,[84] there were 139,966 people, 68,082 households and 30,978 families residing in the city. The population density was 8,452.0 inhabitants per square mile (3,263.3/km2). There were 68,082 housing units at an average density of 4,233.2 per square mile (1,634.4/km2). The racial/ethnic mix of the population was:
In 2000, there were 61,889 households, of which 18.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.2% were married couples living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 55.2% were non-families. 43.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.04 and the average family size was 2.87.
The age distribution was 16.8% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 43.5% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.5 males. For every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 91.7 males.
According to 2019 Census Bureau data, the median household income was $103,284 and median family income was $130,395.[85] Additionally, 8.6% of the population of the population were below the poverty line.[86] 14.2% of those under the age of 18 and 3.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
According to 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, 69.9% of Alexandria residents aged 25 and older have attained a bachelor's degree or higher, compared with 42.2% statewide.[87][88]
King Street is the primary commercial corridor through Old Town.
Major employment sectors in Alexandria include management consulting, business and finance, office and administrative support, computer and mathematical, sales, and legal. Jobs in Alexandria are highly concentrated around the city's Metrorail stations, primarily in Old Town North and the Braddock Road area, Old Town, and Carlyle near the Eisenhower Avenue station, as well as along the I-395 corridor on the west side of the city.
13% of people that work in Alexandria live in the city, while 87% commute in, with 37% of those commuters being from Fairfax County. An additional 61,000 people commute out of Alexandria to work. 35% commute to Washington, D.C., and 29% commute to Fairfax County.[90] As of March 2024, 2.0% of Alexandria residents are unemployed.[91]
A popular Christmas time attraction in Alexandria is the Scottish Christmas Walk, which was established in 1969.[93] The event, which involves a parade through the center of Old Town Alexandria, celebrates the city's Scottish heritage, and is the centerpiece of a yearly holiday festival.[94] It serves as a fundraiser for social services in Alexandria.[93] Other parades in Old Town celebrate Saint Patrick's Day[95] and the birthday of George Washington.[96] Other annual events include the Red Cross Waterfront Festival in June, the city's birthday celebration with fireworks show in July, various ethnic heritage days at Tavern Square, and "First Night Alexandria" on New Year's Eve.
These parades and other official events are typically led by Alexandria's town crier, who, often dressed in elaborately, by a tradition dating to the 18th century, in a red coat, breeches, black boots and a tricorne hat, welcomes participants.[97][98]
Christ Church is a historic church whose congregation has included notable individuals, such as George Washington and Robert E. Lee.The Athenaeum is a historic building that is now an art gallery and event space.
In 1830, John Hollensbury's home in Alexandria was one of two homes directly bordering an alleyway that received a large amount of horse-drawn wagon traffic and loiterers.[101] In order to prevent people from using the alleyway, Hollensbury constructed a 7 feet (2.1 m) wide, 25 feet (7.6 m) deep, 325-square-foot (30.2 m2), two-story home using the existing brick walls of the adjacent homes for the sides of the new home.[101] The brick walls of the Hollensbury Spite House living room have gouges from wagon-wheel hubs; the house is still standing, and is occupied.[101]
The Oswald Durant Center in the Upper King Street neighborhood of the Old Town is named after Dr. Oswald Durant, one of the first African American doctors in Alexandria.[102]
Alexandria has over 900 acres (3.6 km2) of protected open space with 566 acres of city-owned park land and 10 recreation centers,[107] of which Chinquapin is one of the largest. Chinquapin offers facilities for swimming, tennis, racquetball, and other sports.[108] The city also organizes several sports leagues throughout the year including volleyball, softball and basketball.
As an independent city of Virginia (as opposed to an incorporated town within a county), Alexandria derives its governing authority from the Virginia General Assembly using the Dillon Rule. In order to revise the power and structure of the city government, the city must request the General Assembly to amend the charter. The present charter was granted in 1950 and it has been amended in 1968, 1971, 1976, and 1982.
Alexandria adopted a council-manager form of government by way of referendum in 1921. This type of government empowers the elected City Council to pass legislation and appoint the City Manager. The City Manager is responsible for overseeing the city's administration.
The Mayor, who is chosen on a separate ballot, presides over meetings of the Council and serves as the ceremonial head of government. The Mayor does not have the power to veto Council action. Council members traditionally choose the person receiving the most votes in the election to serve as Vice Mayor. In the absence or disability of the Mayor, the Vice Mayor performs the mayoral duties.
In 2024, the city has 55 boards and commissions to advise the City Council on major issues affecting the community.[112] The majority of members are appointed by the City Council.[113] In addition, Alexandria City Public Schools has a school board with nine members. Three are elected from each of the city's three school board districts.[114]
Since its foundation, Alexandria's government has had several different forms of government. Before 1921, Alexandria had an elected eight-member Board of Aldermen and a sixteen-member Common Council whose members were elected by ward. In addition, there was an elected mayor with the power to veto legislation from the two councils. Reformers within the city during the early 20th century hoped to adopt the then-popular council-manager system. As a means to implementing this new system, the reformists proposed a plan to create a single city council elected at-large. This new system was adopted in 1921 and the first at-large councilmen were elected in June 1922.[119]
In 1930, Alexandria annexed the town of Potomac from Arlington County. Alexandria and Potomac stood in stark contrast. The streetcar suburb commuter town of Potomac had, as part of Arlington, been heavily influenced by the anti-vice crusades of staunch progressiveCommonwealth's AttorneyCrandal Mackey. In Potomac, slaughterhouses and saloons were banned. Residents of the former town of Potomac had a different identity from those in Alexandria, and after annexation former Potomac residents began to push for the reimplementation of the ward system. In a 1932 referendum, voters decided in favor of a new plan that would expand the city council to nine members; three elected at-large and six elected by ward. Support for the new plan was highest in the former town of Potomac.[120]
City councils elected under the new ward system began to take a more direct role in city administration. The city council and city manager gave conflicting orders to city employees while spending increased to accommodate appropriations coming from both the council and manager. With over one million dollars spent on unauthorized projects, a movement to go back to at-large councilmen emerged. In 1944, a referendum to eliminate the ward system ended with a vote in favor of the ward system. Shortly afterwards, a number of high-ranking city officials resigned, and residents appealed to the Circuit Court for an order to force a referendum. Unbeknownst to the city government, Delegate Armistead Boothe introduced a bill in Richmond to hold another referendum. This bill passed the General Assembly and a vote was held on March 2, 1948. The options in the referendum included retaining the extant system or replacing it with a council of seven at-large members. Voters approved the new system with 61% of votes in favor.[120] More recently, a 1983 push by the Virginia NAACP to return to the ward system failed because of a lack of support from elected officials.[121]
In 2008 the City Council approved a charter where "citizens, businesses, and city government participate in a vibrant community that is always mindful of the needs and lifestyles of the generations to come".[122]: 4 That charter defined sustainability as "meeting our community's present needs while preserving our historic character and ensuring the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".[122]: 5 An ecocity is defined as "an ecologically healthy city".[123]: 3 In 2022, Alexandria enacted a 5-cent plastic bag tax consistent with the phase-out of lightweight plastic bags in the United States.[124]
Every four years, Alexandria residents elect a sheriff that leads the Sheriff's Office in overseeing roughly 200 deputies and a detention center for pre-trial and short-term inmates.[128] This jail is used to house pre-trial inmates in federal espionage cases.[129]
The Alexandria Fire Department (AFD) is the city's fire protection and emergency medical services provider and is led by Fire/EMS Chief Corey A. Smedley.[130] The AFD operates 10 stations throughout the city and employs over 300 fire and EMS professionals.
Virginia Tech's Washington-Alexandria Architecture Center, also known as WAAC, is located on Prince Street in Old Town, offering graduate programs in Urban Affairs and Planning, Public and International Affairs, Architecture, and Landscape Architecture. In 2018, Virginia Tech announced the construction of an "Innovation Campus" in Potomac Yard with graduate programs in computer science and computer engineering.[131]Virginia Commonwealth University operates a Northern Virginia branch of its School of Social Work and The George Washington University also has a campus near the King Street–Old Town station. This campus mainly offers professional and vocational programs, such as an executive MBA program, urban planning and security studies. The city also has a campus of the Northern Virginia Community College. The largest seminary in the Episcopal Church, Virginia Theological Seminary, is located on Seminary Road.
The city is served by the Alexandria City Public Schools system. Alexandria's public school system consists of twelve elementary schools for grades Kindergarten through 5th grade, with three of them also offering Pre-K. Two schools, Patrick Henry and Jefferson-Houston, are Pre-K through 8th grade schools while the middle schools, George Washington and Francis C. Hammond, serve 6th through 8th graders. Minnie Howard Ninth Grade Center serves 9th graders while the Alexandria City High School serves 10th through 12th for the entire city.
The demographics of the public school system contrast with those of the city. In 2008, only 14% of the students at Francis C. Hammond Middle School were non-Hispanic whites, compared to about 60% when looking at the city as a whole. 27% were of Hispanic descent, and 48% were black. About 9% of the school was of Asian descent. In 2004, 62% of school-going children received free lunches; by 2008, that number had decreased to 56%.[132] At George Washington Middle School, 41% of students are non-Hispanic whites, 34% were Hispanic, 21% was black, and 2% of the students were Asian; 52% of students received free lunch.[133]Alexandria City High School follows this trend as well; 23% of the students were classified as non-Hispanic whites, 25% as Hispanic, 44% as black, and 7% of the school was Asian; 47% of all students received free lunch.[134]
Concurrent highways I-95 and I-495 (the Capital Beltway), including the Woodrow Wilson Bridge over the Potomac River, roughly parallels the city's southern boundary with Fairfax County before very briefly passing through D.C. and entering Maryland. Interstate 395 crosses north and south through the western part of the city. Alexandria is bisected east and west by State Route 7 (VA 7/King Street). The most western section of King Street in the city was once the terminus of the Leesburg Turnpike. VA 7 terminates at State Route 400 (VA 400/Washington Street), which connects the northern and southern segments of George Washington Memorial Parkway (G.W. Parkway). State Route 236 (VA 236/Duke Street) runs east–west along the southern side of the city, also terminating at VA 400 in Old Town. Other primary state highways serving Alexandria include the short limited-accessState Route 241 (Telegraph Road), as well as multiple thoroughfares serving the western side of the city, which are State Route 401 (Van Dorn Street), State Route 402 (Quaker Lane), and State Route 420 (Seminary Road in the west, Janneys Lane in the east). U.S. Route 1 (Richmond Highway) passes north–south through the city, parallel and west of Washington Street and the G.W. Parkway. Through Old Town, the highway follows Patrick and Henry Streets.[136][137]
George Washington, owned a house in Alexandria where he would stay while conducting business. He was also active in the local government and masonic lodge.
The 2000 film Remember the Titans about the T.C. Williams High School football team's 1971 state championship team, takes place in Alexandria and the cemetery scene was filmed at Ivy Hill Cemetery in Alexandria. However, the school featured in the movie was not the actual T.C. Williams High School in Alexandria.
Alternative rock band the Foo Fighters has a track titled "Arlandria" on their 2011 release Wasting Light; front man (and ex-Nirvana drummer) Dave Grohl lived in Alexandria during the early 2000s and recorded two Foo Fighters albums in his home studio. The Arlandria neighborhood is also referenced in the song "Headwires" from the band's 1999 release, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.[162]
In The X-Files, the address of Special Agent Fox Mulder is given as Apartment 42, 2630 Hegal Place, Alexandria, VA 23242.[163]
^"Tax Guide for New City Residents". www.alexandriava.gov. Archived from the original on October 26, 2019. Retrieved July 30, 2019. Please note that some Alexandria postal addresses are located in Fairfax County, while some Arlington postal addresses are located in the City.
^Ferguson, Alice and Henry (1960). The Piscataway Indians of Southern Maryland. Alice Ferguson Foundation. p. 11.
^Humphrey, Robert L.; Chambers, Mary Elizabeth (1977). Ancient Washington: American Indian Cultures of the Potomac Valley. George Washington University.
^ abBrockett, Franklin Longdon; Rock, George W. (1883). A Concise History of the City of Alexandria, Va: From 1669 to 1883, with a Directory of Reliable Business Houses in the City. Gazette Book and Job office. p. 140.
^Pfingsten, Bill (ed.). ""The Marshall House" marker". HMdb: The Historical Marker Database. Archived from the original on January 26, 2019. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
^"Fort Ward Museum". Alexandriava.gov. Archived from the original on August 11, 2011. Retrieved September 19, 2014.
Cox, Al; Cressey, Pamela J.; Dennee, Timothy J.; Miller, T. Michael; Smith, Peter (December 13, 2015). "Discovering the Decades: 1900s". City of Alexandria. Archived from the original on March 21, 2017. Retrieved March 20, 2017.
Pulliam, Ted (2011). Historic Alexandria: An Illustrated History. HPN. p. 96.: 49
^ abcdePulliam, Ted (2011). Historic Alexandria: An Illustrated History. HPN. p. 96.
Richelson, Jeffery T. (July 17, 1997). A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. Oxford University Press. p. 544.: 280
Highest-ranking:
Epstein, Edward Jay. "Question of the Day". Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved March 20, 2017. highest-ranking American ever recruited as a mole by the Russian Intelligence Service
$3,500:
Associated Press (March 1, 1967). "Yank Gets 20 Years For Helping Soviets". Amarillo Globe-Times.: p1
^"Ex-Army Officer Accused Of Spying For Russians". Toledo Blade. July 13, 1966.
^"Contact Us". Department of Defense Education Activity. Archived from the original on July 5, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022. DoDEA Headquarters Department of Defense Education Activity 4800 Mark Center Drive Alexandria, VA 22350-1400
^U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (January 1, 1990). "Unemployment Rate in Alexandria City, VA". FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved May 13, 2024.
^ abEnvironmental Policy Commission, Virginia Polytechnic & State University (June 14, 2008). Eco-City Charter 2008(PDF). Alexandria City Council. Archived(PDF) from the original on February 20, 2017. Retrieved March 24, 2017.
^Register, Richard (1987). Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future. North Atlantic. p. 140.
^"Plastic Bag Tax". www.alexandriava.gov. Archived from the original on January 27, 2022. Retrieved January 27, 2022.
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