Wikipedia

Women in ancient Egypt

Women in ancient Egypt had some special rights other women did not have in other comparable societies. They could own property and were, at court, legally equal to men. However, Ancient Egypt was a patriarchal society dominated by men. Only a few women are known to have important positions in administration, though there were female rulers and even female pharaohs. Women at the royal court gained their positions by relationship to male kings.[1]

Queen Meritamen statue at Akhmim.
The wife and mother of the nobleman Userhat depicted receiving offerings, tomb of Userhat (TT51)

Work

edit
 
Kitchen model; women workers grinding, baking, and brewing. Bread- and beer-making (made of fermented bread) were usually women's tasks. Twelfth dynasty of Egypt, 2050-1800 BCE. Egyptian Museum of Berlin.

Most women belonged to the peasantry and worked alongside their husbands. Women were known to manage farms or businesses in the absence of their husbands or sons. Among the upper classes of society, a woman usually did not work outside the home, and instead supervised the servants of the household and her children's education. An exception is the textile industry. Here women are well attested as weavers. A letter found at Lahun and dating around 1800 BC names six female weavers.[2]

 
Female weavers from Tomb of Khnumhotep circa 1897–1878 B.C. Period:Middle Kingdom Dynasty:12th dynasty Reign: reign of Senwosret II

In the Old Kingdom wealthy women often owned their own households. There were working men and women side by side, and it is not uncommon to find in the staff of a women's household other women with administrative titles. Especially in tomb scenes of the periods, men are often served by men, while women are served by women. Here, the separation of sexes is visible.[3]

Women belonging to families wealthy enough to hire nannies to help with childcare frequently worked as perfume-makers and also were employed in courts and temples, like acrobats, dancers, singers, and musicians, which were all considered respectable pursuits for upper-class women. Women belonging to any class could work as professional mourners or musicians, and these were common jobs. Noblewomen could be members of the priesthood connected to either a god or goddess.[4] Women could even be at the head of a business as, for example, the lady Nenofer of the New Kingdom, and could also be a doctor, as the lady Peseshet during the Fourth dynasty of Egypt.

 
Hetpet (priestess of Hathor), old kingdom, 5th dynasty

Family and marriage

edit

Marriage

edit

The purpose of marriage was to have more children and descendants of the family.[5]

In the New Kingdom, there was a saying that:

"Take a wife while you are young That she make a son for you She should care for you while you are youthful It is proper to make people Happy is the man whose people are many He is saluted on account of his progeny."[5]

It is true that some egalitarian relationships between husband and wife were implied in Egyptian depictions.

 
Seneb and his wife Senetites

For example, in love songs, brother and sister carried the same significance as husband and wife. "Sn", the Egyptian word for "brother", also meant "peer", "mate", or "second". Thus, the love songs may be referring to the egalitarian relationship between husband and wife.[6] The example for inbreeding among royalty was set by the gods since Osiris married his sister, Isis.

However, depictions usually show a husband and wife in an affectionate attitude with their children, so we assume most families were generally happy, but marriage was more realistic. The wife shared responsibilities and worked with her husband. Marriages in ancient Egypt were usually exclusive, but it also was not uncommon for a man of high economic status to have more than one wife. This was especially true if the man's first wife was unable to have children of her own. Although it was possible to divorce, it was very difficult. Marriages were usually arranged by parents, who chose appropriate partners for their children. Despite what the laws stated, it was suggested that women made more family decisions and controlled more of the home than usual. Women had control over most of their property, could serve as legal persons who brought cases to the court, and even worked in public. Husbands did not take total control over their wives property because women had a degree of independence in ancient Egypt. For example, from ca. 365 B.C, a new marriage contract was emerged which mainly protected women from divorce, placing more financial burdens on men.[7]

 
A marriage contract from Ancient Egypt from thirtieth dynasty Date: 380–343 B.C. at Metropolitan museum.

The influence of queens and queen mothers was considered as a big reason for women's special rights in ancient Egypt compared to other contemporary societies. Queens and queen mothers often had a great power since many pharaohs were very young when they succeeded the throne. For example, the pharaoh Ahmose I in New Kingdom, took advice from his mother, Ahhotep I, and his principal wife, Nefertari.[5]

Although the women of ancient Egypt were viewed as one of the most independent groups of women, widowhood could result in suspicion due to the lack of male control. Widows also gained more legal freedom, being able to buy and sell land, making donations, and even making loans.[8]

Pregnancy and reproduction

edit
 
Ramesside Ostraca with woman breastfeeding baby

There is much evidence of complex beliefs and practices in ancient Egypt related to the important role fertility played in society. If a woman was infertile, her husband could potentially divorce her for not producing heirs. Religious beliefs included rules concerning purification, similar to other religions in the region. Women in Egypt were believed to be eliminating impure elements during menstruation, and were excused from work and could not enter the restricted rooms of temples while menstruating. Fertility rituals were used by couples desiring children. Contraception was permitted as well, and medical texts survive that refer to many contraceptive formulas (although the ingredients are often now difficult to identify). Some formulas, such as drinks made of celery base and beer, are dubious, but others show a basic knowledge of somewhat effective methods, such as a spermicide made of fermented acacia gum, which produces a sperm-killing lactic acid.[9]

Once a woman became pregnant, her uterus was placed under the protection of the goddess Tenenet. Ritual medical care was given by anointing the woman's body with beneficial oils, using a small bottle in the form of a woman posed with her hands placed on a round belly.

Families who wanted to know the sex of their baby sometimes placed grains of barley and wheat in a cloth sachet and soaked them in the pregnant woman's urine; if barley sprouted first, the baby was said to be a boy, and if the wheat sprouted first, the baby was said to be a girl. In ancient Egypt, the word for barley was the synonym of "father." The method spread to Greece, Byzantium, and then to Europe, where it was practiced for centuries before its Egyptian origins were discovered.[9]

Childbirth

edit

During childbirth, the pregnant woman was assisted by midwives. She would be shaved, including her head. The midwives supported the woman during labor while she remained in a squatting position on a mat. On the corners of the mat were placed four bricks, believed to be the incarnation of four goddesses: Nut, the great goddess of the sky; Tefnut, the elder, the feminine polarity of the first couple; Aset the beautiful; and Nebet-Het, the excellent.[9]

Women playing an official role at the highest levels

edit
 
Old Kingdom Egyptian princess Nefertiabet (dated 2590-2565 BCE) from her tomb at Giza, painting on limestone, now in the Louvre

There are few preserved examples of women as high officials. Some women are known to have become Pharaohs. One example of a woman in a high state position is Nebet who became vizier in the Sixth Dynasty. The vizier was the highest state official, second only to the king.[10]

Egyptian society of antiquity, like many other civilizations of the time, used religion as a foundation for society. Pharaohs were considered to have been anointed by the gods, and the holder of the throne had a divine right. Typically, in ancient societies power was transferred from one male to the next. Women gave birth to the heirs, signaling importance towards marriage, as well. The son inherited the power, and in cases where the king did not have a son, the throne was then inherited by the male members of the family further removed from the king, such as cousins or uncles. In this system, daughters did not automatically inherit power.

Egyptian civilization also passed power to male successors, with some exceptions. Royal blood, a factor determined by divine legitimacy, was the unique criteria for access to the throne. However, the divine essence was transmitted to the royal spouse, as was the case with Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaten.

Egyptians preferred to be governed by a woman with royal blood (being divine according to mythology) rather than by a man who did not have royal blood. Also, during crises of succession, there were women who took power. When this happened, the female Pharaoh adopted all of the masculine symbols of the throne. There even exist doubts, in some instances, about the sex of certain Pharaohs who could have been women.

During the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, when Amenhotep I died, his successor Thutmose I appears to have not been his son, at least he was not the child of a secondary wife of the late Pharaoh; if his wife Ahmes was related to Amenhotep I, this union permitted divine legitimacy. For the following successor, princess Hatshepsut, daughter of Thutmose I and the Great Royal Wife, enabled Thutmose II, son of his second wife and therefore half-brother of the princess, to gain the throne by marrying him.

 
A bronze statue of a Divine Adoratrice of Amun, from the Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt, in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin.

It became more common for women to gain the throne in ancient Egypt, as with Hatshepsut, who took the place of her nephew Thutmose III. When Hatshepsut inherited the throne from her late husband and became Pharaoh, her daughter Neferure took on a role that exceeded the normal duties of a royal princess, acquiring a more queenly role.[11] There were also the Cleopatras, of whom the best known is Cleopatra VII (69 BCE to 30 BCE), famous for her beauty and her relationships with Julius Caesar and then Marc Antony, the leaders who depended upon her throne.

The women Pharaohs who are best known, and of whom historians are most certain, are:

 
Statue of Sobekneferu, Berlin Egyptian Museum 14475, (c. 1760–c. 1756 BCE)
 
Statue of Hatshepsut, Metropolitan Museum of Art, (c. 1479–c. 1458 BCE)
 
The prenomen (left column) and nomen (right column) forms for Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten[12][13][14]
 
Pharaoh Tausret holding two sistrums at Amada Temple, Nubia, (1191–1189 BCE)

Many of the Great Royal Wives also played significant diplomatic and political roles:

Elsewhere in the New Kingdom, the Great Wife was often invested with a divine role: "Wife of god", "Hand of god". Hatshepsut was the first Great wife (of Thutmose II) to receive this latter title.

 
Colossal statue of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, 1387-1350 BCE; Egyptian Museum, Cairo
 
Nefertiti bust at Neues Museum, Berlin.

For women holding office in the highest levels of the bureaucracy, one can cite Nebet, a Vizir in ancient Egypt during the Sixth dynasty of Egypt. It is necessary to recognize that a woman at such a high level of authority remained extremely rare and it was not until the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt that a similar situation can be found. Women did, however, occupy numerous offices such as scribe in the bureaucracy, except during the New Kingdom, where all public bureaucracy posts were filled by men.

There was also the Divine Adoratrice of Amun, granted major spiritual power, but also a power restricted to Thebes.

"Royal harem"

edit

There has been a modern trend to refer to the women's quarters of the Pharaoh's palace in Ancient Egypt as a harem,[15] though this is an anachronism. While the women and children of the pharaoh, including his mother, wives, and children, had their own living quarters with its own administration in the Palace of the Pharaoh, the royal women did not live isolated from contact with men or in seclusion from the rest of the court in the way associated with the term "harem".[15]

The custom of referring to the women's quarters of the pharaoh's palace as a "harem" is therefore apocryphal, and has been used because of incorrect assumptions that Ancient Egypt was similar to later Islamic harem culture.[15]

Women in ancient Egyptian literature

edit
Main article: Ancient Egyptian literature
 
Fayum mummy portrait, circa 100-200 CE, Louvre Museum, Paris.

Literature of ancient Egypt did include depictions of women as frivolous, capricious, and untrustworthy. However, women benefitted from a status that has been described as rare in the civilizations of the time.

While the painters and sculptors gave to women a serene image as part of a happy family, writers sometimes portrayed women as being the origin of misfortune and guilty of sins.

In Contes populaires (Popular Tales), Gaston Maspero describes the fatal misadventure of Bytaou, the humble farmhand at the home of his brother Anoupou. Seduced by the wife of his brother, he succumbs to the charm of her beauty. She does not hesitate to denounce him to Anoupou, lying and never ceasing until she obtains the ultimate punishment for Bytaou at the hands of Anoupou. But she is punished in turn; Anoupou discovers much later that he had been fooled by his wife, whom he kills, and throws her body to the dogs.

It is important not to interpret this incorrectly: the rarely flattering portrayal of women in Egyptian literature does not reveal for nothing that women were despised. The Pharaoh was often given the same treatment by storytellers who presented the Pharaoh as a stubborn and whimsical character.

Men were invited to cherish their wives. Ptahhotep (Third dynasty of Egypt) expressed this in the following maxim (written in the Papyrus Prisse): "You must love your wife with all your heart, [...], make her heart happy as long as you live".

Romance was present in Egyptian literature, for example, in a papyrus at the Leyden Museum:

I took you for my wife when I was a young man. I was with you. Then I conquered all ranks, but I never abandoned you. I have never made your heart suffer. Here is what I have done when I was a young man and I exercised all the high functions of Pharaoh, Life, Health, Strength, I never abandoned you, saying to the contrary: "That it was by being with you!" [...] My perfumes, cakes and clothes, I did not bring them to another dwelling. [...] When you became ill, I made myself an official of health and did whatever was necessary. [...] When I joined Memphis, I asked for a holiday as Pharaoh, I went to the place where you dwell (your tomb) and I wept deeply. [...] I will not enter another house. [...] But, here are the sisters who are in the house, I did not go to any of them.[16]

Women in ancient Egyptian art

edit
Main article: Ancient Egyptian art
 
statue of princess Nofret, Old Kingdom of Egypt (dated 2590-2565 BCE)
 
Upper torso of a woman's figurine. Slit eyes and mouth. She wears an elaborate headdress. Pottery fragment. Ramesside period. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

Egyptian women were seldom depicted as ageing and wrinkled; there were standards to be met. The women were shown as slender and beautiful, partly so that they could take on that frame in the afterlife. Egyptian art was far from realistic. It shows how much the ancient Egyptians cared about how they were perceived. There were hardly any images of pregnant women or women's bodies after giving birth. The man, however, could be shown as athletic and engaging or old and experienced. These idealistic depictions would reflect the targeted image, such as the physically able king, or the tired king who works day and night for his people. People were depicted at the peak of their beauty and youth, in an attempt to remain so forever. However, in the Third Intermediate Period, scholars see a shifting in the artistic style representing women. A more rounded body type appeared, with larger, more drooping breasts and a thickened body.[17] This depiction was no longer necessarily associated with the ageing of women. There was also a certain "type" to be followed. Women, and children, were represented with an artistic style that would link them to their husband or father. The most obvious example would be the Amarna Period. Akhenaten's Amarna Period hosted great changes in artistic style. However, the most distinctive part was how Nefertiti, his wife, and his children were shown with the same body type as his, which was quite unique for that matter. There are depictions showing Nefertiti with a body so similar to Akhenaten's, that it was difficult to tell them apart; their depictions both contain long chins, round waists, full buttocks, sunken cheekbones and full lips. But there are also other depictions showing Nefertiti completely different, with a feminine face and a slender shape. After the Amarna Period, elite women were occasionally shown with fuller breasts.

 
Nefertiti with body similar to Akhenaten 's

Divine image and religion

edit
 
Osiris and Isis, statuettes at the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia

In the abundance of divinities in Egyptian mythology, there existed a large number of goddesses, as was also the case in Greece. By studying their symbolism one can learn the image that women had in the eyes of the ancient Egyptians. As with Greek divinities, many were related to one another, by blood or marriage, such as Isis and her sister Nephthys, both the respective wives of Osiris (the god of the dead) and of Set, themselves brothers.

Women and their image were most often associated with life and fertility. In the case of the goddess Isis, who was associated with many principles: as the wife of Osiris who was killed by his brother, she was connected to funeral rites. As a mother, she became the feminine protector, but above all the mother-creator, she who gives life. Through this goddess, the principles of life and death were closely linked. In effect, while she was associated with funeral rites, these rites were to prevent the deceased from submitting to a second death in the succeeding dimension, which explains among other things, the food found in abundance by archeologists in the tombs. On the other hand, life in its physical aspect meaningful only by death, because these principles are part of a movement of eternal new beginning that is then in a sense more spiritual, the movement of life, or eternal life. A symbol of the goddess is also the palm tree, the symbol of eternal life. She breathed the breath of eternal life to her dead husband.

The goddess represented the era's regard for women, because it was crucial to maintain the spirit in her image, it was this idea of eternal life and of maturity that Isis reflected, venerated as the Celestial Mother. It was in this role that Isis was arguably made the most important deity of Egyptian mythology. Her influence even extended to religions of different civilizations, where she would become identified under different names and where her cult grew, particularly in the Roman Empire.

The most influential goddesses were Isis, goddess of magic and mysticism, Hathor, goddess of nourishment and love, Bastet, goddess-protector of the home, and Sekhmet, goddess of wrath.

Priesthood

edit

Women could become priests in Ancient Egypt. However, as was common in Ancient societies, there was no general rule for women's rights to become priests. Instead, the priesthood was different for each separate divinity depending on the local cult of each divinity. This meant that women could be accepted as priests for a specific divinity in one temple and not accepted in another, as was the case with men.

Priestess of Hathor

edit

One of the most famed priesthoods for women in Ancient Egypt was the Priestess of Hathor or Prophetess of Hathor, which was the title of the Priestess of the goddess Hathor in the Temple of Dendera in Ancient Egypt.[18]

God's Wives

edit

"God's Wife of Amun" was the highest-ranking priestess of the Amun cult. At the beginning of the New Kingdom, the title was associated with royalty, usually kings' wives or kings' mothers. The first royal wife to hold this title was Ahmose-Nefertari, wife of Ahmose I, who then passed it on to her daughter, Meritamen who then passed it on to Hatshepsut. Both Ahmose-Nefertari and Hatshepsut used this title as an alternative to King's Principal Wife which reflects the significance that lay behind the title. The title God's Wife was another title given to royal women in sacral roles. In the Nubian and Saite Periods, they built their own chapels and mortuary temples. In addition to God's Wife, these women had other titles such as Divine Adorer or God's Hand. Unlike revered women in other cultures, the concept of chastity wasn't relevant to the ancient Egyptians' religious practice.[19]

Social and political position of women

edit
 
Couple harvesting crops
 
Female musicians
 
Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye

In many of ancient Egypt's artistic approaches, we see women supporting or clasping their husband, maybe even protecting them. So in some sense, the woman could be the protector, probably associated with the concept of protective goddesses. Women mingled in society, we see evidence of that where peasant women were depicted helping with the harvest;[20] townswomen are shown as professional musicians, dancers,[21] members of temple staff and party guests.

So women weren't just traditional stay at home wives, but they contributed to society and sometimes even in untraditional ways. There are scenes of women in weaving workshops, and tomb inscriptions of women's professional involvement. Such titles could range from political to religious to funerary. Some titles inscribed on tombs were mainly honorific; to honor the women after they die. Some examples of titles are: Overseer of Female Physicians, Judge and Vizier, Director of the Dining Hall, and Overseer of Funerary Priests.[21]

Religious positions weren't limited to noblewomen. In fact, there is evidence of priestesses of major goddesses bearing humble titles like tenant farmer. As history moves from the Old Kingdom to the Middle Kingdom, there is less evidence of women in authority, which may suggest changes in political and social norms. In the New Kingdom, however, texts show that women had their own legal identity and could even purchase and inherit land without the need for male consent.

During this period, women were portrayed in all shapes and sizes, where their status and wealth were reflected in the size of their statue. Idealistic portrayals were an important part of Egyptian art, mainly because they believed that these representations would follow them into eternity. Egyptian mothers were a significant part of ancient Egypt. Egyptian men, even those of the highest social class, often placed only their mother's names on their monuments. Egyptian mothers were more prominently displayed than the fathers, also in literature. The ancient Egyptians paid attention to size and quantity; large tombs indicated a significance of the deceased.

Some queens of the early dynasties even commemorated tombs as large as their husbands'. The pair statue of Amenhotep III and his common-born wife, Queen Tiye, dominates a room at the Cairo Museum, showing the queen as of equal size as the king. Hatshepsut, unsatisfied with her status as second best to her father, took it to clarifying her divine conception, so as to legitimize her ruling as pharaoh by recording the miracle of her birth on the walls of the second terrace.

Influence of the image

edit

Rediscovery of ancient Egypt during the era of Napoleon

edit

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led a campaign in Egypt that would be a military fiasco, but which enabled him to return to France with drawings and observations by artists and scientists that he had brought on the expedition.

But it was in 1822 that Egypt became more open to researchers, the wider world developed a passion for ancient Egypt, and wanted to know more about its history and its culture.

The fascination with Egypt that followed, and with everything that concerned Antiquity, carried a powerful influence. In this era, in Paris, almost all fields of creativity were heavily inspired by the rediscoveries from Antiquity. The arts became redirected along this path, following the fashion for ancient Egypt down every esthetic route. In this way, clothing styles changed, and women during the Napoleonic Empire adopted styles associated with ancient Egyptian women, combined with the influence of Ancient Greece and Rome: corsets were abandoned (only temporarily), as well as petticoats, and the raised Empire waist was the popular dress silhouette. Dresses were lighter, and were decorated with motifs from Antiquity, for example palm trees, one of the symbols of the goddess Isis.

Modern images of women in ancient Egypt

edit
 
Theda Bara poses in a still image from Cleopatra. Exotic sets and costumes, depicting a fantasy version of ancient Egypt, were a good fit for Theda Bara's popular "vamp" image.
 
Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton starred in Cleopatra.

When women in ancient Egypt are evoked, the first image that comes to mind for most is that of Cleopatra, or more precisely, Cleopatra VII. Although having a Greek origin, it is she who would be associated with the image of women in ancient Egypt, for several generations. This has been in large part due to modern cinema, especially the films of the Golden Age of Hollywood.

During the 1950s and 1960s, a number of costume dramas were produced, putting on screen Egyptian women imagined during this era where filmmakers want to show glamour. In 1963, the glamorous image of Cleopatra was cemented for the public in the film Cleopatra directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, and portrayed by Liz Taylor.

This passion for the queen is explained by the tumultuous life that she lived, full of intrigues, romances (her two most famous lovers being Julius Caesar and Marc Antony), her power, and her tragic death (she died by suicide). In short, she fascinates, by her life and by what she did. Through her connection to ancient Egypt, she has an aura of mystery for spectators, the same aura that surrounds ancient Egypt and its esoteric aspects, the same mysteriousness linked in the popular imagination with ancient curses of mummies, or other secrets of the tombs. Presented this way, Egyptian women become a sort of seductress, fascinating because of a romanticized view of her.

As a sign of celebrity, this imagined Egypt has not only been the object of fantasies but has also been caricatured. The best-known of these caricatures today are those appearing in such media of popular culture as the Astérix comic books of René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo. Playing on the glamorous image created by cinema, the authors satirize the fascination that Cleopatra exercises on those around her, focusing especially on her nose and exaggerating her queenly status by depicting her as capricious and temperamental, far-removed from the ideal of the seductive woman so often imagined.

In a more general manner, this image of Egyptian women, forceful, behind a mysterious and magical veil, and exercising a seductive power, continues to this day, for example in the American series Stargate SG-1, or again in Luc Besson's film The Fifth Element (1997).

Fashion designers are also regularly inspired by the iconography of Egyptian women, who have become an esthetic point of reference.

Royal women (in chronological order)

edit
 
Bust of Cleopatra VII, who reigned toward the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. Altes Museum, Berlin.

See also

edit

Bibliography

edit
  • Joyce Tyldesley, Daughters of Isis: Women of Ancient Egypt, Penguin (1995) ISBN 978-0-14-017596-7
  • Gay Robins, Women in Ancient Egypt, Harvard University Press (1993) ISBN 978-0-674-95469-4
  • Carolyn Graves-Brown, Dancing for Hathor: Women in Ancient Egypt, Continuum (2010) ISBN 978-1-84725-054-4

Sources

edit
  • Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, La femme au temps des pharaons, Stock, 1986
  • Pierre Montet, La vie quotidienne en Égypte au temps des Ramsès, Hachette, 1946

References

edit
  1. ^ F. G. Wilfong: Gender in Ancient Egypt, in: Willeke Wendrich (editor): Egyptian Archaeology, Blackwell Studies in Global Archaeology, Malden, Oxford 2010, ISBN 9781405149884, p. 165
  2. ^ Marc Collier, Stephen Quirke: The UCL Lahun Papyri: Accounts, Oxford 2006, ISBN 1-84171-907-2, 144-145
  3. ^ Henry George Fischer: Egyptian Woman of the Old Kingdom And of the Heracleopolitan Period, Second Edition, revised and augmented, New York 2000 ISBN 0-87099-967-2, pp. 19-10 online
  4. ^ Hunt, Norman Bancroft (2009). Living in Ancient Egypt. New York: Thalamus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-6338-3.
  5. ^ a b c TIGNOR, ROBERT L. (2010). Egypt: A Short History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691153070. JSTOR j.ctt7rjf4.
  6. ^ Marriage and Family Life in Ancient Egypt by Ray Erwin Baber, Social Forces, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Mar., 1935), pp. 409-414
  7. ^ Wojciechowska, Agnieszka (2016). From Amyrtaeus to Ptolemy: Egypt in the Fourth century B.C. (1 ed.). Harrassowitz Verlag. doi:10.2307/j.ctvc5pfn6. ISBN 9783447106559. JSTOR j.ctvc5pfn6.
  8. ^ Wiesner-Hanks, Merry (2011). Gender in history : global perspectives (2nd ed.). Malden, Mass: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781405189958.
  9. ^ a b c Jacq, Christian (1996). Les Egyptiennes. Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-01075-1.
  10. ^ Henry George Fischer: Egyptian Woman of the Old Kingdom And of the Heracleopolitan Period, Second Edition, revised and augmented, New York 2000 iISBN 0-87099-967-2, pp. 36-37 online
  11. ^ Tyldesley, Joyce (2006). Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. pp. 98. ISBN 978-0-500-05145-0.
  12. ^ Dodson, A; Amarna Sunset (2009), appendix 3
  13. ^ James Peter Allen The Amarna Succession (2006) in P. Brand (ed.), "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane"; Archived from the original
  14. ^ Giles, 2001
  15. ^ a b c Silke Roth, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 2012, escholarship.org
  16. ^ cité par P. Montet
  17. ^ Forever Young? The Representation of Older and Ageing Women in Ancient Egyptian Art by Deborah Sweeney, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 41, (2004), pp. 67-84
  18. ^ Gillam, R. (1995). Priestesses of Hathor: Their Function, Decline and Disappearance. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 32, 211-237. doi:10.2307/40000840
  19. ^ God's Wife, God's Servant: The God's Wife of Amun (c. 740–525 BC) by Mariam F. Ayad
  20. ^ Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Barbara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15
  21. ^ a b Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt by Barbara S. Lesko, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15
edit

  Media related to Women of Egypt at Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Women_in_ancient_Egypt&oldid=1259933024"