Bluetooth
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Definition
A short-range wireless technology for exchanging data between devices over the 2.4 GHz ISM band. Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) extends its use to IoT sensors, wearables, and proximity beacons.
Radio Fundamentals
Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, the same crowded spectrum used by 2.4 GHz Wi-FiA family of wireless networking protocols based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, enabling devices to connect to a local network without cables. Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) and Wi-Fi 7 (802.11be) are the latest generations. and microwave ovens. To cope with interference it uses frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), cycling through 79 channels 1,600 times per second. This rapid hopping means that even if one channel is momentarily blocked, consecutive packets land on different frequencies and the connection survives. Classic Bluetooth (BR/EDR) supports data rates up to 3 Mbps. Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), introduced in Bluetooth 4.0, trades throughput for milliwatt-level power consumption, enabling coin-cell devices to operate for years.
Addressing and Pairing
Every Bluetooth device has a 48-bit address analogous to a MAC AddressMedia Access Control address. A unique 48-bit hardware identifier (e.g., AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF) assigned to a network interface by the manufacturer. Used at Layer 2 for communication within a local network segment., formatted as BD_ADDR. Pairing establishes an encrypted link using a PIN or, in Secure Simple Pairing, out-of-band cryptographic verification. Bonded devices store each other's link keys so they reconnect automatically. Bluetooth uses AES-128 EncryptionThe process of converting plaintext data into ciphertext using a cryptographic algorithm and key, making it unreadable without the corresponding decryption key. The foundation of secure communication on the internet. in BLE and the E0 stream cipher in Classic Bluetooth.
Range and Topology Classes
Bluetooth defines power classes: Class 1 devices transmit at up to 100 mW for roughly 100-meter range; Class 2 at 2.5 mW for about 10 meters; Class 3 at 1 mW for under 1 meter. Bluetooth Mesh (introduced in 5.0) allows many-to-many communication, enabling large-scale IoT deployments such as smart building lighting — a contrast to the point-to-point piconet topology of Classic Bluetooth.