Inadequate transport facilities are a considerable impediment to Somalia’s economic development. There are no railways. Only about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) of paved roads are passable year-round, and in the rainy seasons most rural settlements are not accessible by motor vehicle. Buses, trucks, and minibuses are the main means of transport for the population. In rural areas camels, cattle, and donkeys are still used for personal transportation and as pack animals.

The state-owned Somali Airlines ceased operations in 1991 after the government collapse. Mogadishu, Berbera, and Kismaayo all have airports with long runways. (These three cities also have deep-water harbours, but dangerous coral reefs keep coastal traffic to a minimum.) Several private airlines serve Somaliland.

Constitutional framework

Under the 1979 constitution, amended in 1990, the president and his supporters held the important positions of power, and a People’s Assembly had no real power. The legal system was based largely on Islamic law; an independent judiciary did not exist; and human rights were frequently violated. Only one legal political party, the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party, and various socialist-style mass organizations existed.

Following the collapse of the central government in 1991, the constitution was ignored. Various clan-based political coalitions and alliances attempted to establish control throughout the country. In May 1991 one such alliance declared the formation of the independent Republic of Somaliland in the north, and in July 1998 another declared the formation of the autonomous region of Puntland in the northeast. Each formed its own government, although neither is recognized by the international community.

Meanwhile, the fragmented, conflict-riven south lay largely in the hands of various clan-based militia groups at war with each other, despite several attempts to end the conflict and form a new government. The last transitional government was the result of the Transitional Federal Charter, promulgated in 2004. It provided for a Transitional Federal Parliament and a Transitional Federal Government, which consisted of a president, a prime minister, and a cabinet called the Council of Ministers. The charter was amended in 2009 to extend the transitional government’s original five-year mandate for another two years and again in 2011 to extend it for one more year. On August 20, 2012, the day that the transitional administration was due to expire, the lower house of a new federal parliament was sworn in; the next month, that body elected a new president for the country.

Health and welfare

Many years of conflict, severe drought, and famine have left Somalia in a state of crisis. Hundreds of thousands of Somalis have been displaced by warfare. Chronic food shortages have led to high rates of malnutrition in many parts of the country. Much of Somalia is without adequate water supplies or sanitation. Cholera, measles, tuberculosis, and malaria are widespread. The absence of health or welfare infrastructure in the country—largely destroyed after years of conflict—has left international relief organizations struggling to provide essential services normally offered by the government. Their efforts are hindered by continuing violence, and most Somalis have little or no access to health care.

Conditions in the Republic of Somaliland and in Puntland are somewhat better than in the rest of the country but still fall short of ideal. Because of the overall level of stability enjoyed by the two self-governing regions, they have been able to rebuild much of their health care infrastructure.

Housing

There are two main types of traditional houses: the typically African round house (mundul), mainly found in the interior, and the Arab-influenced rectangular house (cariish) with a corrugated-steel roof, prevailing in the coastal regions and northern Somalia.

The strong influence from Arabia, Persia, and India has shaped the face of the old coastal town centres, and Italian colonial architecture is visible in Mogadishu. Solid constructions of traditional coral limestone and modern concrete brick clearly distinguish the large coastal settlements from the district and provincial capitals of the interior, where traditional wooden houses with thatched or corrugated-iron roofs predominate.

Pastoral nomads still live in transportable round huts called aqal. During the dry seasons, the high mobility of these livestock keepers leads to their temporary concentration in the river valleys of southern Somalia and around important water points all over the country.

Education

Prior to the country’s civil war and the resulting anarchy, the state educational system was somewhat successful despite considerable shortcomings. Enrollment in primary and secondary schools had multiplied, and the proportion of girls attending school also had risen—at least in towns. However, a lack of buildings, furniture, equipment, teaching materials, and teachers, together with the frequent unwillingness of rural people to allow children to attend school instead of working, all prevented a rapid improvement of schooling in rural areas.

After the government was overthrown in 1991, Somalia’s state education system was in shambles. Private schools have managed to function since then, as have schools in the Republic of Somaliland and Puntland. Some Islamic schools are also operational, but traditionally these Qurʾānic schools are responsible for the religious education of children according to Islamic law and do not provide secular education.

The main higher education institution had been Somali National University (1969) in Mogadishu, but the campus was destroyed during the civil war. The private Mogadishu University was established in 1997. There are also agricultural secondary schools, a vocational training centre, a teacher-training centre, and an agricultural college in Mogadishu, as well as a technical college in Burgo. Most of these institutions were unable to consistently maintain operations because of warfare. Amoud University (1997) in Borama and the University of Hargeisa (2000) are private universities in the Republic of Somaliland. About one-fifth of Somalis aged 15 and older are literate.

Cultural milieu

Somalia has a rich oral tradition: in effect, every Somali is a walking repository of the country’s stories, myths, traditions, and genealogies. Although Islam is the predominant religion, indigenous beliefs remain strong and are often syncretized with those of the Qurʾān to provide a belief system unique to the country. Somali mythology dates to pre-Islamic times and includes belief in jinn, supernatural spirits, and ghouls (ghūls), treacherous shape-changing spirits, who are said to inhabit significant features of the landscape, including wells, crossroads, and burial grounds. Also extremely important is astrology, which is thought to provide divinations of the days ahead; some Somalis believe that the appearance of certain stars, constellations, and eclipses can presage everything from the coming of rain to a massacre.