Sebastian Hoffpauir Dr.

Kim Todt HIST 361 14 April 2014

Introduction
Man t pes of materials tra!eled to and from t"e #e$ %orld o!er t"at time period&s lifeblood $"i'" $as t"e Atlanti' ('ean. (f t"ese materials) a ne$ 'ommodit $as brou*"t o!er to t"e Ameri'an 'olonies and its name $as ri'e. As a ne$ form of nutrition t"at 'ould be profitable and 'onsumed in lar*e portions) t"e 'rop $as prepared to ta+e root. ,i'e $ould soon be planted and 'ommer'iali-ed 'entrall in Sout" .arolina and /eor*ia) t"en e0ported mainl to 1urope. %"ile ri'e be'ame) t"e 'as" 'rop of t$o states and $as a fo'al point in t"e Sene*ambiam area of %est Afri'a) it e!entuall be'ame sustenan'e for produ'tion of ot"er 'as" 'rops rat"er t"an maintainin* a role as a "u*e) profitable e0port. T"e main ta+ea$a s from del!in* into ri'e&s "istor $ould be t"e 'onditions in $"i'" it is *ro$n) t"e role massi!e role Afri'ans pla ed in its 'ulti!ation) and its effe't on t"e e'onom .

History
T"e e0a't dis'o!er of ri'e b "umans is un+no$n due to t"e unreliabilit of oral tradition. Alt"ou*") it is belie!ed t"at t"e first domesti'ation of t"e plant "appened in a ."inese ri!er !alle . ,i'e tra!eled sout"east and t"is is "o$ it $as dis'o!ered b 1urope and Afri'a. Ho$e!er) t"e first 1uropean do'uments re*ardin* t"e 'rop surfa'ed durin* t"e 16t" 'entur $"en t"e 2ortu*uese be*an e0portin* sla!es out of Afri'a. It $as durin* t"is time t"at e0plorers and sailors too+ noti'e of t"e efforts of t"e nati!es t"at t"e $ere 'apturin*. T"e met"ods used to 'ulti!ate t"e 'rop $ere e0tensi!e

indi'atin* t"at t"e "ad been in de!elopment for man 'enturies perfe'tin* te'"ni3ues used to *ro$ ri'e.

ears. It is possible t"at %est Afri'ans spent

,i'e did not ma+e it to Ameri'a until t"e 14t" 'entur . In 1656) ri'e $as traded to Dr. Henr %ood$ard $"o o$ned land in ."arleston) Sout" .arolinaii. %it" re'ei!in* a ne$ 'rop and t"e boom of t"e sla!e trade) ri'e too+ off in Sout" .arolina. /eor*ia soon follo$ed suit as t"e leaders of Ameri'an ri'e tradin*. After t"e .i!il %ar) "o$e!er) ri'e too+ a s"arp de'line in t"e states for t"e !er reason it $as so su''essful. T"e almost 'omplete dependen'e on sla!e +no$led*e to tend t"e 'rop made it eas to in'orporate. %it" t"e abolition of sla!er ) t"e 'rop nearl 'eased to e0ist in Ameri'a. (t"er states in'ludin*) 7ouisiana) Ar+ansas) Te0as) and e!entuall .alifornia ta+e up ri'e farmin* later on.

The Gullah

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T"e /ulla" and /ee'"ee 'ultures from t"e Sea Islands of /eor*ia "a!e maintained t"eir et"ni' traditions from %est Afri'a sin'e t"e mid81400s. Despite t"e fa't t"at islands '"ainin* t"e sout"eastern 'oast of t"e 9nited States "arbor t"e same 'olle'tion of %est Afri'ans) t"e name Geechee is a referen'e to islanders from /eor*ia and /ullah "as 'ome to be t"e a''epted name of t"e islanders from Sout" .arolina. T"e re*ion stret'"in* from Sand Island) Sout" .arolina) to Amelia Island) :lorida) "as been desi*nated b modern da resear'"ers as t"e /ulla" .oast! . T"is is t"e lo'ation of t"e 'ulture t"at built most) if not all of t"e most lu'rati!e plantations in t"e Sout". A lar*e "ost of traditions pertainin* to t"e /ulla" and /ee'"ee 'ulture $ere passed from one *eneration to t"e ne0t t"rou*" oral lan*ua*e)

a*ri'ulture) and spiritualit . A pe'uliar 'onne'tion "as been made from t"e 'ulture to spe'ifi' %est Afri'an et"ni' *roups $"o $ere ensla!ed on island plantations to *ro$ ri'e) indi*o) and 'otton startin* in 1460) $"en antisla!er la$s ended in t"e /eor*ia 'olon .

!i

/eor*ia establis"ed a board of trustees in 1432 $it" t"e primar purposes of settlin* impo!eris"ed ;ritis" 'iti-ens and 'reatin* a mer'antile s stem t"at $ould suppl 1n*land $it" needed a*ri'ultural produ'ts. T"e 'olon ena'ted a 1436 antisla!er la$) but t"e pro"ibition $as lifted in 1460. %est Afri'ans) t"e ar*ument $ent) $ere far more able to 'ope $it" t"e 'limati' 'onditions found in t"e Sout"!ii. As t"e *ro$in* $ealt" of Sout" .arolina&s ri'e e'onom demonstrated) sla!es $ere far more profitable t"an an ot"er form of labor a!ailable to t"e 'olonists. ,i'e plantations fostered /eor*ia&s su''essful e'onomi' 'ompetition $it" ot"er sla!e8based ri'e e'onomies alon* t"e eastern seaboard.

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.oastal plantations in!ested primaril in ri'e) and plantation o$ners sou*"t out Afri'ans from t"e %ind$ard .oast of %est Afri'a <Sene*ambia =later Sene*al and t"e /ambia>) Sierra 7eone) and 7iberia?) $"ere ri'e) indi*o) and 'otton $ere indi*enous to t"e re*ion. (!er t"e ensuin* 'enturies) t"e isolation of t"e ri'e8*ro$in* et"ni' *roups) $"o re8'reated t"eir nati!e 'ultures and traditions on t"e 'oastal Sea Islands) led to t"e formation of an identit re'o*ni-ed as /ulla"@/ee'"ee. T"ere is no sin*le %est Afri'an 'ontribution to /ee'"ee@/ulla" 'ulture) alt"ou*" dominant 'ultural patterns often 'orrespond to !arious a*ri'ultural in!estments. :or e0ample) Afri'a&s %ind$ard .oast $as later 'ommonl referred to as t"e ,i'e .oast in re'o*nition of t"e lar*e numbers of Afri'ans ensla!ed from t"at area $"o $or+ed on ri'e plantations in Ameri'a. Most ant"ropolo*ists and "istorians spe'ulate but "a!e not 'onfirmed t"at t"e term Gullah A deemed t"e 'ultural name of t"e islandersAderi!ed from an one of se!eral Afri'an et"ni'ities or spe'ifi' lo'ations in An*ola and on t"e %ind$ard .oast. (t"er resear'"ers spe'ulate t"at Gullah and Geechee are borro$ed $ords from an number of et"ni' *roups alon* t"e %ind$ard .oastAsu'" as /ola) Kissi) Mende) Temne) T$i) and BaiAt"at 'ontributed to t"e 'reoli-ation of t"e 'oastal 'ulture in /eor*ia and Sout" .arolina. Gullah is t"ou*"t to be a s"ortened form of Angola) t"e name of t"e *roup first imported to t"e .arolinas durin* t"e earl 'olonial period. Geechee) "istori'all 'onsidered a ne*ati!e $ord identif in* Sea Islanders) be'ame an a''eptable term in li*"t of 'ontemporar e!iden'e lin+in* it to %est Afri'a. Alt"ou*" t"e ori*ins of t"e t$o $ords are not definiti!e) some ensla!ed Afri'ans alon* t"e 'oast "ad names t"at $ere lin+ed to t"e Kissi *roup) leadin* to spe'ulation t"at t"e terms ma also deri!e from t"at parti'ular 'ulturei0. 7in*uist 7oren-o Do$ Turner resear'"ed and do'umented spo+en $ords on t"e 'oast durin* t"e 1C30s) tra'ed similarities to et"ni' *roups in %est Afri'a) t"en publis"ed t"e /ulla" diale't le0i'on) Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect <1C4C?. His resear'" 'onfirms t"e e!olution of a ne$ lan*ua*e based on %est Afri'an influen'es and 1n*lis". Man $ords in t"e 'oastal 'ulture 'ould be mat'"ed to et"ni' *roups in %est Afri'a) t"ereb lin+in* t"e /ee'"ee@/ulla" people to t"eir ori*ins. Mar*aret

%as"in*ton .reel in A Peculiar People: Slave Religion and Community-Culture among the Gullahs <1C55? identifies 'ultural and spiritual "abits t"at relate to similar et"ni' *roups of %est Afri'ans $"o are lin+ed b lan*ua*e0. Her resear'" on t"e 'oastal 'ulture 'omplements Turner&s findin*s t"at Afri'ans on t"e Sea Islands 'reated a ne$ identit despite t"e tra*i' 'onditions of sla!er T"ousands of sla!es from /eor*ia and Sout" .arolina $"o remained lo al to t"e ;ritis" at t"e end of t"e Ameri'an ,e!olution<1446853? found safe "a!en in #o!a S'otia in .anada and t"us *ained t"eir freedom. Man returned to Sierra 7eone in 14C1 and t"e follo$in* ear establis"ed :reeto$n) t"e 'apital 'it . Members of t"at *roup are identified toda as Krio. ,una$a sla!es from t"e Sea Islands $ere "arbored under Spanis" prote'tion in :lorida prior to t"e Se'ond Seminole %ar<1536842?. #ati!e Ameri'an refu*ees from around t"e Sout" formed an allian'e $it" Afri'an runa$a s to 'reate t"e Seminole #ation. T"e name Seminole is from t"e Spanis" $ord cimarrn) meanin* runa$a . T"e 1542 a*reement bet$een t"e 9nited States and Spain) $"i'" ended t"e Seminole entren'"ment in :lorida) 'aused a mi*ration to Indian Territor <present8da (+la"oma?. Some Seminoles follo$ed Spanis" prote'tors to .uba and to Andros Island in t"e ;a"amas0i. Aspe'ts of %est Afri'an "erita*e "a!e sur!i!ed at ea'" sta*e of t"e 'ir'le of mi*ration) $it" ri'e) lan*ua*e) and spiritualit persistin* as 'ultural t"reads into t"e t$entiet" 'entur . T"e /ee'"ee@/ulla" 'ulture on t"e Sea Islands of /eor*ia "as retained a "erita*e t"at spans t$o 'ontinents. At t"e end of t"e .i!il %ar) lands on t"e 'oastal islands $ere sold to t"e ne$l freed Afri'ans durin* t"e 2ort ,o al 10periment) part of t"e 9.S. *o!ernment&s ,e'onstru'tion plan for t"e re'o!er of t"e Sout" after t"e $ar.

Cultivation

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#o$ t"at a firm foundational understandin* "as been *ained of t"e people responsible for *ro$in* ri'e in Ameri'a. T"e fo'us $ill no$ mo!e to "o$ t"e 'rop $as a'tuall *ro$n. :e$ 'rops are more demandin* to 'ulti!ate t"an ri'e and t"ere are more t"an 40)000 t pes or strands *ro$n and traded a'ross t"e *lobe. At first ri'e $as loo+ed at li+e an ot"er 'rop) it $as planted in fields and nouris"ed b rains. ; t"e mid815t" 'entur ) planters utili-ed inland s$amps to nurture ri'e b a''umulatin* $ater in a reser!oir) t"en releasin* t"e stored $ater as ne'essar durin* t"e *ro$in* season for $eedin* and $aterin*. Similarl ) prior re'ords detail Afri'ans monitorin* sprin*s and run off $it" eart"en emban+ments for t"e same purposes of $eedin* and $aterin*0i!. #ot lon* after t"is met"od emer*ed) a se'ond e!olution too+ pla'e) t"is time to tide$ater produ'tion) a te'"ni3ue t"at "ad alread been perfe'ted b %est Afri'an farmers. Instead of dependin* upon a reser!oir of $ater) t"is te'"ni3ue re3uired s+illed manipulation of tidal flo$s and saline8fres"$ater intera'tions to attain "i*" le!els of produ'ti!it in t"e floodplains of ri!ers and streams. ."an*in* from inland s$amp 'ulti!ation to tidal produ'tion 'reated "i*"er e0pe'tations from plantation o$ners. Sla!es be'ame responsible for fi!e a'res of ri'e) t"ree more t"an "ad been possible pre!iousl T"e detailed and e0tensi!e ri'e 'ulti!atin* s stems in'reased demand for sla!e imports in Sout" .arolina) doublin* t"e sla!e population bet$een 1460 and 1440. T"ese sla!es fa'ed lon* da s of ba'+brea+in* $or+ and diffi'ult tas+s.

A sla!e&s dail $or+ on an antebellum ri'e plantation $as di!ided into tas+s. 1a'" field "and $as *i!en a tas+88usuall nine or ten "ours& "ard $or+88or a fra'tion of a tas+ to 'omplete ea'" da a''ordin* to "is or "er abilit . T"e tas+s $ere assi*ned b t"e dri!er) a sla!e appointed to super!ise t"e

dail $or+ of t"e field "ands0!. T"e dri!er "eld t"e most important position in t"e sla!e "ierar'" on t"e ri'e plantation. His Dob $as se'ond onl to t"e o!erseer in terms of responsibilit .

T"e dri!er&s Dob $as espe'iall important be'ause ea'" step of t"e plantin*) *ro$in*) and "ar!estin* pro'ess $as 'ru'ial to t"e su''ess or failure of t"e ear&s 'rop. In t"e sprin*) t"e land $as "arro$ed and plo$ed in preparation for plantin*. Around t"e first of April ri'e seed $as so$n b "and usin* a small "oe. T"e first floodin* of t"e field) t"e sprout flow) barel 'o!ered t"e seed and lasted onl until t"e *rain sprouted. T"e $ater $as t"en drained to +eep t"e deli'ate sprout from floatin* a$a ) and t"e ri'e $as allo$ed to *ro$ for appro0imatel t"ree $ee+s. Around t"e first of Ma an *rass *ro$in* amon* t"e sprouts $as $eeded b "oe and t"e field $as flooded b t"e point flow to 'o!er Dust t"e tops of t"e plants. After a fe$ da s t"e $ater $as *raduall drained until it "alf 'o!ered t"e plants. It remained at t"is le!el88t"e long flow88until t"e ri'e $as stron* enou*" to stand. More $eedin* follo$ed and t"en t"e $ater $as slo$l drained 'ompletel off t"e field. T"e *round around t"e plants $as "oed to en'oura*e t"e *ro$t" and e0tension of t"e roots. After about t"ree $ee+s) t"e field $as "oed and $eeded a*ain) at $"i'" time88around mid8Eune or t"e first of Eul 88t"e lay- y flow $as added and *raduall in'reased until t"e plants $ere 'ompletel submer*ed. T"is flo$ $as +ept on t"e field for about t$o mont"s $it" fres" $ater periodi'all introdu'ed and sta*nant $ater run off b t"e tidal flo$ t"rou*" small flood*ates 'alled trun+s0!i.

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,i'e planted in t"e first $ee+ of April $as usuall read for "ar!estin* b t"e first $ee+ of September. After t"e la 8b flo$ $as $it"dra$n) Dust before t"e *rain $as full ripe) t"e ri'e $as 'ut $it" lar*e si'+les +no$n as ri'e "oo+s and laid on t"e *round on t"e stubble. After it "ad dried o!erni*"t) t"e 'ut ri'e $as tied into s"ea!es and ta+en b flatboat to t"e t"res"in* ard. In t"e 'olonial period) t"res"in* $as most often done b beatin* t"e stal+s $it" flails. T"is pro'ess $as simple but time 'onsumin*. If t"e ri'e $as to be sold rou*") it $as t"en s"ipped to t"e a*entF ot"er$ise) it $as "us+ed and 'leaned88 a*ain) usuall b "and. ; t"e mid81Ct" 'entur most of t"e lar*er plantations operated poundin* and@or t"res"in* mills $"i'" $ere dri!en b steam en*ines. After t"e ri'e "ad been prepared) it $as pa'+ed in barrels) or tier'es) and s"ipped to t"e mar+et at /eor*eto$n or ."arleston. In 1560 a ri'e plantation in t"e /eor*eto$n .ount area produ'ed an a!era*e ield of 300)000 pounds of ri'e. T"e ield "ad in'reased to 600)000 pounds b 156 Arduous 'ulti!ation re3uirements) alon* $it" "i*" mortalit rates in t"e mos3uito8infested s$amps of t"e 7o$'ountr ) made it diffi'ult to attra't $"ite labor into t"e ri'e industr
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. T"at) in addition to Afri'ans& and Afri'an Ameri'ans& +no$led*e about

ri'e 'ulti!ation) led profit8"un*r $"ite planters in /eor*ia and ot"er parts of t"e Sout"east to depend almost entirel upon bla'+ labor) $"et"er sla!e or free) t"rou*"out t"e entire "istor of t"e industr .

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It is diffi'ult toda to appre'iate full t"e amount of $or+ in!ol!ed in establis"in* and maintainin* t"e ri'e e'onom of 'oastal /eor*ia. S$amps "ad to be drained) 'leared) and le!eled to

ma+e t"em suitable for a*ri'ulture of an t pe. :or tidal 'ulti!ation) an elaborate s stem of irri*ation $or+sAle!ees) dit'"es) 'ul!erts) flood*ates) and drainsA"ad to be 'onstru'ted <and maintained? to 'ontrol and re*ulate t"e flo$ of $ater onto and off of t"e fields. (n'e t"e fields and irri*ation $or+s $ere rendered suitable for 'ulti!ation) t"e produ'tion se3uen'e 'ould be*in. After t"e ri'e $as so$n) t"e fields $ere flooded periodi'all durin* t"e *ro$in* season. %"ene!er t"e $ater $as dra$n off t"e fields) a *ood deal of "oein* "ad to be doneF on'e t"e ri'e $as mature) t"e 'rop "ad to be "ar!ested) pro'essed) prepared for mar+et) and transported. Tremendous e0penditures of labor and outla s of resour'es and ener* $ere needed to 'omplete t"is earl se3uen'e. T"at 'onne'tion made t"e problems arisin* from ri'e&s de'line and ultimate disappearan'e as a 'ommer'ial 'rop in /eor*ia profoundl painful and dislo'atin* to 7o$'ountr bla'+s) bot" e'onomi'all and so'iall . Indeed) t"e demise of ri'e de!astated e'onomi' and so'ial life for bla'+s and $"ites ali+e in t"e 7o$'ountr . T"e reasons for t"e abandonment of ri'e 'ulti!ation are as 'omple0 as t"e are 'ontro!ersial. S'"olars "a!e *enerall attributed it to t"e destru'tion dire'tl asso'iated $it" t"e .i!il %ar) to t"e relu'tan'e of post8eman'ipation Afri'an Ameri'ans to labor in ri'e s$amps $it"out t"e de*ree of 'oer'ion possible under sla!er ) and to t"e effe'ts of a series of se!ere $eat"er Gs"o'+sGA"urri'anes primaril At"at stru'+ t"e 7o$'ountr in t"e late nineteent" 'entur . Some re'ent "istorians "a!e adopted anot"er !ie$H t"e demise of ri'e in t"is area $as due not so mu'" to t"e fa'tors mentioned abo!e but to lon*8term e0pansion and elaboration of *lobal 'apitalism) s"ifts t"at "urt t"e 'ompetiti!e position of t"e Sout" Atlanti' ri'e industr . As an inte*rated $orld ri'e mar+et 'ame into e0isten'e) lo$8'ost ri'e from Sout" and Sout"east Asia in'reasin*l under'ut t"e position of Ameri'an ri'e in its most important mar+ets) parti'ularl in nort"ern 1urope00. To be sure) t"e .i!il %ar) post8eman'ipation diffi'ulties in labor relations) and "urri'anes 'ertainl did not "elp t"e 'ompetiti!e position of t"e /eor*ia ri'e industr ) but t"e "and$ritin* $as on t"e $all for t"e Sout" Atlanti' produ'ers $ell before t"e openin* s"ots of t"e .i!il %ar $ere fired at :ort Sumter) Sout" .arolina. .ompetition from India) Ea!a) ;urma) Siam) and .o'"in'"ina <later

Bietnam?Arat"er t"an t"e 9nion for'esAdestro ed t"e /eor*ia ri'e industr . Indeed) t"e mi*ration of t"e 9.S. ri'e industr to t"e (ld Sout"$est in t"e late nineteent" 'entur 'an also be seen as a response in lar*e part to international 'ompetiti!e pressures 00i. 9nli+e produ'tion in t"e Sout" Atlanti' re*ion <or in Asia?) ri'e in 7ouisiana) Ar+ansas) and Te0as $as 'apital8intensi!e rat"er t"an labor8intensi!eH farmers in t"e re*ion +ne$ t"at t"eir onl '"an'e to 'ompete $it" lo$8'ost Asian 'ompetition $ould be b in'reasin* produ'ti!it t"rou*" t"e substitution of 'apital <parti'ularl me'"ani-ed e3uipment and sop"isti'ated irri*ation $or+s? for labor. T"e did so $it" a !en*ean'e) as did .alifornia ri'e *ro$ers s"ortl t"ereafter. /ro$ers in /eor*ia and ot"er parts of t"e Sout"east 'ould not ma+e a similar s"iftH t"e s$ampland of t"e re*ion $ould not support t"e $ei*"t of t"e ne$ me'"ani-ed e3uipment) and t"e ne'essar in!estment 'apital $as la'+in* in an 'ase. T"e 'ollapse of /eor*ia&s ri'e industr in t"e late nineteent" 'entur is !i!idl illustrated in produ'tion data 'ulled from t"e federal 'ensuses. After pea+in* at more t"an 61 million pounds in 156C) 'lean ri'e produ'tion in /eor*ia fell to about 21.6 million pounds in 154C and to Dust o!er 5.C million pounds b 15CC. ; 1C1C produ'tion in t"e state totaled less t"an 60)000 bus"elsAless t"an 2 million poundsAand a''ounted for onl .2 per'ent of 9.S. produ'tion as a $"ole. ; t"at time more t"an CC per'ent of 9.S. produ'tion 'ame from 7ouisiana) Te0as) Ar+ansas) and .alifornia00ii. T"e effe'ts of t"e de'line and ultimate demise of t"e ri'e industr in 'oastal /eor*ia $ere felt for a lon* time. ; t"e late nineteent" 'entur t"e area&s ot"er maDor staples "ad 'ollapsed as $ell) and for mu'" of t"e t$entiet" 'entur in"abitants of t"e rural 7o$'ountr $ere for'ed into su'" alternati!e a'ti!ities as tru'+ farmin*) tourism) and forest industries) none of $"i'" offered *ro$t" possibilities similar to ri'e in its prime.

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Abo!e is a map of earl Atlanti' trade of $"i'" ri'e $as most definitel a part of as indi'ated b t"e *reen lines. Ho$e!er) due to its sustainin* nature) e!en in modern times) ri'e e'onomi' numbers 'ome no $"ere 'lose to its produ'tion numbers. It be'ame a staple for Sout" .arolina and /eor*ia due to 'limate and t"e 'olonial stru'ture $it" 1n*land. T"erefore) in t"e interest of ma+in* 3ui'+ profit) t"at is $"ere t"e !ast maDorit of t"e tradin* $ent) to 1urope. After people learned "o$ to 'ulti!ate ri'e on t"eir o$n in Ameri'a and else$"ere) it be'ame less of a traded 'ommodit and more *ro$n to eat ri*"t $"ere it $as planted. ,i'e is no$ one of t"e mainsta s of an "ome almost an $"ere in t"e $orld. It ma not "a!e as "i*" of a monetar !alue as ot"er edible 'ommodities) but t"at is) be'ause of t"e immense !olume at $"i'" it is *ro$n and t"e nature of t"e *rain. It 'an $it"stand 'onditions t"at most ot"er 'rops 'annot and on'e "ar!ested "as *ood nutritional !alue and s"elf life $"i'" is e0a'tl $"at one $ould $ant in a "orded 'rop.

$as"in*tonpost.'om Assorted ri'e t pes 2eter A. .o'lanis) IDistant T"underH T"e .reation of a %orld Mar+et in ,i'e and t"e Transformations It %rou*"t)J Ameri'an Histori'al ,e!ie$ !" 1CC3. 1060
ii iii i!

ale.edu. /ulla" .ustoms and Traditions. Sout" .arolina /ulla" about 1C00. ."arleston Street Bendor ale.edu. (ri*in of t"e /ulla". Sla!e dan'e paintin* ! ;udd Sulli!an) #he Darien $ournal of $ohn Girardeau %egare) Ricegrower <At"ensH 9ni!ersit /eaor*ia 2ress) 2010?. !i dis'o!erbla'+"erita*e.'om. T"e /ulla"@/ee'"ee) ;eaufort) S. !ii .o'lanis 1064 !iii nps.*o! i0 .o'lanis 106C 0 Eudit" A. .arne ) &lac' Rice: #he African (rigins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas)Cam ridge* +ass,: -arvard .niversity Press* /00123
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.o'lanis 1045 ussla!e.blo*spot.'om Sla!er in Sout" .arolina 0iii louisianari'einse'ts.$ordpress.'om ri'e field 0i! Eudit" A. .arne ) I,i'e) Sla!es) and 7ands'apes of .ultural Memor )J Afri'an ,efle'tions on t"e Ameri'an 7ands'ape. 2001. 0! Ibid 214 0!i ibid 230 0!ii t"e deliberatea*rarian.blo*spot.'om Sla!e "ar!estin* tools 0!iii 2eter A. .ol'anis) #he Shadow of a Dream: 1'onomi' 7ife and Deat" in t"e Sout" .arolina 7o$ .ountr ) 164081C20 <#e$ Kor+H (0ford 9ni!ersit 2ress) 1C5C?. 0i0 :ree-e$all.'om ,i'e *rain 00 Ibid 164 00i ibid 160 00ii ibid 156 00iii di*italbard.lm'.*ate'".edu Trian*ular Trade
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