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History of agriculture

Agriculture began independently in different parts

of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At
least eleven separate regions of the Old and New
World were involved as independent centers of
origin. The development of agriculture about
12,000 years ago changed the way humans lived.
They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer
lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming.[1]

Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least

104,000 years ago.[2] However, domestication did Ploughing with a yoke of horned cattle in Ancient
not occur until much later. The earliest evidence of Egypt. Painting from the burial chamber of
small-scale cultivation of edible grasses is from Sennedjem, c. 1200 BC.
around 21,000 BC with the Ohalo II people on the
shores of the Sea of Galilee.[3] By around 9500 BC,
the eight Neolithic founder crops – emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter
vetch, chickpeas, and flax – were cultivated in the Levant.[4] Rye may have been cultivated earlier,
but this claim remains controversial.[5] Regardless, rye's spread from Southwest Asia to the
Atlantic was independent of the Neolithic founder crop package.[6] Rice was domesticated in China
by 6200 BC[7] with earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki
beans. Rice was also independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.[8][9]
Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 years ago, followed by sheep. Cattle were
domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC.
Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3000 BC.

In subsaharan Africa, sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 3000 BC, along
with pearl millet by 2000 BC.[10][11] Yams were domesticated in several distinct locations,
including West Africa (unknown date), and cowpeas by 2500 BC.[12][13] Rice (African rice) was also
independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.[8][9] Teff and likely finger
millet were domesticated in Ethiopia by 3000 BC, along with noog, ensete, and coffee.[14][15] Other
plant foods domesticated in Africa include watermelon, okra, tamarind and black eyed peas, along
with tree crops such as the kola nut and oil palm.[16] Plantains were cultivated in Africa by 3000
BC and bananas by 1500 BC.[17][18] The helmeted guineafowl was domesticated in West Africa.[19]
Sanga cattle was likely also domesticated in North-East Africa, around 7000 BC, and later
crossbred with other species.[20][21]

In South America, agriculture began as early as 9000 BC, starting with the cultivation of several

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species of plants that later became only minor crops. In the Andes of South America, the potato
was domesticated between 8000 BC and 5000 BC, along with beans, squash, tomatoes, peanuts,
coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Cassava was domesticated in the Amazon Basin no later
than 7000 BC. Maize (Zea mays) found its way to South America from Mesoamerica, where wild
teosinte was domesticated about 7000 BC and selectively bred to become domestic maize. Cotton
was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC; another species of cotton was domesticated in Mesoamerica
and became by far the most important species of cotton in the textile industry in modern times.[22]
Evidence of agriculture in the Eastern United States dates to about 3000 BCE. Several plants were
cultivated, later to be replaced by the Three Sisters cultivation of maize, squash, and beans.

Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 7000 BC. Bananas
were cultivated and hybridized in the same period in Papua New Guinea. In Australia, agriculture
was invented at a currently unspecified period, with the oldest eel traps of Budj Bim dating to
6,600 BC[23] and the deployment of several crops ranging from yams[24] to bananas.[25]

The Bronze Age, from c. 3300 BC, witnessed the intensification of agriculture in civilizations such
as Mesopotamian Sumer, ancient Egypt, ancient Sudan, the Indus Valley civilisation of the Indian
subcontinent, ancient China, and ancient Greece. From 100 BC to 1600 AD, world population
continued to grow along with land use, as evidenced by the rapid increase in methane emissions
from cattle and the cultivation of rice.[26] During the Iron Age and era of classical antiquity, the
expansion of ancient Rome, both the Republic and then the Empire, throughout the ancient
Mediterranean and Western Europe built upon existing systems of agriculture while also
establishing the manorial system that became a bedrock of medieval agriculture. In the Middle
Ages, both in Europe and in the Islamic world, agriculture was transformed with improved
techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and
fruit trees such as the orange to Europe by way of Al-Andalus. After the voyages of Christopher
Columbus in 1492, the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes,
tomatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice,
and turnips, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats to the Americas.

Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers were introduced soon after the Neolithic Revolution and
developed much further in the past 200 years, starting with the British Agricultural Revolution.
Since 1900, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has
seen large rises in productivity as human labour has been replaced by mechanization, and assisted
by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch process allowed the
synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields.
Modern agriculture has raised social, political, and environmental issues including overpopulation,
water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies. In response,
organic farming developed in the twentieth century as an alternative to the use of synthetic
pesticides.

Origins

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Origin hypotheses
Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the
historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from
hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent
period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples
are the Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese
Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that wild stands
that had been harvested previously started to be planted, but Indigenous Australian camp by
were not immediately domesticated.[27][28] Skinner Prout, 1876

Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the

origins of agriculture in the Levant.[1] When major climate change took place after the last ice age
(c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons.[29] These conditions
favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. An
abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to
form the first settled villages at this time.[1] Across Western Eurasia it was not until approximately
4,000 BC that farming societies completely replaced hunter-gatherers. These technologically
advanced societies expanded faster in areas with less forest, pushing hunter-gatherers into denser
woodlands. Only the middle-late Bronze Age and Iron Age societies were able to fully replace
hunter-gatherers in their final stronghold located in the most densely forested areas. Unlike their
Bronze and Iron Age counterparts, Neolithic societies couldn't establish themselves in dense
forests, and Copper Age societies had only limited success. [30]

Early development
Early people began altering communities of flora and fauna for
their own benefit through means such as fire-stick farming and
forest gardening very early.[31][32][33] Wild grains have been
collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and
possibly much longer.[2] Exact dates are hard to determine, as
people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and
plant characteristics may have changed during this period
without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis
and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas Sumerian harvester's sickle, 3000
(about 9500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of BC, made from baked clay
the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were
attained without any human intervention, implying that
apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally.[34]

Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of
taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers
of origin.[35] Some of the earliest known domestications were of animals. Domestic pigs had
multiple centres of origin in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,[36] where
wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.[37] Sheep were domesticated in
Mesopotamia between 11,000 BC and 9000 BC.[38] Cattle were domesticated from the wild

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aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500

BC.[39] Camels were domesticated relatively late, perhaps
around 3000 BC.[40]

It was not until after 9500 BC that the eight so-called founder
crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat,
then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and
flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) sites in the Levant, although
An Indian farmer with a rock-
wheat was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant
weighted scratch plough pulled by
scale. At around the same time (9400 BC), parthenocarpic fig
two oxen. Similar ploughs were
trees were domesticated.[42][43] used throughout antiquity.

Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at some

Neolithic sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (c. 7600 – c. 6000 BC) Can
Hasan III near Çatalhöyük,[44] but is otherwise
absent until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c.
1800–1500 BC.[45] Claims of much earlier
cultivation of rye, at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell
Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern
Syria, remain controversial.[46] Critics point to
inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and
identifications based solely on grain, rather than on Centres of origin identified by Nikolai Vavilov in
chaff.[47] the 1930s. Area 3 (grey) is no longer recognised
as a centre of origin, and Papua New Guinea
By 8000 BC, farming was entrenched on the banks (red, 'P') was identified more recently.[41]
of the Nile. About this time, agriculture was
developed independently in the Far East, probably
in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was domesticated from the wild
grass teosinte in southern Mexico by 6700 BC.[48] The potato (8000 BC), tomato,[49] pepper (4000
BC), squash (8000 BC) and several varieties of bean (8000 BC onwards) were domesticated in the
New World.

Agriculture was independently developed on the island of New Guinea.[50] Banana cultivation of
Musa acuminata, including hybridization, dates back to 5000 BC, and possibly to 8000 BC, in
Papua New Guinea.[51][52]

Bees were kept for honey in the Middle East around 7000 BC.[53] Archaeological evidence from
various sites on the Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between
6000 and 4500 BC.[54] The Céide Fields, located in Ireland consist of extensive tracts of land
enclosed by stone walls, these walls date to 3500 BC and is the oldest known field systems in
europe.[55][56] The horse was domesticated in the Pontic steppe around 4000 BC In Siberia.[57]
Cannabis was in use in China in Neolithic times and may have been domesticated there; it was in
use both as a fibre for ropemaking and as a medicine in Ancient Egypt by about 2350 BC.[58]

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In northern China, millet was domesticated by early Sino-

Tibetan speakers at around 8000 to 6000 BC, becoming the
main crop of the Yellow River basin by 5500 BC.[59][60] They
were followed by mung, soy and azuki beans.

In southern China, rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River

basin at around 11,500 to 6200 BC, along with the development
of wetland agriculture, by early Austronesian and Hmong-
Clay and wood model of a bull cart Mien-speakers. Other food plants were also harvested,
carrying farm produce in large pots,
including acorns, water chestnuts, and foxnuts.[7][59][62][63]
Mohenjo-daro. The site was
Rice cultivation was later spread to Maritime Southeast Asia by
abandoned in the 19th century BC.
the Austronesian expansion, starting at around 3,500 to 2,000
BC. This migration event also saw the
introduction of cultivated and domesticated
food plants from Taiwan, Maritime Southeast
Asia, and New Guinea into the Pacific Islands
as canoe plants. Contact with Sri Lanka and
Southern India by Austronesian sailors also led
to an exchange of food plants which later
became the origin of the valuable spice trade.
Chronological dispersal of Austronesian peoples [64][65][66] In the 1st millennium AD,
across the Indo-Pacific[61]
Austronesian sailors also settled Madagascar
and the Comoros, bringing Southeast Asian and
South Asian food plants with them to the East African coast, including bananas and rice.[67][68]
Rice was also spread southwards into Mainland Southeast Asia by around 2000 to 1500 BC by the
migrations of the early Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai-speakers.[62]

In the Sahel region of Africa, sorghum was domesticated by 3000 BC in Sudan[69] and pearl millet
by 2500 BC in Mali.[70] Kola nut and coffee were also domesticated in Africa.[71] In New Guinea,
ancient Papuan peoples began practicing agriculture around 7000 BC, domesticating sugarcane
and taro.[72] In the Indus Valley from the eighth millennium BC onwards at Mehrgarh, 2-row and
6-row barley were cultivated, along with einkorn, emmer, and durum wheats, and dates. In the
earliest levels of Merhgarh, wild game such as gazelle, swamp deer, blackbuck, chital, wild ass, wild
goat, wild sheep, boar, and nilgai were all hunted for food. These are successively replaced by
domesticated sheep, goats, and humped zebu cattle by the fifth millennium BC, indicating the
gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture.[73]

Maize and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica; potatoes in South America, and sunflowers
in the Eastern Woodlands of North America.[74]

Civilizations

Sumer

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Sumerian farmers grew the cereals barley and wheat, starting

to live in villages from about 8000 BC. Given the low rainfall of
the region, agriculture relied on the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers. Irrigation canals leading from the rivers permitted the
growth of cereals in large enough quantities to support cities.
The first ploughs appear in pictographs from Uruk around
3000 BC; seed-ploughs that funneled seed into the ploughed
furrow appear on seals around 2300 BC. Vegetable crops Domesticated animals on a
included chickpeas, lentils, peas, beans, onions, garlic, lettuce, Sumerian cylinder seal, 2500 BC
leeks and mustard. They grew fruits including dates, grapes,
apples, melons, and figs. Alongside their farming, Sumerians
also caught fish and hunted fowl and gazelle. The meat of sheep, goats, cows and poultry was eaten,
mainly by the elite. Fish was preserved by drying, salting and smoking.[75][76]

Ancient Egypt
The civilization of Ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its
dependable seasonal flooding. The river's predictability and the fertile
soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great
agricultural wealth. Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice
agriculture on a large scale, starting in the pre-dynastic period from
the end of the Paleolithic into the Neolithic, between around 10,000
BC and 4000 BC.[77] This was made possible with the development of
basin irrigation.[78] Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat
and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus.[77]
Archaeological evidence also suggests that the spread of agriculture in
Egypt was facilitated by farming communities associated with the
playa lakes of the Sahara some 6,500 years ago.[79] Agricultural scenes of
threshing, a grain store,
harvesting with sickles,
Indian Subcontinent digging, tree-cutting and
ploughing from Ancient
Jujube was domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BC.[80] Egypt. Tomb of Nakht, 15th
Barley and wheat cultivation – along with the domestication of cattle, century BC.
primarily sheep and goats – followed in Mehrgarh culture by
8000–6000 BC.[81][82][83] This period also saw the first domestication
of the elephant.[80] Pastoral farming in India included threshing, planting crops in rows – either of
two or of six – and storing grain in granaries.[82][84] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th
millennium BC.[85] By the 5th millennium BC, agricultural communities became widespread in
Kashmir.[82] Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilisation by around 4500 BC.[86] The
size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, leading to more
thoroughly planned settlements which used drainage and sewers.[86] Archeological evidence of an
animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.[87]

Ancient China

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Records from the Warring States, Qin dynasty, and Han

dynasty provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture from the
5th century BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide
granary system and widespread use of sericulture. An
important early Chinese book on agriculture is the Qimin
Yaoshu of AD 535, written by Jia Sixie.[88] Jia's writing style
was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and
allusive writing typical of the time. Jia's book was also very
Ancient rice terraces in Yuanyang
long, with over one hundred thousand written Chinese
County, Yunnan
characters, and it quoted many other Chinese books that were
written previously, but no longer survive.[89] The contents of
Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard
management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content
covering trade and culinary uses for crops.[90] The work and the style in which it was written
proved influential on later Chinese agronomists, such as Wang Zhen and his groundbreaking Nong
Shu of 1313.[89]

For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the

hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC.[91]
Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound,
decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been
done manually. The Chinese also began using the square-pallet
chain pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or
oxen pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels.[92] Although
the chain pump found use in public works of providing water
for urban and palatial pipe systems,[93] it was used largely to A Northern Song era (960–1127 AD)
lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation Chinese watermill for dehusking
grain with a horizontal waterwheel
canals and channels for farmland.[94] By the end of the Han
dynasty in the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been
developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards.[95][96] These slowly spread west,
revolutionizing farming in Northern Europe by the 10th century. (Thomas Glick, however, argues
for a development of the Chinese plough as late as the 9th century, implying its spread east from
similar designs known in Italy by the 7th century.)[97]

Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the
wild rice Oryza rufipogon,[7] in the Pearl River valley region of China. Rice cultivation then spread
to South and Southeast Asia.[98]

Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world

The major cereal crops of the ancient Mediterranean region were wheat, emmer, and barley, while
common vegetables included peas, beans, fava, and olives, dairy products came mostly from sheep
and goats, and meat, which was consumed on rare occasion for most people, usually consisted of
pork, beef, and lamb.[99] Agriculture in ancient Greece was hindered by the topography of
mainland Greece that only allowed for roughly 10% of the land to be cultivated properly,

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necessitating the specialised exportation of oil and wine and

importation of grains from Thrace (centered in what is now
Bulgaria) and the Greek colonies of Pontic Greeks near the
Black Sea. During the Hellenistic period, the Ptolemaic Empire
controlled Egypt, Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cyrenaica, major
grain-producing regions that mainland Greeks depended on for
subsistence, while the Ptolemaic grain market also played a An ear of barley, symbol of wealth in
critical role in the rise of the Roman Republic. In the Seleucid the city of Metapontum in Magna
Graecia (i.e. the Greek colonies of
Empire, Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of
southern Italy), stamped stater,
wheat, while nomadic animal husbandry was also practiced in
c. 530–510 BC
other parts.[100]

Roman Empire
In the Greco-Roman world of Classical antiquity, Roman
agriculture was built on techniques originally pioneered by the
Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a
specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and
export. The Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial
economic system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the
Middle Ages. The farm sizes in Rome can be divided into three
categories. Small farms were from 18 to 88 iugera (one
iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were Roman harvesting machine, a
from 80 to 500 iugera (singular iugerum). Large estates (called vallus, from a Roman wall in
latifundia) were over 500 iugera. The Romans had four systems Belgium, which was then part of the
of farm management: direct work by the owner and his family; province of Gallia Belgica
slaves doing work under the supervision of slave managers;
tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a
tenant divide up a farm's produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.[101]

The Americas
Agricultural history took a different path from the Old World as the Americas lacked large-seeded,
easily domesticated grains (such as wheat and barley) and large domestic animals that could be
used for agricultural labor. Rather than the practice which developed in the Old World of sowing a
field with a single crop, pre-historic American agriculture usually consisted of cultivating many
crops close to each other utilizing only hand labor. Moreover, agricultural areas in the Americas
lacked the uniformity of the east–west area of Mediterranean and semi-arid climates in southern
Europe and southwestern Asia, but instead had a north–south pattern with a variety of different
climatic zones in close proximity to each other. This fostered the domestication of many different
plants.[102]

At the time of first contact between the Europeans and the Americans, the Europeans practiced
"extensive agriculture, based on the plough and draught animals," with tenants under landlords,
but also forced labor or slavery, while the Indigenous peoples of the Americas practiced "intensive

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agriculture, based on human labour."[103] Europeans wanted control of land for the grazing of their
livestock and property rights for the control of production. Though they were impressed with the
productivity of traditional farming techniques, they saw no connection to their system and were
dismissive of Native American practices as "gardening" rather than a commercializable enterprise.
[103][104] Due to several thousand years of selective breeding, maize, the hemisphere's most

important crop, was more productive than Old World grain crops. Maize produced two and one-
half times more calories per acre than wheat and barley.[105]

South America
The earliest known areas of possible agriculture in the
Americas dating to about 9000 BC are in Colombia, near
present-day Pereira, and by the Las Vegas culture in
Ecuador on the Santa Elena peninsula. The plants
cultivated (or manipulated by humans) were lerén
(Calathea allouia), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea),
squash (Cucurbita species), and bottle gourd (Lagenaria
siceraria). All are plants of humid climates and their
existence at this time on the semi-arid Santa Elena Agriculture terraces were (and are)
peninsula may be evidence that they were transplanted common in the austere, high-elevation
there from more humid environments.[106][107] In another environment of the Andes.
study, this area of South America was identified as one of
the four oldest places of origin for agriculture, along with
the Fertile Crescent, China, and Mesoamerica, dated between 6200 BC
and 10000 BC.[108] (To facilitate comprehension by readers,
Radiocarbon calibrated BP dates in the above sources have been
converted to BC.)

In the Andes region, with civilizations including the Inca, the major
crop was the potato, domesticated between 8000 and 5000 BC.[109]
[110][111] Coca, still a major crop to this day, was domesticated in the

Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple.[72] Cotton

was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC.[112][113] Animals were also
domesticated, including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs.[114] The
people of the Inca Empire of South America grew large surpluses of Inca farmers using a
food which they stored in buildings called Qullqas.[115] human-powered foot plough

The most important crop domesticated in the Amazon Basin and

tropical lowlands was probably cassava, (Manihot esculenta), which was domesticated before 7000
BCE, likely in the Rondônia and Mato Grosso states of Brazil.[116] The Guaitecas Archipelago in
modern Chile was the southern limit of Pre-Hispanic agriculture near 44° South latitude,[117] as
noted by the mention of the cultivation of Chiloé potatoes by a Spanish expedition in 1557.[118]

Mesoamerica
In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of

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modern maize, about 7,000 BC. It gradually spread across

North America and to South America and was the most
important crop of Native Americans at the time of European
exploration.[119] Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds
of varieties of locally domesticated squash and beans, while
cocoa, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop.[72]
The turkey, one of the most important poultry birds, was
probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.[120] The creation of maize from teosinte
(top), maize-teosinte hybrid
In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an (middle), to maize (bottom)
agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake Texcoco
was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food
needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems,
formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands, also
known as "floating gardens". The Mayas between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal and
raised field systems to farm swampland on the Yucatán Peninsula.[121][122]

North America
The indigenous people of the Eastern U.S. domesticated
numerous crops. Sunflowers, tobacco,[123] varieties of squash and
Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including marsh
elder and little barley.[124][125] Wild foods including wild rice and
maple sugar were harvested.[126] The domesticated strawberry is a
hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by Wichita village of grass houses
breeding in Europe and North America.[127] Two major crops, surrounded by maize fields in the
pecans and Concord grapes, were used extensively in prehistoric United States.
times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th
century.[128][129]

The indigenous people in what is now California and the Pacific Northwest practiced various forms
of forest gardening and fire-stick farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and
wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The natives
controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology which prevented larger,
catastrophic fires and sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild"
permaculture.[130][131][132][133]

A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. Three
crops that complemented each other were planted together: winter squash, maize (corn), and
climbing beans (typically tepary beans or common beans). The maize provides a structure for the
beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the soil that the
other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight, helping prevent
the establishment of weeds. The squash leaves also act as a "living mulch".[134][135]

Sub-Saharan Africa

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In the Sahel region, civilizations such as the Mali and Songhai

empires cultivated sorghum and pearl millet, which were
domesticated between 3000 and 2500 BC.[69][70] The donkey
was domesticated in Nubia at approximately 5000 BC.[136][137]
Archaeological evidence suggests that Sanga cattle may have
been independently domesticated in East Africa at around 1600
BC.[138]

In the tropical region of West Africa, crops such as black-eyed Yam festival in the Ashanti Empire.
Thomas E. Bowdich – 1817.
peas, Sea Island red peas, yams, kola nuts, Jollof rice and
kokoro were domesticated between 3000 and 1000 BC.[71] The
coastal region of West Africa is often referred to as the "Yam Belt", due to its high production of
yams.[139] The guineafowl is a poultry bird that was domesticated in West Africa, and while the
time of the guineafowl's domestication remains unclear, there is evidence that it was present in
Ancient Greece during the 5th century BC.[140]

Several species of coffee were also domesticated throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, with Coffea
arabica originating in Ethiopia and serving as the main production of modern-day coffee since the
late 15th century.[141]

Oceania

Australia
Indigenous Australians were predominately nomadic hunter-
gatherers. Due to the policy of terra nullius, Aboriginals were
regarded as not having been capable of sustained agriculture.
However, the current consensus is that various agricultural methods
were employed by the indigenous people.[24][142][25]

In two regions of Central Australia, the central west coast and eastern
central Australia, forms of agriculture were practiced. People living in
permanent settlements of over 200 residents sowed or planted on a
large scale and stored the harvested food. The Nhanda and Amangu of
Native millet, Panicum
the central west coast grew yams (Dioscorea hastifolia), while various
decompositum, was planted
groups in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and and harvested by
harvested bush onions (yaua – Cyperus bulbosus), native millet Indigenous Australians in
(cooly, tindil – Panicum decompositum) and a sporocarp, ngardu eastern central Australia.
(Marsilea drummondii).[31]: 281–304 [28]

Indigenous Australians used systematic burning, fire-stick farming, to enhance natural

productivity.[143] In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established
that the Gunditjmara and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping
systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years.[144] The archaeologist Harry Lourandos suggested in
the 1980s that there was evidence of 'intensification' in progress across Australia,[145] a process

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that appeared to have continued through the preceding 5,000 years. These concepts led the
historian Bill Gammage to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape.[31]

Torres Strait Islanders are now known to have planted bananas.[25]

Pacific Islands
In New Guinea, archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture independently emerged around
7,000 years ago with the domestication of crops such as bananas and taro. Pigs and chickens were
imported to New Guinea, which were later innovated by other Pacific Island nations, such as those
in Polynesia.[146]

Middle Ages and Early Modern period

Europe
The Middle Ages saw further improvements in agriculture. Monasteries spread throughout Europe
and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry.
The manorial system allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers, in the form of
peasants or serfs.[147] During the medieval period, the Arab world was critical in the exchange of
crops and technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting
numerous crops, they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the
beginnings of the plantation system of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for intensive
cultivation.[148]

By AD 900, developments in iron smelting allowed for

increased production in Europe, leading to developments in the
production of agricultural implements such as ploughs, hand
tools and horse shoes. The carruca heavy plough improved on
the earlier scratch plough, with the adoption of the Chinese
mouldboard plough to turn over the heavy, wet soils of
northern Europe. This led to the clearing of northern European
forests and an increase in agricultural production, which in
turn led to an increase in population.[149][150] At the same time,
some farmers in Europe moved from a two field crop rotation
Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from
to a three-field crop rotation in which one field of three was left
a manuscript of Pietro de Crescenzi
fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and
nutrition, as the change in rotations permitted nitrogen-fixing
legumes such as peas, lentils and beans.[151] Improved horse harnesses and the whippletree further
improved cultivation.[152]

Watermills were introduced by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along
with windmills, and used to grind grains into flour, to cut wood and to process flax and wool.[153]

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Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the
13th century onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen-fixation fertilizing
properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th
century.[154] Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a
ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the
technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal
circumstances,[155][156] and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible
weather of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not be met.[157][158]

Arab world
From the 8th century to the 14th century, the Islamic world
underwent a transformation in agricultural practice, described by the
historian Andrew Watson as the Arab agricultural revolution.[159] This
transformation was driven by a number of factors including the
diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the
spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural-
economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The
shift in agricultural practice changed the economy, population
distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production, population
levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking, diet,
and clothing across the Islamic world. Muslim traders covered much
of the Old World, and trade enabled the diffusion of many crops,
plants and farming techniques across the region, as well as the Noria wheels to lift water for
adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic irrigation and household
world.[159] This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of use were among the
Al-Andalus, along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine. technologies introduced to
Sugar cane, rice, and cotton were among the major crops transferred, Europe via Al-Andalus in
the medieval Islamic world.
along with citrus and other fruit trees, nut trees, vegetables such as
aubergine, spinach and chard, and the use of imported spices such as
cumin, coriander, nutmeg and cinnamon. Intensive irrigation, crop rotation, and agricultural
manuals were widely adopted. Irrigation, partly based on Roman technology, made use of noria
water wheels, water mills, dams and reservoirs.[159][160][161]

Columbian exchange
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize,
potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc were the key crops that spread from the New World to the
Old, while varieties of wheat, barley, rice and turnips traveled from the Old World to the New.
There had been few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being
completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions
across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many
cultures in the Early Modern period.[162]

Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th

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century,[163] becoming staple foods, replacing native African

crops.[164] After its introduction from South America to Spain
in the late 1500s, the potato became a staple crop throughout
Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed farmers to
produce more food, and initially added variety to the European
diet. The increased supply of food reduced disease, increased
births and reduced mortality, causing a population boom
throughout the British Empire, the US and Europe.[165] The
introduction of the potato also brought about the first intensive The Harvesters. Pieter Bruegel –
use of fertilizer, in the form of guano imported to Europe from 1565
Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of an arsenic
compound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the
adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain had caused repetitive regional and
national famines when the crops failed, including 17 major famines in England between 1523 and
1623. The resulting dependence on the potato however caused the European Potato Failure, a
disastrous crop failure from disease that resulted in widespread famine and the death of over one
million people in Ireland alone.[166]

Modern agriculture

British agricultural revolution

Between the 17th century and the mid-19th century, Britain saw a
large increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New
agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop
rotation to maintain soil nutrients, and selective breeding enabled an
unprecedented population growth to 5.7 million in 1750, freeing up a
significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the
Industrial Revolution. The productivity of wheat went up from 19 US
bushels (670 L; 150 US dry gal; 150 imp gal) per acre in 1720 to
around 30 US bushels (1,100 L; 240 US dry gal; 230 imp gal) by 1840,
marking a major turning point in history.[167]
The agriculturalist Charles Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in
'Turnip' Townshend
England in the mid-17th century, from writers such as Samuel Hartlib,
introduced four-field crop
rotation and the cultivation
Walter Blith and others.[168] The main problem in sustaining
of turnips. agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients,
most importantly nitrogen levels, in the soil. To allow the soil to
regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and, in some places,
crop rotation was used. The Dutch four-field rotation system was popularised by the British
agriculturist Charles Townshend in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and
clover) opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The use
of clover was especially important as the legume roots replenished soil nitrates.[169] The

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mechanisation and rationalisation of agriculture was another

important factor. Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced
selective breeding and initiated a process of inbreeding to maximise
desirable traits from the mid 18th century, such as the New Leicester
sheep. Machines were invented to improve the efficiency of various
agricultural operation, such as Jethro Tull's seed drill of 1701 that
mechanised seeding at the correct depth and spacing and Andrew
Meikle's threshing machine of 1784. Ploughs were steadily improved,
from Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham iron plough in 1730[170] to James
Small's improved "Scots Plough" metal in 1763. In 1789 Ransomes,
Sims & Jefferies was producing 86 plough models for different
soils.[171] Powered farm machinery began with Richard Trevithick's
stationary steam engine, used to drive a threshing machine, in
1812.[172] Mechanisation spread to additional farm uses throughout
Jethro Tull's seed drill,
the 19th century. The first petrol-driven tractor was built in America
invented in 1701
by John Froelich in 1892.[173]

John Bennet Lawes began the scientific investigation of fertilization at the Rothamsted
Experimental Station in 1843. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on
crop yield and founded one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842.
Fertilizer, in the shape of sodium nitrate deposits in Chile, was imported to Britain by John
Thomas North as well as guano (birds droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer
production was the obtaining of phosphate from the dissolution of coprolites in sulphuric acid.[174]

20th century
Dan Albone constructed the first commercially successful
gasoline-powered general-purpose tractor in 1901, and the
1923 International Harvester Farmall tractor marked a major
point in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses)
with machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechanical
harvesters (combines), planters, transplanters and other
equipment have been developed, further revolutionizing
agriculture.[175] These inventions allowed farming tasks to be
Early 20th-century image of a tractor done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible, leading
ploughing an alfalfa field
modern farms to output much greater volumes of high-quality
produce per land unit.[176]

The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough
and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist
Fritz Haber. In 1910 Carl Bosch, while working for German chemical company BASF, successfully
commercialized the process and secured further patents. In the years after World War II, the use of
synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population.[178]

Collective farming was widely practiced in the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc countries, China, and

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Vietnam, starting in the 1930s in the Soviet Union; one result was the Soviet
famine of 1932–33.[179] Another consequence occurred during the Great
Leap Forward in China initiated by Mao Tse-tung that resulted in the Great
Chinese Famine from 1959 to 1961 and ultimately reshaped the thinking of
Deng Xiaoping.

In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased

productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for
labour, water pollution,[180] and farm subsidies.[181] Other applications of
scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation,
[182][183] hydroponics,[184] and the development of economically viable

biofuels such as ethanol.[185]

Bt-toxins in
The number of people involved in farming in industrial countries fell genetically modified
radically from 24 percent of the American population to 1.5 percent in 2002. peanut leaves
The number of farms also decreased, and their ownership became more (bottom) protect from
concentrated; for example, between 1967 and 2002, one million pig farms in damage by corn
borers (top).[177]
America consolidated into 114,000, with 80 percent of the production on
factory farms.[186] According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the
world's poultry, 43 percent of beef, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.[186][187]

Famines however continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of
climatic events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least
ten famines between the 1920s and the 1990s.[188]

Green Revolution
The Green Revolution was a series of research, development,
and technology transfer initiatives between the 1940s and the
late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the
world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by
Norman Borlaug and credited with saving over a billion people
from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding
varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure,
modernization of management techniques, distribution of
hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to
Norman Borlaug, father of the Green farmers.[189]
Revolution of the 1970s, is credited
with saving over a billion people Synthetic nitrogen, mined rock phosphate, pesticides, and
worldwide from starvation. mechanization have greatly increased crop yields in the early
20th century. Increased supply of grains has also led to cheaper
livestock. Further, global yield increases were experienced later
in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and
corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the
technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing
world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing

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population. Still, technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a
food surplus.[190]

Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield leveled off. The
genetic "yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased
since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years". It takes only a
decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides
within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation.[191]

Organic agriculture
For most of its history, agriculture has been organic, without
synthetic fertilisers or pesticides, and without GMOs. With the
advent of chemical agriculture, Rudolf Steiner called for
farming without synthetic pesticides, and his Agriculture
Course of 1924 laid the foundation for biodynamic
agriculture.[192] Lord Northbourne developed these ideas and
An organic farmer, California, 1972
presented his manifesto of organic farming in 1940. This
became a worldwide movement, and organic farming is now
practiced in many countries.[193]

See also
▪ Agricultural expansion
▪ Effects of climate change on agriculture
▪ Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
▪ Green Revolution
▪ Historical hydroculture
▪ History of cotton
▪ History of fertilizer
▪ History of gardening
▪ History of sugar
▪ History of the potato
▪ Rural history

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Further reading

Surveys
▪ Civitello, Linda. Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People (Wiley, 2011) excerpt (http
s://www.amazon.com/Cuisine-Culture-History-Food-People/dp/0470403713/)
▪ Federico, Giovanni. Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800–2000
(Princeton UP, 2005) highly quantitative
▪ Grew, Raymond. Food in Global History (https://www.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Food%
20in%20Global%20History) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193653/https://ww
w.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Food%20in%20Global%20History) 2011-06-04 at the
Wayback Machine (1999)
▪ Heiser, Charles B. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food (W.H. Freeman, 1990)
▪ Herr, Richard, ed. Themes in Rural History of the Western World (Iowa State UP, 1993)
▪ Kiple, Kenneth F., and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds. The Cambridge world history of food (2
vol Cambridge University Press, 2000) online (http://ktp.isam.org.tr/pdficn/098209ic.pdf).

▪ Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart. A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic
Age to the Current Crisis (Monthly Review Press, 2006) Marxist perspective.
▪ Pilcher, Jeffrey M. Food in world history (Routledge, 2023).

▪ Prentice, E. Parmalee. Hunger and History: The Influence of Hunger on Human History (https://
archive.today/20121214194357/http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;
q1=history;rgn=title;view=toc;idno=2727319) (Harper, 1939)
▪ Tauger, Mark. Agriculture in World History (Routledge, 2008)
▪ Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne. A history of food ( John Wiley & Sons, 2009), 800+ pp. online
(https://books.google.com/books?id=QmevzbQ0AsIC&dq=+%27%27Food+in+world+history%2
7%27+&pg=PR13)

▪ Whayne, Jeannie. The Oxford Handbook of Agricultural History (2024) excerpt (https://www.am
azon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Agricultural-History-Handbooks/dp/0190924160/ref=sr_1_1?Adv-
Srch-Books-Submit.x=0&Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.y=0&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.4Ku5FnV7gZsuez_x
1GMZIw.f4LJlHrlC8wB8-n7bXNFKlg4FEPQuUnW2B9hb8KY6O0&dib_tag=se&qid=171271151
7&refinements=p_27%3AWhayne%2Cp_28%3AOxford&s=books&sr=1-1&unfiltered=1&asin=0
190924160&revisionId=&format=4&depth=1); covers historiographical traditions within
geographic regions across the world.

Premodern
▪ Bakels, C.C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000
(Springer, 2009)
▪ Barker, Graeme, and Candice Goucher, eds. The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World
with Agriculture, 12000 BCE–500 CE. (Cambridge UP, 2015)

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History of agriculture - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture

▪ Bowman, Alan K. and Rogan, Eugene, eds. Agriculture in Egypt: From Pharaonic to Modern
Times (Oxford UP, 1999)
▪ Cohen, M.N. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (Yale
UP, 1977)
▪ Crummey, Donald and Stewart, C.C., eds. Modes of Production in Africa: The Precolonial Era
(Sagem 1981)
▪ Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel (W.W. Norton, 1997)
▪ Duncan-Jones, Richard. Economy of the Roman Empire (Cambridge UP, 1982)
▪ Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (Oxford UP, 3rd ed. 2013)
▪ Harris, D.R., ed. The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, (Routledge,
1996)
▪ Isager, Signe and Jens Erik Skydsgaard. Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction
(Routledge, 1995)
▪ Lee, Mabel Ping-hua. The economic history of china: with special reference to agriculture (http
s://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.227) (Columbia University, 1921)
▪ Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (Edinburgh UP, 1970)
▪ Oka, H-I. Origin of Cultivated Rice (Elsevier, 2012)
▪ Price, T.D. and A. Gebauer, eds. Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the
Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture (1995)
▪ Srivastava, Vinod Chandra, ed. History of Agriculture in India (5 vols., 2014). From 2000 BC to
present.
▪ Stevens, C.E. "Agriculture and Rural Life in the Later Roman Empire" in Cambridge Economic
History of Europe, Vol. I, The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages (Cambridge UP, 1971)
▪ Teall, John L. (1959). "The grain supply of the Byzantine Empire, 330–1025". Dumbarton Oaks
Papers. 13: 87–139. doi:10.2307/1291130 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291130).
JSTOR 1291130 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291130).
▪ Yasuda, Y., ed. The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture (SAB, 2003)

Modern
▪ Collingham, E.M. The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (Penguin, 2012)
▪ Kerridge, Erik. "The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered." Agricultural History ( 1969) 43:4,
463–475. in JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4617724), in Britain, 1750–1850
▪ Ludden, David, ed. New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia (https://
www.questia.com/library/book/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193046/https://www.questia.com/library/book/an-agraria
n-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp) 2011-06-04 at the Wayback Machine (Cambridge,
1999).
▪ McNeill, William H. (1999). "How the Potato Changed the World's History". Social Research. 66
(1): 67–83. JSTOR 40971302 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971302). PMID 22416329 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22416329).
▪ Manning, Richard (1 February 2005). Against the Grain: How Agriculture Has Hijacked
Civilization (https://books.google.com/books?id=woam4BS6TaYC). Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
ISBN 978-1-4668-2342-6.

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History of agriculture - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture

▪ Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (Penguin, 1986)
▪ Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (Heinemann, 2008) a standard
scholarly history
▪ Salaman, Redcliffe N. The History and Social Influence of the Potato (Cambridge, 2010)

Europe
▪ Ambrosoli, Mauro. The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe,
1350–1850 (Cambridge UP, 1997)
▪ Brassley, Paul, Yves Segers, and Leen Van Molle, eds. War, Agriculture, and Food: Rural
Europe from the 1930s to the 1950s (Routledge, 2012)
▪ Brown, Jonathan. Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870–1947 (Manchester UP,
1987)
▪ Clark, Gregory (2007). "The long march of history: Farm wages, population, and economic
growth, England 1209–1869" (https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/31320/1/50512257X.p
df) (PDF). Economic History Review. 60 (1): 97–135. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2006.00358.x (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2006.00358.x). S2CID 154325999 (https://api.semanticsc
holar.org/CorpusID:154325999).
▪ Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of
recent agrarian history (Springer, 1965)
▪ Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/
t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579) (Crofts, 1925)
▪ Harvey, Nigel. The Industrial Archaeology of Farming in England and Wales (HarperCollins,
1980)
▪ Hoffman, Philip T. Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450–1815
(Princeton UP, 1996)
▪ Hoyle, Richard W., ed. The Farmer in England, 1650–1980 (Routledge, 2013) online review (htt
p://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/130/544/757.short)
▪ Kussmaul, Ann. A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538–1840 (Cambridge
University Press, 1990)
▪ Langdon, John. Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in
English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge UP, 1986)
▪ McNeill, William H. (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". Journal of Modern
History. 21 (3): 218–221. doi:10.1086/237272 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F237272).
JSTOR 1876068 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876068). S2CID 145099646 (https://api.semanti
cscholar.org/CorpusID:145099646).
▪ Moon, David. The Plough that Broke the Steppes: Agriculture and Environment on Russia's
Grasslands, 1700–1914 (Oxford UP, 2014)
▪ Slicher van Bath, B.H. The Agrarian History of Western Europe, AD 500–1850 (Edward Arnold,
reprint, 1963)
▪ Thirsk, Joan, et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales (Cambridge University Press, 8
vols., 1978)
▪ Williamson, Tom. Transformation of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700–1870
(Liverpool UP, 2002)

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History of agriculture - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture

▪ Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard, eds. Food and war in
twentieth century Europe (Ashgate, 2011)

North America
▪ Bidwell, Percy Wells, and John I. Falconer. History of agriculture in the northern United States,
1620-1860 (1925), massive scholarly history. online (https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul0
0bidw/page/n8/mode/2up)
▪ Cochrane, Willard W. The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis
(University of Minnesota P, 1993)
▪ Fite, Gilbert C. (1983). "American Farmers: The New Minority" (https://doi.org/10.17077%2F00
03-4827.8923). Annals of Iowa. 46 (7): 553–555. doi:10.17077/0003-4827.8923 (https://doi.org/
10.17077%2F0003-4827.8923).
▪ Gras, Norman. A History of Agriculture in Europe and America (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi
/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579), (F.S. Crofts, 1925)
▪ Gray, L.C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (P. Smith, 1933) Volume
I online (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book%20a
uthor;view=toc;idno=2944804_1944); Volume 2 (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?
c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book%20author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1945)
▪ Hart, John Fraser. The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. (University of Virginia Press,
2004)
▪ Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History (Purdue UP, 2002)
▪ Mundlak, Yair (2005). "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American
Agriculture". Journal of Economic Literature. 43 (4): 989–1024. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.582.8537 (htt
ps://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.582.8537).
doi:10.1257/002205105775362005 (https://doi.org/10.1257%2F002205105775362005).
▪ O'Sullivan, Robin. American Organic: A Cultural History of Farming, Gardening, Shopping, and
Eating (University Press of Kansas, 2015)
▪ Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. Readings in the history of American agriculture (University of
Illinois Press, 1960)
▪ Robert, Joseph C. The story of tobacco in America (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-i
dx?c=chla;idno=3136323) (University of North Carolina Press, 1949)
▪ Russell, Howard. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England (UP of
New England, 1981)
▪ Russell, Peter A. How Agriculture Made Canada: Farming in the Nineteenth Century (McGill-
Queen's UP, 2012)
▪ Schafer, Joseph. The social history of American agriculture (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/t
ext/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2712484) (Da Capo, 1970 [1936])
▪ Schlebecker John T. Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607–1972 (Iowa State
UP, 1972)
▪ Weeden, William Babcock. Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789 (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1) (Houghton, Mifflin, 1891)

External links

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History of agriculture - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture

▪ "The Core Historical Literature of Agriculture" (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/) from Cornell

University Library

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&oldid=1257211398"

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