The Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural

Societies[edit]
Early nomadic hunter-gatherers lived off that land and had a minimal effect on the
environment around them. Around 10,000 years ago people started to settle down and
developed agriculture possibly in response to a warming climate. The origin of
agriculture is often referred to as the Neolithic Revolution. Keep in mind that different
societies domesticated plants and animals, and consequently agriculture, independently
i.e. Mesopotamia, Nile River Valley, Ancient China. These farmers had to overcome
obstacles such as dry land with technologies like large scale irrigation. These large
agricultural byproducts, irrigation, had a large impact on the environment. Pastoralism,
the branch of agriculture concerned with raising livestock, developed in Afro-Eurasian
grassland, negatively affecting the environment when pastures were overgrazed.
The switch to agriculture created a much more reliable and abundant food source which
allowed populations to soar. This lead to diversification of labor which meant that food
requirements could be on the backs of certain people and new classes like artisans or
warriors could develop. These people developed technologies like pottery, metallurgy or
plows.

The Development and Interactions of Early

Societies[edit]
About 5,000 years ago the first urban societies developed laying the foundations for the
first civilizations. Nearly all civilizations share the same few features- they have
abundant food surpluses, contained cities, political bureaucracies, armies, defined
religious and social hierarchies and long distance trading.

Civilization makes its debut (8000 - 3000 BC)[edit]

Neolithic means "new stone", even though agriculture was the crowning achievement of
the period. Civilizations started out small. Agriculture at first tended to tie only small
groups together. These groups also all settled along rivers, important as a reliable and
predictable source of water. As time passed, families usually worked the same plot of
land over successive generations, leading to the concept of ownership.
The earliest examples of settlements date to about 12000 BC to 9500 BC, and seem to
predate agriculture. These settlements, termed Natufian, suggest cultivation of Rye. The
first such excavation was at Tell Es-Sultan, just outside of Jericho.
Ancient mortars and grinding tools unearthed in a large mound in the Zagros Mountains
of Iran reveal that people were grinding wheat and barley about 11,000 years ago.
Grass pea, wild wheat, wild barley, and lentils were found throughout the site, including
some of the earliest known samples. This was much further east than most sites known
for early agriculture. These were found with stone figurines in levels where earthen
buildings had been flattened and destroyed, as though civilization had kept building atop
their own ruins, or re-purposing land, as needs changed.
Evidence in the middle east shows pottery styles moving throughout the Arabian
peninsula, especially during the late Halaf-Ubaid period, where painted pottery and flint
arrowheads have been discovered in great number. Pottery decorations are used to
indicate trade and cultural contact, or widespread immigration during this period. The
excavations on Dalma Island in the Arabian gulf shows the first date stones (pits from a
fruit known to be from a widely cultivated palm in the middle east) known from a human
settlement, approximately 5000 BC and may be the precursor to agriculture.
Interestingly, at this same site, Bones were found from long-tail tuna, dolphin, dugong
and turtle, gazelle, needle-fish, grouper, sea bream, emperor, and jack. Some of the
groupers found would have been nearly a meter long, indicating considerable fishing
skill.
As agriculture became more and more widespread, people began to accumulate
surpluses of food, meaning that a single family grew more than it consumed. At the
same time, the increasing tendency to remain in a single location put pressure on
groups to protect themselves from other still nomadic peoples. In addition, when
peoples stayed rooted near one another, cultural and social bonds began to form.
People began to do things in similar ways (it is a property of human nature to want to
belong). Because of these factors, especially a surplus of food, labor began to
specialize and branch out away from just farming. When everyone did not have to farm
all of the time to live, people began to become artisans and craftsmen. Such
developments also brought trade, and a class of merchants. Merchants often traveled
along the same routes. Also, within individual villages, artisans contributed to the
homogenization of culture. Merchants caused further interaction and exchange, known
as Cultural Diffusion. Human religion also began to evolve. Rising above the past
nomadic "religions", cultures developed a unified polytheism within their ranks, which
led them to further bond themselves together. Priests became a class as well. As you
can see, specialization of labor was a direct offshoot of an agricultural surplus.
The new societies had one problem, however: now that the labor was specialized,
agricultural surpluses had to happen every year without a break if the new culture was
to remain intact. In stepped governments to fill the void. Government most likely began
with religious leaders, such as priests, exercising control. Governments also provided
roads for their citizens and merchants. They further cemented the bonds between
people within villages and regions, unifying culture to the point that it might be called
a civilization. However, governments needed a way to pay the laborers who built and
worked on their projects. Taxes thus first, perhaps unfortunately, appeared on the
scene, usually in the form of a tax-in-kind (taking a portion of a product, such as grain
from a farmer, the use of money was yet to appear). Suddenly, all the parts of an
ancient civilization appeared. Governments soon fell into a type of system known as a
monarchy, or rule by hereditary leaders (such as kings or princes). The reason for this
was two-fold: monarchy came naturally because it was like the family, with the parents
on top and the children beneath; eventually the parents grew old and the children
became adults and parents in their own right and the cycle continued. Secondly,
monarchy was predictable and reliable. In an age without mass communication or
speedy travel, it was important for any void left by the death of a leader to be filled
quickly, without fuss and strife. Most of the new governments were, however, small city-
states, or independent countries composed of a city and some surrounding farmland.
This was the beginnings of the world's oldest civilizations in Ancient Mesopotamia. An
insight into the spread of farming:
The spread of farming and early domestication of plants and animals was extensive, as
the practices expanded from three specific regions (7000 BC) of the world to various
other regions, spreading to five continents by the year 3000 BC. Agriculture first started
in the Middle East around 10,000-9500 BC. By 7000 BC it had spread to the western
part of the Indian subcontinent, and by 6000 BC, agriculture spread to Egypt. By 5000
BC, it had reached China, and around 2700 BC, corn was being farmed in
Mesoamerica. The Middle East, covering the areas of modern day Turkey, Iraq,
Palestine, and Israel, had domesticated cattle and pigs. They were also successful in
the domestication and farming of several crops and plants like wheat, barley, rye,
onions, peas, and grapes. The Mesoamericans had begun farming corn, beans,
avocados, squash, pumpkins, and cotton. They had not domesticated any animals. In
the Andes region (Peru), potatoes, tomatoes, lima beans, peanuts, and sweet potatoes
were farmed. The Andeans had also domesticated the llama. The spread in the Middle
East had the greatest expansion in terms of area. Sheep were domesticated in the
greater Middle East; goats were originally domesticated in Central Europe, olives in the
Mediterranean. Cotton was first farmed in the Indian sub-continent, and hemp, camels,
and buckwheat were originally domesticated west of the Caspian Sea. Furthermore, in
the Americas, the Mesoamericans expanded north and south, spreading farming and
herding to Central and slightly further into North America. From there the practice
extended to South America. The Andeans had minimum spread, expanding farming and
herding to regions immediately around theirs. The farming and domestication of plants
and animals, by 3000 BC, had been independently innovated in Southeast Asia, China,
and North-central Africa. In Southeast Asia, rice, citrus, and chickens were originally
farmed and domesticated. The farming of millet and soybean was practiced in China.
Sorghum and coffee were farmed originally in North-central Africa. In a brief period of
4000 years, humans had farmed and domesticated over thirty plants and animals. The
spread of farming and herding had reached over five continents, and ten regions of the
world.

River Valley Civilizations[edit]

The first civilizations came about in river valleys which provided a constant source of
water for crops. Irrigation works were often needed which required leadership perhaps
leading to the creation of the first states. In addition rivers facilitated travel helping a
common culture spread along its banks. The four river valley civilizations were the
worlds first and each shared many common characteristics. The four river valley
civilizations: China(along the Yellow River aka. Huáng Hé) Indus Valley(Along the Indus
River) Mesopotamia (Along the Tigris and Euphrates river) Egypt(Along the Nile)
Each Civilization had:

 A form of writing
 Cities
 Agriculture and surplus of food
 A form of government(usually claiming divine right)
 A polytheistic or henotheistic religion
 Art and Architecture
Whereas historians argue on what exactly civilization is, writing, cities, agriculture,
government, religion and art are usually on the list.

Ancient Mesopotamia[edit]
While the earliest agricultural tools are known from beneath Jericho, approximately
7000 BC, further signs of civilization and tool making quickly cropped up across the
Zagros mountain range.
The Halaf civilization (estimates vary but generally run either from 6100-5100 BC or
5100-4100 BC) is known from a number of different locations, primarily in Syria where
pottery has been found. The different types of designs found in specific locations
especially Tel Sabi Abyad) seem to indicate a significant trade, or possibly migration
from the surrounding mountains. During the Halaf period, a variety of grains and herbs
(including barley, emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, free threshing wheat,oats, hawthorne,
crosswort flax, lentils, legumes, cornelian cherry, clover, sweet clover, fleawort, field
peas, linseed, wild olive, pistachio, grape, fig and hawthorn were commonly found at the
archaeological site at Ras Shamra in northwest Syria.
Halaf pottery has been found as far as the earliest cities in Sumer.
Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) was home to the world's first truly urban cultures --
societies featuring permanent cities whose populations were fed from the surrounding
countryside, but themselves engaged in other activities besides agriculture, such as
trade, specialist crafts and record-keeping. From 4000 to 3000 BC, the Sumerians
established some of the first known cities in the then-moist land of Sumer (modern
southern Iraq, called Ki-en-gir by the Sumerians). It is not currently known with certainty
where the Sumerians came from, but immigration from elsewhere seems probable; their
myths suggested a seafaring background. From an anthropological viewpoint
Sumerians belonged to the Caucasian, Mediterranean, Balkan European race.
Historians speculate that the first Sumerian settlers may have been driven by
overpopulation or conflict, as Sumeria was superficially inhospitable to stone-age man;
it lacked the stones needed in Neolithic life to make most tools. However, the early
Sumerians discovered that mud could be dried and used as a building material, and the
soil was rich in clay to use to make farm tools. Once the Sumerians began to plant, they
realized that Sumeria's rich mud yielded far greater quantities of food than they could
consume. This surplus resulted in some of the first known exports in history.
Situated near the head of the Persian Gulf, Sumer was well-positioned for sea trade, as
well as having land connections to neighbouring Anatolia and Elam (modern southern
Iran), both of which harboured simpler cultures. The early Sumerians began to trade
their surplus grain with their neighbours for the items that Sumeria did not have, such as
livestock and stone. This influx of goods (and therefore merchants) gave rise to some of
the first true cities. Sumerian cities spoke the same language and worshipped the same
gods. However, they were not one, with whole cities being burnt to the ground in their
inter-city warfare. A typical run-of-the-mill city-state consisted of the city proper and
much of the country-side around it. Early Sumerian government was strictly theocratic,
and governed everything from sacrifices to taxation to irrigation. Therefore, the central
point of each city was its great platform/ziggurat in the centre. These ziggurats became
the main form of the later Babylonian monument architecture in the same region.
Writing in its strictest sense was first invented and used by the Mesopotamians around
3100 BC. It evolved out of a Mesopotamian trade tradition. When two merchants made
an agreement, they would make clay models of the items being traded and then would
seal them in a clay ball. However, if one of the merchants wanted to double check the
quantities agreed upon in the contract, the merchants would need to break open the
clay ball, literally breaking the contract. Therefore, the merchants began to scratch little
picture of the items onto the outside of the clay ball. Eventually someone realized that
the ball and models were no longer necessary. Later the Sumerians created more
symbols for use in writing down laws and eventually even stories. This form of writing
was called cuneiform.
As many as a thousand clay tablets were found in the Uruk archaeological layer dating
to the 30th century B.C. From Sumer, cuneiform script and civilization spread to all the
peoples of Asia Minor (Assyrians, Hittites, Urartuans, etc). For instance, the ancient
Asomtavruli alphabet of the modern Georgian language has ethno-cultural contacts with
the Sumerian world. Georgian specialists study the similarity of Sumerian and Iberian-
Caucasian languages. Sumerian remained the language of religion and science as the
2nd-1st millenium B.C. before its replacement by Semitic languages. But Sumerian did
not confide the Semites with the Majuscule alphabet, the secret spiritual alphabet that
has a lot of similarity to ancient Georgian Asomtavruli alphabet. More than 200
Sumerian and Svanian terms are identical both phonetically and semantically.
Sumerians created new simplified 22 simple letter-signs alphabet. The Semitic alphabet
created by Sumerian scientists for Accadians laid the foundation for various people's
writing creation and spreading (Moabs, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Greeks, Latins, Arabs
and others) Sumerian sacral alphabet of 35 letter signs that concealed the Sun and the
Moon calendar.
After flourishing for the better part of a millennium, Mesopotamia apparently
experienced a climate change, which led to drought, exhaustion of the heavily-used soil,
agricultural failure, and the decline of the Sumerian city-states that had become
dependent on reliable surplus food production. Neighbouring peoples and tribes
launched military incursions against the weakened city-states, resulting in political
power shifts and the rise of new states and cities further north. Sumerologist Samuel
Noah Kramer wrote "in the last quarter of the 3rd millennium B.C. the Semites inhabiting
the town of Akkad conquered Sumer and made the Sumerian scientists create an
alphabet for them, which subsequently came to be called the Semitic" This event took
place in 2125 B.C.

The Akkadians: The First Empire[edit]

Origins of Akkad[edit]
Semitic speakers seem to have already been present in Mesopotamia at the dawn of
the historical record, and soon achieved preeminence with the first Dynasty of Kish and
numerous localities to the north of Sumer—where rulers with Semitic names had
already established themselves by ca. the 3rd millennium BC. One of these,
contemporary with the last Sumerian ruler, Lugal-Zage-Si of Uruk, was Alusarsid (or
Urumus) who "subdued Elam and Barahs (Barahsi?)" thus beginning the trend towards
regional empire.
The first known mention of Akkad is in an inscription of Enshakushanna of Uruk, where
he claims to have defeated Agade—indicating that it was in existence well before the
days of Sargon of Akkad, who the Sumerian kinglist claims to have built it. Sargon has
often been cited as the first ruler of a combined empire of Akkad and Sumer, although
more recently discovered data suggests there had been Sumerian expansions under
previous kings, including Lugal-Anne-Mundu of Adab, Eannatum of Lagash, and Lugal-
Zage-Si
Sargon and his sons[edit]
The fame of the early establisher of Semitic supremacy was far eclipsed by that of
Sargon of Akkad (Sharru-kin = "legitimate king", probably a title he took on gaining
power[5]) (23rd century BC), who defeated and captured Lugal-Zage-Si, conquering his
empire.
The earliest records in Akkadian all date to the time of Sargon. Sargon was claimed to
be the son of La'ibum or Itti-Bel, a humble gardener, and possibly a hierodule,
prostitute, or priestess to Ishtar or Inanna.
One legend related of Sargon in neo-Assyrian times says that "My mother was a
changeling, my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved the hills. My city is
Azurpiranu (the wilderness herb fields), which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates.
My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of
rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose not over
me. The river bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of water. Akki, the drawer
of water, took me as his son and reared me. Akki the drawer of water, appointed me as
his gardener. While I was gardener Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and
(fifty?) ... years I exercised kingship."
Originally a cupbearer to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon thus
became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. This gave
him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first
soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, the crown was set upon Sargon's head, and he entered
upon a career of foreign conquest.[7] Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan, and he
spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with
Mesopotamia "into a single empire."
However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions
to create an empire that reached as far as the Mediterranean Sea and Anatolia, and
extending his rule to Elam, and as far south as Magan (Oman), an area over which he
reigned for 56 years. Trade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli
mines in Afghanistan, the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of Oman. This
consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and
political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural
system of northern Mesopotamia and a chain of fortresses was built to control the
imperial wheat production.
Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his
victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered
lands. Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia (Subartu) were also subjugated and
rebellions in Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in the years
of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak, king of Gutium.
Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian deities,
particularly Inanna, his patroness, and Zababa, the warrior god of Kish. He called
himself "The anointed priest of Anu" and "the great ensi of Enlil" and his daughter,
Enheduanna the famous poet, was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur.
He also boasted of having subjugated the "four quarters"—the lands surrounding Akkad
to the north (Subartu), the south (Sumer), the east (Elam) and the west (Martu). Some
of the earliest texts credit him with rebuilding the city of Babylon (Bab-ilu) in a new
location.
Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states "In his old
age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the city)"…but
"he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their
vast army". Also shortly after, "the Subaru (mountainous tribes of) the upper country—in
their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations,
and he smote them grievously".
These difficulties broke out again in the reign of his sons. Revolts broke out during the
9-year reign of his son, Mush, who fought hard to retain the empire—and in the fifteen
year reign of Mush's elder brother, Humanist. The latter king seems to have fought a
sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him. Both appear to have been
assassinated.
Param-Sin[edit]
Naram-Sin (Beloved of Sin), Sargon's grandson, who assumed the imperial title of "King
Naram-Sin, of the four quarters (Lugal Naram-Sin, Šar kibrat 'arbaim)", and, like his
grandfather, was addressed as "the god (Sumerian = DIN.GIR, Akkadian = ilu) of
Agade" (Akkad), also faced revolts at the start of his reign.
Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla and Armani (also read
Armanum or Armanim). The Assyrians, who are direct descendants of Akkadians, to
this day refer to Armenians by the inscription from Armani. They were located between
Carchemish and Ebla. To better police this area, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak,
a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur basin of the Jezirah. Naram-Sin is supposed to
have possessed an army of over 360,000 men, the largest size of any state up until that
date. It enabled him to campaign against Magan (thought to be Oman) which also
revolted; Naram-Sin, "marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its
king". The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northeastern mountaineers. A
campaign against the Lullubi led to the carving of the famous stele, now in the Louvre.
This newfound Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions,
huge agricultural surpluses and the confiscation of the wealth of other peoples.[8]
The economy was highly planned. After the advancing Akkadian forces from Tell Brak
took the massive (100 acre) site of Tell Leilan, they destroyed nearby villages and
brought the organization of farming and grain distribution into its bureaucratic control.
Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels
made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls,
including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge
agricultural surpluses. Stele of Naram-Sin, king of Akkad, celebrating his victory against
the Lullubi from Zagros.
In later Babylonian texts, the name Akkad, together with Sumer, appears as part of the
royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI.EN.GIRKI URUKI or Akkadian Šar māt Šumeri
u Akkadi,[10] translating to "king of Sumer and Akkad". This title was assumed by the
king who seized control of Nippur,[11] the intellectual and religious centre of southern
Mesopotamia.
During the Akkadian period, the Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the
Middle East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language
remained as a literary language. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam,
and even the Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform.
Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in the Amarna period)
and Anatolia, to Persia (Behistun).
Collapse of Akkad[edit]
Within 100 years the Empire of Akkad collapsed, almost as fast as it had developed,
ushering in a Dark Age. By the end of the reign of Naram-Sin's son, Shar-Kali-Sharri,
the empire collapsed outright from the invasion of barbarians of the Zagros known as
"Gutians". It has recently been suggested that the Dark Age at the end of the Akkadian
period (and First Intermediary Period of the Ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom) was
associated with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient
Near East, caused by a global centennial-scale drought.[12]
The fall of the empire established by Sargon seems to have been as sudden as its rise,
and little is known about the Gutian period. From the fall of Akkad until around 2100 BC,
there is much that is still dark.
The Sumerian king list, for the period after the death of Sharkalishari, states:

Who was king? Who was not king? Igigi the king; Nanum, the king; Imi the
king; Elulu, the king—the four of them were kings but reigned only three
years. Dudu reigned 21 years; Shudurul, the son of Dudu, reigned 15 years.
(A total of) 11 kings reigned 197 years. Agade was defeated and its kingship
carried off to Uruk. In Uruk, Urnigin reigned 7 years, Irgigir, son of Urnigin,
reigned 6 years; Kudda reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili reigned 5 years, Utu-utu
reigned 6 years. Uruk was smitten with weapons and its kingship carried off
by the Gutian hordes.
(These kings of Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad.)

In the Gutian hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3 years as
king; Shulme reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years; Inimbakesh reigned 5 years;
Igeshuash reigned 6 years; Iarlagab reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; …
reigned 3 years; Kurum reigned 1 year; … reigned 3 years; … reigned 2 years; Iararum
reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year; Hablum reigned 2 years; Puzur-Sin son of
Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7 years; … reigned 7 years; … reigned 40
days. Total 21 kings reigned 91 years, 40 days.

Evidence from Tell Leilan in Northern Mesopotamia shows what may have happened. The site was
abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its grain
production reorganised. The debris, dust and sand that followed show no trace of human activity.
Soil samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity, reduced rainfall and
indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep and cattle died of
drought, and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site, seeking wetter areas elsewhere. Tell Brak
shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders such as the Amorites moved herds closer
to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with farmers. This climate-induced collapse
seems to have affected the whole of the Middle East, and to have coincided with the collapse of the
Egyptian Old Kingdom. A relatively well-known king from that period is Gudea, king of Lagash.
This collapse of rain-fed agriculture in "the Upper Country" meant the loss to southern Mesopotamia
of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian Empire solvent. Water levels within the Tigris
and Euphrates fell 1.5 metres beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although they stabilised for a time
during the following Ur III period, rivalries between pastoralists and farmers increased. Attempts
were undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in agricultural lands, such as the
building of a 180 km wall between the Tigris and Euphrates under the neo-Sumerian ruler Shu-Sin.
Such attempts led to increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depopulation occurred to re-
establish demographic equilibrium with the less favourable climatic conditions.
It has also been suggested (Burroughs, 2007) that the rapid climatic collapse, marking the Akkadian
Dark Age, may have been responsible for the religiously prescribed prohibition against the raising
and consumption of pigs that spread through the Ancient Middle East from the end of the third
millennium BC.
The period between ca. 2100 BC and 2000 BC is sometimes called the 3rd dynasty of Ur or
"Sumerian Renaissance", founded by Ur-Nammu (originally a general). Though documents again
began to be written in Sumerian, this dynasty may also have been Semitic; Sumerian was becoming
a purely literary or liturgical language, much as Latin later would be in Medieval Europe.
The curse of Akkad[edit]
Later material described how the fall of Akkad was due to Naram-Sin's attack upon the city of
Nippur. When prompted by a pair of inauspicious oracles, the king sacked the E (temple)E-kur
temple, supposedly protected by the god Enlil, head of the pantheon. As a result of this, eight chief
deities of the Anunaki pantheon were supposed to have come together and withdrawn their support
from Akkad.
For the first time since cities were built and founded,
The great agricultural tracts produced no grain, The inundated tracts produced no fish, The irrigated
orchards produced neither syrup nor wine, The gathered clouds did not rain, the masgurum did not
grow. At that time, one shekel's worth of oil was only one-half quart, One shekel's worth of grain was
only one-half quart. . . . These sold at such prices in the markets of all the cities! He who slept on the
roof, died on the roof, He who slept in the house, had no burial, People were flailing at themselves
from hunger.
For many years, the events described in "The Curse of Akkad" were thought, like the details of
Sargon's birth, to be purely fictional. But now the evidence of Tel Leilan, and recent findings of
elevated dust deposits in sea-cores collected off Oman, that date to the period of Akkad's collapse
suggest that climate change may have been the culprit

The Babylonians[edit]
The Babylonians built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and sun baked clay houses. They also
introduced the convention of using 360 degrees in a circle, and of dividing the day into 24 hours, and
each hour into 60 minutes.

Ancient Andes[edit]
3500BCE

Valdiva 3500 BCE-1800BCE[edit]

Valdiva culture were an Andean Civilization of Ecuador. They lived on coastal areas of Guayas.
Much of their houses were put into circular positions in the central plaza. They are known for their
pottery work. Most of their pottery resembled females. Females possibly held a high position in their
society. Valdivia Culture domesticated Llamas and cultivated cotton.

 Their diet included:

 Maize
 Squash
 Kidney beans
 Cassava
 Hot peppers
 Fish
 Occasionally deer

Ancient Egypt[edit]
3100 BC-30 BC

The Protodynastic Period[edit]

The Old Kingdom[edit]
The Old Kingdom started circa 2700 BC during Egypt's 3rd dynasty. During this period of Egyptian
history the Pharaohs were absolute rulers. It was during the Old Kingdom that the Great Pyramid
was built as a tomb for Khufu, a Pharaoh during Egypt's 4th dynasty. The Old Kingdom failed at
around 2150 BC for a number of reasons. These included the long life span of Pepi II, who ruled 94
years. Pepi II lived to be about 100 years of age, outliving many of his heirs. Additionally, the lower
Nile inundation became irregular and led to failed harvests, which may have been caused by a drier
climate.

The First Intermediate Period[edit]

Nomarches competed for control of Egypt and civil wars were common. Famines were common
during this period and it is called the dark age of Egyptian History.
The Middle Kingdom[edit]
Egypt's Middle Kingdom was Egypt's golden age because of trading, and new conquest. It lasted
from 2050-1650 BC. The Pharaohs period of this period called themselves good shepherds and they
were not as powerful as they were during the Old Kingdom. Their pyramids were smaller. The
Middle Kingdom ended because of weak Pharaohs and an invasion by Asiantic people called the
Hyksos.

The Second Intermediate Period[edit]

The Hyksos ruled Lower Egypt from about 1650-1550 BC until the Thebean king named Ahmose I
expelled them out of the country and started the New Kingdom.

The New Kingdom[edit]

During the New Kingdom Egypt was at its height of power. This period lasted from 1550-1070 BC,
During this period Egypt became an empire when Thutmose III conquered Palestine, Syria, and
Nubia this empire lasted to Amenhoptep VI who ended Egypt's worship of many gods in favour of
one god Aton. Later his son Tutankhamen restored the old religion, Tutankhamen died at 18 leaving
no heirs to the throne. Seti I restored some of Egypt's empire in Palestine and Syria and his son
Ramses II fought the Hitties at Kadesh, then made the first peace treaty with them. He ruled for 67
years. The last great Pharaoh was Ramses III who was not a relative of Ramses II. He protected
Egypt from invasion. About 1070 BC the New Kingdom ended.

The Postdynastic Period[edit]

Ancient Indian Civilization[edit]

The earliest known farming cultures in south Asia emerged in the hills of Balochistan, Pakistan,
which included Mehrgarh in the 7th millennium BC. These semi-nomadic peoples domesticated
wheat, barley, sheep, goat and cattle. Pottery was in use by the 6th millennium BC. Their settlement
consisted of mud buildings that housed four internal subdivisions. Burials included elaborate goods
such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal
sacrifices. Figurines and ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and
polished copper have been found. By the 4th millennium BC we find much evidence of
manufacturing. Technologies included stone and copper drills, updraft kilns, large pit kilns and
copper melting crucibles. Button seals included geometric designs.

Indus Valley civilization[edit]

By 4000 BC a pre-Harappan culture emerged, with trade networks including lapis lazuli and other
raw materials. Villagers domesticated numerous other crops, including peas, sesame seed, dates,
and cotton, plus a wide range of domestic animals, including the water buffalo which still remains
essential to intensive agricultural production throughout Asia today. There is also evidence of sea-
going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and docking facility at the
coastal city of Lothal, India, perhaps the world's oldest sea-faring harbour. Judging from the
dispersal of artifacts the trade networks integrated portions of Afghanistan, the Persian coast,
northern and central India, Mesopotamia (see Meluhha) and Ancient Egypt (see Silk Road).
Archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, discovered that these
peoples in the Indus Valley Civilization had knowledge of medicine and dentistry as early as circa
3300 BC. The Indus Valley Civilization gains credit for the earliest known use of decimal fractions in
a uniform system of ancient weights and measures, as well as negative numbers (see Timeline of
mathematics). Ancient Indus Valley artifacts include beautiful, glazed stone faïence beads.
The Indus Valley Civilization boasts the earliest known accounts of urban planning. As seen in
Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and (recently discovered) Rakhigarhi, their urban planning included the
world's first urban sanitation systems. Evidence suggests efficient municipal governments. Streets
were laid out in perfect grid patterns comparable to modern New York. Houses were protected from
noise, odors and thieves. The sewage and drainage systems developed and used in cities
throughout the Indus Valley were far more advanced than that of contemporary urban sites in
Mesopotamia.

Vedic Civilization[edit]
The Vedic civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, which are the oldest
extant Indo-European texts, composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The exact connection of the genesis of this
civilization with the Indus Valley civilization on one hand, and a possible Indo-Aryan migration on the
other hand, is the subject of disputes. Early Vedic society was largely pastoral. Later on, the society
became agricultural, and was organized around four Varnas, or classes. Several small kingdoms
and tribes merged to form a few large ones which were often at war with each other.
In addition to the principle texts of Hinduism, (the Vedas), the great Indian epics, the Ramayana and
Mahabharata, the latter of which constitutes the longest poem in the world, are said to have been
first written during this period, perhaps from a longer spoken tradition of unwritten recitation. The
Bhagavad Gita, another primary text of Hinduism, is contained within the Mahabharata.
Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds to the presence of ochre coloured pottery,
archaeologically. The kingdom of the Kurus marks flowering of the Vedic civilization, corresponding
to the Black and Red Ware and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northern India begins, around 1100
BC, likely also contemporary with the composition of the Atharvaveda. Painted Grey Ware spread
over all of Northern India marks the late Vedic period, corresponding to a wave of urbanization
occurred across the Indian sub-continent, spreading from Afghanistan to Bengal, in the 7th century
BC. A number of kingdoms and republics emerged across the Indo-Gangetic plain and southern
India during this period. 16 Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) are referred to in ancient literature of
the period.

The Mahajanapadas[edit]
By 600 BC, sixteen hereditary monarchies known as the Mahajanapadas stretched across the Indo-
Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh. The largest of these nations were
Magadha, Kosala, Kuru and Gandhara. The right of a king to his throne, no matter how it was
gained, was usually legitimized through religious right and genealogies concocted by priests who
ascribed to the king divine origins.
Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the
Upanishads, the secondary texts of ancient Hinduism, dealing mainly with philosophy, were first
composed early in this period. The court language at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects of the
general population of northern India were referred to as Prakrits. In 537 BC, Gautama Buddha
gained enlightenment and thus founded Buddhism, which was initially intended as a supplement to
the existing Hindu Vedic dharma. Around the same time period, in mid-6th century BC, Mahavira
founded Jainism. Both religions had a simple doctrine and were preached in Prakrit which helped it
gain acceptance by the masses. While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited, Buddhist nuns
and monks spread their teachings of Buddha to Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia.
In around 500 BC, the Indus Valley region was invaded by the Persian ruler Darius I making the far
north-west of India a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Though the Persians made Taxila the
capital, their influence was marginal and governed the region for around 150 years. The Persians
were defeated by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. In 326 BC, Alexander the Great
crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and invaded what is now Pakistan. However, costly campaigns
against the forces of Porus(also known as Puru), and the tired troops forced him to retreat to his
empire after reaching the Beas River in Punjab. He appointed Greek governors to rule the newly
acquired province to keep open trade routes between India and Greece.
Maurya Dynasty[edit]
In 321 BC, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya overthrew reigning king Dhana Nanda to establish
the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the
kingdom over most of present day India, barring the extreme south and east. During this time, most
of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time.
The kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka the Great who initially sought to expand his kingdom.
In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and
pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are
the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of
dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the
proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South East Asia, fundamentally
altering the history and development of Asia. Ashoka the Great has been described as one of the
greatest rulers the world has seen.
Shunga Dynasty[edit]
The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about 50 years after Ashoka's death, when the king
Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was brutally murdered by the then commander-in-chief of
the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his
forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne.

Ancient Chinese Civilization[edit]

The earliest written record of China's takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones
or shells of animals—so-called "oracle bones".
The earliest comprehensive history of China, the "Historical Records" written by Sima Qian, a
renowned Chinese historiographer of the 2nd century BC, begins perhaps 3600 BC with an account
of the Five Emperors (五帝). These rulers were legendary sage-kings and moral exemplars, and one
of them, the Yellow Emperor, is sometimes said to be the ancestor of all Chinese people. Following
this period Sima Qian relates that a system of inherited rulership was established during the Xia
dynasty, and that this model was perpetuated in the successor Shang and Zhou dynasties. It is
during this period of the Three Dynasties (Chinese: 三代) that the historical China begins to appear.

Xia Dynasty[edit]
Sima Qian's account dates the founding of the Xia Dynasty (夏) to some 4,000 years ago, but this
date has not yet been corroborated. Some archaeologists connect the Xia to excavations at Erlitou
in central Henan province, where a bronze smelter from around 2000 BC was unearthed. Early
markings from this period, found on pottery and shells, have been alleged to be ancestors of modern
Chinese characters, but such claims are unsupported. With no clear written records to match the
Shang oracle bones or the Zhou bronze vessel writings, the Xia remains poorly understood.

Shang Dynasty[edit]
Archaeological findings provide evidence for the existence of the Shang dynasty (商), ca. 1600 to
1046 BC, and the archaeological evidence is divided into two sets. The first, from the earlier Shang
period (ca. 1600 to 1300) comes from sources at Erligang, Zhengzhou and Shangcheng. The
second set, from the later Shang or Yin period, consists of a large body of oracle bone writings.
Anyang in modern day Henan has been confirmed as the last of the six capitals of the Shang (ca.
1300 to 1046 BC).
Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding
another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more
complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer
to political entities that existed at the same time, just as the early Zhou (successor state of the
Shang), is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang. What was the religion?

Zhou Dynasty[edit]
By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou Dynasty (周) began to emerge in the Huanghe valley,
overrunning the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a semi-feudal system.
Nevertheless, power became decentralized during the Spring and Autumn Period when regional
feudal lords began to assert their power, absorb smaller powers, and vie for hegemony. The
Hundred Schools of Thought of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period and such
influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded.
After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC,
and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the Warring States period.
Though there remained a nominal Zhou king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little
real power.
Meanwhile, neighboring territories of these warring states were gradually annexed, including areas
of modern Sichuan and Liaoning, and governed under the new local administrative system of
commandery and prefecture (郡县), which had been in use since the Spring and Autumn Period and
was very loosely a primitive prototype of the modern system of Sheng and Xian (province and
county). The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng, the king of Qin. His
unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of Zhejiang,
Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi in 214 BC enabled him to proclaim himself the First Emperor (始皇
帝，Shi Huangdi), forming the first Chinese empire under the Qin Dynasty (秦), that laid the foundation
for the consolidation of the Chinese territories that we know today.

The Hittites[edit]
The Hittites were the prescendants of the Caucasian Kartvelian group of nations and were the
descendants of Sumerians. Their innovations in the design of chariots, moving the wheel to the
centre from the back, gave them a military advantage over other civilizations. Another point of note is
that the first international peace treaty was signed by the Hittites and the Egyptians after the Battle of
Kadesh. The original copy is kept in the headquarters of the United Nations. After 600 years as a
major empire in the Ancient Middle East the Hittites, crippled by the attacks of the Sea Peoples
abandoned their capital, Hattusa, and seemed to vanish from history.

The Assyrians[edit]
The Assyrians were a civilization located near modern Iraq, along the Tigris River. The Assyrians
eventually grew to occupy modern-day Iraq, northern Egypt, the eastern parts of Asia Minor and
modern-day Jordan.
Assyria started around 2000 BC with Semitic barbarians invading the area and establishing the roots
for a civilization. By 1800 BC the Assyrians had firm control over most of northern Mesopotamia, but
later lost it to the Babylonians.
By 1076 BC, the Assyrians reached the Mediterranean coast. The Empire reached it's peak at
around 1000 to 700 BC, with the conquering of northern Egypt and Babylon. However, the Assyrians
were very harsh with the lands they conquered, and thus it's citizens were very unhappy with the
ruling class. By 600 BC, their capital, Nineveh, fell to the revolting vassal states, including Babylon.
Soon after, the Assyrians existed only in the history books.
Though the Assyrians did not advance far in the fields of science and technology, philosophy or the
arts, they were mentioned in Biblical records for being great warriors, and their tactics of war would
influence later powers, such as the Persians.

The Persians[edit]
The Persian Empire started in the north west corner of what is now Iran. It grew through military
conquest to cover a huge region that roughly encompasses today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan,
Turkey, Bulgaria, many parts of Greece, Egypt, Syria, much of what is now Pakistan, Jordan, Israel,
Palestine, Lebanon, Caucasia, Central Asia, Libya, and northern parts of Arabia. The empire
eventually became the largest empire of the ancient world. Persepolis was the ceremonial capitol of
Persia. Susa and Pasargadas also acted as capital cities at different times in Persian history. They
were all in what is now Iran.

What did they eat?[edit]

The food prepared for Persian kings was luxurious. Persians ate stews made from meat and fruit
with herbs. They ate rice and bread made with wheat. Yoghurt was also a staple in Persian food.
Tablets from the time of these ancient peoples indicate that the inhabitants of Mesopotamia were
using basil, cilantro, cumin and caraway in their food in 4,000 BC. Apricots, artichokes, eggplants,
lemons, lime, oranges, pistachios, spinach, saffron or tarragon all came to Europe through Persia.
Other condiments and spices such as cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, coriander, dill, nutmeg,
pomegranates, saffron, sumac, turmeric, as well as orange-flower water and rose water were used
in Persian food. Lamb and goat were the primary meats eaten by Persians.

What did their buildings look like?[edit]

Persians made very interesting buildings. The Ruins at Persepolis are an example of ancient
Persian buildings. Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in
their building. Their buildings were grand and were created by skillful workers. Some Persian
buildings had huge barrel-vaulted chambers. The Persians created huge domes of rock and clay and
supported their roofs with tall columns. They also decorated the walls of their palaces with lions,
bulls and flowers. The Kharaghan twin towers and the Shah Mosque are two other old buildings built
in a Persian style.

What did they wear?[edit]

The Persian king wore a robe of honour that was a large piece of fabric that was draped around him.
For the king and other aristocracy, their clothes were often decorated with golden clothing
ornaments. Some of these are in the form of roundels, while others are gold plaques with loops or
rings on the back so they can be sewn onto the cloth. Rich people also liked to wear gold jewelry
such as bracelets with animal head carvings. Common people wore coats and pants made out of
leather. Men's coats reached from their shoulders down to their knees and were fastened with a
girdle. Their sleeves were somewhat tight and went down to their wrists. Originally woman's clothing
was quite similar to men's clothing but as time went their style changed. Initially their clothes were
short and tight but when the style changed their clothes were made longer, more voluminous and
were made out of softer materials. Persian shoes were usually just pieces of leather that were
wrapped around their feet and were tied up on the top. These would have look similar to moccasins.

What did their writing look like?[edit]

Old Persian was written from left to right in Old Persian cuneiform script. Old Persian cuneiform
script was supposably invented by King Darius I, one of ancient Persia's famous kings. There were
36 letters in their alphabet, although some of them essentially represented different syllables. For
example they had one symbol for "ka" and another symbol for "ku". They used these symbols even
though they also had symbols that represented "a" and "u".

What did they believe?[edit]

The Persian civilization spawned three major religions: Zoroastrianism, Mithraism, and
Manichaeanism. The Persian thinker Zoroaster (who propagated Zoroastrianism) was the main
religious movement leader. Living around 3500 years ago, he helped to unite the Persian empire. He
rejected the old Persian gods and introduced that a single wise god, Ahura Mazda, ruled the world.
However, Ahura Mazda was often in battle with the prince of evil and lies, Ahriman. On Earth, each
person had to choose which side to support. Zoroaster's teaching were written in a book, the Zend-
Avesta. It said that Ahura Mazda would conquer over the forces of evil, Ahriman, at the end. On that
day, all the people would be judges for their actions. Those who did good would enter paradise.
Those who did evil would be condemned to eternal suffering.

Are some of them famous even today?[edit]

Of course, but perhaps the most famous Persian of all time is Cyrus the Great who founded the
Persian Empire. In fact, in 1992 he was ranked #87 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential
figures in history. Other famous Persian kings were Cambises and Darius the Great. Darius III is
famous only because he suffered under the hands of Alexander the Great of Greece. During Darius'
reign, the whole Persian Empire was destroyed by Alexander, who first attacked the Persians in
what is now modern Turkey. He then moved on into the heart of the Empire where he captured the
capital Susa. Darius ran away from battle against Alexander twice, but was murdered by his
governor Bessus who wanted the throne for himself. Alexander was angry this happened and
respected his dead opponent. He held a great funeral for the dead king. Later, Bessus was captured
and executed.

What is left of them today?[edit]

Persians are one of the only ancient civilizations that has made significant contributions to humanity
from prehistoric times by their Persian empire all the way through to the modern day in their country
Iran. Most Persians are now Muslims, although there are Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians still
living and practicing their religion in Iran. There are also some Persians, called Parsis, living in
mainly the north and west of India.