Chapter 1

The French Revolution

Question 1: Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in

France.

Answer: Following are some of the causes which had a cumulative effect to result in revolution
in France:

The war with Britain for an independent America: This war led to mounting debt on the
French monarchy. This necessitated imposition of new taxes on the public.

Privilege based on birth: People got privileges and position based on their lineage and not on
their merit. This led to resentment among common people.

Concentration of power among the privileged: People belonging to the first and second estate
had all the power and money. Masses were at the mercy of this privileged class.

Subsistence Crisis: Rising population and less grain production resulted in demand supply gap
of bread, which was the staple diet. Wages did not keep pace with rising prices. It was becoming
difficult for people.

Growing Middle Class: Because of increased overseas trade a new class emerged. This class
was wealthy not because of birth but because of its ability to utilize opportunities. People of the
middle class started raising their voice for an end to privileges based on lineage.

All of this led to a general sense of resentment among people. Certain thinkers of the period
spread awareness through various media. Some from the privileged classes also advocated a
switch to democracy. So, finally there was revolution in France.

Question 2: Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were
forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the
outcome of the revolution?

Answer: Peasants and artisans of French society benefited from the revolution. Clergy, nobles
and church had to relinquish power. It is obvious that those who had to forego power and
privileges would have been disappointed. People from the first and the second estate must have
been a disappointed lot.

Question 3: Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Answer: The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French
Revolution. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where
feudal systems were abolished. Further these ideas spread to different colonies of the European
nations. Colonised people interpreted and moulded these ideas according to respective needs.
This was probably like seed for an end of colonization in many countries. By the mid of 20th
century major part of the world adopted democracy as the preferred mode of rule and the French
Revolution can be termed as the initiation point for this development.

Question 4: Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to
the French Revolution.

Answer: The following fundamental rights, given in the Indian constitution can be traced to the
French Revolution:

The right to equality

The right to freedom of speech and expression

The right to freedom from exploitation

The right to constitutional remedies

Question 5: Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with
contradictions? Explain.

Answer: The major contradiction in the message of universal rights as per the French
Constitution of 1791 was the total ignorance of women. All rights were given to men. Apart from
that the presence of huge number of people as passive citizens, without voting rights, was like
not putting into practice what you preach. In other words it can be said that although the
declaration of universal rights was a good starting point but it left much to be desired.

Question 6: How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?

Answer: After France became a republic in 1792, the then ruler, Robespeirre, gave more
privileges to the wealthier section of society. Further, he was a sort of autocrat himself. This led
to reign of terror for the following many years. After Robespeirre’s rule came to an end a
directory was formed to avoid concentration of power in one individual. Members of the
directory often fought among themselves leading to total chaos and political instability. This
created a political vaccum in France. This was a conducive situation and Napoleon Bonaparte
took the reign of power as a military dictator.
CHAPTER 2
SOCIALISM IN EUROPE

Question 1: What were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905?

Answer: A large section of the Russian population was dependent on agriculture. Some
industries had developed in selected pockets. The Russian empire was under the autocratic rule
of the Tsar. The workers were divided in different social groups, but often united to strike work
in factories. The peasants had a long tradition of working in commune.

Question 2: In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in
Europe, before 1917?

Answer: Compared to other parts of Europe, a larger portion of the Russian population was
engaged in farming. Workers in the industry had already begun to organize themselves to stop
work in factories. Farmers had a long tradition of working collectively on farms.

Question 3: Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?

Answer: The Tsar first dismissed the initial two Dumas and then packed the parliament with the
conservatives. During the First World War, the Tsar took decision without consulting the Duma.
Large scale casualties of Russian soldiers in the war further alienated the people from the Tsar.
Burning of crops and buildings by the retreating Russian armies created huge shortage of food in
Russia. All of these led to the collapse of the Tsarist autocracy in 1917.

Question 4: Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution
and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on
who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what was the impact of each on Soviet
history.

Answer: February Revolution

On 22 February: A lockout at a factory.

Demonstrators thronged the center of the capital, and curfew was imposed.

25th February: Suspension of Duma.

27th February: Formation of Soviet.

2nd March: Tsar leaves power and provisional government formed.

The February Revolution ended the autocratic Tsarist rule in Russia and paved the way for an
elected government. There was no leader of this movement.

October Revolution:
16th October: Formation of Military Revolutionary Committee

24th October: Pro-government troops called in to deal with the situation.

Military Revolutionary Committee controls the city by night and ministers surrender.

The Bolshevik take control of the power.

The October Revolution was led by Lenin. This event paved the way for complete control of the
Bolsheviks over Russia and the beginning of a single-party rule.

Question 5: What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the
October Revolution?

Answer: Major changes after the October Revolution:

Most of the industry and banks were nationalized in November 1917. The government took over
ownership and management.

Land was declared social property. Peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.

In cities, large houses were partitioned as per family requirements.

Old titles of aristocracy were banned.

Question 6: Write a few lines to show what you know about;

Kulaks

Answer: The wealthy landowners were called the kulaks. Stalin was suspicious of them for
hoarding. During collectivization of farming, the kulaks were raided and their lands were seized.

The Duma

Answer: The Russian parliament is called the Duma. The first Duma was constituted in 1905.

Women workers between 1900 and 1930

Answer: Participation of women workers was quite significant in Russia. About one-third
industrial workers were women. Especially during the war years, the number of women workers
increased because the able-bodied men were called for wartime duties.

The Liberals

Answer: Liberals wanted a change in the society. They wanted toleration towards all religions.
They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They wanted to safeguard the rights of
individuals. They favoured a representative, elected parliamentary government. Such a
government should be subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained and independent judiciary.
However, some of the liberal ideas were not democratic. They did not believe in universal adult
franchise and wanted the voting rights only for men with property.

Stalin’s collectivization programme

Answer: Stalin believed that collectivization of agriculture would help in improving grains
supplies in Russia. He began collectivization in 1929. All peasants were forced to cultivate in
collective farms (kolhoz). The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the ownership of
collective farm. Many peasants protested such attempts and destroyed livestock to show their
anger. Collectivization did not bring the desired results in the food supply situation turned even
worse in subsequent years.

Chapter 3
Nazism and Rise of Hitler

Question 1: Describe the problems faced by the Weimar Republic.

Answer: The Weimar Republic was politically fragile. Its constitution had some inherent defects
and hence the Weimar Republic was prone to be unstable and vulnerable to dictatorship. The
provision of proportional representation meant that majority by a single party was impossible
and coalition government was the norm. Article 48 gave the President the powers to impose
emergency to suspend civil rights and to rule by decree. The average life span of a cabinet was
just 239 days and emergency was declared many times. People were losing confidence in the
republic.
Question 2: Discuss why Nazism became popular in Germany by 1930.

Answer: Most of the German were not happy with the way the Weimar Republic meekly
surrendered to the clauses of the Versailles Treaty. Heavy burden of war-time reparations led to
all around poverty and economic hardships for people. Hitler projected himself as the messiah
who could cure all the ills of Germany. He used oratory skills and symbolism to great effect.
These were the reasons of growing popularity of Nazism in Germany by 1930.

Question 3: What are the peculiar features of Nazi thinking?

Answer: Nazi thinking was synonymous with Hitler’s thinking. It believed in policy of
expansion to bring more resources under its control; to ensure economic development. It
believed in stifling the protesting voices. It also believed that the Nordic German Aryans were
the only superior race and only they had the right to live in the German empire.

Question 4: Explain why Nazi propaganda was effective in creating a hatred for Jews.

Answer: The Nazi used the media and language with great care and to great effect. They used
films, radio, banners, posters and rituals to propagate hatred against the Jews. Moreover, the long
tradition of stereotyping the Jews helped the Nazis in increasing a feeling of hatred against the
Jews.

Question 5: Explain what role women had in Nazi society. Return to Chapter 1 on the French
Revolution. Write a paragraph comparing and contrasting the role of women in the two periods.

Answer: Women did not play an active role in the Nazi society. Hitler believed that a woman’s
duty was to bear ‘racially pure’ children and to do her domestic duties. On the other hand,
women played good role in the French Revolution. Many women led the suffragate movement to
ensure voting rights for women. It can be said that while women played an active role in the
French Revolution, they were the passive spectators in the Nazi society.

Question 6: In what ways did the Nazi state seek to establish total control over its people?
Answer: Hitler felt that by teaching the Nazi ideology to children, a strong Nazi society could be
established. In order to do so, schools were first ‘cleansed’ by removing Jew and other
‘undesirable’ teachers. Schools were converted into all-German school. Children were
brainwashed with the Nazi ideology. There was a system of taking adolescents into the Nazi
organization so that they could be mentally trained in Nazi ideologies. The youth had to serve in
the youth organization of the Nazi party.