Running head: POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 1

Poaching and the Ivory Trade: The Impending Extinction of Tusked and Horned Animals

Emily Esposito

First Colonial High School: Legal Studies Academy

Abstract

This paper discusses the epidemic of poaching and the subsequent rise of the death rate of

endangered species being targeted. The author begins by introducing the problem of poaching

and what often drives the criminal organizations that practice poaching and illegal trade of

animals. The author also discusses the prices and the products, illegally obtained through

poaching, being sold on the black market. Then the author touches briefly upon the use of

commercial breeding of endangered animals in Asian countries as a method of supposed

conservation and the controversy surrounding the practices. This leads into the authors

discussion of the death toll on both animal and human life caused by poaching, as well as the

environmental impact and impact on tourism caused by the extinction of the endangered animals.

The laws discussed in this paper encompasses both international, and local country laws, with

cases including forging of documentation for transportation of animal goods, the actual act of

poaching, and the use of deadly force when attempting to deter poaching. Finally the author talks

about the current methods of deterring poaching as well as the holes and non working

components of these methods and how they may improve in the future.
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 3

Poaching and The Ivory Trade: Mass Extinction of Tusked and Horned Animals

The extinction of horned and tusked animals is no longer a theoretical problem, but a fast

encroaching future.The animals most threatened by poaching are those that possess horns or

tusks, which include elephants, rhinos, elk, antelopes, walrus, and even the remains of

mammoths most often found in Russia. The extinction of these animals is the byproduct of

human culture and of the choice made by many for the sake of greed and long proven wrong

beliefs. The resurgent poaching crisis since 2008 has threatened the conservation groups’, such

as WWF, Panthera, and The Nature Conservancy,​ ​work to stop poaching and save the animals

threatened by the poaching crisis and connecting organizations. Poaching has been illegal in

most countries for decades, but driven by the high black market prices of bones, skin, and ivory,

and the supposed medicinal belief, these animals are facing a impending death, which can only

be halted if countries and their people work together to protect and maintain the animals and

their habitats.

Poaching: Greed, Glory, and the Black Market

Wildlife crime is a international business, much like that of drug and deadly arm

trafficking, but it can generate a larger revenue than both. The illegal wildlife trade and

trafficking of poaching animal parts can become worth tens of billions of dollars each year. One

elephant ivory tusk can be worth up to $2,142 per kg and a rhino horn can be valued over

$60,000 per kg (“Poaching Facts”, 2018). Poaching is often driven by greed, and as the prices

continue to rise, caused by the shortage of these animals and their parts, that shortage being

caused by the demand on the black market, but it is also driven by the regional cultural beliefs

and supposed medicinal properties of horns, animal skin, and even the blood of these animals.
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 4

The Black Market Price

The black market is the true source of the rising poaching crisis; as the demand grows for

horns, tusks, skin, and the teeth of these endangered animals, the international networks that are

responsible for the trading of such products, apply pressure to the actual poachers to increase

their supply chain, which has caused at least 20,000 African elephants to be illegally killed for

their tusks (“Stopping Ivory Demand”, 2017), and a 9,000% increase in the last five years of

rhino poaching in South Africa(“Save the Rhino”, 2018). The black market is an impossibly

large organization that has become almost unstoppable in the last four decades, but with the

spreading of awareness of the risk of continuing the poaching trade, countries such as China, had

begun to take steps closer to closing their illegal domestic ivory market, and Hong Kong even

promised to close their market by 2021. These promised closures will unfortunately have a small

impact of the actual black market selling of illegal wildlife, as with each step forward two steps

are often taken backward. China, though promising to start closing their ivory trade, has also

started to loosen its ban on the trade of tiger bones and rhino horns, both animals which have

been on the endangered species list since the early 1990’s. China, like many other countries,

reason that these animal parts are being used for scientific, medical and cultural purposes, but

China’s economy and government often benefit directly from the black market trade of animal

parts. China’s provinces of Guangzhou and Fuzhou both have factories that produce and sell

carved ivory, often claiming to be legally obtained, but these elephants, rhino, and even

prehistoric mammoth tusked, imported from Russia, more often than not lack proper required

documentation and in Guangzhou, of the over 7,000 ivory items for sale, 61% were being traded

illegally, with some traders even admitting to having illegal ivory(Neale and Burton, 2011).
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 5

Investigations in China found that traders, who claim legality, said that at least 90% of what is

traded legally in the country was imported from illegal poaching, often through the use of

counterfeiting government issues permits, or forging the documents(“Wild Laws: China and Its

Role in Illicit Wildlife Trade.”, 2016).

The Products

Ivory has become a lucrative trade business for those on the black market. The price of

ivory has risen from about $100 per 2.2 pounds to over $1,800 per pound in the last

decade.(“Ivory Black Market Threatens the African Elephant”, 2018). Ivory from elephants’

tusks are the most common form of ivory sold on the black market, but ivory is also sourced

from hippopotamus, walrus, narwhal, orca whale teeth, elk, and extinct mammoths from

Russia(“The International Ban on Ivory Sale and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa”,

2009). The Ivory that is being sold on the black market is often referred as white gold, as it is

seen in many countries, including the United States and China as a projection of wealth and

social status. Ivory has been used as a symbol of social position as well as to signify the wealth

of a family since the start of the exploration age, when European and Asian explorers and

merchants arrived in Africa. In China the use of ivory as a symbol of wealth, power, and luck has

been practiced since the paleolithic era, and ivory has been used in art carvings since the Shang

Dynasty,1800 BCE. Ivory carving even became its own subdivision of the art crafts in china

during the Zhou Dynasty in 1100 BCE.(Carl W. Bishop, The Elephant and Its Ivory in Ancient

China, American Oriental Society) .Ivory is also sought after in consumer markets because of its

carvable qualities and also because of its limited supply. Much of the ivory products that come

out of China are carved horns or believed to be antique pieces of furniture and even pianos, most
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 6

of which are only made to look antique, but in reality are made from poached ivory of this era.

Ivory that is legally obtained is used to create piano keys, billiard balls, furniture, and even used

in certain electrical appliances. There are substitutes for ivory used in creating these goods

including synthetic materials and natural materials like the “dried endosperm seed of phytelephas

sp, a subspecies of palm tree that has similar qualities and texture as ivory.” Tuga nuts ad the

jarina seeds are also commonly used as replacements for ivory (“Sustainable Substitute for

Ivory”, 2015). Even with the large export of goods made from ivory whether illegally or legally

sourced, the number one demand for ivory comes from its supposed medicinal values in eastern

medicine. Ivory is believed to change colors upon contact with poisoned food, create a luminous

glow to ones skin, clear heat, treat epilepsy, heal sores and boils, treat sore throats, relieves anal

fistula, treat certain fears, relieve osteoporosis, and help with excessive bone growth in cases on

fibrous dysplasia(Clarissa Wei, 2015). All the supposed healing properties are in fact myths.

Ivory is made of dentine with an outer layer of enamel, they are in fact closer to a human tooth

then even bone. The only mythical part about ivory is that it does not stop growing, unless

separated from the animal (EleAid, 2017).

Along with ivory from different species, rhino horn is also a highly sought after product

on the black market. Rhino horns are also used as a status of wealth and power. Rhino horn have

been prized for centuries, because of the translucent colors created when carved. This translucent

property that creates a dazzling display of color, especially with age, has created a very specific

market for art pieces where rhino horn is used. In China rhino horns have been used for

ornamental pieces since the 7th century AD. In middle eastern countries, mainly in Yemen,

“where the horn of rhinos are used to create curved daggers called jambiya, which are presented
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 7

to Yemeni boys at age 12, and are considered a sign of manhood and devotion to the muslim

religion”(Rhino Horn Use: Fact vs. Fiction, 2010) . Though the market for rhino horn art pieces

is large, the rhino horn is mostly poached and sold for the use medicinal products. In China rhino

horns have been used in medicine since the 15th century, with its properties believing to be able

to cure fevers, rheumatism, gout, snake bites, hallucinations, typhoid, headaches, carbuncles,

vomiting, food poisoning, and devil possession. Rhino horns are also believed to be aphrodisiacs

in western medicine(Richard Ellis, 2005). Rhino horns have not proved to actually cure any of

these ailments, often if there are results they are merely caused by the placebo effect. Rhino horn

is in fact just keratin, the same thing fingernails and animals hooves are made of, all which have

no medicinal properties. Whether rhino horns have medicinal properties or not, the testimony of

those supposedly healed by these horns and the hope for a cure has driven demand for rhino horn

up exponentially.

Commercial Breeding for the Black Market

“Wildlife species that are bred in captivity for commercial purposes make some products

widely available, which drives up consumer demand and increases poaching in the wild” (Sharon

Guynup, 2017). China and Vietnam are among the leaders in commercial breeding of animals,

many which are either threatened or endangered. This practice of commercial breeding is often

sanction by the governments of these countries. The China State Forestry Administration both

oversees and promotes this commercial production and breeding of the wildlife. The

governments of these Asian, and eastern countries and their conjunctive organizations claim that

commercial breeding and its policies encourage wildlife protection, but these governments have

economic stakes in the business which create an inherent conflict of interest. The business also
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 8

has a conflict, as the industry claims that through legal breeding and selling wildlife, they are

curbing the illegal trade of wildlife and poaching, but “conservation seeks to preserve

biodiversity for future benefits of all citizens, and farmers, those who breed, seek profit and

personal gain”(Education For Nature: Vietnam”, 2011). Commercial breeding and the illegal

selling of endangered animals to the black market has caused the loss of species before, the

Javan rhino having become all but extinction with around 50 remaining, and a continuation of

endangered species commercial breeding will become a shortcut to extinction, and the trade has

the potentiality to stimulate more demand for the animals by the black market and its consumers.

(“Commercial Farming and Trade in Endangered Species in Vietnam”, 2016) Furthermore, the

legal trade of commercially bred species that are considered endangered hinders the law

enforcement efforts of agencies. When both legal and illegal wildlife products are present in the

market, it leads to confusion for the agencies and law enforcement members and a uncertainty of

which products are illegally sourced and which are not, which ultimately allows poachers and

criminals to import poached goods and bypass the laws in place for such activities.

The Rising Death Toll

​The increasing rampant poaching problem, especially in areas of Africa such as Kenya

and other Asian countries, has caused the death toll of horned and tusked animals to steadily

increased over the last three decades. The decimation of these animals represents “not only the

depletion of a precious and irreplaceable wildlife, but a threat to the livelihoods of tens of

thousands of ordinary Kenyans who rely on the tourist industry they(the animals) generate.”

(“Kenya Endemic Poaching Problem”, 2013). Along with the thousands of horned and tusked
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 9

animals killed from acts of poaching, human life is lost as well, as the fight against poaching has

become a war zone where no one wins in the end.

The Animal Life Expense

The African elephant lives primarily in sub-saharan Africa, west african rainforests and

the Sahel desert in Mali. The African elephant population has dropped by 62% over the last two

decades, the alarming rate of death among the elephants, especially in Africa, lead to the

conclusion that elephants may be extinct in the next decade. There are almost 100 African

elephants killed by poachers every day for their ivory tusks, skin, meat, and bones, leaving only

an estimated 40,000 african elephants alive ( World Elephant Day, 2018). The Asian elephants

occupy 13 different countries across Asia including eastern Himalaya in northeast India,

Chineses provinces of Xishuangbanna, Simao, and Lincang of southern Yunnan, Bangladesh,

Chittagong Hills, Mymensingh, and Nepal. These elephants have three subspecies, including the

Indian, Sumatran, and Sri Lankan. The Asian elephants are threatened by both poaching and

habitat loss with less than 35,000 wild asian elephants alive (“WWF; Asian Elephants”, 2018) .

At the turn of the 20th century there were an estimated million African elephants and nearly

100,000 asian elephants, but as of 2018 the population numbers have declined over 50%.

Rhino’s also are highly affected by poaching with only five subspecies of rhino left in the world.

The southern white rhinos, which are found in east and central Africa and south of the Sahara,

population is less than 20,000. The black rhino and its four subspecies; the eastern rhino,

southwestern rhino, the south central rhino, are found in the deserts of Namibia and the Acacia

savannahs, only have a population of 5,000. The Indian rhino, found in southern Nepal, northern

west Bengal, and the Brahmaputra Valley, has two subspecies, the Javan rhino and the sumatran
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 10

rhino. The Javan rhino has only 63 living specimens and the Sumatran rhino population has

dropped to just 100 living specimens. Of all five species of rhinos there is only an estimated

30,000 alive left in the wild (“live science”, 2016). Though elephants and rhinos are often the

most affected horned and tusked animals that are threatened by poaching, there are several other

regions across the world that are home to endangered animals caused by the epidemic of

poaching. In North America the elk is poached for its antlers supposed medical properties, the

bighorn sheep is poached for its pelt and horns as trophies, the white tailed deer is also poached

for its antlers, and the walrus is poached for the ivory of their tusked. In Central America, the

white tailed deer and the red brocket deer are both poached for their antlers and pelts, along with

the great horned guan. In Sub-Saharan Africa the ions, great kudus, elands, impala, duiker,

reedbuck, and bushbuck are also poached along with rhinos and elephants for their body parts

(Worldwatch Institute, 2018). Though poaching has declined in some areas such as South Africa

and Tanzania, the rate of which animals are being poached and killed cannot be sustained by the

population left of these affected animals.

The Human Life Expense

Sean Willmore, president of the International Ranger Federation and Founder of the

Thin Green Line Foundation, estimates that , “about 2 rangers are killed each week, but that the

number could be higher. This number signifies individuals employed as anti-poaching rangers by

profession, not military personnel or other individuals that might take part in group air

operations.”( Challender, D.W. and Macmillan D.C., 2014). With the increase of poaching, an

increase of both organization,sophistication and weapons have been seen among criminal

organization and rings of poaching. In response to the increased poaching activity, rangers and
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 11

counter poaching organizations have also improved security, weapons, and equipment, creating

an arms race between the poachers and the rangers. The use of firearms on both sides are

leading to both deaths of those taking part in illegal poaching and those trying to stop them. One

of the more extreme methods of anti poaching is often referred as the militarisation of

conservation, which is the movement to arm rangers and use military grade technology and

battlefield tactics to deter poaching. Included in this new approach is a shoot on sight policy for

people caught poaching. Khamis Kagasheki, the minister of Natural Resources in Tanzania, has

been promoting this policy since 2013, and in December 2016 Namibia’s anti-poaching police

were given government orders to “return any and all fire on poachers if they are fired upon.”

These policies have led to several poachers having been killed in shootouts in these regions (“No

mercy for poachers”, 2016). In many parts of Asia and Africa, poachers sneak onto reservations

to poach the endangered species, but if they are caught in the act, the guards or rangers tasked

with protecting the reservations will use deadly force to protect the animals on the reservation.

The guards and rangers become judge, jury, and executioner when dealing with poachers,

especially if the poachers open fire on the rangers. “Rangers have killed hundred of poachers,

often spurred by the shoot-on-sight policies that have become normal in several parks. Between

2011 and 2015, rangers at South Africa’s Kruger National Park alone reportedly killed nearly

500 poacher.” (“South African Park Rangers Have Reportedly Killed 500 Poachers in the Past

Five Years,” 2015). Poachers have also killed more than 100 wildlife rangers in Asia and central

Africa over the last year of 2018 in clashes with illegal hunters. Forty eight more rangers were

also killed due to accidents, which are often caused by the lack of training given to the rangers

combined with the deadly weapons they are armed with to protect themselves and the
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 12

endangered animals. The human death total of both poacher and ranger shows a increase from

the last several years, with a total of 871 wildlife rangers or guardians having been killed in the

line of duty since 2009 (International Ranger Federation and Thin Green Line Foundation,

2018).

The Tourism Business

Poaching not only kills both animals and humans, but it also kills tourism for the affected

areas. Tourism is a major source of income for both locals and the countries as a whole,

including South Africa, Tanzania, and Kenya. The tourism in Africa, for example, brings in a

revenue of over $43.6 billion in U.S. dollars, which accounts for over 8.1% of Africa’s total

gross domestic product(GDP)(“African Tourism”, 2015). In Tanzania, the tourism generated by

wildlife viewing has been concluded to have played a major role in reducing poverty and raising

its economy, (N. Luvanaga, J.Shitundu, 2003), accounting for 14% of the gross domestic product

in 2014 and is expected to rise by at least 6.6% annually for the next ten years (World Travel and

Tourism Council, 2015). Rhinos and elephants are major attractions for South Africa and Asian

countries, and with the reduction of these species and other endangered wildlife in these areas

and the animals behavioral changes to avoid poachers,such as migrating the herds and no longer

frequenting certain watering holes, diminishes the tourist chances of seeing the animals. Coupled

with the rising “encounters with poachers and armed anti-poaching patrols make tourists feel

unsafe and creates a bad image of a country or a destination and therefore fewer tourists are

willing or want to visit.” (“Negative Impact of Poaching on Tourism”, 2017). With the decrease

in tourism, many countries are now facing possibility of economic downturn and a reappearance

of poverty, especially in Tanzania. There is also a high chance of a tourist boycott due to local
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 13

poaching which would have a detrimental effect on countries and local communities economies,

because without the draw of the exotic animals, tourists would not want to visit these areas,

which in turn would affect restaurants, hotels, rentals, and other tourist attractions.

Local Tribes

Local tribes found in Africa and Asia are affected negatively by both poaching and

conservation. Local tribes, especially in Botswana, are becoming displaced from their ancestral

lands, and often being accused of poaching on lands that are now considered reservations, but

that they have been hunting on for generations. In areas such where tribes are trying to maintain

their livelihood among conservation efforts, like the tribes living on the central Kalahari game

park reserve, they are meeting resistance caused by these conservation efforts. Many ancient

hunting grounds are now off limits to these tribes, tribes that only hunt for survival and use all

parts of the animal. The tribes hunters are now being prosecuted as poachers and more often than

not shot and killed, as according to the shoot on site policy.The government of countries where

there are conservation land disputes use the guise of conservation as a way to force the

indigenous people off of their land, to free up space for their own ventures, like opening up a

major diamond mine (“The tribes paying the brutal price of conservation”, 2016).The tribes are

also being forced off of their lands for reservation parks and tourism. Though conservation is the

goal, it must be able to work with those that rely on the natural resources of the areas.

Environmental and Species Impact

An ecosystem provides habitats for species of all kinds, and in turn, the animals that live

in the ecosystem help keep these environments alive and perform functions essential for the

survival of the habitats. The environments and natural habitats of these endangered animals are
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 14

affected by poaching. Poaching of one species has detrimental effects on all surrounding

species.The Earth needs various species of flora and fauna in the environmental ecosystems so

that diverse areas can maintain a healthy and balanced habitat. A study conducted by Duke

University researchers analyzed more than 158 independent studies involving elephant poaching

and how it impacts surrounding habitats. “Without intervention to stop poaching, as much as

96% of Central Africa’s forests will undergo major changes in tree-species composition and

structure as local populations of elephants are extirpated, and surviving populations are crowded

into ever-smaller forest remnants.”(“Elephant Poaching Impacts the Entire Ecosystem”,

John.Poulson, 2018). Smaller elephant populations are also found to coincide with “documented

irregularities in tree seed dispersal and nutritional levels among the flora,”and the habitats can

become overgrown with invasive undergrowth, as there are no elephants and or rhinos to clear it.

There is even a possibility that the lack of large elephant populations will affect the nitrogen

availability for the trees of the animals habitats, as elephants are a main source of the

transportation of nitrogen for trees to use as resource for growth. Without the proper amount of

nitrogen, the population of trees will decrease (Anthony Bouchard, 2018).

Current Laws and Regulations

“Poaching is the illegal hunting, killing, capturing or taking of wildlife violating local or

international wildlife conservation laws.” (US Legal, 2018). In the U.S. the act of illegal animal

poaching is done primarily for commercial profit or as sport. The laws in place are enforced by

game wardens and state troopers in more rural areas on the country, much like in parts of Africa

and Asia. Laws and the severity of the punishment for breaking these laws vary from country to

country, but all share the common goal of deterring poaching. Botswana’s laws focus primarily
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 15

on “bans on animals, trophies, meat, and articles made out of trophies without proper permits or

in violation of the terms of a license permit.” Penalties of violation are subject to a minimum

2,000 pounds, and possible prison time, if the violator has multiple past convictions and if certain

tools such as bear traps, deadly assault weapons, or a vehicle were used in the act. Central

African Republics(CAR) laws have a more direct framework to protect elephants and to deter the

ivory trade, but it does allow for certain hunting activities with permits or special permission. If

one was to be caught and convicted of poaching they would be facing fines and imprisonment.

The laws in the Central African Republic are enforced by multiple government agencies. Kenya

has a similar set of laws to Botswana and Central African Republic, their framework criminalizes

not only wildlife poaching, but also the importing, exporting, dealing in, and transferring illegal

animal trophies. Again the penalties are fines, prison time, and also the confiscation of any and

all tools used to commit the crime, as well as any trophies or animals themselves. Unlike the

other two countries Kenya has a single government institute, Kenya Wildlife Services(KWS)

dedicated towards enforcing the laws and regulation. In South Africa the laws are more similar to

national legislation enforced by an Environmental management institute. These legislations

prohibit “restrictive activities, including hunting, selling, transferring, importing, or exporting

any threatened or protected animals without a permit.” The job of enforcement of these

regulations fall upon government officials employed by the environmental management

inspectorate, which puts the power of inspection, search and seizure, and arrest powers in the

hands a select few. Mozambique's laws are slightly less encompassing as they allow hunting in

determined areas and require hunters to obtain license, but only protect a very few animals. For

those that are persecuted are automatically punished with three days in prison and a fine, but
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 16

wildlife trafficking is not criminalized. Tanzania has possibly the most fragmented management

and law system. Tanzania has three different laws controlling poaching: “the wildlife

conservation act, the national parks act, and the forest and resource management and

conservation act. All three criminalize poaching.”( “Wildlife Trafficking and Poaching”, Library

of Congress, 2015) Each act has varying degrees of penalties including jail time and fines, by are

often determined by the type of animal being poached. The agencies that enforce these jointed

acts are a collection of several organizations all dedicated to different areas of the country. The

agencies include the Wildlife Authority, the Forest Authority, and the Board of Trustees of the

Tanzania National Parks. Some of these agencies are in charge of search and seizure, and arrest

authority, while others are in charge of prosecution(“Wildlife Trafficking and Poaching; Library

of Congress”). While each of these countries have there own set of legislation to combat the

poaching crisis, there is not a decisive cohesion among any of these countries. Even in the

countries there is a lack of communication and agreement, with disjointed acts and very seldom

are there set precedents or a standard of punishment. The enforcement agencies are also lacking

in often manpower, training, and organization. The actual job of arresting, investigation, and

persecution can be given to just one person or span multiple agencies. Even with the legislations

in place, poaching continues to increase because of the lack of unity and efficient enforcement.

The Future

At this very moment there are over hundred rhinos and elephants being killed by

poaching. That number continues to grow each day as the demand grows larger for the bones,

skin, horns and tusked for their use as trophies, art, sport, and medicinal purposes. It is not for a

lack of trying that poaching has not diminished. The laws in place, such as Kenya’s
POACHING AND THE IVORY TRADE 17

criminalization and high fines and Tanzania's fragmented but highly encompassing laws are the

perfect framework for a set of laws that have cohesiveness and are applicable for all countries

affected by poaching. The laws, if combined together, will only work if a enforcement method is

created, one that is more organized than any of the current singlar organization in different

countries, one unit organization dedicated to conservation and given the proper training need to

help save these endangered species and protect themselves and others. If countries can create

their own connected network against poaching, one to rival the criminal network of poachers,

then the impending decimation of the horned and tusked animals may not be an inevitable, but

only if countries are willing to work together.

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