Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dcn

Sensory reactivity, empathizing and systemizing in autism spectrum

conditions and sensory processing disorder
⁎
Teresa Tavassolia, , Lucy Jane Millerb,c,d, Sarah A. Schoenb,d, Jennifer Jo Broute, Jillian Sullivanf,
Simon Baron-Coheng
a
School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6AL, UK
b
Sensory Therapies And Research (STAR) Institute, Greenwood Village, CO, USA
c
University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA
d
Rocky Mountain University of Health Professionals, Provo, UT, USA
e
International Misophonia Network (IMRN), Greenwich, CT, USA
f
Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
g
Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 8AH, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Although the DSM-5 added sensory symptoms as a criterion for ASC, there is a group of children who display
Autism spectrum conditions sensory symptoms but do not have ASC; children with sensory processing disorder (SPD). To be able to
Sensory processing disorder differentiate these two disorders, our aim was to evaluate whether children with ASC show more sensory
Sensory symptoms symptomatology and/or different cognitive styles in empathy and systemizing compared to children with SPD
Empathy
and typically developing (TD) children. The study included 210 participants: 68 children with ASC, 79 with SPD
Systemizing
and 63 TD children. The Sensory Processing Scale Inventory was used to measure sensory symptoms, the Autism
Spectrum Quotient (AQ) to measure autistic traits, and the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient
(SQ) to measure cognitive styles. Across groups, a greater sensory symptomatology was associated with lower
empathy. Further, both the ASC and SPD groups showed more sensory symptoms than TD children. Children
with ASC and SPD only differed on sensory under-reactivity. The ASD group did, however, show lower empathy
and higher systemizing scores than the SPD group. Together, this suggest that sensory symptoms alone may not
be adequate to differentiate children with ASC and SPD but that cognitive style measures could be used for
differential diagnosis.

1. Background confirmed sensory reactivity symptoms in over 65% of children with

ASC (Tavassoli et al., 2016). The growing interest in sensory processing
The ability of the brain to receive, integrate, and respond to an differences in ASC is reflected by the most recent Diagnostic and
ongoing stream of external sensory information is critical for adaptive Statistical Manual (DSM-5) criteria for the condition, which now
responses to the environment. Individuals with autism spectrum include over- and under-reactivity to sensory input as well as sensory
conditions (ASC),1 however, often report unusual sensory symptoms craving. According to the new DSM-5, hyper-reactivity, over-reactivity
such as over-reactivity to sound or touch (Chamak et al., 2008; Grandin, here, is defined as an adverse response to sensory stimuli, hypo-
1996; White and White, 1987). Beyond anecdotal reports, question- reactivity, under-reactivity here, as an indifference to sensory stimuli
naires such as the Sensory Profile have estimated atypical sensory and sensory craving as an excessive desire for sensory input (A.P.A.,
features in over 90% of children and adults with ASC (Baird et al., 2006; 2013).
Crane et al., 2009; Dunn et al., 2002; Kern et al., 2007; Kientz and Atypical sensory symptoms, such as an adverse response to touch,
Dunn, 1997; Leekam et al., 2007; Tomchek and Dunn, 2007; Watling are not unique to ASC. Sensory over- and under-reactivity are reported
et al., 2001; Wiggins et al., 2009). A recent observational study also across many neurodevelopmental conditions including Obsessive-

Abbreviations: ASC, autism spectrum conditions; AQ, autism spectrum quotient; EQ, empathy quotient; TD, typically developing; SPD, sensory processing disorder; SQ, systemizing
quotient
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: teresa.tavassoli@gmail.com (T. Tavassoli).
1
DSM-5 uses the term ‘Autism Spectrum Disorders’ (ASD) but we opt to use the less stigmatizing term ‘Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC)’ which is now increasingly used in Europe.
We have not amended the term ‘disorder’ in relation to SPD because the recognition of SPD is still too new and this still requires the relevant discussions to be had within that community.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.05.005
Received 29 July 2016; Received in revised form 27 April 2017; Accepted 13 May 2017
1878-9293/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Tavassoli, T., Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.05.005
T. Tavassoli et al. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Compulsive and Related Disorder (OCD) (Dar et al., 2012; Levit-Binnun combined with a lower drive toward empathizing (Baron-Cohen, 2008).
et al., 2013). A growing number of clinicians also have proposed Clinical observation of children with SPD suggests they have fewer or
atypical sensory symptoms in children be categorized with the diag- less severe social and communication impairments than children with
nostic term Sensory Processing Disorder, or SPD, with a number of ASC but to our knowledge, these cognitive styles have yet to be
subtypes within the diagnosis (Miller et al., 2009). SPD, originally examined in the SPD population. Since clinical observation of children
conceived as sensory integration dysfunction (Ayres, 1969), is reported with SPD suggests they have fewer, less severe social and communica-
to affect between 5% (Ahn et al., 2004) and 16% (Ben-Sasson et al., tion impairments than children with ASC and are not as strongly
2009a,b) of the general child population. SPD has been acknowledged attracted to lawful domains, we predicted that SPD children would have
in some diagnostic classification guides (Classification:0-3R, 2005), but average empathy and average systemizing profiles. We also predicted
not others (e.g. the DSM-5). We also use the suggested term of Sensory that there would be a relationship between these cognitive profile and
Processing Disorder (SPD) here to refer to children who have sensory sensory symptomatology across groups.
processing difficulties. In summary, the goals of this study were to determine if children
Diagnostic confusion exists between ASC and SPD due to the lack of with ASC can be distinguished from children with SPD based on a)
research investigating the distinctness of SPD and because many of their sensory reactivity symptoms and b) cognitive styles, specifically
defining symptoms overlap. For example, an “apparent lack of interest empathy and systemizing. Improved sensory and cognitive phenotyping
in… engaging in social interactions” is part of the diagnostic criteria for is an essential first step towards reducing diagnostic confusion between
the under-responsive subtype of regulation disorders of sensory proces- ASC and SPD.
sing in the DC:0-3R, which is very similar to the DSM-5 criteria for ASC
which includes “absence of interest in peers”. Only a few studies have
directly compared children with ASC and SPD (Schoen et al., 2008). 2. Methods
One study used the Sensory Challenge Protocol, in which children are
presented with different sensory stimuli while electrodermal activity is Data were collected on-line via two websites: www.
measured, and the Sensory Profile, a parent report questionnaire (Dunn, cambridgepsychology.com for parents of a child with SPD, and www.
1999; Schoen et al., 2009): children with ASC showed significantly autismresearchcentre.com for those with a child with ASC. Both portals
lower physiological arousal levels than the SPD group and the SPD led to identical versions of the tests. The SPD group were recruited via
group showed significantly higher reactivity in response to sensory the Sensory Processing Disorder Foundation (USA) website. Parents
stimuli than the ASC group. In addition, the Short Sensory Profile could choose a convenient time to complete the on-line tests, and could
revealed group differences, with both children with ASC and SPD log out between tests. The study had approval from the Psychology
showing more sensory symptoms compared to typical developing Research Ethics Committee of the University of Cambridge and the
children. Examining the differences more closely, children in the ASC Institutional Review Board at Rocky Mountain University of Health
group showed more taste/smell reactivity and more sensory under- Professions.
reactivity compared to the SPD group, while sensory craving behaviors
were more common in the SPD group compared to the ASC group
(Schoen et al., 2009). Brain-imaging studies have also investigated the 2.1. Participants
differences between SPD and typically developing children and children
with ASC, finding white matter abnormalities in children with SPD The study included 210 participants, of whom 68 had ASC, and 79
compared to typically developing children (Owen et al., 2013) and had SPD, and 63 were typically developing children (TD) (see Table 1).
differences in white matter tracts between ASC and SPD (Chang et al., Parents completed on-line questionnaires and information concerning
2014). This more recent study further found that both groups showed their child’s diagnosis, sensory symptoms and cognitive styles, specifi-
less connectivity in sensory related tracts but that only the ASC group cally empathy and systemizing. In the ASC group parents had to
showed difficulties in socioemotional-related tracts (Chang et al., indicate that their child was given a diagnosis of ASC. To screen for
2014). Following these few studies, the first aim of this study was to autistic traits the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Child (AQ-Child) was used
examine the sensory similarities and differences between children with (Auyeung et al., 2008). Criteria for inclusion into the ASC group were
ASC and SPD using the Sensory Processing Scales Inventory (Schoen an AQ of 26 and above and a diagnosis of ASC in a recognized clinic by
et al., 2008). a psychiatrist or clinical psychologist using DSM-IV (1994) criteria. The
In addition to sensory symptoms, children with ASC display social criterion for inclusion in the SPD and TD group were an AQ of 25 or
and communication difficulties alongside unusual repetitive behavior below (i.e. below the risk cut-off) and no previous diagnosis of ASC.
and restricted interests (A.P.A., 1994, 2013). Sensory symptoms are Children who had a comorbid diagnosis of SPD and ASD were excluded
likely associated with core features of ASC and may underlie some of from the analysis. For the SPD group, parents indicated if their child
the deficits associated with the condition e.g. repetitive behaviors ever received clinical evaluations suggesting SPD, or Sensory Integra-
(Boyd et al., 2010), as well as some of the strengths e.g. attention to tion Disorder. Sensory symptoms were assessed using the Sensory
detail (Baron-Cohen et al., 2009). The way in which sensory stimuli Processing Scale Inventory including questions concerning Sensory
from the world around us is perceived has an impact on our behavior Over-Reactivity, Sensory Under-Reactivity, and Sensory Craving. Cog-
and cognition and impairments in how sensation is processed and nitive styles were assessed using the child version of the Empathy
experienced can lead to varied and multiple problems in daily life and Quotient (EQ) and the Systemizing Quotient (SQ).
mental health (Ben-Sasson et al., 2013; Dar et al., 2012; Liss et al.,
2006). Therefore, a second aim of the current study was to investigate Table 1
whether children with ASC can be differentiated from SPD by their Number, sex ratio and age of participants. Mean scores, respective standard deviations
cognitive styles, specifically in terms of empathy and systemizing. (SD) and significance of group differences are also shown. Abbreviations; ASC = Autism
Spectrum Conditions, SPD = Sensory Processing Conditions, TD = Typically Developing.
Empathy comprises the drive to identify another person’s emotions
and thoughts (the cognitive component), and the appropriate emotional ASC SPD TD
response (the affective component) (Baron-Cohen, 2008; Chakrabarti
and Baron-Cohen, 2006). Systemizing is the drive to analyze or N (m/f) 68 (57/11) 79 (48/31) 63 (34/29)
Age in years 8.5 (2.4, 5–15) 7.5 (1.9, 5–12) 7.6 (2.4, 4–15)
construct rule-based systems, whether mechanical, abstract, or any
(SD, age range)
other type (Baron-Cohen, 2008). Studies have shown that individuals AQ (SD) 15.9 (6.5) 19.9 (5) 38.44 (5.3)
with ASC have the tendency to show a greater drive toward systemizing

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T. Tavassoli et al. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

2.2. Measures Table 2

Sensory Processing (Sensory Over-Reactivity/SOR, Sensory Under-Reactivity/SUR and
Sensory Craving), Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ) scores in
2.2.1. Autism spectrum quotient (AQ)
children with ASC, SPD and typical developing children (TD). Mean scores, respective
The child version of the AQ (Auyeung et al., 2008) is a short, 50- standard deviations and significance of group differences are also shown.
item questionnaire measuring autistic traits, with 5 subscales (social
skills, attention switching, attention to detail, imagination and com- SOR SUR Craving EQ SQ
munication) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001). A score of 0 was assigned to
ASC 22.9 8.2 10.9 14.3 28.4
the responses ‘definitely agree’ and ‘slightly agree’ and a score of 1 for (12.6) (5.0) (7.0) (8.3) (9.4)
‘slightly disagree’ and ‘definitely disagree’. Total scores could therefore boys 24.9 8.6 11.5 13.4 28.3
range from 0 to 50, with higher scores indicating more autistic traits. (12.4) (5.1) (7.2) (7.0) (9.1)
Results from the AQ have been replicated cross culturally (Hoekstra girls 13.9 6.7 8.0 20.5 28.3
(9.0) (3.9) (5.8) (12.5) (7.6)
et al., 2008; Wakabayashi et al., 2004) and across different ages
SPD 19.2 5.5 10.4 29.7 20.2
(Auyeung et al., 2008; Wakabayashi et al., 2007; Wheelwright et al., (9.4) (4.3) (6.7) (9.9) (8.1)
2010). The AQ also shows good test-retest reliability (r = 0.78) (Baron- boys 20.6 5.7 11.5 28.0 20.6
Cohen et al., 2001). (8.6) (4.1) (6.0) (9.3) (8.6)
girls 17.2 5.2 8.7 32.0 17.2
(10.3) (3.9) (7.4) (10.6) (10.3)
TD 11. 8 3.3 5.4 33.6 22.11
2.2.2. The sensory processing scale (12.7) (4.3) (6.5) (4.2) (8.1)
The Sensory Processing Scale (SP Scale, now called the Sensory boys 10.5 3.9 5.1 31.9 22.1
Processing Three Dimensions Scale (SP3D)) (Miller and Schoen, 2012; (10.9) (4.7) (6.9) (11.3) (7.3)
girls 13.3 2.7 5.8 34.7 21.2
Schoen et al., 2008) has two parts: an inventory report-measure,
(14.5) (3.7) (6.3) (12.1) (7.3)
completed by parents, caregivers or self, and a performance measure Group Difference 14.1 17.0 11.5 60.1 14.8
or assessment, administered by an examiner. Only the inventory was F score (p) (0.0001) (0.0001) (0001) (0.0001) (0.0001)
administered in this study, specifically the subscales regarding Sensory
Under-Reactivity (SUR; e.g., Typically my child does not notice strong
odors; 30 items), Sensory Over-Reactivity (SOR; e.g., These smells bother 3. Results
my child, e.g. soap; 76 items), and Sensory Craving (SC; e.g., My child has
a constant desire for swinging; 37 items). The SP Scale reflects sensory The statistical software package SPSS 20 was used to analyze the
reactivity including over-reactivity, under-reactivity and sensory crav- data. To correct for multiple comparisons, Bonferroni corrections were
ing across all sensory domains (tactile, visual, olfactory, auditory, used. There was no significant difference in age between groups
vestibular, proprioception and gustatory). Previous research on the (p > 0.05). The ASD group had significantly higher scores on the AQ
Sensory Over-Reactivity (SOR) subscale showed high internal consis- compared to the SPD and TD group (p = 0.0001). The SPD group had a
tency reliability within each domain (Cronbach’s a = 0.65–.88; significantly lower AQ score compared to the ASD group (p = 0.0001)
(Schoen et al., 2008)). In addition, the SOR inventory has strong and a significantly higher AQ score than the TD group (p = 0.0001).
discriminant validity, distinguishing between individuals with and
without SOR within each domain (p < 0.05–.001) and strong con- 3.1. Sensory symptoms
current validity with the sensory sensitivity and sensory avoiding
dimensions of the Sensory Profile (r = 0.47, p < 0.01) (Schoen To analyze sensory symptoms, a MANOVA was performed with
et al., 2016; Schoen et al., 2008). Cronbach’s alpha levels ranged from group as fixed factor and all sensory subscales (Sensory Under-
0.69 to 1.00 and intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.82 to Reactivity, Sensory Over-Reactivity and Sensory Craving) as dependent
1.00 (Lane et al., 2010). All have been shown to differentiate between variables. Using Pillai’s trace, there was a significant effect of group on
individuals with and without sensory problems. Each item is scored as a the amount of atypical sensory behaviors (F (3,190) = 9.0,
‘1’ if the parent ticks yes on the item. The number of questions on each p < 0.0001) (see Table 2). Post hoc pairwise comparisons were next
Inventory varies by subscale: SOR = 76 items, SUR = 30 items, conducted to explore group-level differences. For the SUR subscale, the
SC = 37 items. Total scores are then computed for each subtype, with ASD group scored higher than the SPD group (p = 0.02), who in turn
higher scores reflect a greater number of atypical sensory symptoma- scored higher than the TD group (p = 0.01). On the SOR subscales, the
tology. ASC and SPD groups did not significantly differ from one another
(p = 0.19), but both scored significantly higher than the TD group
(p < 0.01). Both children with ASC and SPD also showed higher scores
2.2.3. Empathy quotient (EQ) and systemizing quotient (SQ) on Sensation Craving compared to TD children (p < 0.01), but did not
The child version of the EQ and SQ were used (Auyeung et al., differ from each other (p = 0.99) (Fig. 1).
2009). The 27 EQ items measure how easily the child can pick up on
other people's feelings and how strongly they are affected by other 3.2. Empathy and systemizing
people's feelings (e.g. “My child likes to look after other people.” “My child
is often rude or impolite without realising it”). The 28 SQ items assess the Regarding cognitive profiles, the EQ and SQ scores for typical
child’s interest in systems (e.g. My child is interested in understanding the developing children were in the average range as reported by Auyeung
workings of machines (e.g. cameras, traffic lights, the TV, etc.”). Together et al. (2009). An MANCOVA was conducted with group as fixed factor
these are assessed on a single 55-item questionnaire, the child EQ-SQ. and EQ and SQ as the dependent variables. Sex was entered as a
The parent is asked to indicate how strongly they agree with each covariate, since there is a reported sex difference in EQ scores for
statement as a description of their child. Response options are the typical developing children (Auyeung et al., 2009). Using Pillai’s trace,
following: ‘definitely agree’, ‘slightly agree’, ‘slightly disagree’, or there was a significant effect of group (F (2, 205) = 31.3, p < 0.0001)
‘definitely disagree’. Both agree responses are scored as 0, and both and sex (F = 5.4, p = 0.005) on EQ and SQ scores. Tests of between-
disagree responses are a 1, with some items reverse-scored and the subject effects showed that groups differed on the EQ and SQ scores (see
items summed by subscale. Higher scores indicate a greater empathiz- Table 2 and Fig 1). Sex had an effect on EQ scores (F = 7.9, p = 0.005),
ing or systemizing drive. The test-retest reliability of this scale is high girls scoring higher than boys, but not on SQ scores (F = 1.6,
(ICC = 0.86) (Auyeung et al., 2009). p = 0.20). Children with ASC showed lower EQ scores compared to

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T. Tavassoli et al. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

atypical sensory symptoms, but this did not hold in the ASC group
(r = 0.20, p = 0.12).

4. Discussion

Sensory reactivity is a new DSM-5 criterion for Autism Spectrum

Conditions (ASC). However, children who do not have ASC can also
suffer from sensory reactivity symptoms as well—children with the
suggested diagnostic term of Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD). The
current study tested whether there are sensory and/or cognitive
features that distinguish ASC from SPD. Children with ASC or SPD
showed more sensory symptoms than typical developing children, as
predicted. The ASC group was the most affected group overall, showing
Fig. 1. Sensory and cognitive symptoms in children with ASC, SPD and TD. The bars
represent combined sensory processing scale (SP scale) scores, Empathy (EQ) and
significantly greater symptoms of sensory under-reactivity than both
Systemizing Quotient (SQ) scores for children with ASC (Autism Spectrum Conditions), the TD and SPD groups, although they did not differ from the SPD group
children with Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD), and typical developing children (TD). on sensation craving or sensory over-reactivity symptomatology. Thus,
Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals for the mean. On the SP Scale, high given the overlap in sensory symptoms in ASC and SPD, sensory
indicates greater impairment. On the EQ high indicates more empathy, and on the SQ a symptoms alone are not adequate to differentiate these two groups.
high score indicates greater systemizing. All groups differed on sensory symptoms and
In terms of cognitive style, children with ASC had difficulty in
empathy. Children with ASC showed highest sensory symptoms, lowest empathy and
highest systemizing scores compared to children with SPD and TD children. Children with
empathy alongside good systemizing skills, versus children with SPD,
SPD and TD did not differ in regards to systemizing. who had lower systemizing skills but greater empathy compared to
children with ASC. Typical developing children had no heightened
children with SPD (p < 0.001) as well as TD children (p < 0.001). sensory symptomatology and average levels of parent-reported empa-
Children with SPD scored marginally lower than TD children on the EQ thy and systemizing. Children with SPD also had average levels of
(p = 0.06). Children with ASC scored higher than both other groups on empathy and systemizing. This suggests that empathy and systemizing
the SQ (p = 0.001), children with SPD and typical developing children are useful cognitive dimensions for differentiating ASC from SPD and
showing similar mean scores (p = 0.60). has implications for improving diagnostic accuracy, especially for the
new DSM-5.
Taken together children with ASC showed the greatest sensory
3.3. Correlations symptomatology and lowest empathy. Children with ASC showed lower
parent-reported empathy compared to children with SPD. In children
Correlations were calculated between EQ, SQ and all sensory scales with ASC the underlying disability to empathize may explain the social
combined (Sensory Total, maximum score of 143). Across groups, the and communication difficulties (Baron-Cohen, 2008; Baron-Cohen
EQ score was negatively correlated with the Sensory Total score et al., 2002). Given that in our current study individuals with higher
(r = −0.52, p = 0.01), as well as within each group independently empathy scores had fewer sensory symptoms, difficulties of under-
(ASC: r = −0.33, p = 0.001; SPD: r = −0.46, p=0.001; TD: standing others might also impact the amount of sensory symptoms in
r = −0.48, p = 0.001). In other words, individuals with higher children with ASC or vice versa. Children with SPD, who have not been
empathy scores had fewer sensory symptoms (see Fig. 2). The SQ was characterized on empathy beforehand, had slightly lower empathy
not correlated with total sensory symptoms in any group nor across the scores than typically developing children. In corroboration, while
groups. children with SPD in the current study scored below the cut-off on
The AQ was correlated with total sensory symptoms in the SPD the AQ, they also had significantly higher scores compared to TD
(r = 0.52, p = 0.001), and TD (r = 0.57, p = 0.001) groups, suggest- children. Indeed, therapists and parents have reported that children
ing that greater autistic symptomatology is associated with more with SPD often have difficulty in the behavioral and emotional
domains, particularly with regard to emotion regulation (Miller,
2006). When barraged by sensations that others would not notice such
as a loud shopping mall, a child who is over-reactive to sensory stimuli
might for example feel overloaded and exhibit dysregulated behavior.
By the time a child with SPD enters school, relationships may be
compromised and they may present with emotional and behavioral
problems. Consequently, empathy may be impaired in SPD because
these challenges make it difficult to respond appropriately to another
person’s emotions. Future studies are needed to test if and how sensory
reactivity problems affect social cognition and behavior or might
represent a risk factor regarding establishing healthy foundation for
emotional development, early relationships, and emotional maturity.
Furthermore, the total numbers of sensory symptoms and social
features were associated with one another across groups, specifically
with greater sensory symptoms predicting lower parent-reported em-
pathy. Even though children with SPD had augmented empathy scores
compared to children with ASC, their scores were lower than the TD
group. The association between sensory perception and social cognition
is long known. In an early stage of development, infants seek physical
contact and learn via their senses to form an attachment to their
Fig. 2. Correlation between sensory and empathy in typically developing children (TD) caregiver. Bowlby (1958, 1969, 1988, 1989) argued that through
and children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASC) and Sensory Processing Disorder attachment, the infant develops mental representations that become
(SPD). Higher empathy scores were correlated with fewer sensory symptoms. templates for future relationships. However, attachment models do not

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T. Tavassoli et al. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

take into consideration the dysregulating effect of atypical sensory Acknowledgments

reactivity. An effective and appropriate reaction to sensory stimulation,
such as speech sounds, visual facial cues, and social touch, is especially The authors declare that they have no competing interests. We
important in order to attend to and decipher social cues and respond thank the participants for taking part in this study and Carrie Allison for
flexibly (Ben-Sasson et al., 2009a,b). Future studies should investigate helping with recruitment. TT was funded by Autistica, the Wallace
what effect sensory reactivity issues have on social skills, attachment Research Foundation, and the Autism Science Foundation during the
and later development. period of this work. SBC was supported by the MRC UK and the Autism
Limitations of this study include that it was a self-selected sample Research Trustduring the period of this work.
and data was collected online. Using an online survey allowed us to
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