Definition
The lift coefficient (CL or CZ) is a number to relate the lift generated by an airfoil, the
dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the airfoil, and the planform area of the airfoil.
Lift coefficient may be used to relate the total lift generated by an aircraft to the total
area of the wing of the aircraft. In this application it is called the aircraft lift
coefficient CL.
CL: Coeficient of Lift, L: Lift, p: Density, v: TAS, c: Mean Chord
Load Factor
Load factor (aerodynamics), is the vector expressed by the ratio of the resulting
mass force acting on an aircraft and the weight of the aircraft
Load factor (aviation), the ratio of revenue passenger miles to available seat miles
of a particular flight.
Load factor is Lift divided by the total weight.
CG = Total Moment
Total Weight
Moment = Weight x Arm
Aspect Ratio is the ratio of the Span of an airplane wing to its Mean, or average, chord.
Density Altitude is the altitude in standard air where the density is the same with existing
density. It is affected by pressure, temperature, and moisture content of the air.
A decrease of pressure and increase of temperature both will decrease the density of
the air and increase Density Altitude.
Effect of high Density Altitude; a greater takeoff TAS is required to provide the needed
lift and the engines efficiencies are reduced and acceleration rate is slower than at low
Density Altitude.
One G Stall Speed or Unaccelerated stall speed or Vs1g is the speed at which
maximum lift coefficient is generated under 1 G condition that is the load factor is
unity.
VSA is accelerated stall speed
VS is unaccelerated stall speed
N is the Load Factor ( In G's)
Vsa = 140 ( B737NG) X 1.41 (Sq.RT 60 Deg) = 198 Kts.
Dutch Rolls is a combination of yawing and rolling motion, which is the yaw is not to
significant, but the roll is more noticeable and also proceed with reverse rolling motions.
To solve the problem is to make a gently opposite counter rolling movement. The Dutch
will be more significant on higher altitude with a constant weight.
V speeds are speeds that define certain performance and limiting characteristics of an
aircraft.
Vmca is aircraft minimum controlled speed during on the air incase a critical engine
failed and the aircraft still able to maintain flight path safely with bank angle not more
than 5 degrees.
Vmcg is aircraft minimum controlled speed during on the ground incase a critical engine
failed and the aircraft still able to maintain take off direction with max deviate from
center line of the runway not more than 30 ft.
Vmcg is a function of OAT and Pressure Altitude.
Balance Field Length is balance V1; witch is TODA is equal with ASDA.
Improved Climb technique is to improve WAT (Weight & Temperature) limited weight
during take off.
Mach Number is the speed at which an aircraft is traveling in relation with speed of
sound, or the ratio of the speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound.
Critical Mach Number is the speed of air over the wing reached the speed of sound and
shock wave may form at this point. This in turn will result in an increase of drag,
decrease of lift, movement of center pressure (aftward) and buffeting.
The Drift Down profile in a big jet may base on reducing weight by fuel jettison.
Max Range Cruise is the speed corresponding with the best cruise of angle of attack at
a given weight and optimum altitude which is the max fuel mileage can be obtained.
Long Range Cruise is the speed at a given altitude which is decreasing along with
reducing of fuel weight, but 99% of Max Cruise Range obtained and the speed is 10 to 15
Knots/ 0.1 M higher than Max Range Cruise.
FMC Cruise
Maximum Range Cruise (MRC) is the cruise speed used when fuel conservation
and range is of primary importance. This speed provides the maximum aircraft
range at optimum altitudes. MRC may be determined by entering Cost Index 0
into the FMC. The resulting ECON cruise speed will be MRC. MRC for the 744
is typically Mach .84.
Long Range Cruise (LRC) is the recommended speed to minimize trip fuel. LRC
is a speed that will provide 99% of the maximum fuel mileage but is slightly faster
than MRC..
Economy Cruise (ECON) is that cruise speed flown when a valid Cost Index
number is entered into the FMC (CI 0 to 9999). The ECON speed is flown to
minimize either the cost of fuel or cost of flight time. If a Cost Index 0 is entered,
ECON speed will attempt to minimize the use of fuel. If Cost Index 9999 is
entered, ECON speed will attempt to minimize the flight time.
Cost index = Time-caused costs in currency per flying hour = Direct Operational Cost
Fuel price in currency per unit of weight Fuel Cost
e.g.: CI = ($/Flying Hours)
(US¢/lb)
Air distance = ground distance multiplied by the ratio Average TAS/ (Average TAS
+/- Wind Component)
The direct operating cost of the airplane:
1. Cockpit crew
2. Cabin crew
3. Leasing costs of the airplane
4. Maintenance costs
5. Airplane material
6. Airplane maintenance work
7. Engine material
8. Engine maintenance work
9. Other costs
Winglet is some kind of a fence in the tip of a wing which is to prevent high press air
going up from underneath the wing to the lower pressure area in the upper of the wing.
Winglets are to reduce Induce Drag.
Reduced Thrust using assumed temperature is not permitted if the assumed temperature
is at or below flat rated temperature. Reduced Thrust is not more than 25% below the
max T/O thrust or assumed temperature not more than ISA + 40 C.
Derate Thrust is a semi permanent fix setting of an engine thrust below max thrust in
purpose to prolong the engine live and saving the maintenance cost. Derate setting is
depending on the operational requirement for each company.
Unlike reduced thrust, derates are not subject to certain limitations such as
contaminated runway, anti-skid inoperative, landing gear extended.
It is necessary to publish specific performance data tailored to that derate to flight crew.
When the takeoff weight is Vmcg limited when using maximum rating, it may be
beneficial to use derate because of the lower Vmcg speeds.
A de-rate is a semi-permanent engine fix, used to reduce the maximum thrust available;
for instance down to 20k from 22k on – B737/700's. It is also used to equalize the thrust
where B2 & C1 engines are mixed on the same airframe. When an engine is de-rated,
the full (un-de-rated) thrust is no longer available because this would require changes to
the EEC, HMU, fuel pump, engine ID plug and the loadable software; non of which can
be done by the pilot in-flight.
Super Stall is a stall condition in an airplane with T tail plane and tail mounted engine.
The stall is happened due too wing wake turbulence strikes the elevators, which is
destroy effectiveness of the elevator, so the elevator ineffective to recover the stall. Super
stall is difficult to recover; it will take longer time to recover.
Inertial Navigation System is a typical inertial navigation system integrates the
information gathered from a combination of gyroscopes and accelerometers in order to
determine the current state of the system.
Gyroscopes measure the angular velocity of the system in the inertial reference frame.
INSs have angular and linear accelerometers (for changes in position); some include a
gyroscopic element (for maintaining an absolute positional reference).
IRS is Inertial Reference System operated by gyroscopic in a gimbals ring and
accelerometer. IRS is an independent navigation system which is not depends to external
navigational aid. The weakness of IRS is during long haul flight it will become
inaccurate, unless it able to be updated by receiving VOR/DME or GPS signals.
INS is Inertial Navigation System
How does an IRS system works?
IRS system contains of a laser gyro gimbals assembly, which are senses airplane
attitude displacements in pitch, roll, yaw, and axes. It is contain also an accelerometer
that senses all vertical and horizontal acceleration/velocity…………
TCAS is Traffic Collision Avoidance System.
TCAS I provides proximity warning.
TCAS II provides traffic and resolution advisories.
Each pilot, who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a TCAS advisory, is
expected to notify ATC and expeditiously return to the ATC clearance in effect prior to
the advisory, after the conflict is resolved.
Sequences of Emergency Descend; Oxy mask 100%, Com established, Closed Out
Flow valve by manual, Seat Belt & No Smoking on, check for air leak, if still leak
announce Emergency Descend, Start Switch/Ignition On, Thrust closed, Speed brakes
deployed, descend at direction of 45 or 90 degrees from the track, max speed Vmo to
10000ft or MORA, which ever is higher, Squack 7700 and call Pan, Pan, Pan.
MEA is the Minimum Enroute Altitude, which is the lowest altitude for an aircraft to fly
within 5 nm safety corridor from both sides of the airway. MEA guarantee 1000 ft
vertical clearance for non mountainous area and 2000 ft clearance above mountainous
area. The minimum MEA is 2000 ft.
MORA is the Minimum Off- Route Altitude, which is the lowest altitude for an aircraft
to fly with safety corridor 10nm from both sides off the airway. MORA will guarantee
vertical clearance 1000 ft above obstacle at 5000 ft or below and 2000 ft above obstacle
more than 5000 ft. The Lowest MORA is 2000 ft.
MSA is the Minimum Safe/Sector Altitude, which is the lowest altitude to maintain
within 25 nm from the Navigation facility MSA guarantees 1000 foot above the highest
obstacle in those sectors.
"Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) is the navigation system computed accuracy
with associated integrity for the current FMC position."
"Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is a statement of the navigation
performance necessary for operation within a defined airspace" (Adapted from accepted
ICAO definition of RNP)
ANP should always be less than RNP.
The critical engine of a multi-engine, fixed-wing aircraft is the one whose failure would
result in the most adverse effects on the aircraft's handling and performance.
Factors affecting engine criticality: Asymmetrical yaw
When one engine becomes inoperative, a torque will be developed which depends on
the lateral distance from the center of gravity (C.G.) to the thrust vector of the
operating engine multiplied by the thrust of the operating engine. The torque effect
attempts to yaw the aircraft's nose towards the inoperative engine, a yaw tendency which
must be counteracted by the pilot's use of the flight controls. Due to P-factor, the right-
hand engine typically develops its resultant thrust vector at a greater lateral distance
from the aircraft's C.G. than the left-hand engine. The failure of the left-hand engine
will result in a larger yaw effect via the operating right-hand engine, rather than vice-
versa. Since the operating right-hand engine produces a stronger yaw moment, the pilot
will need to use larger control deflections in order to maintain aircraft control. Thus, the
failure of the left-hand engine is less desirable than failure of the right-hand engine, and
the left-hand engine is critical.
It is important to note, however, that this example depends upon both propellers turning
in the same direction (clockwise). Aircraft which have counter-rotating propellers do
not have a critical engine. On aircraft with counterclockwise-turning engines, the
right engine would be critical.
The operating right-hand engine will produce a more severe yaw towards the dead engine, thus making the
failure of the left-hand engine critical
P-factor, also known as asymmetric blade effect and asymmetric disc effect, is an
aerodynamic phenomenon experienced by a moving propeller with a high angle of
attack that produces an asymmetrical center of thrust
V1 is a critical engine failure recognition speed, which is at V1 the aircraft able to
continue the take off to reach 35 ft above the end off runway or abort the T/O and will
stop safely at the end of runway or stopway if avalaible. V1 should not less than Vmcg or
higher than Vr or Vmbe.
Vr is an initial rotation speed during T/O and minimum Vr is 1.05 x Vmca.
Vlof is the speed during first lift off the ground during T/O.
V2 is a speed at 35 ft above the runway during take off and V2 is should be no less than
1.2 Vs.
First Segment is a segment in take off, between the aircraft lift off ground until the
landing gears are completely retracted.
Second Segment is a segment after the landing gears are completely retracted until at
least 400 ft above the runway elevation and speed no less than V2 using take thrust.
Third Segment is an acceleration segment at min 400 ft started at the end off second
segment, to retract flaps and slats using take off thrust.
Fourth Segment is final segment, which is beginning at the end off third segment and
aircraft to climb to at least 1500 ft using Mac Continuous Thrust
CGCC is a system in an aircraft to optimize the position of CG during cruise by
balancing the fuel between aft and forward fuel tanks, so it will reduce the fuel trip.
Approach Ban is a procedure to start a missed approach at 1000 ft if the weather
changed to below minima and the aircraft still above 1000 ft or if the aircraft already
passing 1000 ft and the weather changed to below minima, the approach can be continued
until reached DH, before execute a missed approach.
Stabilized Approach
All flights must be stabilized by 1000’ above airport elevation and it is considered stable
if the following criteria are met:
- Aircraft in the correct flight path and only small changes in heading and pitch to
keep it
- Aircraft in the correct landing configuration and speed (max Vref+20 min Vref)
- Sink rate not more than 1000’/min and power not below min power for approach
- All briefings and checklist have been conducted
- An approach becomes unstable below 1000’ above airport elevation in IMC or
below 500’ above airport elevation in VMC requires an immediate go around
Wind shear encountered, immediately initiate missed approach and keep the last aircraft
configuration until clear of the wind shear and then clean up the aircraft.
The formula of converting degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit vv.
F = (9/5 x C) + 32 and C = 5/9 x (F – 32)
B 737 Thrust Power
B 737-200 Engine JT8D-9/9A Thrust14,500lb.st and Bypass Ratio1.04.
B 737-200 Engine JT8D-17R was up to 17,400lb.st. thrust.
Cockpit Resource Management is a method of improving the quality of Interpersonal
communication, Situation awareness, Decision making and Leadership to accomplish a
flying mission safely and efficient.
The objective of CRM is a good cockpit crew coordination and team work to accomplish
a flying mission safely and efficient.
1. Interpersonal skills are regarded as communications and a range of behavioural
activities associated with teamwork.
2. Cognitive (information processing) skills are defined as the mental processes used for
gaining and maintaining situational awareness, for solving problems and for taking
decisions.
3. Leadership is the ability to affect human behaviour so as to accomplish a mission
designated by the lead.
Good Pilot must have:
1. Good Commonsense is situational awareness and the way to anticipate, to judge and to
solve a situational problem. And also understandable the meaning of Priority scale.
2. Good Skill
3. Good Knowledge
4. Good Behavior; good interpersonal communication
5. Good Leadership
WIND-ALTITUDE TRADE Wind is a factor which may justify operations considerably
below optimum altitude. For example, a favorable wind component may have a
percentage effect on ground speed which more than compensates for the range loss.
Using the trade tables, it is possible to determine the break-even wind to maintain the
same range at another altitude. The tables make no allowance for climb or descent time,
fuel or distance, and are based on comparing ground fuel mileage.
Oscillatory stability, that is stable Dutch roll, is defined as the tendency of an airplane
when disturbed, either directionally or laterally, to damp out the ensuing yawing and
rolling motion and return to steady flight.
Spiral Stability is defined as the tendency for an airplane, in properly of coordinated
turn, to return to laterally level flight on release of the ailerons.
Lateral stability, which is the tendency to return to laterally level flight on release of the
ailerons in sideslip.
A large fin improves oscillatory stability but degrades spiral stability.
AOA – Angle of Attack
A vortex generators is an aerodynamic surface, consisting of a small vane that creates a
vortex. Vortex generators are added to the leading edge of a swept wing in order to
maintain steady airflow over the control surfaces at the rear of the wing.
A vortex generator creates a tip vortex which draws energetic, rapidly-moving air from
outside the slow-moving boundary layer into contact with the aircraft skin. The boundary
layer normally thickens as it moves along the aircraft surface, reducing the effectiveness
of trailing-edge control surfaces; vortex generators can be used to remedy this problem.
Vortex generators delay flow separation and aerodynamic stalling; they improve the
effectiveness of control surfaces .
They are typically rectangular or triangular, tall enough to protrude above the boundary
layer, and run in spanwise lines near the thickest part of the wing. They can be seen on
the wings and vertical tails of many airliners. Vortex generators are positioned in such a
way that they have an angle of attack with respect to the local airflow.
Vortex generators are very effective in transonic flight since there is a lot of energy in
the free stream (it is supersonic after all.) To be effective the vortex generator must be
placed at the point where the shock wave will form. It will then help the boundary layer
get through the high pressure caused by the shock wave and thus reduced the negative
effects of the shock wave.
Stall speed. Indicated stall speeds will remain the same at all height. The Indicator Air
Speed, which is in it selfworked by the effect of air density, will record the same speed
when the airplane stalls as it did at ground level.
Mach tuck is an aerodynamic effect, whereby the nose of an aircraft tends to pitch
downwards as the airflow around the wing reaches supersonic speeds. Note that the
aircraft is subsonic, and traveling significantly below Mach 1.0, when it experiences this
effect.[1]
Shock wave on upper surface of wing moves rearwards as aircraft mach increases
Initially as airspeed is increased past the critical Mach number, the wing develops an
increasing amount of lift, requiring a nose-down force or trim to maintain level flight.
With increased speed, and the aft movement of the shock wave, the wing’s center of
pressure also moves aft causing the start of a nose-down tendency or “tuck.” If allowed
to progress unchecked, in an aircraft not designed for supersonic flight, Mach tuck may
occur. Although Mach tuck develops gradually, if it is allowed to progress significantly,
the center of pressure can move so far rearward that there is no longer enough elevator
authority available to counteract it, and the airplane could enter a steep, sometimes
unrecoverable dive.[2] In addition as the shockwave goes towards the rear, it can impinge
upon the elevator control surfaces and this can greatly exacerbate the nose down
tendency. Partly for this reason, supersonic and subsonic aircraft often have an all-
moving tailplane (a stabilator) which lacks separate elevator control surfaces.[3]
Recovery from a mach tuck is not always possible. In some cases as the aircraft
descends the air density increases and the extra drag will slow the aircraft and control
will return.
Mach Trimmer is an aircraft automatic system to counter act the nose down tendency by
moving the elevator upward, when center of lift over the wing move backward because of
airflow over the wing exceeds the speed of sound.
Increasing Critical Mach Number or Mcr
1.Swept wings increase Mcr
2 Thin wings increase Mcr (delta wings are inherently thin but strong wing design.)
3. Minimum airfoil camber increases Mcr
4. Vortex generators prevent drag and control loss due to airflow disruption over the
ailerons.
5. Trim able tail or Stabilizer minimizes risk of shockwave formation on the tail.
6. Boosted controls, or fly by wire, provide control force required to overcome high
forces.
Camber - the curvature of a wing. For the purpose of this computation, only the camber
of the upper surface (above the chord line) of the wing is considered
Dynamic hydroplaning. The tread of a rubber tire is designed to remove water from
beneath the tire, providing high friction with the runway surface even in wet conditions.
Hydroplaning occurs when a tire encounters more water than it can dissipate. Water
pressure in front of the wheel forces a wedge of water under the leading edge of the tire,
causing it to lift from the runway surface.
Viscous hydroplaning can cause complete loss of braking action at a lower speed if the
wet runway is contaminated with a film of oil, dust, grease, rubber or the runway is
smooth. The contamination combines with the water and creates a more viscous
mixture... more slippery. It should be noted that viscous hydroplaning can occur with a
water depth less than dynamic hydroplaning, and skidding can occur at lower speeds, like
taxiing to the gate during light rain, applying the brakes and rolling over an oil spill.
Rubber reversion hydroplaning is less known and is caused by the friction-generated
heat that produces superheated steam at high pressure in the tire footprint area. The
high temperature causes the rubber to revert to its uncured state and form a seal
around the tire area that traps the high-pressure steam. It is theorized that this condition
would occur on damp runways or when touchdown occurs on an isolated damp spot of a
dry runway, which results in no spin-up of the tires and a reverted rubber skid.
Iso-contour radar is a type of primary radar used for weather detection. Pulses of
radio waves are transmitted ahead of the aircraft in a sweeping motion and returns are
received from reflection of the radio waves off precipitation. Range is a function of
elapsed time between TX and RX, The steeper the contour gradient [on the display] the
greater the presence of precipitation including rain, wet hail and possible associated
turbulence and micro burst activity. [Hooks, scallops, fingers Etc.]
The ISO Echo Contour circuit provides for a black picture to appear on the PPI when
the signal return intensity reaches a preset level. The black areas on the scope then
represent the storm cores, the areas of greatest moisture density. By avoiding these
blacked out areas, the pilot can avoid the areas of greatest turbulence.
Microwave Landing Sytem or MLS has a number of operational advantages, including
a wide selection of channels to avoid interference with other nearby airports, excellent
performance in all weather, and a small "footprint" at the airports.
The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an extremely accurate navigation
system developed for civil aviation by the FAA.. The system augments the Global
Positioning System (or GPS) to provide the additional accuracy, integrity, and availability
necessary to enable users to rely on GPS for all phases of flight, from en route through
GLS approach for all qualified airports within the WAAS coverage area. The WAAS
specification requires it to provide a position accuracy of 7.6 meters or better (for both
lateral and vertical measurements), at least 95% of the time.
GPS/WAAS dramatically lowers the cost of implementing precision landing approaches,
and since its introduction most existing MLS systems in North America have been turned
off.
OMEGA was the first truly global radio navigation system for aircraft, operated by the
United States in cooperation with six partner nations. Each Omega station transmitted a
very low frequency signal which consisted of a pattern of four tones unique to the station
that was repeated every ten seconds. Omega was permanently terminated on September
30, 1997 and all stations ceased operation.
Q &A
What affects indicated stall speed? Weight, load factor, and power.
What is the purpose of a control tab?
Move the flight controls in the event of manual reversion.
What is the purpose of an anti-servo tab?
Prevent a control surface from moving to a full deflection position due to aerodynamic
forces.
Which direction from the primary control surface does an anti-servo tab move?
Same direction.
What is the purpose of a servo tab?
Reduce control forces by deflecting in the proper direction to move a primary flight
control.
Which direction from the primary control surface does a servo tab move?
Opposite direction.
Which is a purpose of wing-mounted vortex generators?
Reduce the drag caused by supersonic flow over portions of the wing.
How can turbulent air cause an increase in stalling speed of an airfoil?
An abrupt change in relative wind.
What effect does an increase in airspeed have on a coordinated turn while maintaining a
constant angle of bank and altitude?
The rate of turn will decrease resulting in no changes in load factor.
What is the relationship of the rate of turn with the radius of turn with a constant angle of
bank but increasing airspeed?
Rate will decrease and radius will increase.
If no corrective action is taken by the pilot as angle of bank is increased, how is the
vertical component of lift and sink rate affected?
Lift decreases and the sink rate increases.
Airflow separation over the wing can be delayed by using vortex generators,
making the wing surface rough and/or directing high pressure air over the top of the wing
or flap through slots.
In a light, twin-engine airplane with one engine inoperative, when is it acceptable to
allow the ball of a slip-skid indicator to be deflected outside the reference lines?
When operating at any airspeed greater than Vmca.
What criteria determines which engine is the "critical" engine of a twin-engine airplane?
The one with the center of thrust closest to the centerline of the fuselage.
Identify the type stability if the aircraft attitude remains in the new position after the
controls have been neutralized. Neutral longitudinal static stability.
Under what condition is VMC the highest?
CG is at the most rearward allowable position.
Identify the type stability if the aircraft attitude tends to move farther from its original
position after the controls have been neutralized.
Negative static stability.
Identify the type stability if the aircraft attitude tends to return to its original position after
the controls have been neutralized
Positive static stability.
What effect does landing at high elevation airports have on groundspeed with comparable
conditions relative to temperature, wind, and airplane weight?
Higher than at low elevation.
What will be the ratio between airspeed and lift if the angle of attack and other factors
remain constant and airspeed is doubled? It will be four times greater.
What true airspeed and angle of attack should be used to generate the same amount of lift
as altitude is increased? A higher true airspeed for any given angle of attack.
How can an airplane produce the same lift in ground effect as when out of ground effect?
A lower angle of attack?
What are some characteristics of an airplane loaded with the CG at the aft limit?
Lowest stall speed, highest cruise speed, and least stability.
What is the highest speed possible without supersonic flow over the wing?
Critical Mach number.
What is the movement of the center of pressure when the wingtips of a swept wing
airplane are shock-stalled first?
Inward and forward.
For a given angle of bank, the load factor imposed on both the aircraft and pilot in a
coordinated constant-altitude turn is constant.
What the relationship is between induced and parasite drag when the gross weight is
increased? Induced drag increases more than parasite drag.
At which speed will increasing the pitch attitude cause an airplane to climb?
High speed.
At what speed, with reference to L/Dmax does maximum rate-of-climb for a jet airplane
occur? A speed greater than that for L/Dmax
At what speed, with reference to L/Dmax, does maximum range for a jet airplane occur?
A speed greater than that for L/Dmax
A definition of the term "viscous hydroplaning" is where a film of moisture covers the
painted or rubber coated portion of the runway.
Which term describes the hydroplaning which occurs when an airplane's tire is effectively
held off a smooth runway surface by steam generated by friction? Reverted rubber
hydroplaning.
What effect, if any, does high ambient temperature have upon the thrust output of a
turbine engine? Thrust will be reduced due to the decrease in air density.
What indicates that a compressor stall has developed and become steady? Strong
vibrations and loud roar.
What recovery would be appropriate in the event of compressor stall. Reduce fuel flow,
reduce angle of attack, and increase airspeed.
Which procedure produces the minimum fuel consumption for a given leg of the cruise
flight. Increase speed for a headwind.
What can a pilot expect if the pitot system ram air input and drain hole are blocked by
ice? The airspeed indicator may act as an altimeter.
If both the ram air input and drain hole of the pitot system are blocked by ice, what
airspeed indication can be expected? No variation of indicated airspeed in level flight if
large power changes are made.
Which is a disadvantage of the one-step over the two-step process when deicing/anti-
icing an airplane?
More fluid is used with the one-step method when large deposits of ice and snow must be
flushed off airplane surfaces.
Which procedure increases holding time when deicing/anti-icing an airplane using a two-
step process? Heated Type 1 fluid followed by cold Type 2 fluid.
Test data indicate that ice, snow, or frost having a thickness and roughness similar to
medium or coarse sandpaper on the leading edge and upper surface of a wing can reduce
lift by as much as 30 percent and increase drag by 40 percent.
Freezing Point Depressant (FPD) fluid residue on engine fan or compressor blades can
reduce engine performance and cause surging and/or compressor stalls.
What is one limitation when filing a random RNAV route on an IFR flight plan?.
The entire route must be within radar environment.
What is the difference between a visual and a contact approach? A visual approach is
initiated by ATC while a contact approach is initiated by the pilot.
When a speed adjustment is necessary to maintain separation, what minimum speed
may ATC request of a turbine-powered aircraft operating below 10,000 feet 210 knots.
When a speed adjustment is necessary to maintain separation, what minimum speed
may ATC request of a turbine-powered aircraft departing an airport? 230 knots.
It is the responsibility of the pilot and crew to report a near midair collision as a result of
proximity of at least. 500 feet or less to another aircraft.
What is the maximum acceptable tolerance for penetrating a domestic ADIZ? Plus or
minus 10 miles; plus or minus 5 minutes.
TCAS I provides proximity warning.
TCAS II provides traffic and resolution advisories.
Each pilot, who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a TCAS advisory, is
expected to notify ATC and expeditiously return to the ATC clearance in effect prior to
the advisory, after the conflict is resolved.
An ATC "instruction"
is a directive issued by ATC for the purpose of requiring a pilot to take a specific action
providing the safety of the aircraft is not jeopardized.
What effect will an aft center of gravity have on true airspeed (TAS)?
Increase
This is the correct answer. An aft center of gravity will increase an aircraft's true
airspeed. As the center of gravity (CG) moves aft, less tail-down force is required from
the horizontal stabilizer. This decreases the angle of attack, and the resulting decrease
in induced drag causes an increase in speed.
High air temperature will have all of the following effects on aircraft performance
except _____.
Increased engine power output
This is the correct answer. As air temperature increases, the density of the air
decreases. This results in a lower volume of air being taken into the engine. Because
engines need air to atomize fuel, a lower volume of air means decreased engine
performance - not an increase in power output. Decreased engine performance will
result in both a lower-than-normal climb rate and a lower-than-normal absolute ceiling
- the altitude at which the airplane will no longer climb.
For the purposes of takeoff and landing data, speeds used in the performance charts -
such as Vr and approach speed - are based on what?
Weight
This is the correct answer. Takeoff and landing speeds are based on the weight of
the airplane. Just as a heavier plane has a higher maneuvering speed, it will also have
a higher liftoff and approach speed. This increase is caused by the need for a higher
speed to support the heavier plane at the takeoff and landing angles of attack.
Although you should consult your airplane's POH for an exact value, a good rule of
thumb listed in the FAA's Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge is to increase
takeoff and landing speed by 5% for each 10% increase in gross weight.
An increase in surface area of the wing, airspeed and air density will result in an increase in
lift.
An increase in all of the options listed will increase lift. Consider the Lift Equation: Lift
= (Coefficient of lift x 1/2 air density x velocity squared x wing area). Because the
velocity value is squared, a proportionate increase in airspeed will result in the greatest
increase in lift.
1 mb equal to 30 ft
.01 inch equal to 50 ft
