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Outside the Box:

Autumn, 2011

Foreign Language Center

Tsukuba University

Japan
Special Section: Discussing Geopolitics
• Prologue: The Origins of Geopolitical Thinking 7
Christian W. Spang
• An Introduction to Early 20th Century Geopolitics 8
Christian W. Spang and Igor Milovanovic
• The Pivot Moves Eastward: Mackinder and the Okinawa Problem 18
Naoto Aizawa and Christian W. Spang
• Civilizations in International Relations: Huntington’s Theory of Conflict 24
Nurlan Tussupov, Christian W. Spang, and Kuanish Beisenov
Theory and Other Dangerous Things
• Pragmatic Translation Choices Using Etsuo Iijima’s “On the Concept of the
Universal Ki-energy” 33
Jeroen Bode
• Loanword Associations and Processes 37
John P. Racine
Teaching Tips & Techniques
• The Language of Young People and its Implications for Teaching 46
Sachiho Mori
• Teaching Creative Writing in an ESL Context 50
Simon Kenny
• Collaboration Using Sentence Strips 55
Marshall Hughes
Around the World
• Travel Outside The Box 60
Shinichi Nagata
• Bangkok – The City Beyond Belief 64
Pariyapa Amornwanichsarn
Creative Writing
• Snow, Snow, Snow 69
Yuka Nishimura

2
 Special Section:
Discussing Geopolitics

6
 Civilizations in International Relations: Huntington’s Theory of Conflict
Nurlan Tussupov, Christian W. Spang, and Kuanish Beisenov
University of Tsukuba

Keywords: civilization, class, Cold War, criticism, Fukuyama, geopolitics, Huntington, Islam, Japan,
Mackinder, religion, Spengler
Introduction
After the end of the Cold War, many listed in the reference section of this paper. 3
scholars predicted the future course of world It should be kept in mind, though, that the
affairs. Arguably, the two most influential former Harvard professor had originally
views were Francis Fukuyama’s “The End of presented his thesis shortly after the end of
History” (1989) and Samuel P. Huntington’s the Cold War. Following more than four
“The Clash of Civilizations?” (1993). Both decades of ideological conflicts between
men later extended their argument and Capitalism and Communism, he was arguing
published books, in which they elaborated in his 1993 Foreign Affairs article, that the
their original theses further. 1 At first, there main source of future struggles would be the
was much debate going on between cultural divisions between civilizations rather
supporters and critics of both views, 2 yet a than ideology. 4
few years later, globalization, the Internet, In this paper we want to elucidate some of
and global warming attracted more interest the basic problems of Huntington’s concept
than theoretical discussions about an by assessing how valid his division of the
effectively unpredictable world future. world into a limited number of “civilizations”
This changed with the notorious 9/11 really is. We are skeptical if the eight
attacks in 2001, the subsequent military civilizations Huntington suggested are really
intervention in Afghanistan, and the Second homogeneous enough to be portrayed as units.
Gulf War. These developments revived While this might be the case for some, others
interest in Huntington’s thesis, leading to a seem to be far too heterogeneous. If this
new wave of critiques, some of which are assumption is accurate or if his partition is
unjustified, we would argue that the whole
Tussupov, N., Spang, C. W., & Beisenov, hypothesis loses much of its potential validity.
K. (2011). Civilizations in international Contents
relations: Huntington’s theory of conflict.
OTB Forum,4(1), 24-31. At the outset of his 1993 article,
Huntington claims that nearly all wars up to
the French Revolution had been based on
disputes among monarchs; most 19th century
conflicts were derived from tensions among
1
See the reference page, where the original articles nation-states, while 20th century hostilities
as well as the later books are listed. In this critique since the Russian Revolution were mainly
we are mostly concerned with Huntington’s original
1993 Foreign Affairs manuscript, though.
2 3
Chiozza, 2002, p. 711, summarized the effect of the We want to thank one of the reviewers of this paper
1993 article the following way: “According to the for drawing our attention to Bilgrami (2003),
editors of Foreign Affairs, the article that Huntington Chiozza (2002), Fox (2002), and Said (2001), all of
wrote in 1993 generated more discussion [...] than which provide valuable ideas, which we tried to
any other article they had published since the 1940s”. incorporate.
4
Rose/Hoge/Peterson compiled the most important One of Huntington’s most severe critics, Edward
contributions to the early discussion in a 1999 edited Said (2001, p. 2), calls Huntington himself “an
volume. A concise summary of the most important ideologist”. He sees Huntington as “someone who
strands within the heterogeneous group of critics can wants to make ‘civilizations’ [...] into shut-down,
be found in Fox, 2002, pp. 417-418. sealed-off entities”.
24
characterized by the struggle between what defines them. 6 In 1993, Huntington
incompatible ideologies (Communism, distinguished eight major civilizations. Yet,
Democracy, Fascism/National Socialism, etc.). he did not clearly specify the criteria he used
Huntington argues that future confrontations to do so. According to him, a civilization may
are going to be much less based on be characterized by a single religion (such as
ideological (or economical) differences but Islam or Hinduism), a nation (such as Japan),
derive from the cultural incongruity of a group of nations (such as “the West”) or
civilizations. With the end of the Cold War, even an entire continent (such as Africa). If
he states, the “principal conflicts of global we take a closer look at the (major)
politics will occur between nations and civilizations Huntington distinguished, we can
groups of different civilizations” and goes on see that the basic concepts and categories he
to formulate his key-argument: “the clash of applied are very heterogeneous.
civilizations will dominate global politics” 1. Western civilization (geographical category,
(Huntington, 1993, p. 22). subcategories: ideology, economics,
This being Huntington’s world view, it is politics)
surprising that he does not provide a clear
definition of “the nature of civilizations” 2. Confucian civilization (philosophical
(Huntington, 1993, p. 23). Instead, he concept, subcategory: geography)
describes the term rather vaguely as “the 3. Japanese civilization (ethnic category,
highest cultural grouping of people and the subcategories: geography, politics,
broadest level of cultural identity” possibly religion (Shintō)
(Huntington, 1993, p. 24 5). Huntington asserts
that after the end of the Cold War, many 4. Islamic civilization (religious concept)
people, having grown up in a dangerous but 5. Hindu civilization (religious concept,
easy to understand bipolar world, began subcategories: ethnicity, geography)
asking themselves, “Who are we?” In other
words, citizens were looking for a new 6. Slavic Orthodox civilization (linguistic and
common identity and ended up redefining religious concept, subcategory: geography)
themselves in cultural terms. Huntington later 7. Latin American civilization (geographical
clarified this point, saying that at a time of concept, subcategory: language(s))
crisis “people rally to those with similar
8. African civilization (geographical category,
ancestry, religion, language, values, and
subcategory: ethnicity).
institutions” (Huntington, 1996, p. 126). To
him, religious identity is one of the most Even though Huntington might not have
potent forces to form a coherent cultural unity, insinuated any ranking, the order in which he
which is – for example – not convincing in lists the civilizations elucidates a distinctly
the Western and Central European case, white American intellectual point of view.
where the schism between Catholics and Apparently without a second thought, he puts
Protestants has been a source of conflict for “the West” on top, while Africa comes last,
centuries but is now considered rather which is just one of many indications that
irrelevant in countries like Germany. Huntington is most concerned with the
Characterizing Civilizations
6
At first sight, Huntington’s idea seems Between 1934 and 1961, the British Historian Arnold
J. Toynbee, published A Study of History in 12 volumes.
easy enough to understand. However, we
Influenced by Oskar Spengler, he traces the
would argue that the main problem is how development of more than 20 major civilizations since
many civilizations exist and who as well as ancient times: Egyptian, Andean, Sinic, Minoan,
Sumerian, Mayan, Indic, Hittite, Hellenic, Western,
Orthodox Christian: Russia, Far Eastern: Japan,
5
Orthodox Christian: general, Far Eastern: general,
It is therefore no surprise that Edward Said (2001, Persian, Arabic, Hindu, Mexican, Yucatec, and
p. 1) criticized that Huntington’s whole argument Babylonic. He also mentions four so-called “abortive
“relied on a vague notion of something Huntington civilizations” as well as five so-called “arrested
called ‘civilization identity’.” civilizations”.

25
 Figure 1. The world according to Huntington
Note: The eight civilizations include (1) Western (dark blue), (2) Confucian (dark red), (3)
Japanese (bright red), (4) Islamic (green), (5) Hindu (orange), (6) Slavic Orthodox (medium-
light blue), (7) Latin America (purple), and (8) African (brown). The remaining colors indicate
countries which do not fit into Huntington’s system of eight major civilizations, most notably
Southeast Asia, Mongolia, and Turkey. Retrieved from http://tinyurl.com/ylxrbtv

“Western” civilization. At first glance “the in the case of the “Slavic Orthodox
West” appears to be a geographical category civilization”, Huntington reverts to two
but has, of course, much wider implications. jointly applied criteria: a branch of
Following this thinking, one would assume Christianity and a language group.
that other civilizations had some kind of Overall, the criteria to define Huntington’s
geographical denominations as well. Yet, this major civilizations are rather arbitrary, a point
applies only to some of the other civilizations, that Jonathan Fox (2002, p. 421-42) stresses
most notably the “African”, the “Latin by presenting various cases, which do not fit
American”, and arguably the “Japanese” ones. into this rather limited system. Huntington’s
The latter is the only example where a single entities certainly reflect cultural units, but
nation forms its own category. If narrowly they refer to different levels of self-
applied the “Confucian civilization”, similarly, identification. The use of incompatible
covers only one nation, and could therefore be criteria to define civilizations indicates some
called a pseudo-geographical category. Still, insufficiencies of such divisions. Furthermore,
Huntington does not call it “Chinese” but Huntington himself admits that they are not
“Confucian”, thus making it the only case all-encompassing even though some actually
where a philosophical concept is used to overlap considerably. If we just think about
define a civilization. the term “the West”, it becomes obvious that
“Islamic” and “Hindu” are examples where his world view is still based on the Cold War.
Huntington takes up religion as the basic Yet, there are obviously many layers of
principle to define civilizations. While this connotations involved with this terminology
seems to be rather convincing in the case of concerning culture, history, etc. The real
Hinduism because it is considered to be a question is if we can in fact talk about a
mono-ethnic religion, the same cannot be said unified “Western” civilization. Even between
about Islam as the main factor constituting a societies that seem to be close because they
distinct civilization. Along with Christianity are predominantly Christian, there are as
and Buddhism, it has to be considered a world many differences as similarities. If we
religion because people of various ethnicities randomly compare Finland or the Baltic states
and in different continents practice it. Finally, with New Zealand or Malta, this becomes
26
obvious. It is also perplexing to see that Spain civilization. Huntington was apparently aware
and Portugal fall into a different civilization of this problem: at one point he enumerates
than their former colonies in South and “Western, Latin American and Arab
Central America even though cultural, civilizations” but continues by referring to
political, and economic ties between the “Arab, Turkic and Malay subdivisions” of the
Iberian Peninsula and Latin America are still Islamic civilization (Huntington, 1993, p. 24).
strong. As Islam and Hinduism are singled out as
The African civilization is another example forming civilizations, it would seem logical to
of a vague and unclear category. It is call for a distinct Christian civilization as well.
impossible to determine any common feature However, Huntington elaborates on
applicable to all African states except the fact “Western”, “Latin American” and “Slavic-
that they are located in the same continent. In Orthodox” civilizations, without uniting them
other cases, Huntington asserts that into one entity. 8 Yet, the divide between the
civilizations are defined on the basis of 80-90% Sunni and the 10-20% Shia followers
religion or culture, yet in the case of Africa is at least as important to Muslims as the
there is no such linking factor. A look at the differences between Catholics, Protestants,
distribution of religions in Africa illustrates and Orthodox adherents are to Christians.
this. In the north of the continent, there are Another question that remains open within
some Arab states which are part of the Islamic Huntington’s system is the position of Israel
world, while in sub-Sahara Africa, and the Jews. Supposedly, Huntington
Christianity is the predominant religion, assumed they belong to “the West” (Fox,
which is depicted in the world map shown 2002, pp. 422-423), thus stretching this
above where Africa is actually divided in two concept to the limit.
parts, a fact which the recent establishment of Huntington refers to various aspects of
the predominantly Christian Republic of international relations, but his interpretations
South Sudan seems to aptly exemplify. From are sometimes biased, as the following
this, it follows that there is no unified statement clearly shows: “Islam has bloody
“African” civilization, which clearly shows borders” (Huntington, 1993, p. 24). Here we
that the usage of the geographical term can see again Huntington’s above-mentioned
“Africa” to denominate a distinctive decidedly white American point of view. He
civilization does not suffice. uses an incomplete picture to defend his
As for Huntington’s Islamic civilization, it concept. In fact, many confrontations on the
seems to be as diverse as the African or the edges of the Islamic world are not directly
“Western” one. Differences in lifestyle, related to issues of religion or civilization at
economic and political situation, and the local all. For example, the conflict over Nagorno-
culture of Muslims in Europe (mostly Albania, Karabakh has little to do with Azerbaijanis
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and being Muslims and Armenians being
Macedonia) 7, Asia Minor (Turkey), the Arab Christians. In fact, it is mainly a territorial
world, the Indian sub-continent, and dispute based on the fact that Nagorno-
Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei Karabakh is a predominantly Armenian-
etc.) are so huge that it seems to be a gross inhabited enclave in Azerbaijan. If
oversimplification to talk about one common
8
It is interesting to note here that Huntington
7
apparently did not group the Orthodox churches
Muslims also live in areas most people would not together but separated them into Eastern and Greek.
consider European, but which are officially part of In the map presented in the text above, however,
Europe: the westernmost region of Kazakhstan and Greece is shown in the same group as the Eastern
the northern part of Azerbaijan. Bosnia is dealt with Orthodox countries. Whether this reflects
by Fox, 2002, p. 424. He stresses Bosnia’s character Huntington’s idea correctly remains open to
as a melting pot where three civilizations closely discussion. Drawing the line between Western and
interact: Half of the population is made up by Eastern Europe, Huntington, 1993, p. 31, writes:
Moslem Bosniaks, while over one third are Slavic- “The Velvet Curtain of culture has replaced the Iron
Orthodox Serbs, and the remaining roughly 15% Curtain of ideology as the most significant dividing
Catholic and therefore “Western” Croats. line in Europe.”
27
Huntington’s statement about Islam holds up societies will help end this clash in a secular
to any critical scrutiny at all, it is not because direction” (Bilgrami, 2003, p. 92).
Muslims are aggressive or warlike people, but Another aspect that makes Huntington’s
because Islam is a widespread religion theory increasingly doubtful is the trend
practiced by more than 1.5 billion people towards ethnically heterogeneous societies.
worldwide, mostly spreading over the three By now only about 10% of states can be said
continents (Africa, Asia, Europe) that Sir to be more or less ethnically homogenous. 10
Halford J. Mackinder (1919, p. 194) used to In an Oxford University Press publication,
call the “World-Island”. Sujit Choudhry (2008, p. 5) therefore wrote
While the above-mentioned civilizations the following statement: “The age of the
encompass many diverse countries, the ethnoculturally homogeneous state, if ever
opposite is true for the “Japanese civilization”. there was one, is over.” The benevolent
Huntington does not provide any convincing influence of individuals to solve intercultural
reason why Japan forms a civilization of its problems is a further aspect Huntington pays
own. Instead he just writes: “Japan has little attention to. Yet, to take just one
established a unique position for itself (…). It example, a look at South Africa shows that
is the West in some respects but clearly not the country’s fast track out of the Apartheid
the West in important dimensions” regime, and thus back into the international
(Huntington, 1993, p. 45). The question community, would hardly be imaginable
remains why other Asian countries, such as without Nelson Mandela at the helm.
Korea, the Philippines, or Thailand are not Huntington (1993, p. 25) states that
given the same status in Huntington’s “civilization identity will be increasingly
system. 9 important in the future”, but it remains
unclear why he is so certain about this. Even
Homogeneity vs. Heterogeneity
if clashes will occur between the major
The key assumption of “The Clash of civilizations, the question remains why this
Civilizations?” would be applicable only if will be the case. Huntington explains this by
governments acted according to the (nowhere saying these differences refer to our most
specified) principal convictions of the “basic” understanding of life, which is of
civilization that their nation belongs to. course correct in some cases but does not
Nonetheless, supposing that a causal relation seem to be true in others. 11 Comparing
can be established between diverse “Western” and “Latin American” civilization,
civilizations and the handling of (armed)
conflicts, that link is far from being properly 10
See Welsh, 1993, p. 45. Out of roughly 180 states,
demonstrated by Huntington. On the one hand,
Welsh suggests that less than 20 can be interpreted
he plays down the differences between as homogenous because minorities make up less
peoples belonging to the same civilization and than 5% of their population. In the USA, the
on the other hand, oversimplifies international percentage of Hispanic, African, and Asian
relations by interpreting states as Americans is increasing, so that at some point in the
representatives of civilizations on the world not too distant future, their combined numbers will
stage. Against this, many critics argued that surpass 50% of the whole population. Japan is
considered to be a homogeneous nation, but even
conflicts are more likely to erupt within than
here, foreigners account for more than 1% of the
between civilizations. Akeel Bilgrami (2003, population. With the new government-sponsored
p. 88-89) for example describes the “clash “Global 30” program, which aims at attracting
within Muslim populations as a clash between 300.000 foreign students, this number is bound to
secularists and absolutists.” He concludes in rise further in the long run.
11
optimistic fashion that “sheer arithmetic Inglehart/Norris, 2003, point out that while the
suggests that democratization in Muslim World Values Surveys 1995/96 and 2000-2002
illustrate that Westerners and Muslims value
Democracy equally high (approval rates: 68% -
9
It remains unclear how many civilizations 68%), the real cultural divide can be seen in areas
Huntington sees in total. The only small civilization such as gender equality (82% - 55%), divorce (60%
he actually mentions is the “Anglophone Caribbean”. - 35%), abortion (48% - 25%), and homosexuality
See Huntington, 1993, p. 24. (53% - 12%).
28
for instance, it is hard to think about “basic” that the “kin-country syndrome” 12 that
differences. Huntington (1993, p. 25) takes Huntington refers to, is far from being a
the fact that “the world is becoming a smaller general rule. Muslim states have also fought
place” as another reason why the predicted each other as the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-1988
clashes are going to increase. Yet, growing or the participation of some (predominantly)
interactions between different civilizations Arab countries in the liberation of Kuwait and
might actually relieve tensions instead of the invasion of Iraq during the “Desert Storm”
creating them. His argument that religion is operation in 1991 show.
most important seems convincing, at first In some ways, Huntington’s overall idea
glance. Huntington (1993, p. 27) writes, “A and his focus on a balance of power between
person can be half-French and half-Arab and the civilizations reminds the reader of realist
simultaneously a citizen of two countries. It is international relations theory. 13 Indeed, his
more difficult to be half-Catholic and half- reference to “the West versus the Rest”
Muslim.” However, he fails to take two (Huntington, 1993, pp. 39-41) means that his
aspects into account. First, what seems to be world view can be interpreted as a set of
virtually impossible to Huntington is common bipolar relations, an idea that seems to be
in Japan, where many people practice both strongly influenced by the earlier binary Cold
Buddhism and Shintō. Second, while the War system. 14 Huntington (1993, pp. 31-32)
number of religious fanatics might be on the elaborates at some length on the history of
rise, the number of atheists may also grow, Western-Islamic conflicts. But his particular
thus potentially reducing this problem in the concern seems to be possible frictions
long run. between the West and the “Confucian-Islamic
Surely, some of Huntington’s observations military connection” (Huntington, 1993, pp.
are valuable but his conclusions are only one 48-49), a scenario that lacks any solid basis in
way of interpreting them. One reason for late 20th century international relations.
skepticism is the fact that the basic character Actually, many political alliances as well as
of his eight major civilizations remains conflicts have reasons that cannot be
unclear because his explanations do not get explained by the concept of civilizations, i.e.,
beyond statements of rather superficial they are not based on cultural or religious
cultural differences. Economic, political, or similarities or differences but on other – often
social factors seem to be either absent from geopolitical or economic – reasons.
his analytical framework or their connection
to his basic thesis is arbitrary. Generally, one
gets the impression that Huntington avoids
mentioning anything that does not support his 12
Huntington, 1993, p. 35 mentions H. D. S.
theory. As we have already stated, Huntington Greenway in relation with the “kin-country
asserts at the beginning of his article, that the syndrome”. In his 2006 New York Times commentary,
bloody conflicts that occurred within any “The ethnic card”, Greenway described the
given civilization during the 20th century phenomenon the following way: “But there is also a
were ideologically based. While this is true kin-country syndrome, in which nationals of one
country care deeply about the affairs of another
for the Chinese Civil War between
because of ties of blood, language or religion.
communists and the Kuomintang, most of the Consider Russia’s pro-Serbian sentiments when
numerous border disputes in Latin America or Yugoslavia fell apart, or the early recognition of
Africa cannot be said to be ideological. Catholic Croatia and Slovenia by Germany and
Furthermore, one has only to think about the Austria.” Retrieved May 13, 2011, from
infighting between many EU member states http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/09/opinion/09iht-
(most notably France and Germany) and the edgreenway.html
13
See Donnelly, 2000, for a discussion of this.
US administration of George W. Bush over 14
A very interesting comment in the same direction
the Second Gulf War or the European origins comes from Said, 2001, p. 2. Comparing
of both World Wars, to see that “the West” Huntington’s original article with the later book, he
has not always been a harmonious group. The wrote: “The basic paradigm of West versus the rest
World Wars are also an example that shows (the cold war opposition reformulated) remained
untouched [...] and has persisted”.
29
Conclusion data, Chiozza (2002, p. 711) and Fox (2002, p.
433) conclude similarly that “state
Despite much criticism, Huntington’s
interactions across the civilizational divide are
article has remained an object of attraction in
not more conflict prone” and “civilizational
academic as well as non-academic circles, and
conflicts constitute a minority of ethnic
it must be said that the term “civilization” is
conflicts both during and after the Cold War”.
widely used today. However, equipped with
Huntington’s 1993 article surely provides a
ill-defined concepts and at some points rather
thought-provoking academic hypothesis. If
selective use of data, Huntington’s claim to
taken at face value, it could even create a
explain the future of international relations
serious political problem. Were world leaders
fails to survive careful scrutiny because he
to adopt this somehow “messianic vision”
does not specify what factors are used to
(Bilgrami, 2003, p. 88), world peace could be
determine the eight major civilizations he
seriously threatened, and Huntington’s
presents. If one uses certain criteria in one
speculation could turn out to become a self-
case, the same or at least similar criteria
fulfilling prophecy: “The next world war, if
should be applicable in all cases. This kind of
there is one, will be a war between
consistency is lacking in Huntington’s
civilizations.”15 Huntington’s text should be
conceptual framework.
read as a stimulating paradigm of
His theory was developed in the early
international relations, representing the
1990s. Therefore, it is a good example of the
immediate post Cold War era, when –
discomfort experienced at that time by
according to Huntington (1993, p. 39) – the
politicians and scholars who had been busy
explaining the Cold War for their entire West was “at an extraordinary peak of power”.
professional life. Consequently, Huntington Huntington’s theory itself seems to be one of
presents a rather alarmist vision of the future, the results of this feeling of superiority. 16
in some ways comparable to Oswald
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