Occupational Medicine 2004;54:283–289

doi:10.1093/occmed/kqh072

IN-DEPTH REVIEWS

Occupational health hazards in mining: an

overview
A. M. Donoghue

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Abstract This review article outlines the physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic and
psychosocial occupational health hazards of mining and associated metallurgical
processes. Mining remains an important industrial sector in many parts of the world
and although substantial progress has been made in the control of occupational
health hazards, there remains room for further risk reduction. This applies
particularly to traumatic injury hazards, ergonomic hazards and noise. Vigilance is
also required to ensure exposures to coal dust and crystalline silica remain effectively
controlled.
Key words Asbestos; coal; ergonomic; heat; metallurgy; miliaria rubra; mining; noise; safety;
silica.
Received 13 February 2004
Revised 26 February 2004
Accepted 20 April 2004

Introduction today. These are: noise induced hearing loss, ergonomics,

respiratory disease and system safety/risk management.
Mining is an ancient occupation, long recognized as
being arduous and liable to injury and disease [1,2].
The lifecycle of mining consists of exploration, mine
development, mine operation, decommissioning and land Physical hazards
rehabilitation.
Mining is a multi-disciplinary industry, drawing on Traumatic injury remains a significant problem and
several professions and trades. To ensure precision in ranges from the trivial to the fatal [3,4]. Common causes
clinical and epidemiological work, it is important to of fatal injury include rock fall, fires, explosions, mobile
equipment accidents, falls from height, entrapment and
enquire about the details of tasks, as the term ‘miner’ is
electrocution. Less common but recognized causes of
relatively non-specific.
fatal injury include flooding of underground workings,
Mining is traditionally classified as metalliferous or
wet-fill release from collapsed bulkheads and air blast
coal, and as surface or underground. Metalliferous
from block caving failure. The systematic application of
mining can also be classified according to the commodity
risk management techniques has contributed to a
being mined.
substantial decline in injury frequency rates in developed
Some degree of minerals processing is usually
nations. Further improvement, however, is required to
undertaken at mine sites. For metalliferous mining, many
reach rates tolerable to the broader community. The
of the occupational health hazards relate to these
review by Joy in this issue (pp. 311–315) covers system
metallurgical processes and for this reason I will include safety and risk management in mining.
comments on metallurgical hazards. Noise is almost ubiquitous in mining. It is generated by
The In-depth Reviews in this issue are intended to drilling, blasting, cutting, materials handling, ventilation,
cover the topics that remain most important in mining crushing, conveying and ore processing. Controlling noise
has proven difficult in mining and noise-induced hearing
Alcoa World Alumina Australia, Applecross, Perth, WA 6953, Australia.
loss remains common [5,6]. The review by McBride in
Correspondence to: A. M. Donoghue, PO Box 252, Applecross, Perth,
WA 6953, Australia. Tel: +61 8 9316 5294; fax: +61 8 9316 5165; this issue (pp. 290–296) gives a detailed account of noise
e-mail: michael.donoghue@alcoa.com.au and noise-induced hearing loss in mining.

Occupational Medicine, Vol. 54 No. 5

© Society of Occupational Medicine 2004; all rights reserved 283
284 OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE

Heat and humidity are encountered in tropical prevalence of HIV infection among miners increases the
locations and in deep underground mines, where the risk. Prolonged exposure to crystalline silica can also
virgin rock temperatures and air temperatures increase cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [47,48].
with depth, due principally to the geothermal gradient There is some evidence for accelerated silicosis in
and auto-compression of the air column [7]. Fatal heat rheumatoid arthritis and of renal disease following
stroke has been a significant problem in the South African prolonged silica exposure [49,50]. There is also now good
deep underground gold mines and heat exhaustion evidence that prolonged exposure to crystalline silica
remains a contemporary problem in deep underground increases the risk of lung cancer [51].
mining [7–13]. Miliaria rubra, colloquially also known as Coal dust has also been a serious hazard in mining,
‘mucker’s mange’ is problematic in deep underground causing coal workers’ pneumoconiosis or ‘black lung’ and
mines [14]. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [52–69]. The risks

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Whole body vibration is commonly experienced whilst have now been largely controlled in developed nations by
operating mobile equipment, such as load–haul–dump dust suppression, ventilation and respiratory protection
units, trucks, scrapers and diggers. This can cause or [70,71]. Vigilance is, however, required to maintain
exacerbate pre-existing spinal disorders. Poorly main- effective control.
tained roads and vehicles contribute to the problem. Although largely historic in the developed world, the
Hand–arm vibration syndrome is also encountered mining and milling of asbestos has caused a legacy of
with the use of vibrating tools such as air leg rock drills asbestos-related diseases, which continue to occur today.
[15–19]. The review by Ross and Murray in this issue
Radon daughter exposure in underground mining has (pp. 304–310) gives a detailed account of respiratory
increased the risk of lung cancer, but is now generally diseases in mining.
controlled by mine ventilation [20–27]. Diesel particulate exposures occur in underground
Solar ultraviolet exposures in surface mining operations mines because of diesel powered mobile equipment, used
are likely to contribute to the occurrence of squamous cell primarily for drilling and haulage. Diesel particulate is an
and basal cell carcinomas, although this is an inference IARC Group 2A probable human carcinogen and several
drawn from studies of outdoor workers in other industries epidemiological studies from other industries suggest
[28–30]. Occupations involving substantial outdoor work there is an excess risk of lung cancer [72–83]. Control
appear not to be associated with an increased risk of
measures include the use of low sulphur diesel fuel,
melanoma [28,31–35].
engine maintenance and mine ventilation [84].
Infra-red exposures in pyrometallurgical processes
Arsenic is sometimes a contaminant of metal ores and
contribute to heat stress and may induce cataracts.
has been commercially extracted during copper smelting
Electromagnetic fields are encountered in electrolytic
with an accompanying risk of lung cancer [85–88].
smelting and refining processes.
Exposures to nickel compounds in some nickel
Barometric pressure is elevated in deep underground
refineries have been reported to increase the risk of lung
mines and reduced at high altitude mines in South
cancer and nasal sinus cancer [89–92]. However, these
America. Chronic intermittent hypoxia at altitude has
risks have declined substantially with improving hygiene.
been reported to induce physiological adaptations and
Several other metal ores, including those of lead,
symptoms of benign acute mountain sickness (AMS) in
cadmium, manganese, platinum and cobalt, present
mine workers [36]. High altitude pulmonary oedema
health hazards [93–97]. The risks are usually greatest
(HAPO) and high altitude cerebral oedema (HACO)
were not seen. Increased barometric pressures in deep during metallurgical processing, when air concentrations
mines increase air temperatures, increase convective heat exceed those experienced during mining of the ore.
exchange and reduce sweat evaporation rates [37]. Appropriate control measures are required.
Exposures to coal tar pitch volatiles in Soderberg
aluminium smelters have been reported to increase the
risk of lung cancer and bladder cancer [98–102].
Chemical hazards Occupational asthma has also been a problem in the pot
Crystalline silica has long been a serious hazard in rooms of aluminum smelters [103–105].
mining, with the risk of silicosis at its worst during dry Coal dust and methane gas explosions in underground
drilling late in the nineteenth century [38]. Silicosis coal mines remain a serious risk requiring comprehensive
has been subject to considerable investigation [39–46]. monitoring and management [106]. Some underground
Axial water-fed rock drills, wet techniques, ventilation, coal mines also have problems with carbon dioxide and
enclosed cabins and respiratory protection have largely hydrogen sulphide gas.
controlled silicosis in developed nations. However, Cyanide is used as a solvent for metals such as copper
silicosis remains a problem in developing nations and and gold in hydrometallurgical processes. Exposure to
silico-tuberculosis is important in Africa, where the high hydrogen cyanide gas can occur during cyanide solution
 A. M. DONOGHUE: OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS IN MINING 285

preparation. Skin splashes with cyanide solutions are been shown to cause impairments of cognitive and motor
hazardous, although the risk is minimized by the use of performance among drivers from other industries [116].
low concentration solutions. Cyanide solutions are The remote control of mobile equipment in
usually alkalinized to reduce the risk of hydrogen cyanide underground mining has been introduced to reduce the
gas being evolved on contact with water. risk of fatal injuries from rock falls. This has required
Xanthates are reagents commonly used in hydro- attention to cognitive ergonomic issues, many of which
metallurgical processes. They evolve carbon disulphide are similar to those found in metallurgical plant control
gas on combustion or on mixing with water. Suspected rooms. Proximity safety devices have also been developed
acute carbon disulphide toxicity has been reported during [117].
xanthate reagent preparation at a gold mine [107]. The review by McPhee in this issue (pp. 297–303) gives
Mercury is still used in some gold mining operations, a detailed account of ergonomic issues in mining.

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especially in developing nations, to extract gold through
the formation of mercury–gold amalgams [108–112].
Toxicity can result from inhalation of mercury vapour Psychosocial hazards
during preparation of amalgam, retorting or smelting Drug and alcohol abuse has been a difficult issue to deal
[108]. with in mining, but policies and procedures are now in
Hydrofluoric acid is used in the analysis of core
place in most large mining operations. Debate continues
samples taken during exploration drilling. about how to measure psychophysical impairment.
Smelting of sulphide ores produces sulphur dioxide Nevertheless, mining operations commonly require the
gas, which can cause acute bronchospasm.
measurement of urinary drug metabolites and breath
Irritant dermal exposures are common in mining and or blood alcohol on pre-employment and following
often result in dermatitis [3]. accidents.
Remote locations are common in mining. Massive
ore-bodies, such as those at Mount Isa in Queensland,
Biological hazards Australia that have been mined for 80 years, justify the
establishment of a city. Contemporary finds, however,
The risk of tropical diseases such as malaria and dengue
tend to be smaller and do not justify establishment of
fever is substantial at some remote mining locations.
permanent townships. As a result, there has been a trend
Leptospirosis and ankylostomiasis were common in
towards ‘fly-in-fly-out’ operations, with mine employees
mines, but eradication of rats and improved sanitation has
separated from their families and communities during
controlled these hazards effectively in the developed
work periods.
world [113].
Expatriate placements are also common in mining and
Cooling towers are commonly found on mine sites.
the associated psychosocial hazards have been reviewed
Regular microbiological analysis of the water is necessary
recently [118].
to detect Legionella contamination or high concentrations
Unfortunately, fatal and severe traumatic injuries
of other heterotrophic microorganisms [114].
continue to occur in mining and often have a profound
impact on morale. Post-traumatic stress disorders
sometimes develop in witnesses, colleagues and
Ergonomic hazards managers. Registered managers often feel personally
Although mining has become increasingly mechanized, responsible for such injuries, even in the absence of
there is still a substantial amount of manual handling. negligence, and face the ordeal of government inquiries
and legal proceedings.
Cumulative trauma disorders continue to constitute the
largest category of occupational disease in mining and
often result in prolonged disability [3]. Overhead work is
common underground, during ground support and Useful resources
during the suspension of pipes and electrical cables. This The South African Safety in Mines Research Advisory
can cause or exacerbate shoulder disorders. Broken Committee (SIMRAC) has recently published a book
ground is often encountered and can cause ankle and entitled Handbook of Occupational Health Practice in the
knee injuries. South African Mining Industry [119]. This is the most
Most mines operate 24 h per day, 7 days per week, so recent comprehensive book on the subject. The Mining
shiftwork is very common. There has generally been a Industry is a useful state of the art review, although it is
trend towards 12 h shifts in recent years. concerned primarily with respiratory conditions [120].
Fatigue in relation to shiftwork has been subject to Much of the material in Medicine in the Mining Industries
considerable investigation in the industry [115]. Sleep is now dated, but it remains a very useful reference [121].
deficits, which might be expected in hot locations, have The SME Mining Engineering Handbook and Australasian
286 OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE

Mining and Metallurgy are useful references for details of 2001–2002. Dickson, ACT: The Minerals Council of
mining and metallurgical processes [122,123]. Australia, 2002.
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accessible through the mining and minerals section of the and of their prevention in the gold mining industry. J S

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Steelynx website [124]. The Mines Safety and Health African Inst Mining Metall 1965;66:125–155.
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