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Special Edition 345

Medicinal Mushroom Science: Current Perspectives, Advances,

Evidences, and Challenges
Solomon P. Wasser1,2

The main target of the present review is to draw attention to the current
perspectives, advances, evidences, challenges, and future development of
medicinal mushroom science in the 21st century. Medicinal mushrooms
and fungi are thought to possess approximately 130 medicinal functions,
including antitumor, immunomodulating, antioxidant, radical scavenging,
cardiovascular, anti‑hypercholesterolemic, antiviral, antibacterial,
anti‑parasitic, antifungal, detoxification, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic
effects. Many, if not all, higher Basidiomycetes mushrooms contain
biologically active compounds in fruit bodies, cultured mycelium, and
cultured broth. Special attention is paid to mushroom polysaccharides. The
data on mushroom polysaccharides and different secondary metabolites
are summarized for approximately 700 species of higher hetero‑ and Prof. Solomon P. Wasser
homobasidiomycetes. Numerous bioactive polysaccharides or polysaccharide–protein complexes
from the medicinal mushrooms described appear to enhance innate and cell‑mediated immune
responses, and exhibit antitumor activities in animals and humans. Whilst the mechanism of their
antitumor actions is still not completely understood, stimulation and modulation of key host immune
responses by these mushroom compounds appear central. Polysaccharides and low‑molecular‑weight
secondary metabolites are particularly important due to their antitumor and immunostimulating
properties. Several of the mushroom compounds have been subjected to Phase I, II, and III clinical
trials, and are used extensively and successfully in Asia to treat various cancers and other diseases.
Special attention is given to many important unsolved problems in the study of medicinal mushrooms.
(Biomed J 2014;37:345‑356)
Key words: antioxidant activities, antitumor, β‑glucans, immunomodulating, medicinal
mushrooms, polysaccharides, secondary metabolites

T he use of mushrooms in traditional ancient therapies

dates back at least to the Neolithic age. For millennia,
mushrooms have been valued as edible and medical pro‑
Ancient oriental traditions have stressed the impor‑
tance of several mushroom species, namely, Ling Zhi or
Reishi [Ganoderma lucidum (W.Curt.:Fr.) P. Karst.] and
visions for humankind. Contemporary research has vali‑ Shiitake mushrooms [Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Singer].
dated and documented much of the ancient knowledge on Mushrooms have also played an important role in the treat‑
medicinal mushrooms (MMs). An interdisciplinary field ment of ailments affecting the rural populations of eastern
of science that focuses on MMs has been developed and European countries. The most important species in these
increasingly demonstrates potent and unique properties of countries are Inonotus obliquus (Pers.:Fr.) Pilát (Chaga),
compounds extracted from a range of mushroom species Fomitopsis officinalis (Vill.:Fr.) Bond. et Singer (wood conk
in the last three decades. Modern clinical practice in Japan, or agaricon), Piptoporus betulinus (Bull.:Fr.) P. Karst. (birch
China, Korea, Russia, and several other countries rely on polypore), and Fomes fomentarius Fr.:Fr (tinder bracket).[4,5]
mushroom‑derived preparations.[1‑4] These species are used in the treatment of gastrointestinal

From the 1Institute of Evolution and Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa,
Israel; 2 Department of Cryptogamic Plants and Fungi, N. G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine
Received: Apr. 30, 2014; Accepted: Jul. 17, 2014
Correspondence to: Dr. Solomon P. Wasser, Institute of Evolution and Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Faculty
of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa, Israel. 199 Abba Khousi Ave., Mount Carmel, Haifa 3498838, Israel. Tel: 972‑4‑8249218;
Fax: 972‑4‑8288649; E‑mail: spwasser@research.haifa.ac.il
DOI: 10.4103/2319‑4170.138318
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346 Solomon P. Wasser:

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disorders, various forms of cancers, bronchial asthma, night yet, perhaps only 10% of the named species are known to
sweats, etc., There is also a long history of traditional use science.[3,9‑10,11] An analysis of the localities from which fungi
of mushrooms as curatives in Mesoamerica (especially for new to science have been described and cataloged in the
species of the genus Psilocybe), Africa (Yoruba populations Index of Fungi in the last 10 years revealed that about 60%
in Nigeria and Benin), Algeria, and Egypt. A very special of all newly described fungi are from the tropics. This is also
role of fly agaric [Amanita muscaria (L.:Fr.) Pers.] is found the case for mushrooms, especially those species forming
in Siberia and Tibetan shamanism, Buddhism, and Celtic ectomycorrhizas with native trees, although new species
myths.[1,2,4,6] continue to be discovered in Europe and North America. In
Nowadays, MMs are used as: (A) Dietary food (world various tropical areas, 22‑55% (in some cases, up to 73%)
mushroom production was 30 million tons in 2012); (B) of mushroom species have not yet been described.[9,10,13] The
dietary supplement (DS) products (the market of MM DS approximate real number of the species of fungi existing on
products is quickly growing and has a value of more than earth can be 50 times higher than the data, based on recent
18 billion US dollars per year); (C) a new class of drugs calculations. Modern sequencing methods suggest that as
called “mushroom pharmaceuticals;” (D) natural bio‑control many as 5 million fungal species exist.[12] Therefore, we
agents in plant protection with insecticidal, fungicidal, would need more than 4000 years to describe this fungal
bactericidal, herbicidal, nematicidal, and antiphytoviral diversity based on the present discovery rate of about 1200
activities; and (E) cosmeceuticals, different compounds of new species per year in the last 10 years of data.[14] The data
MMs, including polysaccharides such as soluble β‑glucans, also show that we are familiar with approximately 1% of the
glucuronoxylomannan (GXM), sacchachitin, tyrosinase world fungal biota and only 10% of the world’s mushroom
and other enzymes, which are used by cosmetic companies biodiversity.[3,4]
for their film‑forming capability, activation of epidermal Specialists in taxonomy of some groups of MMs are fa‑
growth factor, antioxidative, anti‑allergic, antibacterial, and miliar with “known” species, but some of their biochemical
anti‑inflammatory activities, stimulation of collagen activity, and pharmacological properties remain hidden. The author[3]
inhibition of autoimmune vitiligo, and treatment of acne.[3,4,7] has summarized the data on approximately 700 mushroom
MMs are comparable to “medicinal plants” and can be species, with the pharmacological properties of 2000 known,
defined as macroscopic fungi, mostly higher Basidiomyce‑ safe species. It again shows that the present state of knowl‑
tes and some Ascomycetes, which are used in the form of edge presents the great potential of MM diversity.
extracts or powder for prevention, alleviation, or healing Mushrooms are currently evaluated for their nutritional
of diseases, and/or in providing a balanced healthy diet. value and acceptability, as well as for their pharmacologi‑
According to the definition of “herbal drugs,” dried fruit cal properties. They make up a vast and yet largely un‑
bodies, mycelia, or spores are considered “mushroom drugs” tapped source of new powerful pharmaceutical products.
or “fungal drugs.” Analogous to “phytopharmaceuticals” or In particular, and most importantly for modern medicine,
“herbal preparations,” the resulting preparations should be MMs present an unlimited source of polysaccharides
considered as “mushroom pharmaceuticals” or “mushroom (especially β‑glucans) and polysaccharide–protein com‑
preparations.”[8] plexes with anticancer and immunostimulating properties.
Fungi and mushrooms are extremely abundant
Many, if not all, higher Basidiomycetes mushrooms contain
worldwide and show diversity. Recent estimates of the num‑
many types of biologically active high‑molecular‑weight and
ber of fungi on earth show it to range from 500,000 to more
low‑molecular‑weight compounds (triterpenes, lactones,
than 5 million species, and the generally accepted estimate
alkaloids, and other compounds) in fruit bodies, cultured
was 1.5 million, according to a report published more than
mycelia, and cultured broth.[3,4,15‑17]
20 years ago.[9] To date, it is recommended that as many as
3 million species of fungi be accepted for general use.[10]
Current perspectives and advances
Meanwhile, currently 110,000 species of fungi of all kinds
have been described. The figure is based on the total obtained MMs and fungi are thought to possess approximately
by adding the number of species in each genus given in the 130 medicinal functions. Recently studied medicinal
last edition of the Dictionary of Fungi[11] published in pre‑ actions of mushrooms include antitumor, immunomodu‑
vious years,[10,12,13] and includes all organisms traditionally lating, antioxidant, radical scavenging, cardiovascu‑
studied by mycologists: Slime molds, chromistan fungi, lar, antihypercholesterolemic, antiviral, antibacterial,
chytridiaceous fungi, lichen‑forming fungi, filamentous anti‑parasitic, antifungal, detoxicating, hepatoprotective,
fungi, molds, and yeasts. Out of these, mushrooms constitute and antidiabetic effects. The best usage of MM drugs and
16,000 species, calculated from the Dictionary of Fungi MM DSs has been in preventing and t reating immune
published in previous years.[11] The number of mushroom disorders , especially in immunodeficient and immuno‑
species on earth is currently estimated at 150,000‑160,000; suppressed patients; they are also used for patients under

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chemotherapy or radiotherapy; in different types of cancers, A total of more than 40 million new cancer cases are
chronic blood‑borne viral infections of Hepatitis B, C, and predicted in the world for this year. The estimates reported
D, different types of anemia, the human immunodeficiency by WHO indicate that 84 million people will die of cancer
virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), between 2005 and 2015. Cancer is killing more people than
Herpes simplex virus (HSV), chronic fatigue syndrome, AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis together. Additionally, in
Epstein–Barr virus; for patients with chronic gastritis China and India (the most populated countries), cancer
and gastric ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori; and deaths are increasing, largely because of smoking, diet,
for patients with dementia (especially for Alzheimer’s and ecology problems. Globally, the number of deaths from
disease).[3,4,18‑20] cancer, according to WHO, is expected to reach 17 million/
Mushroom polysaccharides prevent oncogenesis, show per year in 2030.[27]
direct antitumor activity against various synergetic tumors, MM drugs and MM polysaccharide preparations from
and prevent tumor metastasis. Their activity is especially different mushroom species show positive results in treat‑
beneficial when used in conjunction with chemotherapy. ing cancers in vitro and in vivo. A new class of antitumor
The antitumor action of polysaccharides requires an in‑ MM drugs is called biological response modifiers (BRMs).
tact T‑cell component; their activity is mediated through BRMs have been used as a new kind of cancer treatment,
a thymus‑dependent immune mechanism. They activate along with surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.[3,4,23‑25,28]
cytotoxic macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, natural The major problem caused by cancer treatments, especially
killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells, and chemical messen‑ chemotherapy and radiotherapy, is damaging or weakening
gers (cytokines such as interleukins, interferons, and colony of the patient’s natural immunological defenses. MM BRMs
stimulating factors) that trigger complementary and acute treat cancers, focusing on improving the patient’s quality
phase responses. Also, mushroom polysaccharides can be of life, since they significantly reduce the side effects and
considered as multi‑cytokine inducers able to induce gene help overcome cancer growth. Most of them activate natural
expression of various immunomodulating cytokines and immune responses of the host and can be used as supportive
cytokine receptors.[3,21‑25] treatment for cancer prevention and, in some cases, alone
Cancer has probably always existed in mankind; it is with conventional therapies.
probably as old as life. Evidence of cancer was reported in Immunoceuticals isolated from more than 30 MM
a Neanderthal skull (35,000 BC) and in Egyptian and Incan species have demonstrated antitumor activity in animal
mummies.[26] Cancer is a broad term that includes hundreds treatments. However, only a few have been tested for their
of different types of diseases that can develop in the body. anticancer potential in humans. The few that have been tested
It is a generic term used for malignant neoplasms. are β‑d‑glucans or β‑d‑glucans linked to proteins. Moreover,
The new figures and projections of the global cancer the latter have shown greater immunopotentiation activity
burden presented in the new edition of the World Cancer than the free glucans. There are several clinical studies prov‑
Report[27] starkly highlight the problem: The incidence of ing the cancer inhibitory effects of L. edodes,[21,23,29] Grifola
cancer has increased from 12.7 million in 2008 to 14.1 mil‑ frondosa (Dicks.:Fr.) Gray,[30,31] Schizophyllum commune
lion in 2012, and this trend is projected to continue, with Fr.:Fr.,[24, 32] Ga. lucidum,[33,34] Trametes versicolor (L.:Fr.)
the number of new cases expected to rise in the future to Lloyd, [35] I. obliquus, [36,37] Phellinus linteus (Berk. et
75%. Among men, the five most common sites diagnosed M.A. Curt.) Teng,[38] Flammulina velutipes (W.Curt.:Fr.)
with cancer in 2012 were the lung (16.7% of the total), Singer, [39] Hypsizygus marmoreus (Peck) Bigel., [40]
prostate (15.0%), colorectum (10%), stomach (8.5%), Ophicordyceps (=Cordyceps) sinensis (Berk.) G. H. Sung
and liver (7.5%); lung cancer had the highest incidence et al.,[41] Agaricus brasiliensis S. Wasser et al. (=Agaricus
(34.2 per 100,000) and prostate cancer had the second blazei sensu Heinem.),[42,43] and Tremella mesenterica
highest incidence (31.1 per 100,000). Among women, Retz.:Fr.[19,44] Mushroom immunoceuticals act mainly by
the five most common sites affected by cancer were the improving the host immune system. This process includes
breast (25.2% of the total), colorectum (9.2%), lung (8.7%), activation of dendritic cells, NK cells, T‑cells, macrophages,
cervix (7.9%), and stomach (4.8%); breast cancer had a and production of cytokines. Several MM products, mainly
substantially higher incidence (43.3 per 100,000) than polysaccharides (especially β‑glucans), were developed for
any other cancer and the next highest incidence was of clinical and commercial purposes: Krestin (PSK) and PSP
colorectal cancer (14.3 per 100,000). Among the major (polysaccharide peptide) from T. versicolor; Lentinan, iso‑
non‑communicable diseases (the four major diseases ‑ car‑ lated from L. edodes; Schizopyllan (Sonifilan, Sizofiran, or
diovascular disease, chronic diabetes, respiratory diseases, SPG) from S. commune; Befungin from I. obliquus; D‑frac‑
and cancer), at the national, regional, and global levels, tion, from Gr. frondosa; GLPS polysaccharide fraction from
cancer has been the main cause of death around the world Ga. lucidum; active hexose correlated compound (AHCC);
in the last few years.[27] and many others.

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348 Solomon P. Wasser:

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Other mushroom compounds of therapeutic interest 3. Biomass or extracts from mycelium harvested from
are the secondary metabolites, especially some low‑mo‑ submerged liquid culture grown in a fermentation
lecular‑weight compounds such as lactones, terpenoids, tank or bioreactor
and alkaloids, antibiotics with different chemical groups, 4. Naturally grown, dried mushroom fruit bodies in
and metal chelating agents, which are also important for the form of capsules or tablets
the immune function of the organism. MMs also contain a 5. Spores and their extracts.[4,8]
number of enzymes such as laccase, superoxide dismutase, The increased interest in traditional remedies for vari‑
glucose oxidase, and peroxidase. It has been shown that ous physiological disorders and the recognition of numer‑
enzyme therapy plays an important role in cancer treatment ous biological activities of mushroom products have led to
by preventing oxidative stress and inhibiting cell growth.[3,16] the coining of the term “mushroom nutriceuticals,” which
It has been documented that fungi produce a huge should not be confused with nutraceuticals, functional
number of biologically active compounds that not only foods, and pharmaceuticals. A mushroom nutriceutical is
stimulate the immune system but also modulate specific a refined, or partially refined, extract or dried biomass
cellular responses by interfering in particular transduc‑ from either mycelium or the fruiting body of a mushroom,
tion pathways. For instance, the caffeic acid phenethyl which is consumed in the form of capsules or tablets as a
ester (CAPE), which specifically inhibits the DNA binding DS (not a food) and has potential therapeutic applications.
of nuclear factor kappa‑light‑chain‑enhancer of activated Regular intake may enhance the immune response of the
B cells (NF‑κB) and has shown some promising results in human body, thereby increasing resistance to disease and,
human breast cancer MCF‑7 cells, was found to be pro‑ in some cases, causing regression of the disease state. Thus,
duced by Agaricus bisporus (J.Lge) Imbach, Marasmius acting as immunopotentiators, MM preparations modify host
oreades (Bolt.) Fr., L. edodes, and Ph. linteus. Also, a biological responses (also known as BRMs).
methanol extract of F. fomentarius was reported to inhibit There is no doubt that MM‑based products can serve
inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygen‑ as superior DSs. The market of DS from mushrooms is
ase (COX) expression due to the downregulation of NF‑κB quickly growing and is valued at more than 18 billion US
binding activity to DNA. Panepoxydone, a compound iso‑ dollars (representing 10% of the general market of DSs).
lated from Panus spp. but also found in Lentinus crinitus, Every year, data are collected as new evidence on the ben‑
interferes with the NF‑κB–mediated signal by inhibiting eficial effects from DSs made from MMs.[4] A new product
the phosphorylation of IκBα (Inhibitory protein kappa α). for dementia (especially for Alzheimer’s disease) based on
These reports demonstrate the fact that such substances can a proprietary standardized extract that contains hericenones
be used as molecular targets in malignant cells in order to and amyloban (both from the Hericium erinaceus – lion’s
combat cancer. Because low molecular sizes help them to mane mushroom) is currently available on the market. The
penetrate the cell membrane, these substances have also been value of Ganoderma, Ophiocordyceps, and Cordyceps DSs
classified as low‑molecular‑weight compounds; among them alone is more than 4.0 billion USD per year.
are lectins, lactones, terpenoids, alkaloids, antibiotics, and
metal chelating agents. Many fungal species have already Evidences, challenges, and unsolved problems
been reported to produce various metabolites capable of On the one hand, MM science made great progress
modulating different intracellular pathways, thus playing in the last 30 years. A really successful new branch of sci‑
an essential role in cancer treatment.[3,4,16,45‑50] ence (Medicinal Mushroom Science) has been recognized.
MMs produce beneficial effects not only as drugs but New classes of MM drugs and different types of MM
also as a novel class of products with different names: Dietary products have been developed. A unique journal in the field,
supplements, functional foods, nutriceuticals, mycopharma‑ the International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms (Begell
ceuticals, and designer foods including probiotics and prebi‑ House, USA) was organized. Every 2 years, an Interna‑
otics, which provide healthy benefits through everyday use. tional Medicinal Mushroom Conference is organized; the
DSs are not strictly used as pharmaceutical products; next one (8th) will take place in August 2015 in Colombia.
they also produce healthy effects through everyday use as A new International Society of Medicinal Mushrooms was
part of a healthy diet. registered in 2013 in Canada.
Several types of MM DS products are available on the Approximately 400 clinical trial studies using MMs
market today. have been published on different illnesses. More than
1. Artificially cultivated fruit body powders, hot water 50,000 scientific papers have been published and ap‑
or alcohol extracts of these fruit bodies proximately 15,000 patents dedicated to studying different
2. Dried and pulverized preparations of the combined aspects of MMs have been received. From 2005, each year
substrate, mycelium, and mushroom primordial 250‑350 patents have been registered for Ga. lucidum.[51]

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Taiwanese scientists received more than 100 patents on one sequencing and optical mapping approaches. However, this
species of genus Antrodia. very important publication did not solve the problem of
On the other hand, there are many unsolved, seri‑ the Ga. lucidum species complex because authors studied
ous problems in the future of MM development, which in one dik ariotic strain, CGMCC5.0026, belonging to the
turn can also affect the continuation of MM science in the Ga. lucidum Asian group from China, which was claimed
21st century. Below, the most critically important problems as the new species to science, Ga. lingzhi.
in the continuing development of MM science are listed. Another example of mistaken identity was revealed for
A. blazei, well known in literature as a MM. A. blazei is a
Taxonomy and nomenclature of MMs North American endemic species described only from three
The father of biological nomenclature, Professor localities and does not exist in culture; therefore, it cannot
C. Linnaeus, wrote 300 years ago “Nomina si nescis, perit be listed as a MM. Two different opinions of A. blazei exist:
et cogito rerum” (If you don’t know the species name, you A. blazei sensu Murrill, reported from three localities of the
don’t understand the core). USA, and A. blazei sensu Heinem., reported from Brazil
Many species of MMs are critically misunderstood. and cultivated in Japan.[42,43] We studied the type material of
Without the correct scientific name of the MM, future A. blazei sensu Murrill, A. blazei sensu Heinem., Agaricus
investigative studies will have no validity. Together with subrufescens from the New York Botanical Garden (NY),
classical taxonomical methods, DNA bar coding may be and other species of this group, as well as cultivated strains
useful and helpful for the correct identification of MM from different countries and the material from nature in
species, including the study of type material and standard‑ Brazil. A. blazei sensu Murrill and A. blazei sensu Heinem.
ized MM products. For example, there is now mounting represent two different species. A. blazei sensu Murrill
evidence that shows most species previously reported as differs from A. blazei sensu Heinem. in size, shape of fruit
Lingzhi or Reishi (Ga. lucidum) in most pharmacological bodies, pileal surface, type of pileal covering, presence of
studies were mistakenly identified. Ga. lucidum presents cheilocystidia, and spore size. It was determined that the
a taxon‑linneon or species‑complex of which the future widely cultivated culinary–medicinal mushroom known as
subdivision requires caution.[52] Publications, patents, and A. blazei had nothing in common with the A. blazei described
products are also at risk. Over the years, at least 166 laccate by Murrill from the USA, and therefore, a new species to
Ganoderma species have been described worldwide.[53] Ap‑ science was described as A. brasiliensis.[42,43] A. blazei is no
proximately 100 Ganoderma species are known from China. longer known as a culinary–medicinal mushroom. Later,
[54]
It is not known what the taxonomic positions of so‑called using morphologic data with molecular and biological data,
medicinal Blue Ling Zhi, or Red Ling Zhi, or White Ling the differences between A. blazei and A. brasiliensis were
Zhi are, for example. proven.[43] Kerrigan[58] and our researchers[42,43,59] published
Another important point to be noted is that Cao and several articles in the last few years to clarify distinctions
his colleagues published a paper in which they claimed among A. brasiliensis, A. subrufescens, Agaricus fiardii,
that the so‑called Ga.[55] lucidum in China is quite different Agaricus praemagniceps, and A. blazei. These species are
from the Ga. lucidum found and described from Europe, now classified with distinct morphologic, molecular, and
and so they introduced a new species, Ganoderma lingzhi biological characteristics and different geographic distribu‑
Sheng H. Wu, Y. Cao et Y. C. Dai, for Chinese mycobiota. tion. The misclassification of A. blazei caused many prob‑
This brought more problems and confusion. Who knows lems in MM science, but has since been corrected. I would
which Ganoderma species is medicinal? Which species of like to bring to your attention the incorrect use of the name
Lingzhi is the Chinese national mushroom Ga. lucidum or A. blazei for culinary–medicinal Royal Sun Agaricus or
Ga. lingzhi? Nobody knows. Young and Feng published a the Himematsutake mushroom. A. blazei is not a medicinal
special mini‑review dedicated to this problem, called “What mushroom; this species does not exist in culture and is
is the Chinese ‘Lingzhi’?”[56] Molecular phylogenetic analy‑ known only from three localities in the USA.
ses based on the ITS (internal transcribed spacer) and 25S It is a pity that even today in many papers, includ‑
ribosomal DNA sequences indicated that most of the collec‑ ing Chinese papers, scientists are using the wrong name,
tions called “Ga. lucidum” in East Asia were not conspecific A. blazei, instead of A. brasiliensis for the medicinal species
with Ga. lucidum found in Europe.[56] Royal Sun Agaricus.
Moreover, in 2012, in Nature Communications, a group
of scientists published a paper dedicated to genome se‑
The study of culinary– MMs in pure culture
quences of the model medicinal mushroom Ga. lucidum.[57] More attention must be paid to the study of culinary–
Authors reported Ga. lucidum 43.3‑Mb genome, encoding MMs in pure culture. The study of cultures is necessary
16,113 predicted genes, obtained using next‑generation to provide stability and continuity in scientific work. The

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350 Solomon P. Wasser:

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teleomorph stage is the most essential criterion for the iden‑ species in one pill, or having one species in one pill? How
tification of cultures sometimes MMs do not produce fruit can one assess the effectiveness of different mushroom
bodies in pure culture. Vegetative mycelia of MMs in pure products when blending in many species in one product
culture have received little attention in mycological literature. (“shotgun” approach)? Since mushroom products can be
Many species of MMs cannot be identified correctly without cytokine stimulants, what is the age from which they can be
the study of vegetative mycelia. Vegetative mycelia of MM safely administered to young children, since their immune
cultures are complexes of branched hyphae, which differ only systems are not yet mature?
within narrow limits of width, length, number of nuclei, thick‑ Data regarding the dosage used are controversial. The
ness of cell wall, and branching. Gathering information on an suggested dosages are highly different due to various forms
increasing number of studies of vegetative mycelia of MM and formulations. Numerous clinical trials have established
species provides new material for the study and comparison that six capsules (three capsules two times per day or
of morphologic characteristics of mycelia and for the estima‑ two capsules three times per day), of 500‑1000 mg each
tion of their potential use for taxonomic purposes and purity (biomass or extracts), is the accepted dosage of MM prepa‑
control in biotechnological processes.[3,4,60] Because there rations. According to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM),
are no type strains of MMs, we need to choose the correctly the standard dose of the dried fruiting bodies of biomass of
identified type strains of many species of MMs. We need to MMs per day in different forms (tablets, capsules, liquid
organize a world culture collection of culinary– MMs, with extracts, etc.) must be equivalent to about 100‑150 g of fresh
depository activity following patent procedures according to mushroom material.
the Budapest Treaty. This issue must be discussed with the What dosages are safe and affective during pregnancy
World Federation of Culture Collections.[3,4] and nursing? The absence of sufficiently elaborated stan‑
dards for the recommended use of MM DSs, including
MM DS problems precise doses and duration of administration, needs very
Recently, there has been growing popularity in develop‑ serious investigation. Some research shows that too high a
ing mushroom biomass or different extracts as DSs or func‑ dose could lead to immune suppression and too low a dose
tional foods and novel prebiotics (non‑digestive β‑glucans). might not trigger an immune response.
Significant questions arise with establishing DS and MM Furthermore, major problems associated with mush‑
products, including their safety, standardization, regulation, room‑based DSs are due to their wide variability, the current
efficacy, and mechanism of action. lack of standards for production, and the lack of testing
Unfortunately, standardization around the world of DSs protocols necessary to guarantee product quality. The active
from MMs is still in its early stages, including an insuffi‑ ingredients of many present‑day commercial mushroom
cient understanding of the bioactive effects of DS. We do products have not been indicated.
not have internationally recognized standards and protocols Insufficient results due to the lack of standards for
for the production and testing of MM products. Only proper production and product quality of commercially available
standards and protocols can guarantee product quality. mushroom preparation from the same species and strains of
Without consistency in the quality of MM products, com‑ mushrooms are dramatically different in composition and
mercially available MM preparations of mushrooms will be affectivity. Adulteration of MM products with similar or
dramatically different and vary enormously in composition spurious species (for instance, different Ganoderma species
and affectivity. It is not known whether bioactive effects are for Ga. lucidum; Stereum species for T. versicolor; different
caused by a single component or are the result of a synergis‑ Cordyceps species and even different anamorphic species of
tic impact of several ingredients. There is insufficient data Cordyceps for Ophiocordyceps sinensis) is very common.
to determine which components have better effects ‑ those There are difficulties in producing pure β‑glucans for
from mushroom fruiting bodies or from submerged mycelia the market (90‑95% of β‑glucan on the market is consid‑
powder versus extracts. Are simple dried fruiting bodies ered counterfeit and adulterated). Adulteration has led to a
and mycelia powders as affective as hot water, alcoholic, number of adverse effects resulting in nephropathy, acute
or hydro‑alcoholic extracts? Between crude extracts and hepatitis, coma, and fever.[3,4,61]
isolated fractions, which one is more affective and has a Still, we have not solved the problems concerning the
higher safety profile (some companies are selling fractions safety of several well‑known MM products. For example,
like Gr. frondosa Maitake D‑fraction or GLPS fraction of on the basis of a study of a Phase I/II trial polysaccharide
Ga. lucidum)? The role of low‑molecular‑weight compounds extract of Gr. frondosa in breast cancer patients, it was con‑
for MM extracts is still unclear. cluded that the Maitake mushroom produces more complex
What is more affective – the combination of com‑ effects than presumed and may depress as well as enhance
ponents containing biomass or extracts of 2‑10 different immune function.[62]

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What is the role of fresh mushroom consumption? of nourishment).[65] About 860 cancer drugs are being tested
The consumption of fresh mushrooms has been found to on humans. This number is more than twice the number of
increase, for example, anti–β‑glucan antibodies in the se‑ experimental drugs for heart disease and stroke combined,
rum of humans. The Ohno group from Japan also suggested nearly twice as many for AIDS and all other infectious dis‑
that consumption of fresh mushrooms would provide better eases combined, and nearly twice as many for Alzheimer’s
defense against pathogenic fungi.[63] and all other neurological diseases combined.[66] Cancer drugs
Information is still lacking on the use of MM DSs and have been the biggest category of drugs in terms of sales
their inter‑crossing or interaction with many common drugs. worldwide since 2006 and in the US since 2008, according to
market research by IMS Health. Today, drug companies see a
MM natural products are an unclaimed source future in treating cancer. The world’s largest pharmaceutical
for drug discovery company (Pfizer), for example, was focused on cardiovascular
drugs, the cholesterol‑lowering buster Lipitor,[67] and the blood
The development of real immunomodulating and an‑ pressure reduction pill Norvasc.[66] Recently, Pfizer hired
ticancer drugs from MM polysaccharides (e.g. Lentinan, about 1000 researchers for an all‑out effort to develop drugs
Schizophyllan, and Krestin) was hampered by the fact that for cancer, a disease the company once largely ignored. Pfizer
high‑molecular‑weight compounds had been used.[23,24] has now scaled back on cardiovascular research and has made
All MM drugs were developed from polysaccharides of cancer drugs one of its six focus areas. About 20% of Pfizer’s
high‑molecular‑weight, ranging from 100,000 to 0.5 mil‑ more than $7 billion budget for research and development is
lion Da. These compounds cannot be synthesized; therefore, on cancer research, and 22 of the roughly 100 drugs being
their production is restricted to extraction from fruit bodies, tested are anticancer drugs.[66]
cultured mycelium, or cultured broth. Such an approach im‑ Progress in research of MMs must include genomics,
poses high market prices. Today, science should concentrate proteomics, metabolomics, and systems pharmacology.
on the beneficial medicinal effects of low‑weight‑molecular Studying the molecular mechanisms to determine the me‑
compounds produced by MMs (i.e. low‑molecular‑weight dicinal effects of MMs should be the focus of new inves‑
secondary metabolites targeting processes such as apoptosis, tigations using modern methods in the above approaches.
angiogenesis, metastasis, cell cycle regulation, and signal Another important source for substances of therapeutic
transduction cascades).[16] Western pharmaceutical com‑ interest can be found in the pool of secondary metabolites
panies are more interested in relatively easily synthesized produced by MMs. These substances can be classified ac‑
compounds that can be produced for markets. cording to five main metabolic sources:[16] Amino acid–de‑
Historically, the majority of new drugs have been rived pathways; the shikimic acid pathway for the biosyn‑
generated from natural products (secondary metabolites). thesis of aromatic amino acids; acetate–malonate pathway
MMs are an unclaimed source for drug discovery. By 1990, from acetyl coenzyme A; the mevalonic acid pathway from
about 80% of drugs were either natural products or analogs acetyl coenzyme A, which functions in the primary metabo‑
inspired by them. “Blockbuster drugs” like antibiotics lism for the synthesis of sterols; and polysaccharides and
(penicillin, tetracycline, and erythromycin), antiparasit‑ peptidopolysaccharides. The polyketide and the mevalonic
ics (avermectin), anti‑malarials (quinine, artemisinin), lipid acid pathways are most often involved, and they produce
control agents (lovastatin and analogs), immunosuppressants a greater variety of compounds than the other pathways.
for organ transplants (cyclosporin, rapamycins), and antican‑ Every effort should be made to find new sources for
cer drugs (taxol, doxorubicin) revolutionized medicine.[64] anticancer drugs using low‑molecular‑weight secondary
Many of the above‑mentioned drugs were discovered from metabolites from MMs that can inhibit or trigger specific
components found in fungi. responses, i.e. activating or inhibiting NF‑κB, inhibiting
Modern pharmaceutical trends in preventing cancer proteins, especially tyrosine kinases, aromatase and sul‑
include the development of new drugs with the following: fatase, matrix metalloproteinases, cyclooxygenases, DNA
(A) Growth factor inhibitors of cancer cells (drugs such as topoisomerases, and DNA polymerase, anti‑angiogenic
herceptin, erbitux, and terceva); they block a cancer cell’s link substances, etc.[16,45‑50]
to critical proteins that help it divide and grow; (B) hormone The fungal low‑molecular‑weight compounds directly
blockers (drugs such as tamoxifen) keep cells from dividing influencing NF‑κb inhibitory effects are: CAPE, cordycepin,
by binding to estrogen receptors, which are over‑expressed panepoxydone, and cycloepoxydon. Low‑molecular‑weight
in some tumor cells; (C) signal blockers working inside a CAPE produced, for example, by Ph. linteus and M. oreades
cell; these drugs interrupt communication among enzymes shows specific cytotoxicity against tumor cells and NF‑κb
that regulate growth and development; and (D) angiogenesis inhibitor activity, and can be a candidate for antitumor drugs,
inhibitors (e.g. avastin was the first drug to inhibit the forma‑ especially against breast cancer.[46,50]
tion of new blood vessels around cancer cells, starving them Pharmaceutical companies involved in drug discovery

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352 Solomon P. Wasser:

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need new sources of natural products. MMs are the best mechanism of intestinal absorption of orally administered
unclaimed gifts of nature that in a short amount of time can β‑glucan remains unknown (nonspecific intestinal absorption,
be used in the production of new pharmaceuticals. Here the passage of β‑glucans through the gap junction in the intestinal
author presents the Drug Discovery Pathway, which was epithelial membrane, absorption through intestinal M cells,
especially prepared for the development of MM pharma‑ absorption after binding with Toll‑like receptor proteins on the
ceuticals. This pathway includes nine steps: intestinal lumen, and dendritic cell probing).[70,71] It is possible
1. Mushroom cultivation and biomass production that orally administered insoluble β‑glucans are subsequently
2. Biomass extraction degraded into smaller bioactive oligomers after ingestion.[72]
3. Screening of mushroom extracts The differences between plant β‑glucans,[73,74] yeasts
4. Effect of selected extracts on a target of interest β‑glucans,[75] and β‑glucans from MMs[3,22,25,68,69] must be
5. Chemical fractionation of selected extracts clarified. What is the difference in structure, solubility, and
6. Elucidation of active fractions (compounds), mecha‑ biological activity? For example, the structure of cereal
nism of action, and potency β‑glucan is essentially β‑1,3 and β‑1,4 linkages, not β‑1,6
7. Effect on animal models linkages. In addition, plant β‑glucans are linear, not branched.
8. Preclinical drug development Usually, the molecular weights of plant β‑glucans are smaller
9. Clinical drug development.[3] than those of MM β‑glucans. Biological activity has not
been fully examined in the case of plant β‑glucans. Usually,
Unsolved problems in the study of structural yeast β‑glucans are only partly water‑soluble and many MM
characteristics, isolation process, β‑glucans are water insoluble. Why do they have different
receptor‑mediated mechanism, and antitumor biological activities? What are the key advantages of MM
activity of MM β‑glucans β‑glucans compared to cereal β‑glucans or yeast β‑glucans?
We know a lot about the function of receptor dec‑
The success of application of β‑glucans and other tin‑1 (dendritic‑cell–associated C‑type lectin‑1) of
mushroom carbohydrate polymers requires active research in β‑glucans.[25,76,77] β‑glucans have antifungal activity that is
addressing the structure–activity relationship of mushroom similar to their anticancer activities and is mediated by bind‑
carbohydrate polymers, especially in terms of molecular ing to dectin‑1. However, it is still not known how β‑glucans
conformation and receptor‑mediated mechanisms.[25,68] Clar‑ bind to receptor dectin‑1. We know a lot about the function
ification of water solubility, size of molecules and molecular of receptor dectin‑1 of β‑glucans, but the function of receptor
weight, structure, and molecular mechanisms of β‑glucan ac‑ dectin‑2 is still unclear.[25,78]
tion takes into consideration that not all β‑glucans contained Why do β‑glucans have the triple‑helix conformation,
in a MM exhibit pharmaceutical activity.[22,68,69]
and does the triple‑helix structure have an advantage for
The role of molecular weight in the pharmaceutical
MMs that have a single strand?[3,22,68,69] Unfortunately, we do
activity of β‑glucans is still not known. Studies dedicated
not understand what structural features are best for inducing
to comparing the affectivity of high‑molecular‑weight
specific activities and, even more importantly, what does the
B‑glucans versus low‑molecular‑weight B‑glucans are still
presence of hydrophilic groups on the outside surface of
being investigated. Scleroglucan high‑molecular‑weight
the helix mean. We can see contradictory data in literature
preparations are most effective.[69] But, for example, only
on the biological activity of triple‑helix and single‑helix
low‑molecular‑weight Lentinan has higher antitumor activ‑
structures of the same β‑glucan – for example, Schizophyl‑
ity.[21,22] The different reactivity of β‑glucans in each indi‑
lan.[22,68,69] We still do not know which has stronger biological
vidual must be taken into account (anti–β‑glucan titer and
activity – the closed triple helix or a partially opened triple
increments of the titer by β‑glucan administration are dif‑
helix.[28,79] Some species form triple helix aqueous solutions.
ferent; reactivity of peripheral blood leukocytes to β‑glucan
However, in the presence of alkaline pH or DMSO (dimethyl
is significantly different in each individual; reactivity to
sulfoxide) the triple helix converts rapidly to a single‑strand‑
β‑glucans is, for example, significantly different in various
ed helix, which gradually reforms a triple helix at neutral pH.
strains of mice).[22,68,69]
However, the form of the helix associated with more effective
Solubility in water is one of the important characteristics
immunomodulatory and antitumor activities is unknown.[25]
of β‑glucans. It is still unknown what are the major factors af‑
fecting the solubility and pharmaceutical activity of β‑glucans;
Conclusions
molecular weight, length of side chain, number of side chains
on the main chain, ratios of (1,4), (1,6) and (1,3) linkages, and 1. The role of polysaccharide–protein or polysac‑
ionization by acid must be considered.[3,22,68] Soluble β‑glucans charide–peptide complexes in the pharmacological
appear to be stronger immunostimulators than insoluble activity of MM needs further investigation
β‑glucans. The reasons for this are not totally clear. The exact 2. More studies are needed to demonstrate which

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Solomon P. Wasser: 353

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mushroom extracts or compounds are most affec‑ genetic resources for invention and innovation is
tive for specific ailments against viral infections, a problem that needs more attention. Mushroom
bacterial infections, metabolic syndromes, cancer, genetic resources are currently being utilized and
cholesterol, etc exploited by the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, agricul‑
3. The development of new methods and processes in tural, food, enzyme, chemical, and waste‑treatment
the study of MMs must be a priority industries. Nevertheless, the role of IPs’ advantages
For example, a new method was developed in 2009 in today’s knowledge‑driven enterprises is frequent‑
for nanoparticle extraction of water‑soluble β‑glucans from ly overlooked, despite their potential as sources of
MMs by the Park group[80] from South Korea. A novel pro‑ monetary value and financial gain. IPs are often
cess for nanoparticle extraction of Sparan, the β‑d‑glucan under‑managed or under‑leveraged. The challenge
from Sparassis crispa, and Phellian, the β‑d‑glucan from is how to create, protect, and extract value from IP
Ph. linteus, was investigated using insoluble tungsten car‑ assets for invention and innovation[3,85]
bide as a model for nanoknife technology. This was the 9. We must continue to educate the society and con‑
first report showing that the nanoknife method results in sumers on MM science
high yields of Sparan (70.2%) and Phellin (65.2%) with an It is our responsibility as scientists to do much more in
average particle size of 150 and 390 nm, respectively. The educating the public at large on the health benefits of MMs.
Park group proposed the nanoknife method could be used in Interest in and advancements made in current research are
producing β‑glucans for food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuti‑ not always visible or available to the public. It is hard to
cal industries. German scientists[81] developed a new colori‑ believe that in 2014, many people all over the world are
metric method to quantify β‑1,3–1,6 glucans in comparison completely unaware of the health benefits of MMs.
with total β‑1,3 glucans and a method to quantify chitin in 10. To our advantage, we should bridge the gap between
edible mushrooms. Western and Eastern medicine.
4. The discovery of the new species of mushrooms with Western and Eastern medicines have adopted differ‑
pharmaceutical activity must be our priority. Only ent regulatory systems for herbal and mushroom prepara‑
the last few years, scientists have found new mush‑ tions. Most Western countries follow the rules of the WHO
room species, with pharmacological activities, for and DSHEA (Dietary Supplement Health and Education
example, M. oreades, Trametes ochracea, Xylaria Act) in which plant or MM extracts are defined as DSs and
nigrepes, Pseudotrameres (=Daedalea) gibbosa, clinical studies are not required before DSs are introduced
Geastrum saccata, Cyathus striatus, and Cyathus on the market. China and several other Asian countries de‑
olla[46,82,83] fine many of the same herbs and some MMs as drugs, and
5. MM use for humans has made very little progress therefore, clinical studies are needed. Western medicine has
until now. High‑quality long‑term double‑blind made little use of MM products partly due to their complex
placebo‑controlled clinical studies of MMs, includ‑ structure and lack of acceptable pharmacological purity. Our
ing well‑sized population studies to yield statistical target for the future should be to adopt those regulations,
power showing efficacy and safety, are definitely standards, and practices from Western and Eastern medicine
needed. Aims of clinical trials during Phase I, II, that have proven to be the most valuable in the quest for
III, and IV must be to obtain sufficient data on the health benefits in the 21st century.[3,4]
efficacy and safety of MM drugs and preparations
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