Introduction to

Psychological Research
Aakanksha Verma
Group 1
Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women
 Introduction
A scientific research is a systematic, controlled, and critical investigation of proposition about
presumed relationships about various phenomenon. Through research one questions what you
do, and systematically examine observed information to find answers. Psychologists research
and analyse individuals’ or groups’ behaviour or experiences by conducting a research called
psychological research. Our life as well as that of our family, friends, neighbors, and co-workers
is affected by psychological research. The knowledge and principles of psychological research is
used by us either directly or indirectly as we engage in relationships with family, friends, and co-
workers. Researches are highly useful in the upbringing of children, managing health concerns,
reducing crime, etc. For understanding social life and to make daily life decisions these
researches are highly relevant. Although valuable information is given by a research, which also
expands our understanding, we cannot totally rely on it.

Adhering to the following three criteria enables the process to be called “research”:-

1. Undertaking research within a framework of a set of philosophies.

2. Using procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and
reliability.
3. Designing it to be unbiased and objective.

Although, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled differs from one
discipline to another.

While conducting a social research the researcher needs to have personal integrity, persistence,
interaction with others. Tolerance fir ambiguity, and pride in doing top-quality work. The
researcher combines theories and ideas with facts in a systematic way. The researcher must have
organize and plan to conduct a study. The research participant should always be treated in an
ethical or moral way.

Various definitions of research given by famous researchers:

1. The word research is comprised of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines
the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning
to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993: 4).
2. Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of
data. Now, obviously, this process is one in which nearly all people engage in the course
of their daily lives. The main difference between our day-to-day generalizations and the
conclusions usually recognized at scientific method lies in the degree of formality,
rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter. (Lundberg, 1942: 5).
 3. Scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of
proposition about the presumed relationships about various phenomenons (Kerlinger,
1986: 10).

Characteristics of Research
Process in a research must have certain characteristics to qualify as research:

Controlled

Critical Rigorous

CHARACTERISTICS

Empirical Systematic

Valid &
Verifiable

Figure no. 1

1. Controlled
According to the concept of control, while exploring causality in relation to two variables
the study is set in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship. In psychological research, the researcher cannot control external factors, so
the researcher tries to quantify their impact.
2. Rigorous
While conducting the research it should be ensured that the procedures followed to find
answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
3. Systematic
This states that the procedures adopted to conduct a research follow a certain logical
sequence.
 4. Valid and Verifiable
According to this concept whatever the researcher conclude on the basis of their findings
is correct and can be verified by the researcher and others.
5. Empirical
This implies that evidence gathered from information collected from real-life experiences
or observations forms the basis for any conclusion drawn.
6. Critical
This states that the process of investigation must me foolproof and free from any
drawbacks.

Difference between Research Method and Methodology

However, both the terms, research method and methodology, sound similar to each other but
methodology is a much broader term and envelops method. Methodology refers to understanding
the entire research process, including it’s social-organizational context, philosophical
assumptions, ethical principles, and the political impact of new knowledge from the research
enterprise. It is employed as framework within which the researcher works. Whereas, research
method means collecting specific techniques we use in a study to select cases, measure and
observe social life, gather and refine data, analyse data, and report on results. The primary
purpose of research methods is to gather information to enable the researcher to find answers to
the research problem. There are various research methods, such as, interviews, case studies,
observations, etc.

Table no. 1

Research Method Research Methodology

Used for data collection in a research. Explain the overarching theoretical and
philosophical frameworks which guide the
research.
Includes survey, interview, observation, Include theoretical framework and learning of
experiments, etc. various techniques.
Aims at finding solutions to the research Aims at employing correct procedures to find
problem. out solutions.
Steps in a Scientific Research

Formulating a
Selecting a
Research Processing Data
Sample
Problem

Conceptualising Writing a
Writing a
a Research Research
Research Report
Design Proposal

Constructing an
Instrument for Collecting Data
Data Collection

Figure no. 2

Step 1: Formulating a Research Problem

Everything following the research process, such as, study design, measurement procedures,
sampling strategy, etc. is dependent on the way research problem is formulated. The main
purpose of formulating a research problem is to decide what you want to find out about. The
research question should be as specific and clear as possible. It should tell readers what the
researcher intends to research.

The researcher should evaluate the research problem in the light of the financial resources at
his/her disposal, the time available, and knowledge in the field of study.

Step 2: Conceptualizing a Research Design

While conducting a research, it is extremely important that the researcher employs appropriate
methods. The main purpose of a research design is to explain how the researcher will find
answers to the research question. Any research design should include the following:

1. The study design per se and the logistical arrangements that the researcher propose to
undertake
2. The measurement procedures
3. The sampling strategy
4. The frame of analysis and the time-frame
Selection of an appropriate research design enables the researcher to arrive at valid findings,
comparisons and conclusions. While selecting a research design the research should take care
that it is valid, workable and manageable.

Step 3: Constructing an Instrument for Data Collection

A ‘research tool’ or ‘research instrument’ is anything that becomes a means of collecting

information for the study. For instance, questionnaires and interview guides, observation form,
etc. The research first needs to decide how the data is going to be collected for the proposed
study and then construct a research instrument for data collection. If the researcher specifically
plans to collect primary data, then the researcher either needs to construct a research instrument
or select an already constructed one. Whereas, if the researcher is using secondary data then the
researcher needs to develop a form to extract the required data. An integral part of instrument
construction is field testing, also known as pre-testing. As a rule, the field test should not be
carried out on the sample of the study but on a similar population.

Step 4: Selecting a Sample

The way researcher selects the sample forms the basis for the accuracy of findings. The basic
objective of any sampling design is to minimize, within the limitation of cost, the gap between
the values obtained the sample and those prevalent in the population. Sampling is important as if
a relatively small number of units is selected its can provide a fairly true reflection of the
sampling population that is being studied, with a sufficiently high degree of probability.

Two principles that guide the sampling theory are:

1. The avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample

2. The attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources

Sampling design can be divided into three categories:

1. Random/probability sampling designs

2. Non-random/probability sampling designs
3. ‘mixed’ sampling design

The type of sampling strategy research uses determine their ability to generalize from the
sample to the total population and also the type of statistical tests that can be performed on
the data.

Step 5: Writing a Research Proposal

The next step is to put everything in a way that provides adequate information about the
research study. A research proposal tells the reader about the research problem and how the
researcher is planning to investigate. In other words, purpose of a research proposal is to
detail the operational plan for obtaining answers accurately and objectively.
 A research proposal should have the following information about the study:

1. A statement of the objectives of the study

2. A list of hypotheses
3. The study design
4. The setting for the study
5. The research instrument
6. Information on data-processing procedures
7. An outline of the proposed chapters for the report
8. The study’s problems and limitations
9. The proposed time-frame

Step 6: Collecting Data

After the researcher is done with formulating a research problem, developing a study design,
constructing a research instrument and selecting a sample, the researcher then finally collects the
data from which inferences and conclusions are drawn for the study. There are number of
methods to gather the required information.

Step 7: Processing Data

The analysis of the information collected by the researcher depends upon two things:

1. Type of information- descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal

2. The way you want to communicate your findings to your readers

It is important for data analysis that the researcher considers whether the data is to be analysed
manually or by a computer.

For a purely descriptive study the researcher can write the dissertation/report on the basis of field
notes, manually analyse the contents of notes, or use a computer program. For a quantitative
study is necessary to decide upon the type of analysis required and how it should be presented.

Step 8: Writing a Research Report

The research process ends with writing a report. This is often the most difficult step for most of
the researchers. The world gets to know the researcher’s work through the report. The report
should be written in an academic style and be divided into different chapters and/or sections
based upon the main themes of the study.
Research Design

A framework, a blueprint for the research study which guides the collection and analysis of data
is called a research design. A research design reduces inaccuracy, helps to get maximum
efficiency and reliability, eliminates bias and marginal errors, minimizes wastage of time, helpful
for collecting research materials, helpful for testing of hypothesis, gives an idea regarding the
type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time, and efforts, provides an overview
to other experts, guides the research in the right direction.

For an effective research design following details should be furnished:

1. A statement of objectives of the study or the research output.

2. A statement of the data inputs required on the basis of which the research problem is to
be solved.
3. The methods of analysis which shall be used to treat and analyze the data inputs.

There are various types of research design:-

Descriptive

Meta-Analytic Correlational

TYPES

Semi-
Review
Experimental

Experimental

Figure no. 3

1. Descriptive – Methods like case-study, naturalistic observation, survey are used in descriptive
research design method.
2. Correlational – In this methods like case-control study, observational study are used in
correlational research design.
3. Semi-experimental – Here methods like field experiment, quasi-experiment are used.
 4. Experimental – Methods like experiment with random assignment are used in experimental
research design.
5. Review- In review research design methods like literature review, systematic review are used.
6. Meta-analytic (Meta-analysis, i.e., using statistical methods for contrasting and combining
results from different studies to identify patterns among study results, sources of disagreement
among those results, or other interesting relationships that may come to light in the context of
multiple studies)

Types of Research

Perspectives on the basis of which research can be classified are:

1. Application
2. Objectives
3. Inquiry

Pure
Application
Applied

Quantitaive
Types of Inquiry Mode
Research Qualititaive
Descriptive

Correlational
Objectives
Exloratory

Explanatory

Figure no. 4
Application
Research can be divided into two broad categories on the basis of application: pure research and
applied research.

1. Pure Research
Research that is concerned with the development, examination, verification and
refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of
research methodology is pure research. It is also known as basic research or academic
research. For instance, development of a methodology to assess the validity of a
procedure, discovering the best way to measure people’s attitudes Most people fail to
acknowledge the immediate use of pure research and therefore criticize it. A basic
researcher contribute years finding answers to questions that reshapes our thinking. It
lays the basis for core understanding and can also have implications for issues that do not
even exist when a study is conducted. As the application of knowledge resulting from a
pure research may not appear for many years or decades, issues examined by the
researcher may appear impractical. Existing body knowledge of research methods is
enhanced through the knowledge sought by pure research. most of the basic research is
conducted by researchers working close to the center of the scientific community.

2. Applied Research
The research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research
methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a
situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information, administration gathered can
be used in other ways, for instance, policy formulation, administration and the
enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon. In an applied research a specific issue is
addressed. It is short term and small scale. A practical result that can be used within a
year or less is offered by applied research. Also, as an applied research is put to practice
it can also generate controversy.
There are three types of applied research:-
(a) Evaluation research- An evaluation research is frequently used by large bureaucratic
organizations, such as, schools, hospitals, governments, etc. to learn whether a
program, a marketing campaign, or a policy is effective. It include questions such as,
does a law enforcement program of mandatory arrest reduce spousal abuse? I such
researches effectiveness of a program, policy, or a way of doing something is
measured.
(b) Action research- It combines acquiring new knowledge with using the knowledge to
achieve specific purpose. Power relations between research participants and
researchers are equalized in an action research. Many a times, researchers with
impassioned views on an issue are attracted by an action research.
 (c) Social impact assessment- Likely consequences in advance of a planned change is
estimated in a social impact assessment. These researchers mostly work in an
interdisciplinary research team to measure areas of impact.

Objectives
From the perspective of its objectives, a research study can be classified into: descriptive,
correlational, explanatory, or exploratory.

1. Descriptive Research
In a descriptive research a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program is
systematically described. The main function of such research is to define what is
prevalent under study in accordance to the issue or problem. These researches begin with
a well-defined issue or problem and then attempts to describe it accurately.
A picture of types of people or of social activities is presented in a descriptive study. It
focuses on “how” and “who” questions. Data-gathering techniques, such as, surveys, field
research, content analysis, and historical-comparative research, is used by descriptive researchers.

2. Correlational Research
In a correlation research focus is on discovering or establishing the existence of a
relationship or association or interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
For instance, what is the relationship between technology and unemployment?, or what is
the effect of advertising on sale of a product?

3. Explanatory Research
In an explanatory research clarification of why and how a relationship between two
aspects of a situation or phenomenon exists is explained. For instance, why stressful
living results in heart attack. Multiple strategies are used in an explanatory study. In
some studies, researchers develop a novel explanation and then provide empirical
evidence to support it or refute it. Whereas in other studies, researchers outline two or
more competing explanations and then present evidence for each in a type of a “head-to-
head” comparison to see which is stronger.

4. Exploratory Research
Where objective of the researcher is either to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study, exploratory
research takes place. Exploratory research also has the purpose to develop, refine, and/or
test measurement tools and procedures. Definitive answers are rarely provided by such
 studies. Researchers who conduct exploratory research must be creative, open minded,
and flexible; adopt an investigative stance; and explore all sources of information.

Inquiry Mode
There are two types of approaches in inquiry mode:

1. Quantitative Research
In the quantitative approach everything that consists of a research process is
predetermined. It appropriately determines the extent of a problem. If a study is primarily
focused in describing a situation, phenomenon, problem or event then it is classified as a
quantitative research. For instance, a description of living conditions of a community.
(a) Experiments- They can be conducted in a laboratory or in real life. In an experimental
research, the researcher manipulates some variables for some participants but not for
others, and then compare group responses to see whether doing so made a difference.
(b) Survey- A written questionnaire or formal interview is used in a survey research to
gather information on the background, beliefs, or attitudes of a large number of
people.
(c) Nonreactive research- In such researches participants are not aware that information
about them is part of a study. There are four types of nonreactive studies: unobtrusive
research, existing statistical information, content analysis, and secondary data
analysis.

2. Qualitative Research
This approach appropriately determines the nature of a problem. Qualitative data consists
of photos, maps, open-ended interviews, observations, documents, etc. it can be classified
into two-broad categories:
(a) Field Research- In such researches ethnographic studies are conducted on a small
group of people for a length of time. The researcher directly observes and records
notes on people in a natural setting for an extended period of time. Data are in the
form of detailed notes taken on a daily basis.
(b) Historical Comparative Research- It is a collection of related types of research. The
researcher examines data on events and conditions in the historical past and/or in
different societies. Historical comparative research can be exploratory, descriptive, or
explanatory, but it is usually descriptive. However, some historical comparative
research can examine quantitative data.
 Steps of Qualitative Research

Acknowledge Adopt
Design Study Collect Data
Social Self Perspective

Interpret Inform
Analyze Data
Data Others

Figure no. 5

1. Acknowledge Social Self

Along with a quantitative research social scientists start with performing a self-
assessment and situating the topic in a socio-historical context. Most of the qualitative
researchers are dependent on personal beliefs, biography, or specific current issues to
identify a topic of interest or importance.
2. Adopt a Perspective
The theoretical-philosophical paradigm may be considered by the qualitative researchers.
Their inquiry may also be placed in the context of ongoing discussions with other
researchers. Instead of narrowing down a topic, this refers to selecting a direction which
may consists of many potential questions.
3. Design a study and collect, analyze, and interpret data
A qualitative researcher designs a study, collects data, analyzes data, and interprets data.
The researcher will collect, analyze, and interpret data simultaneously. This process is
very much fluid which includes going back and forth among the steps multiple times.
Along with using or testing a past theory the researcher also builds a new theory. New
 concepts and theoretical interpretations are created by the researcher at the interpret data
stage.
4. Inform others
The researcher writes a report about the study in a specific format along with presenting a
description of both the study and its results. The style of a report differs in accordance
with the approach used.

Steps of Quantitative Research

Select Focus Design Collect

Topic Question Study Data

Analyze Interpret Inform

Data Data Others

Figure no. 6

1. Select a topic
The topic could be a general area of study or an issue of professional or personal interest.
They are broad, for example, the effects of divorce, reasons for delinquency, impact of
divorce, or how elites use the media.
2. Focus the question
For the actual conduction of the study a topic is too broad. In order to solve this problem,
the researcher must narrow the topic to focus on a specific research question that a study
can address. This often needs the researcher to review the research literature and develop
hypotheses that usually come from social theory.
3. Design the study
To design a study, the research is required to make a number of decisions about the type
of case or sample to select, how to measure relevant factors, and what research technique
to employ.
 4. Collect data
The information must be carefully recorded and verified in the form of numbers. This is
followed by transferring numerical data into a computer-readable format if it is not
already in that format.
5. Analyze the data
In order to manipulate the numerical data to create many charts, tables, graphs, and
statistical measures computer soft wares are used at this stage. These computer generated
documents provide a condensed picture of the data.
6. Interpret the data
After the charts, tables, and statistics are produced, the researcher must determine what
they mean. The researcher analyzes data, uses knowledge of the research topic, and draws
on theory to answer the research question. The researcher also considers alternative
interpretations of the data, compare results with those of past studies, and draws out
wider implications of what has been learnt.
7. Inform others
The researcher writes a report about the study in a specific format along with presenting a
description of both the study and its results.

Ethics in Research
Ethics are defined as what can be or cannot be legitimately done or what moral research
procedures involve. While conducting a research it is necessary that the researcher conduct the
research in reference to correct rules of conduct. These rules are known as ethics. Most of the
ethical issues require the researcher to balance two values:

1. The pursuit of scientific knowledge

2. The rights of those being studied or of others in society

However, ethical conduct finally depends on the researcher.

 Informed
Debrief
Consent

Confident
Deception
iality

Figure no. 7

1. Informed Consent
The researcher should ensure that research participant voluntarily took part in the
research and wasn’t forced to do so. To make an informed decision of taking part in the
research the participant should know what the research is about. An informed consent is
basically a written agreement to participate given by people after they have gained
knowledge about the research.
Informed consent statements consist of the following:
(a) A brief description of the purpose and procedure of the research, including the
expected duration of the study.
(b) A statement of any risks or discomfort associated with participation.
(c) A guarantee of anonymity and the confidentiality of records.
(d) The identification of the researcher and of the location of information about
participants’ rights or questions about the study.
(e) A statement that participation is completely voluntary and can be terminated at any
time without penalty.
(f) A statement of alternative procedures that may be used.
(g) A statement of any benefits or compensation provided to participants and the number
of subjects involved.
(h) An offer to provide a summary of findings.
2. Debrief
This ethic states that the participant should be well aware of what the researcher is
investigating and why, also what would be their role in the research.

“The purpose of debriefing is to remove any misconceptions and anxieties that the
participants have about the research and to leave them with a sense of dignity,
knowledge, and a perception of time not wasted” (Harris, 1998).

The aim of the debriefing is not just to provide information, but to help the participant
leave the experimental situation in a similar frame of mind as when he/she entered it
(Aronson, 1988).

3. Privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality

(a) Privacy- Many researches involve private details about the participants. In a field
experiment privacy of the participants may be violated before giving a warning. An
ethical researcher keeps in mind that the privacy is violated only to the minimum
degree necessary and for an appropriate research purpose.
(b) Anonymity- This means that people remain anonymous, or nameless. The name and
address of participants is discarded as soon as possible in a survey and experiment,
and refer to participants by a code number in order to protect anonymity.
(c) Confidentiality- This means that we may attach names to information, but we hold it
in confidence or keep it secret from the public. Information is released by keeping in
mind that it is not linked to an individual. Results are published in an aggregated
form. Confidentiality may also protect individuals from physical harm.
 References

Reference from books

 Neuman, W.L. (2006). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (6 th Ed.)
Boston: Pearson Education.
 Kumar, Ranjit (2011). Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginers (3rd Ed.)
Chennai: Pearson .

Reference from websites

 Very Well. (2018). https://www.verywell.com.

 Difference Between. (2018). https://www.differencebetween.com.