HUMAN BIOLOGY

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Introduction
”Anatomy”‫ؼ‬٣‫ ػِْ اُزؾش‬٢٘‫خ ع٘غزؼشك ٓغ ثؼل ٓؼ‬٣‫ اُجذا‬٢‫ك‬
ٖٓ ‫ب‬ٜ‫ب ثجؼن‬ٜ‫ػالهز‬ٝ ‫ٗبد اُغغْ أُخزِلخ‬ٌٞٓ ٝ ‫فق أعضاء‬ٞ‫خ ثؾزخ ثز‬٤‫فل‬ٝ ‫ؼ ٓبدح‬٣‫اُزؾش‬
١‫د‬ٝ ‫ب‬ٜ٤ِ‫ ُِغغْ ٓزلن ػ‬ٚ‫خ صبثز‬٤‫مؼ‬ٝ ‫ٕ ػ٘ذٗب‬ٌٞ٣ ّ‫فق فؼ الص‬ٞٗ ٕ‫ ػِؾب‬ٝ ٕ‫ش أٌُب‬٤‫ؽ‬
“Anatomical Position” ٢‫ؾ‬٣‫مغ اُزؾش‬ُٞ‫ب ا‬ٜ٤ٔ‫ث٘غ‬

Anatomical Position:
the human body is regarded as: ٚٗ‫ثزؼبَٓ ٓغ اُغغْ ًؤ‬
1. standing erect ٍ‫اهق ػذ‬ٝ
2. the eyes looking forward ّ‫ُألٓب‬
3. the arms by the sides ْ‫ع٘ت اُغغ‬
4. palms of the hand ‫ذ‬٤ُ‫ ًق ا‬and toes ّ‫اثغ ُوذ‬ٞ‫ف‬
directed forward and the thumb directed
laterally ‫ ُِخبسط‬ٚ‫ع‬ٞ‫ش ٓز‬٤‫فبثغ اُوذّ اٌُج‬

Anatomical Planes:
- Median plane: A vertical plane which passes through
the center of the body dividing it into equal right and
left halves ٍ‫ؽٔب‬ٝ ٖ٤ٔ٣ ٖ٤ِ‫ٖ ٓزٔبص‬٤‫ ٗقل‬٠ُ‫ب ا‬٣‫د‬ٞٔ‫وغْ اُغغْ ػ‬٤‫ث‬

- Sagittal plane: any plane parallel to the median

plane ٖ٤٣ٝ‫ش ٓزغب‬٤‫آخش ؽٔبٍ ؿ‬ٝ ٖ٤ٔ٣ ‫وغْ اُغغْ ُغضء‬٤‫ث‬

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- Coronal plane: any vertical plane at right angle (90ْ )to

the sagittal plane ٢‫عضء خِل‬ٝ ٢ٓ‫وغْ اُغغْ ُغضء أٓب‬٤‫ ث‬١‫د‬ٞٔ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ٓغز‬

- Transverse or Horizontal plane: cross section divides the

body into top and bottom ١ِٞ‫وغْ اُغغْ ُغضء ػ‬٤‫ ث‬٢‫ أكو‬١ٞ‫ٓغز‬
٢ِ‫آخش عل‬ٝ

DISCEIPTIVE TERMS ‫خ‬٤‫فل‬ٝ ‫ٓقطِؾبد‬

‫ب‬ٜ٤ِ‫ٖ ػ‬٣‫ ٓغ اُزٔش‬ٝ ‫ظ‬٣ًٞ ‫ب‬ٜ‫ؽبكظ‬ٝ ‫ب‬ٜٔٛ‫ٕ كب‬ٌٞ‫ الصّ ر‬٢ُِ‫ا‬ٝ ‫ب‬٤‫ٔخ دساع‬ُٜٔ‫غ ا‬٤‫ام‬ُٞٔ‫ٖٓ ا‬
.ٞ‫ ٌٓبٕ اُؼن‬ٝ‫فق ؽشًخ أ‬ٞ‫ ثز‬١‫د‬ٝ ‫زضجذ ٓشح ثؼذ ٓشح‬ٛ

 Terms Of Movement ‫فق اُؾشًخ‬ٝ ‫ٓقطِؾبد‬

1) Flexion: to bend ‫ اُذساع‬٢٘‫ ص‬١‫ص‬
Extension: to straighten ‫ كشد اُذساع‬١‫ص‬

2) Abduction: move away from midline ‫جؼذ‬٣

‫ ػٖ خو أُ٘زقق‬ٞ‫ اُؼن‬B ‫ة‬
Adduction: move towards midline
‫ ػٖ خو أُ٘زقق‬ٞ‫جؼذ اُؼن‬٣ D ‫د‬
3) Supination: to make the palm upward ٢ِ‫ثزخ‬
٢‫ذػ‬٤‫ ث‬٢ُِ‫ ا‬١‫م ص‬ٞ‫ذ ُل‬٤ُ‫ًق ا‬
Pronation: to make the palm downward
‫ذ ُزؾذ‬٤ُ‫ ًق ا‬٢ِ‫ثزخ‬
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4) Protraction: to move forward

Retraction: to move backward

5) Lateral rotation: ‫سإ ُِخبسط‬ٝ‫د‬

Medial rotation: َ‫سإ ُِذاخ‬ٝ‫د‬

6) Circumduction: flex, abduct, Extend,

Adduct‫ؽخ ثذساػي‬ٝ‫ثزؼَٔ ٓش‬

 Terms Of Position (relationship)

1) Anterior: ٢ٓ‫ أٓب‬near to the front surface of the body
posterior: ٢‫ خِل‬near to the back surface of the body
2) superior: ‫م‬ٞ‫ ك‬near to the head
inferior: ‫ رؾذ‬near to the feet
3) medial: ‫خ أُ٘زقق‬٤‫ ٗبؽ‬near to the median
plane of the body
Lateral: ‫ذ ػٖ أُ٘زقق‬٤‫ ثؼ‬away from the
median plane of the body

 Terms Of Comparison:
1) Proximal: nearer to the trunk ‫اُقذس‬
Distal: farther from the trunk
2) Cranial: nearer to the head
Caudal: nearer to the tail
3) Ventral: nearer to the front
Dorsal: nearer to the back

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Bones ّ‫اُؼظب‬
The skeleton: is the bony and cartilaginous framework
of the body ْ‫ف ُِغغ‬ٝ‫اُـنش‬ٝ ٢ٔ‫ٌَ اُؼظ‬٤ُٜ‫ا‬

‫أقولك‬ !‫تفتكر عنذك كام عظوح في جسوك ؟‬

- It is formed of 34 single 86 + ‫ ٓلشدح‬paired bones ‫خ‬٤‫ع‬ٝ‫ص‬
 ‫ ػظٔخ‬602 ‫ ػ٘ذى‬٢٘‫ؼ‬٣

1) Axial skeleton ١‫س‬ٞ‫ٌَ أُؾ‬٤ُٜ‫ا‬

- skull ‫اُغٔغٔخ‬ - vertebra ‫اُلوشاد‬
- ribs ‫ع‬ِٞ‫اُن‬ - sternum ‫ػظٔخ اُوـ‬

2) appendicular skeleton ٢‫ٌَ اُطشك‬٤ُٜ‫ا‬

- upper limb bones ١ِٞ‫ػظبّ اُطشف اُؼ‬
- lower limb bones ٢ِ‫ػظبّ اُطشف اُغل‬

Function of bones:
1) protection of vital organs (brain & heart) ْ‫خ ف اُغغ‬٣ٞ٤‫خ األػنبء اُؾ‬٣‫ؽٔب‬
‫اُوِت‬ٝ ‫ أُخ‬١‫ص‬
2) formation of blood cells in bone marrow ْ‫ ٗخبع اُؼظ‬٢‫ب اُذّ ك‬٣‫ٖ خال‬٣ٌٞ‫ر‬

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3) formation of skeleton ٚ٤ٔ‫ؾ‬٤‫ ث‬٢ُِ‫ا‬ٝ ْ‫ٌَ اُقِت ُِغغ‬٤ُٜ‫ؾٌَ ا‬٣

4) storage for calcium and phosphates ‫علبد‬ٞ‫ اُل‬ٝ ّٞ٤‫ٓخضٕ ٌُِبُغ‬
5) give attachment to muscles and form joints ٌٕٞ٤‫ث‬ٝ ‫ اُؼنالد‬ٚ٤‫ٔغي ك‬٤‫ث‬
َ‫أُلبف‬

1. long bone ‫ِخ‬٣ٞ‫ػظبّ ه‬

2. short bone ‫شح‬٤‫ػظبّ هق‬
3. flat bone ‫ػظبّ ٓغطؾخ‬
4. Irregular bones ٚٔ‫ش ٓ٘زظ‬٤‫ػظبّ ؿ‬
5. pneumatic bones ‫( خذ ثبُي اٍ ػظبّ ٓضوجخ‬p silent)
6. sesamoid bones )‫شح‬٤‫خ (فـ‬٤ٔ‫ػظبّ عٔغ‬

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- long )‫ عذا‬٢ٜ٣‫َ (ثذ‬٣ٞ‫ب ه‬ٌِٜ‫ ؽ‬٢‫جو‬٣

- have a shaft ‫س‬ٞ‫ب ٓؾ‬ٜ٤ُ and 2 ends ٖ٤‫ز‬٣‫ب‬ٜٗٝ
‫ اُ٘خبع‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٤‫ ث‬ٝ ‫ ٓ٘زقق اُؼظٔخ‬٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ُٞٔ‫ ا‬٢‫ث‬ٞ‫ اُغضء األٗج‬ٞٛ ‫س‬ٞ‫أُؾ‬
- long bone surrounded by periosteum ٍٞ‫دح ؽ‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ‫هجوخ‬
ّ‫خ ُِؼظب‬٣‫ ٓقذس اُزـز‬٢ٛٝ ّ‫اُؼظب‬
- present in limb bones ‫ ػظبّ األهشاف‬٢‫دح ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ as femur
‫ ػظٔخ اُلخز‬and humerus ‫ػظٔخ اُؼنذ‬
- at birth the 2 ends are cartilaginous ‫ق‬٣‫ا ؿنبس‬ٌٞٗٞ٤‫ٖ ث‬٤‫ز‬٣‫ب‬ُٜ٘‫الدح ا‬ُٞ‫ػ٘ذ ا‬and called
epiphysis (٢٘٤‫ )الر‬but the shaft called diaphysis (٢٘٤‫ )الر‬and the junction ‫ٓ٘طوخ‬
ْٜ٘٤‫ االرقبٍ ث‬between them called metaphysis
ossification of long bone ٍ‫ ا‬ٞٛٝ ْٜٓ ‫ع‬ٞ‫م‬ٞٓ ‫اع الصّ ٗؼشف‬ٞٗ‫ األ‬٢‫ هجَ ّ ٌَٗٔ ثبه‬ٝ
!‫ ؟‬٢‫ ثو‬ٙ‫ اٌُالّ د‬ٚ٣‫ ا‬٢٘‫ؼ‬٣
‫هذ‬ُٞ‫س ا‬ٝ‫ ٓغ ٓش‬ٝ ّ‫ ػظب‬١‫ػ أ‬ٜٞ٤‫ ٓل‬membrane ٖ‫ٕ ػجبسح ػ‬ٌٞ٤‫خ ث‬٣‫ٖ ف اُجذا‬٤٘‫اُغ‬
ossificationٍ‫ن ا‬٣‫ٍ ٍ ػظبّ ػٖ هش‬ٞ‫زؾ‬٤‫ث‬

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‫ب‬ٜ٘ٓ ١‫د‬ٝ the process of bone formation ّ‫ٖ اُؼظب‬٣ٌٞ‫خ ر‬٤ِٔ‫ ػ‬٢٘‫ؼ‬٣ Ossification
: ٖ٤‫ػ‬ٞٗ
1-intramembranous ossification 2-inracartilagenous ossification
ّ‫ُذ ُؼظب‬ٞ‫رؾ‬ٝ membrane ‫ٍ ًبٗذ‬ٝ‫ اُؼظبّ ف األ‬٢٘‫ؼ‬٣ ّ‫ُذ ُؼظب‬ٞ‫رؾ‬ٝ ‫ف‬ٝ‫ اُؼظبّ ًبٗذ ؿنش‬٢٘‫ؼ‬٣

 begins at the 5th week of pregnancy  begins at the 8thweek of pregnancy

َٔ‫ع اُخبٓظ ٖٓ اُؾ‬ٞ‫جذأ ف اإلعج‬٣ َٔ‫ع اُضبٖٓ ٖٓ اُؾ‬ٞ‫جذأ ف اإلعج‬٣
 no cartilage is formed, membranes  a cartilage model is formed at first
(fibrous tissue) are transformed then replaced by bone at ossification
directly into bone at ossification center ٍٞ‫زؾ‬٤‫ ث‬٢ُِ‫ف ا‬ٝ‫ٍ ٍ ؿنش‬ٞ‫زؾ‬٤‫اٍ ؿؾبء ث‬
center ٢٘‫ؼ‬٣ ّ‫ ػظب‬٢ُ‫ٍ ٓجبؽشح ا‬ٞ‫زؾ‬٤‫ ث‬٢‫ل‬٤ُِ‫ظ ا‬٤‫اُ٘غ‬ ْ‫ب ُؼظبّ ف ٓشًض اُزؼظ‬ٛ‫ثؼذ‬
ٌٕٞ‫ق ثزز‬٣‫ؼ ؿنبس‬٤‫ٓل‬
- e.g: clavicle ‫ح‬ٞ‫ اُزشه‬and skull ‫اُغٔغٔخ‬ - E.G: long bones in limbs ‫ِخ‬٣ٞ‫اُؼظبّ اُط‬

Centers of ossification: 2 centers of ossification appear 1ry and 2ry

 Primary center: in the middle of the shaft before birth to ossify
the shaft ‫س‬ٞ‫ رؼظْ أُؾ‬ُٚ‫زْ ٖٓ خال‬٣ ٕ‫الدح ػِؾب‬ُٞ‫س هجَ ا‬ٞ‫ٕ ف ٓ٘زقق أُؾ‬ٌٞ٤‫ث‬
 secondary center: appear after birth at both ends to ossify the
epiphysis (ends) ‫ رؼظْ األهشاف‬ُٚ‫زْ ٖٓ خال‬٣ ٕ‫ٖ ػِؾب‬٤‫الدح ف اُطشك‬ُٞ‫ش ثؼذ ا‬ٜ‫ظ‬٤‫ث‬
 Ossification progresses until only 2 plates of cartilage remain ‫ثزغزٔش‬
ْ‫ش رؼظ‬٤‫ق ٖٓ ؿ‬٣‫ٖ ٖٓ اُـنبس‬٤‫ػ‬ٞٗ ٢‫جو‬٣ ٕ‫ أ‬٢ُ‫ق ا‬٣‫ ًَ اُـنبس‬٢‫خ اُزؼظْ ك‬٤ِٔ‫ػ‬
a) epiphyseal plate of the cartilage ٍ‫ عضء ٖٓ ا‬ٙ‫د‬ٝ metaphysis
b) articular cartilage at ends of bones ٢ُ‫ا‬ٝ ّ‫ ٖٓ اُؼظب‬٢‫ك‬ٝ‫اُغضء اُـنش‬
َ‫ٖ أُلبف‬٣ٌٞ‫ؾبسى ف ر‬٤‫( ث‬share in joint formation ٖ٣ٌٞ‫ؾبسى ف ر‬٤‫)ث‬

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- lies between diaphysis ‫س‬ٞ‫ أُؾ‬and epiphysis ‫اُطشف‬

- it is the site of active bone as it allows growth of
bone in length ٖٓ َ‫ؾق‬٤‫ ث‬ٝ ١ِٞ‫ ٗؾبه خ‬ٚ٤‫ ك‬٢ُِ‫أٌُبٕ ا‬
‫ب‬ُٜٞ‫بدح ه‬٣‫ص‬ٝ ّ‫ اُؼظب‬ٞٔٗ ُٚ‫خال‬
- it is a temporary area ‫ ٓ٘طوخ ٓئهزخ‬as it disappears
after puberty ّ‫ٍ ُؼظب‬ٞ‫ ثززؾ‬ٝ ‫ؽ‬ِٞ‫ ثؼذ عٖ اُج‬٢‫ب ثزخزل‬ٜٗ‫أل‬

- Metaphysis is the region of diaphysis ‫س‬ٞ‫ عضء ٖٓ أُؾ‬adjacent toٍ ‫ٓالفن‬

epiphyseal plate ٍ‫سح ا‬ٞ‫ ساعغ ف‬long bone
 BLOOD SUPPLY OF LONG BONE

a) Arteries: ّ‫ رؾَٔ اُذّ ُِؼظب‬٢‫ٖ اُز‬٤٣‫اُؾشا‬

1- Nutrient arteries: enter the shaft through nutrient foramen to
supply the inner part of the bone and bone marrow ٖٓ ‫س‬ٞ‫ذخَ أُؾ‬٤‫ث‬
‫ اُ٘خبع‬ٝ ّ‫ ُِؼظب‬٢ِ‫ اُغضء اُذاخ‬١‫ـز‬٣ ٕ‫خ ػِؾب‬٣‫خالٍ كزؾخ رـز‬
2- periosteal arteries: enter the shaft at many points to supply the
outer surface of the bone ٍ‫ش ف هجوخ ا‬٤‫ ثزذخَ ٖٓ كزؾبد ًز‬periosteum ٕ‫ػِؾب‬
ْ‫خ ٖٓ اُؼظ‬٤‫ اُطجوخ اُخبسع‬١‫رـز‬
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3- epiphyseal and metaphyseal arteries: supply the bone at

epiphysis ‫ األهشاف‬and metaphysis
b) veins: ٖ٤٣‫ ثزؾَٔ ٗلظ أعٔبء اُؾشا‬١‫ د‬ٝ ّ‫ رؾَٔ اُذّ ٖٓ اُؼظب‬٢‫سدح اُز‬ٝ‫األ‬

- Small sized ْ‫شح ف اُؾغ‬٤‫فـ‬

- with no shaft‫س‬ٞ‫بػ ٓؾ‬ِٜٓ
- each one formed of mass of
cancellous (spongy) bone ٖٓ ٌٕٞ‫ثزز‬
"‫ كشاؿبد‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣" ٢‫عضء اعل٘غ‬,
surrounded by membrane of compact
bone ‫ٓؾبه ثـالف ٖٓ اُؼظبّ أُقٔزخ‬
- as carpal bones ‫ػظبّ اُشعؾ‬and tarsal
bones ‫ػظبّ اٌُؼت‬

- Thin and flattened ‫ٓغطؾخ‬ٝ ‫وخ‬٤‫سه‬

- thin layers of compact bone around
a layer of spongy bone
- as in skull‫ ػظبّ اُغٔغٔخ‬, ribs‫ع‬ِٞ‫اُن‬,
sternum‫ػظٔخ اُوـ‬

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- Irregular in shape with many processes

‫ش‬٤‫صاد ًز‬ٝ‫ب ثش‬ٜ٤‫ك‬ٝ ‫ش ٓ٘زظٔخ‬٤‫ٕ ؿ‬ٌٞ‫ب ثز‬ٜٔ‫ٖٓ اع‬
- don't fit into other bone classification
ّ‫ اُؼظب‬٢‫ ثبه‬١‫ب ص‬ٜٔ‫الئ‬٣ ‫فق ٓؾذد‬ٝ ‫بػ‬ِٜٓ
- as in vertebra‫اُلوشاد‬

- Bone with cavities filled with air

"‫اء‬ُٜٞ‫ق ٓٔزِئخ ثب‬٣ٝ‫ة "رغب‬ٞ٤‫ب ع‬ٜ‫ػظبّ ث‬
- as Para nasal sinuses ‫خ‬٤‫ة األٗل‬ٞ٤‫اُغ‬

Function:
- decrease the weight of the skull ٕ‫ص‬ٝ َِ‫اء ف ثزو‬ٞٛ ٢ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ب رؾز‬ٜٗ‫ثٔب أ‬
‫اُغٔغٔخ‬
- give the resonance to the voice ‫د‬ٞ‫ٖ اُق‬٤٘‫ثزغٔؼ ثط‬
- they have highly vascular mucous membranes which produce
warming of inspired air ‫خ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ش ٖٓ األ‬٤‫ب ػذد ًج‬ٜ‫خ ث‬٤‫خ ٓخبه‬٤‫ أؿؾ‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫رؾز‬
‫اء أُغز٘ؾن‬ُٜٞ‫ذ ا‬٣‫ رجش‬٢ِ‫ رؼَٔ ػ‬٢‫ اُز‬ٝ ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫اُذ‬

- nodule of bone inside certain tendons to

prevent fraction of tendon ‫ش‬٤‫ فـ‬٢ٔ‫عضء ػظ‬
‫رش ٓغ‬ُٞ‫ٔ٘غ اؽزٌبى ا‬٣ ٢ٌُ ‫ربس‬ٝ‫د ثذاخَ ثؼل األ‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ
ّ‫اُؼظب‬
- as in patella‫ ػظٔخ اُشملخ‬١‫ص‬

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- terms used to describe the general features of the bone:

Elevations ‫ األعضاء اُجبسصح‬depressions ‫األعضاء‬ flat surface ١ٞ‫اُغطؼ أُغز‬
‫أُ٘خلنخ‬
1-linear ٢ُٞ‫ص ه‬ٝ‫ثش‬ 1-small facet ‫ش‬٤‫ فـ‬١ٞ‫عطؼ ٓغز‬
- line ‫خو‬ - pit ‫شح عذا‬٤‫ؽلشح فـ‬
- ridge ‫ؽبكخ‬ - fovea ‫عطخ‬ٞ‫ؽلشح ٓز‬
- crest ‫هٔخ‬ ْ‫اُؾغ‬
2-rounded ‫ش‬٣‫ٓغزذ‬ 2-large
- tubercle ‫ص ٓؾذة‬ٝ‫ثش‬ - fossa ‫شح‬٤‫ؽلشح ًج‬
- condyle ١ٝ‫ص ًش‬ٝ‫ثش‬
3-sharp ‫ص ؽبد‬ٝ‫ثش‬ 3-linear٢ُٞ‫اٗخلبك ه‬
- Spine ‫ًخ‬ٞ‫ؽ‬ - groove ‫د‬ٝ‫اخذ‬
4- trochlea ‫ب‬ٜ٤ُ ‫ اُجٌشح‬١‫ص‬ 4-opened
‫ٓ٘خلل‬ٝ ٖ٤‫ٖ ٓشرلؼ‬٤‫هشك‬ - foramen‫صوت‬
‫ٔب‬ٜ٘٤‫ث‬

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Joints َ‫أُلبف‬

Definition: it is the site of meeting of 2 or more bones or cartilage with

certain tissue in between ٖ٤‫ظ ٓؼ‬٤‫ْ ٗغ‬ٜ٘٤‫ٕ ث‬ٌٞ٤‫ث‬ٝ ‫ أًزش‬ٝ‫ٖ أ‬٤‫ك‬ٝ‫ ؿنش‬ٝ‫ٖ أ‬٤‫ٌٓبٕ اُزوبء ػظٔز‬
According to this tissue joints are classified: ‫ظ‬٤‫ع اُ٘غ‬ٞٗ ‫اع ؽغت‬ٞٗ‫ث٘وغْ أُلبفَ أل‬
َ‫ٖ أعضاء أُلق‬٤‫د ث‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٢ُِ‫ا‬
1) fibrous joints (bones held together by dense collagen fibers)
‫ب‬ٜ‫شثو اُؼظبّ ثجؼن‬٤‫ٖ ث‬٤‫الع‬ٌُٞ‫بف ا‬٤ُ‫ي ٖٓ أ‬٤ٔ‫ظ ع‬٤‫ٖ اُؼظبّ ٗغ‬٤‫ٕ ث‬ٌٞ٤‫ث‬
2) cartilaginous joints (bones held together by cartilage)
٢‫ك‬ٝ‫ظ ؿنش‬٤‫ٖ اُؼظبّ ٗغ‬٤‫ٕ ث‬ٌٞ٤‫ث‬
3) synovial joints (bones held together by ligaments)
٢ُ‫ب عبئَ صال‬ٜ٘٤‫ث‬ٝ ‫ٕ أسثطخ‬ٌٞ٤‫ب ث‬ٜ‫ٔغي اُؼظبّ ثجؼن‬٤‫ ث‬٢ُِ‫ا‬

There is a functional classification of joints into: ‫ش‬٤‫ ُِٔلبفَ ٖٓ ؽ‬٢ٗ‫ْ رب‬٤‫ روغ‬ٚ٤‫ك‬
‫لخ‬٤‫ظ‬ُٞ‫ا‬
1) synarthrosis: an immovable joint ‫ ؽشًخ‬ٚ٤‫ؾقَ ك‬٤‫ ٓلقَ ٓؼ ث‬as fibrous
2) Amphiarthrosis: a slightly movable joint ‫لخ‬٤‫ ؽشًخ خل‬ٚ٤‫ؾقَ ك‬٤‫ ث‬as
cartilaginous
3) diarthrosis: a freely movable joint ‫ ٓلقَ ؽش اُؾشًخ‬as synovial
‫ق‬٣‫ اُزؼش‬١‫٘خ ص‬٤‫ رزٌِْ ػٖ ؽبعبد ٓؼ‬ٚ٘‫اٗذ ثززٌِْ ػ‬ٝ ّ‫ ثظ الص‬,ٚ٘‫اؽذ ٗزٌِْ ػ‬ٝ ‫اؽذ‬ٝ ‫ٗبخذ‬
ْ‫٘وغ‬٤‫ع ث‬ُٞ٘‫ ًبٕ ا‬ُٞ ٕ‫ ًٔب‬ٝ ‫ع‬ُٞ٘‫ ا‬٢ِ‫ أٓضِخ ػ‬movement ‫ال ال‬ٝ ‫ ؽشًخ‬ٚ٤‫ ك‬definition
subtype ‫خ‬٤ٗ‫اع رب‬ٞٗ‫أل‬

FIBROUS JOINT ٢‫ل‬٤ُِ‫أُلقَ ا‬

- Definition: bones are held very closely together by a dense fibrous
tissue ‫ي‬٤ٔ‫ ع‬٢‫ل‬٤ُ ‫ظ‬٤‫اعطخ ٗغ‬ٞ‫ب عذا ث‬ٜ‫ٕ ٓالفوخ ُؼن‬ٌٞ‫ٓلقَ اُؼظبّ ثز‬
- Movement: it allows little or no movement
- Subtypes: ٢‫ل‬٤ُِ‫اع ٖٓ أُلقَ ا‬ٞٗ‫ أ‬3 ‫ػ٘ذٗب ًذا‬
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1) Suture: fibrous joints between bones of skull ‫ٖ ػظبّ اُغٔغٔخ‬٤‫د ث‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ

2) Syndesmoses: permit slight movement ‫طخ‬٤‫غٔؼ ثؾشًخ ثغ‬٤‫ ث‬as the strong
ligament between the lower end of tibia and fibula in the leg ١‫ص‬
‫خ‬٤‫اُؾظ‬ٝ ‫ٖ اُوقجخ‬٤‫د ث‬ٞ‫ع‬ُٞٔ‫اُشثبه ا‬
3) Gomphoses: as in articulation َ‫ رٔلق‬of the teeth ٕ‫ األع٘ب‬with the
socket of the maxilla and mandible ١ِٞ‫ ػظبّ اُلي اُؼ‬٢‫ة األع٘بٕ ك‬ٞ٤‫ٓغ ع‬
٢ِ‫اُغل‬ٝ

cartilaginous joints‫الوفصل الغضروفي‬

- Definition: bones are tightly connected by cartilage
"‫ؽخ‬ٞ‫ْ ثجؼل "هشه‬ٜ‫شثط‬٤‫ ث‬٢‫ك‬ٝ‫ظ ؿنش‬٤‫ٖ اُؼظبّ ٗغ‬٤‫ٕ ث‬ٌٞ٤‫ث‬
- Lacks a synovial cavity ‫ع‬ُٞ٘‫ف ف ا‬ٞ‫زؾ‬ٛ ّ ١‫ ص‬٢ُ‫ق صال‬٣ٞ‫ رغ‬ٚ٤‫د ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٌٕٞ٤‫ٓؼ ث‬
‫اُزبُذ‬

Allows average amount of movement

‫ع‬ُٞ٘‫ ؽغت ا‬٢ِ‫ٖ ٖٓ اُؾشًخ ػ‬٤‫غٔؼ ثوذس ٓؼ‬٤‫ ث‬ٝ‫زؾشى أ‬٤‫آب ٓؼ ث‬

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Subtypes:

Primary (synchondroses) Secondary (symphyses)

-present in peripheral joints -present in central joints
‫خ‬٤‫ أُلبفَ اُطشك‬٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٌٕٞ٤‫ث‬ ْ‫ ف ٓ٘زقق اُغغ‬٢ُِ‫ أُلبفَ ا‬٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٌٕٞ٤‫ث‬
-allows no movement -allows gliding movement
-temporary joint (ossify after that) -permanent joints ْ‫ٓلقَ دائ‬
Example: epiphyseal plate of cartilage Example: intervertebral discs ‫ق‬٣‫اُـنبس‬
‫ٖ اُلوشاد‬٤‫دح ث‬ٞ‫ع‬ُٞٔ‫ا‬

- Intervertebral disc:
- the disc present between vertebrae ‫ٖ اُلوشاد‬٤‫د ث‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ
- it is formed of outer concentric layers of fibers ‫خ ٓزؾذح أُشًض‬٤‫هجوبد خبسع‬
called annulus fibrosus ٢٘٤‫ الر‬and inner nucleus pulposes
- It acts as shock absorber ‫ثزٔزـ اُقذٓبد‬
- allow movements between vertebrae ‫ثزغٔؼ ة ؽشًخ اُلوشاد‬ٝ

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SYNOVIAL JOINTS ‫خ‬٤ُ‫أُلبفَ اُضال‬

- Definition: 2 bones articulating together with synovial fluid in

between ‫ل‬٤‫ صالٍ اُج‬١‫ ص‬٢ُ‫ْ عبئَ صال‬ٜ٘٤‫ ث‬ٝ ‫ا ٓغ ثؼل‬ِٞ‫زٔلق‬٤‫ٖ ث‬٤‫ػظٔز‬

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- Characters of synovial joint:ٙ‫ع د‬ٞٗ ٍ‫ض ا‬٤ٔ‫ ثز‬٢ُِ‫اُؾبعبد ا‬

1) fibrous capsule: encloses the synovial cavity ًَ ٢‫ـط‬٤‫ ث‬٢‫ل‬٤ُ ‫ؿالف‬
َ‫ق أُلق‬٣ٞ‫ رغ‬and composed of 2 layers, an outer fibrous capsule ‫عضء‬
٢‫ل‬٤ُ ٢‫ خبسع‬and inner synovial membrane َ‫ ٖٓ اُذاخ‬٢ُ‫ؿالف صال‬ٝ
2) synovial membrane: lining the fibrous capsule, and also covers all
internal joint surfaces excluding articular cartilage ٖٓ ‫ق‬٣ٞ‫ ًَ اُزغ‬٠‫ـط‬٤‫ث‬
َ‫ف اُزٔلق‬ٝ‫اُذاخَ ٓبػذا ٓ٘طوخ ؿنش‬
3) synovial fluid ٢ُ‫ اُغبئَ اُضال‬: pale yellow ‫ أفلش كبرؼ‬, viscous fluid َ‫عبئ‬
‫ُضط‬, secreted by synovial membrane ‫ اُغضء‬ٞٛ ٢ُِ‫ ا‬٢ُ‫اعطخ اُـؾبء اُضال‬ٞ‫لشص ث‬٤‫ث‬
‫ ٖٓ اُـالف‬٢ِ‫ اُذاخ‬its functions are ٚ‫ظبئل‬ٝ :
- absorbing shocks ‫ٓبؿ ُِقذٓبد‬
- lubricating the joint cavity ‫ اُؾؾْ ٓغ اُزشط‬١‫ اُؾشًخ ص‬٢‫ عالعخ ك‬١‫ذ‬٤‫ث‬
- supplying oxygen and nutrients to the articular cartilage and
articular disc َ‫ٖ ألعضاء أُلق‬٤‫األًغغ‬ٝ ‫خ‬٣‫فَ اُزـز‬ٞ٤‫ث‬
4) articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage covers the surface of each
bone, it contains neither blood vessels nor nerves ٖٓ ٖ٤‫ع ٓؼ‬ٞٗ ٖٓ ‫هجوخ‬
ٝ‫خ أ‬٣ٞٓ‫خ د‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ أ‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣ ‫ ال‬ٝ ّ‫ أُلقَ ٖٓ اُؼظب‬٢‫ اُغضء أُؾبسى ك‬٢‫ق ثزـط‬٣‫اُـنبس‬
‫أػقبة‬
5) joint cavity: َ‫ق أُلق‬٣ٞ‫ رغ‬space filled with synovial fluid ٖ٤‫ٖ ث‬٤‫كشاؽ ث‬
٢ُ‫ عبئَ صال‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣ َ‫ ػظبّ أُلق‬in some joints an articular disc or
meniscus are present ‫ئخ‬٤ٛ ٢ِ‫ ػ‬ٝ‫ أ‬٢ُ‫ال‬ٛ ‫ف‬ٝ‫د ؿنش‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٌٕٞ٤‫ ثؼل أُلبفَ ث‬٢‫ك‬
‫اُوشؿ‬
As on knee ‫ اُشًجخ‬١‫ ص‬and mandible ‫ اُلي‬ٝ joints to minimize tear of
articular cartilage َ‫ف اُزٔلق‬ٝ‫ٔ٘غ رآًَ ؿنش‬٣ ٕ‫ ػِؾب‬and
allow spread of synovial fluid َ‫غٔؼ ة اٗزؾبس اُغبئ‬٣ٝ
َ‫ أعضاء أُلق‬٢‫ك‬

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6) reinforcing ligaments َ‫خ أُلق‬٣ٞ‫أسثطخ ُزو‬: joins a bone to another

across a synovial joint for strengthen joint ٢ُ‫ ٓلقَ صال‬٢‫ٖ ك‬٤‫شثو ػظٔز‬٤‫ث‬
َ‫خ أُلق‬٣ٞ‫ٓغ ثؼل ٖٓ أعَ رو‬, it is usually thickened portion of fibrous
capsules َ‫ي ٖٓ ؿالف أُلق‬٤ٔ‫ٕ عضء ٖٓ ع‬ٌٞ٤‫ؿبُجب ث‬

CLASSIFICATION (TYPES) OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

According to axes at which movement occurs they are classified into

1) plane joint ‫س ثظ‬ٞ‫ ًبَٓ ٓؼ ٓؾ‬١ٞ‫ٕ ف ٓغز‬ٌٞ‫ ثز‬ٚ‫ؽشًز‬

- the articular bony surfaces are flat ّ‫أعطؼ اُؼظب‬
‫ٕ ٓغطؾخ‬ٌٞ‫ أُلقَ ثز‬٢‫أُؾبسًخ ك‬, so allow gliding
movement only ‫خ كوو‬٤‫ُزُي ثزغٔؼ ثؾشًخ اٗضاله‬ٝ
e.g. : intercarpal joints ‫ذ‬٤ُ‫ٔبد ا‬٤‫ٖ ػظ‬٤‫أُلبفَ ث‬
2) uniaxial joint ٖ٣‫ش‬٤‫ٖ فـ‬٤‫ػ‬ُٞ٘ ْ‫٘وغ‬٤‫ث‬ٝ ‫اؽذ‬ٝ ‫س ؽشًخ‬ٞ‫ ٓؾ‬ٚ٤ُ َ‫ّكق‬
- pivot = vertical ٢‫س ؽشًخ سأع‬ٞ‫ ٓؾ‬: surface of one bone articulates
with a ring formed partially by another bone ‫زٔلقَ ٓغ‬٣ ّ‫عطؼ أؽذ اُؼظب‬
ٟ‫ب األخش‬ٜ‫ٗز‬ًٞ ‫خ‬٤ٔ‫ ؽِوخ ػظ‬and moves around a vertical axis ٍٞ‫زؾشى ؽ‬٤‫ ث‬ٝ
٢‫س سأع‬ٞ‫ٓؾ‬
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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

e.g.: atlanto-axial joint ‫خ أًغظ‬٤ٗ‫اُضب‬ٝ ‫ أهِظ‬٢ُٝ‫خ األ‬٤‫ٖ اُلوشاد اُؼ٘و‬٤‫أُلبفَ ث‬

- hinge = horizontal ٢‫س ؽشًخ أكو‬ٞ‫ ٓؾ‬:as the hinge of

the door ‫ ٓلقالد اُجبة‬١‫ص‬
e.g.: elbow joint (flexion and Extension) َ‫ ٓلق‬١‫ص‬
‫ أُشكن‬ٝ‫ع أ‬ٌُٞ‫ا‬
3) biaxial joint ‫ٖ ؽشًخ‬٣‫س‬ٞ‫ ٓؾ‬ٚ٤ُ َ‫( ٓلق‬condyloid):
the projection of one bone fits into oval shaped
depression of another bone ٖ٤‫ اُؼظٔز‬ٟ‫ص ٖٓ اؽذ‬ٝ‫ثش‬
ٟ‫ اُؼظٔخ األخش‬٢‫ ك‬١ٝ‫نب‬٤‫ ٓ٘خلل ث‬٢‫ذخَ ك‬٤‫ ث‬it allows
flexion, extension, abduction and adduction
e.g. : wrist joint ‫ٓلقَ اُشعؾ‬

4) multiaxial joints ‫س ؽشًخ‬ٞ‫ب أًضش ٖٓ ٓؾ‬ُٜ َ‫ ٓلبف‬: ١‫د‬ٝ

ٖ٤‫ػ‬ٞٗ ‫ب‬ٜ٘ٓ
- saddle joints ٕ‫ عشط اُؾقب‬ٚ‫ؽج‬: articular surface
of one bone is saddle-shaped
(concavocovex) ‫ عشط اُؾقبٕ عضء‬ٚ‫عطؼ اُزٔلقَ ؽج‬
‫عضء ٓوؼش‬ٝ ‫ ٓؾذة‬ٚ٘ٓ, and the articular surface of
the other bone fits into the saddle ‫ عطؼ اُؼظٔخ‬ٝ
ٍٝ‫ٕ ٓالئْ ُأل‬ٌٞ٤‫ اُزٔلقَ ث‬٢‫ اُذاخَ ك‬ٟ‫األخش‬
As carpometacarpal joint of the thumb ّ‫ب‬ٜ‫ٓلقَ فجبع اإلث‬

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

- ball and socket joints ٝ ‫سح‬ٌُٞ‫ ا‬ٚ‫ؽج‬

‫ب‬ٜ‫اُغشاة ثزبػ‬: ball-like surface of one
fit into a cup-like depression of
another bone
As in shoulder joint ‫ ٓلقَ اٌُزق‬١‫ص‬

MUSCLES ‫اُؼنالد‬

Types of muscles:
1. skeletal muscles ّ‫خ ِٓزقوخ ثبُؼظب‬٤ٌِ٤ٛ ‫ػنالد‬
Characters:
 in the skeleton ٢ٔ‫ٌَ اُؼظ‬٤ُٜ‫ثزٔغي ف ا‬
 voluntary ‫ب ثبسادري‬ٜ٤‫روذس رزؾٌْ ك‬
 striated ‫ب‬ٜ٤ُ ‫ٗخ‬ٌُٞٔ‫بف ا‬٤ُ‫ع األ‬ٞ٘‫غخ ُز‬٤‫ٓخططخ اُؾٌَ ٗز‬
 movement ‫ب ػِؾبٕ ٗزؾشى‬ٜٓ‫ ث٘غزخذ‬٢ُِ‫ ا‬١‫د‬ٝ

2. cardiac muscles: ‫خ‬٤‫ػنالد هِج‬

Characters:
 In the heart only ‫ اُوِت ثظ‬٢‫ك‬
 Striated ‫ٓخططخ‬
 Involuntary ‫ب‬ٜ٤‫ ٓزوذسػ رزؾٌْ ك‬٢٘‫ؼ‬٣ ‫خ‬٣‫الاساد‬
 Pump the blood ‫ُخ ػٖ مخ اُذّ ف‬ٞ‫ٓغئ‬
ْ‫اُغغ‬

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

3. smooth ‫ػنالد ِٓغبء‬

Characters:
 in viscera and blood vessels
‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫خ اُذ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫األ‬ٝ ‫ٕ ف األؽؾبء‬ٌٞ‫ثز‬
 involuntary ‫خ‬٣‫الاساد‬
 unstriated )‫ٓؼ ٓخططخ(ِٓغبء‬
 storage ‫ اُغغْ ًبألٓؼبء‬٢‫ٖ ك‬٣‫دح ف أٓبًٖ اُزخض‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ

FORMS=architecture=shape Of Muscles ‫أؽٌبٍ اُؼنالد‬

1) Parallel: ‫اع‬ٞٗ‫ب أ‬ٜ٘ٓ ١‫د‬ٝ ‫س اُؾشًخ‬ٞ‫خ ُٔؾ‬٣‫اص‬ٞٓ ‫بف‬٤ُ‫األ‬

 strap-like : ‫و‬٣‫ اُؾش‬ٚ‫ ؽج‬parallel from end to end
e.g. Sartorius ‫اعْ ػنِخ ف اُلخز‬

 fusiform :ٌَ‫خ اُؾ‬٤ُ‫ ٓـض‬narrow to a tendon at both ends

‫ظخ ف أُ٘زقق‬٤ِ‫ ؿ‬ٝ ‫رش‬ُٞ‫ٖ ػ٘ذ ا‬٤‫ز‬٣‫ب‬ُٜ٘‫ؼخ ٖٓ ا‬٤‫سك‬
e.g. biceps ‫ اُزساع‬٢‫ط ك‬ٝ‫خ اُشإ‬٤‫ػنِخ ص٘بئ‬

 quadrilateral ‫خ األمالع‬٤‫سثبػ‬
e.g. thyrohyoid ‫ اُشهجخ‬٢‫ػنِخ ك‬

2) oblique type ‫س ؽشًخ اُؼنِخ‬ٞ‫ ٓؾ‬٢ِ‫ٕ ٓبئِخ ػ‬ٌٞ‫بف ثز‬٤ُ‫األ‬

Like a feather ‫ؾخ‬٣‫ اُش‬ٚ‫ ؽج‬so called pennate ٢٘٤‫ؾخ الر‬٣‫س‬
 unipennate: ‫ؾخ‬٣‫ ٗقق س‬Like one half of feather
e.g. flexor digitorum longus ّ‫ب‬ٜ‫ذ ثزؼَٔ اٗوجبك ُإلث‬٤ُ‫ػنِخ ف ا‬

 bipennate: like a complete feather ‫ؾخ اٌُبِٓخ‬٣‫ اُش‬١‫ص‬

e.g. rectus femoris ‫ػنِخ ف اُلخز‬
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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

 multipennate: like many feathers separated by septa

‫ ؽبعض‬٢ٗ‫اؽذح ػٖ اُزب‬ٝ ًَ َ‫لق‬٤‫ث‬ٝ ‫ٖ ف ثؼل‬٤ٌ‫ؾخ ٓبع‬٣‫ًزا س‬
e.g. deltoid ‫ػنِخ ف اٌُزق‬

 circumpennate :fibers converge from the wall

of cylindrical space to a buried central tendon
‫ٕ ف أُشًض‬ٞ‫رش ٓذك‬ٝ ٍ ٢ٗ‫ا‬ٞ‫و اعط‬٤‫ق ثززغٔغ ٖٓ ٓؾ‬٤ُ‫األ‬

3) radial type: ٢‫ؽ‬ٝ‫ ٓش‬ٝ‫ أ‬١‫دائش‬

 fibers converge ‫ رزوبسة‬from a wide origin ‫ل‬٣‫ٓ٘ؾؤ ػش‬
to a narrow insertion ‫وخ‬٤‫خ م‬٣‫ب‬ُٜ٘
 called triangular ٢‫ ٓضِض‬or fan like ٌَ‫ اُؾ‬٢‫ؽ‬ٝ‫ ٓش‬ٝ‫أ‬
e.g. temporalis ‫ اُخذ‬٢‫ػنِخ ك‬

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MASCULAR ACTION:

1) prime mover: ‫ثبدئخ اُؾشًخ‬

group of muscles contract to start the action
as flexor of the elbow joint ‫ع‬ٌُٞ‫ ا‬٢٘‫ اُؼنالد اُجبدئخ ُض‬١‫ص‬
2) Antagonists: ‫ػنالد ُٔب ر٘وجل ثزؼبًظ اُؾشًخ‬
relax during contraction of prime mover ‫ب اسرخبء ػ٘ذ اٗوجبك‬ِٜ‫ؾق‬٤‫ ث‬١‫د‬ٝ
‫ا ػٌظ ثؼل ف ٗلظ‬ِٞ‫ؾزـ‬٣ ٖ٤‫٘لؼؼ اُؼنِز‬٤ٓ ٚٗ‫س اُؾشًخ ال‬ٝ‫ثبدئخ اُؾشًخ ػِؾبٕ رغٔؼ ثؾذ‬
‫هذ‬ُٞ‫ ا‬as Extensor of elbow joint ‫هذ‬ٝ ٢‫ب رساػي ثزشرخ‬ٜ٤‫ ثزلشد ث‬٢ُِ‫ اُؼنالد ا‬١‫ص‬
‫ اُزساع‬٢٘‫ص‬
3) Synergistic: ‫اُؼنالد أُغبػذح ُِؾشًخ‬
‫ْ” أص٘بء ؽشًخ‬٤‫ب “ؽـبُخ ر٘ظ‬ٜ٤‫ة ك‬ٞ‫ش أُشؿ‬٤‫س اُؾشًبد ؿ‬ٝ‫ ثز٘وجل ػِؾبٕ رٔ٘غ ؽذ‬١‫د‬ٝ
prime mover ٍ‫ا‬
as biceps “prime mover” produce flexion and supination at elbow
joint, if we need to do supination only, triceps “antagonist”
contract to prevent flexion so supination only occurs
‫ ُٔب‬ٝ ‫ ثزلشد اُزساع‬triceps ٍ‫ب ا‬ٜ‫ػٌغ‬ٝ supination َٔ‫ثزؼ‬ٝ ‫ اُزساع‬٢٘‫ ثزض‬biceps ٍ‫ا‬
‫ كوو‬supination ٍ‫ؾقَ ا‬٤ٛ ‫ا‬ِٞ‫ؾزـ‬٣ ٖ٤٘‫اإلص‬
4) Fixators ‫ٓضجزبد ُِؾشًخ‬
‫سح‬ٞ‫ اُغج‬٢ِ‫اٗذ ثزٌزت ػ‬ٝ ١‫ ص‬٢ٗ‫ ػنالد ثزضجذ عضء ٖٓ اُغغْ ػِؾبٕ رغبػذ ؽشًخ عضء رب‬١‫د‬ٝ
‫اثؼي‬ٞ‫ ف‬ٝ ‫ي‬٣‫ذ‬٣ ‫ ًزلي أص٘بء ؽشًخ‬ٝ ‫ثزضجذ رساػي‬

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ENDS OF MUSCLES may be ‫ العضلح هوكن تنتهي تأي هن‬:

1) Tendon ‫وتر‬
Cord likeَ‫ اُؾج‬ٚ‫ ؽج‬, inelastic ‫زٔو‬٤‫ٓؼ ث‬
and non-vascular ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫خ د‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ػ أ‬ٜٞ٤‫ٓل‬
of white fibrous tissue ٢‫ط‬٤‫ظ خ‬٤‫ٖٓ ٗغ‬
‫ل‬٤‫أث‬to withstand pressure
‫ٓخ اُؾذ‬ٝ‫ ٓوب‬٢ِ‫ٕ هبدس ػ‬ٌٞ٣ ٕ‫ ػِؾب‬١‫اؿ د‬ٞ‫ًَ اُخ‬
‫زوطؼؼ‬٤ٓٝ
2) Aponeurosis‫ل‬٣‫رش ثظ ػش‬ُٞ‫ ا‬١‫ص‬
A thin wide sheet of fibrous tissue for
muscles of wide insertion ‫ٕ ُِؼنالد‬ٌٞ٤‫ث‬
‫اعؼخ‬ٝ ‫ ٓغبؽخ‬٢‫ثزٔغي ك‬ٝ ‫بد‬٣‫ب‬ُٜ٘‫نخ ا‬٣‫ػش‬

PARTS OF MUSCLES:
1) Origin ‫ٓ٘ؾؤ‬
proximal fixed part ْ‫ت ٖٓ ٓ٘زقق اُغغ‬٣‫اُوش‬ٝ ‫اُغضء اُضبثذ‬
3) Insertion‫خ‬٣‫ب‬ٜٗ
Distal movable part ْ‫ذ ػٖ ٓ٘زقق اُغغ‬٤‫اُجؼ‬ٝ ‫اُغضء أُزؾشى‬

 Ligament ‫ الرتاط‬:
is strong band of white fibrous tissue
connect bony points together ٖٓ ‫٘خ‬٤‫ؽضٓخ ٓز‬
‫ب‬ٜ‫ل ثزشثو اُؼظبّ ثجؼن‬٤‫ أث‬٢‫ل‬٤ُ ‫ظ‬٤‫ٗغ‬

 Synovial sheath )‫ق‬٤‫ ؿٔذ اُغ‬١‫ (ص‬٢ُ‫ اُـٔذ اُضال‬:

- tubular envelop of the tendon formed of two layers; visceral
(inner) and parietal layer (outer) with a synovial cavity in-between
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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

- required in fraction area between tendon and surrounding

structures ٚ٤‫خبسع‬ٝ ٚ٤ِ‫ٖ داخ‬٤‫ٕ ٖٓ هجوز‬ٌٞ‫ز‬٣ٝ ‫رش‬ُٞ‫و ثب‬٤‫ؾ‬٣ ٢‫ث‬ٞ‫ ػٖ ؿالف اٗج‬ٙ‫ػجبس‬
ٚ‫و ث‬٤‫ؾ‬٣ ‫رش ٓغ ٓب‬ُٞ‫ ٓ٘بهن اؽزٌبى ا‬٠‫ٕ ك‬ٌٞ‫ز‬٣ٝ ,٢ُ‫ عبئَ صال‬٠ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣ ‫ق‬٣ٞ‫ٔب رغ‬ٜ٘٤‫ث‬ٝ
ًِٚ‫ٔ٘غ رآ‬٣ٝ ‫رش‬ُِٞ ‫ أًجش‬ًٚ‫خ ؽش‬٣‫كش ؽش‬ٞ٣ ٕ‫ػؾب‬
- layers united by a synovial fold called mesotendon ) ٢ِ‫رش داخ‬ٝ(

BURSA
Definition:
closed fibrous sac ‫ ٓـِن‬٢‫ل‬٤ُ ‫ت‬٤‫ ع‬lined with synovial membrane ‫ٓؾبهخ ة‬
٢ُ‫ؿؾبء صال‬and contain synovial fluid٢ُ‫ عبئَ صال‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫رؾز‬ٝ
Function :
- diminishes fraction between structure‫ٖ األعضاء أُخزِلخ‬٤‫ثزوَِ االؽزٌبى ث‬
- allows free movement of structure‫خ ؽشًخ أًجش‬٣‫غٔؼ ثؾش‬٣
Types‫ األنىاع‬:
1) subcutaneous ‫رؾذ اُغِذ‬

2) subtendinous‫رش‬ُٞ‫رؾذ ا‬
e.g. retro calcaneal bursa

3) Articular bursa َ‫ ٓ٘بهن اُزٔلق‬٢‫ك‬

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Fascia ‫ٔخ عذا‬ٜٓ

Fibro areolar membranous laminae ‫ب‬ٜ٤‫خ ك‬٤‫هجوخ ؿؾبئ‬

ٖ٤‫ػ‬ٞٗ ‫ب‬ٜ٘ٓ ١‫د‬ٝ ‫شح‬٤‫كشاؿبد فـ‬
1) Superficial fascia ‫السطحية‬
Definition: fibro-areolar tissue containing fat
‫ب‬ٜ٤‫خضٕ ك‬٤‫ ث‬ٝ ْ‫دح رؾذ اُغِذ ف أؿِت ٓ٘بهن اُغغ‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٌٕٞ‫ ثز‬١‫د‬ٝ
ٕٞٛ‫اُذ‬
Function:
 facilitates movement of skin ‫ ؽشًخ اُغِذ‬٢ِ‫ثزخ‬
‫ٓشٗخ‬ٝ ‫ِخ‬ٜ‫ب ع‬ٜ‫ه‬ٞ‫ك‬
 forms passage for blood vessels and nerves of skin ‫خ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ب األ‬ٜ٤‫ٔش ك‬٤‫ث‬
‫شح‬٤‫ كشاؿبد فـ‬ٝ‫ٕ ا‬ٞٛ‫ب د‬ٜ٤‫ ك‬ٚ‫ب ٓؼ ٓقٔز‬ٜٗ‫ اُغِذ أل‬١‫ رـز‬٢‫األػقبة اُز‬ٝ ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫اُذ‬
 thicker and equally distributed in women ١ٝ‫صػخ ثبُزغب‬ٞ‫ٓز‬ٝ ‫ٕ اًزش‬ٌٞ‫ثز‬
‫ف عغْ أُشأح‬
 keep the warmth of the body )‫خ‬٤ٗ‫ اُجطب‬١‫ دسعخ ؽشاسح اُغغْ(ص‬٢ِ‫ثزؾبكع ػ‬
‫خ هبسدح‬٤‫بئ‬٤ٔ٤ً ‫ب رلبػالد‬ٜ٤‫ؾقَ ك‬٤‫ث‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤‫ئخ اُخبسع‬٤‫ اُج‬ٝ ٢ِ‫ٖ اُغغْ اُذاخ‬٤‫ثزؾزـَ ًؼبصٍ ث‬
ْ‫ُِؾشاسح ُزذكئخ اُغغ‬
 some muscles inserted to it ‫ب‬ٜ٤‫ثؼل اُؼنالد ثزٔغي ك‬
 gives the body its smooth contour ْ‫د أُز٘بعوخ ُِغغ‬ٝ‫ثزؼَٔ اُؾذ‬
2) Deep fascia: ‫ اُؼنالد‬ٝ ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫خ اُذ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫و ثبأل‬٤‫رؾ‬
Characters:
- dense ‫لخ‬٤‫ ًض‬inelastic ‫ش ٓشٗخ‬٤‫ؿ‬membrane as contain collagen
fibers
- present around B.V. and muscles
Function:
- separate the muscles and assist in their function ‫ثزـِق اُؼنالد‬
‫خ‬٣ٞ‫ب ه‬ًٜٗٞ ٢‫ ك‬٢ُ‫ ثبُزب‬ٝ ‫ب ٓزٔبعٌخ ٓغ ثؼل‬ٜ٤ِ‫رخ‬ٝ

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

- forms retinacula ‫سح‬ٞ‫ اإلع‬١‫ؽبعخ ص‬which keep the tendons in

position
as flexor retinaculum ْ‫ ف ٓ٘طوخ أُؼق‬١‫ ثزؼذ‬٢ُِ‫ربس ا‬ٝ‫ٍ األ‬ٞ‫دح ؽ‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٢ُِ‫ ا‬١‫ص‬
- gives attachment to some muscles
- it thickened to form aponeurosis as in the sole of the foot ّ‫ثطٖ اُوذ‬
and palm of the hand ‫ذ‬٤ُ‫ًق ا‬for protection ‫ٓغطؾخ‬ٝ ‫نخ‬٣‫ثزؼَٔ هجوخ ػش‬
‫ب‬ٜ٤‫ رؾز‬٢ُِ‫ اُؾبعبد ا‬٢ٔ‫ثزؾ‬
- forms septa َ‫اف‬ٞ‫ك‬between different groups of muscles
Superficial fascia Deep fascia
- fibro-areolar tissue containing fat - Dense, inelastic membrane as
- present beneath the skin of the contain collagen fibers
body - present around B.V. and muscles
- its function is: - its function is:
 facilitates movement of skin  separate the muscles and assist in
 forms passage for blood their function
vessels and nerves of skin  forms retinacula which keep the
 thicker and equally tendons in position
distributed in women as flexor retinaculum
 keep the warmth of the body  gives attachment to some muscles
 some muscles inserted to it  it thickened to form aponeurosis
 gives the body its smooth as in the sole of the foot and palm
contour of the hand for protection forms
septa between different groups of
muscles

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lymphatic system ‫الجهاز الليوفاوي‬

it is formed of 3 components ‫ ؽبعبد‬3 ٖٓ ٌٕٞ‫ز‬٤‫ ث‬:

- lymphatic cells ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ‫ب‬٣‫خال‬
- lymphatic vessels ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ‫خ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫أ‬
- lymphatic tissue ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ‫أٗغغخ‬

a) free lymphatic cells ‫خ ؽشح‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ‫ب‬٣‫ خال‬:

Cells that circulate in the lymph ١ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫ اُغبئَ ا‬٢‫ب رزؾشى ك‬٣‫خال‬they are 2
types:
- B-lymphocytes ‫ٔق ة‬٤ُِ‫ب ا‬٣‫خال‬: develop in bone marrow ْ‫ ٗخبع اُؼظ‬٢‫ٕ ك‬ٌٞ‫رز‬
when stimulated they transformed into plasma cells that forms
antibodies which deals with infection
ٟٝ‫ ثزطِغ أعغبّ ٓنبدح رزؼبَٓ ٓغ اُؼذ‬٢ُِ‫ا‬ٝ ‫ب ثالصٓب‬٣‫ٍ ُخال‬ٞ‫ب اصبسح ثززؾ‬ُٜ َ‫ؾق‬٤‫ُٔب ث‬
- T-lymphocytes:
Develop in thymus gland ‫خ‬٤‫ اُـذح اُذسه‬٢‫ٕ ك‬ٌٞ‫رز‬
They able to kill viruses and cancer cells directly َ‫ هز‬٢ِ‫ب اُوذسح ػ‬ٛ‫ػ٘ذ‬
‫ اُغشهبٕ ٓجبؽشح‬ٝ ‫عبد‬ٝ‫ش‬٤‫ب اُل‬٣‫خال‬
b) lymphatic tissues ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫األٗغغخ ا‬:
they are represented by LN ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫اُؼوذ ا‬, spleen
ٍ‫اُطؾب‬, thymus ‫خ‬٤‫ اُـذح اُذسه‬and tonsils ‫ص‬ُِٞ‫ا‬
- lymph nodes (LN)‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫اُؼوذ ا‬:
o collection of oval or kidney shaped
lymphatic tissues along the courses of lymphatic vessels ‫رغٔغ‬
‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫خ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ األ‬١‫ٍ ٓغش‬ٞ‫ ثط‬١ًِٞ ٝ‫ أ‬١ٝ‫نب‬٤‫ ؽٌَ ث‬٢ِ‫خ ػ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫ٖٓ األٗغغخ ا‬

28
 HUMAN BIOLOGY

o present in groups (3 or 4) named after the place where they lie

ٚ٤‫اعذح ك‬ٞ‫ ثبٌُٔبٕ أُز‬٢ٔ‫ ثزغ‬ٝ ‫ ػوذ‬4 ٍ 3 ٖٓ ‫ػبد‬ٞٔ‫ ٓغ‬٢‫اعذ ك‬ٞ‫ثزز‬
 they may be :
- Primary‫خ‬٤ُٝ‫أ‬: receive afferent from tissues directly
‫ٔق ٖٓ األٗغغخ ٓجبؽشح‬٤ُِ‫خ ثزؾَٔ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ب أ‬ِٜ٤‫غ‬٤‫ث‬
- Secondary ‫خ‬٣ٞٗ‫صب‬: receive afferent from previous LN
‫ب‬ِٜ‫ هج‬٢ٗ‫ رب‬ٙ‫ٔق ٖٓ ؿذ‬٤ُِ‫خ ثزؾَٔ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ب أ‬ِٜ٤‫غ‬٤‫ث‬
Function of LN:
- filter of lymph as bacteria and cancer cells destroyed in it ‫ؽـبُخ ًلِزش‬
‫خ‬٤ٗ‫ب اُغشهب‬٣‫اُخال‬ٝ ‫ب‬٣‫ب ثزذٓش اُجٌزش‬ٜٗ‫ٔق أل‬٤ُِ
- factories for lymphocytes production ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫ب ا‬٣‫ٓقبٗغ إلٗزبط اُخال‬
c) lymphatic vessels ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫خ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫األ‬:
- they consist of fine capillaries
situated in the tissue spaces ٖٓ ٌٕٞ‫ثزز‬
ٖ٤‫ اُلشاؿبد ث‬٢‫اعذ ك‬ٞ‫وخ رز‬٤‫خ سه‬٣ٞٓ‫شاد د‬٤‫ؽؼ‬
‫األٗغغخ‬, they unite together to form
larger vessels which join the lymph
nodes ‫خ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ٗخ أ‬ٌٞٓ ‫ب‬ٜ‫شاد ٓغ ثؼن‬٤‫ثززغٔغ اُؾؼ‬
‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫ رقَ ُِؼوذح ا‬٢‫أًجش كؤًجش ؽز‬
- they are of 2 types:
 afferent ‫اسد‬ٝ :the vessels that carry lymph to LN َٔ‫ ثزؾ‬٢ُِ‫خ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫األ‬
‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫ٔق ُِؼوذح ا‬٤ُِ‫ا‬
 Efferent ‫فبدس‬: the vessels that carry lymph from LN ٢ُِ‫خ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫األ‬
‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫ٔق ٖٓ اُؼوذح ا‬٤ُِ‫ثزؾَٔ ا‬
Lymphatic vessels differ from blood vessels in:
- have blind ends, while blood capillaries communicate at both sides
ٖ٤٣‫خش ٓغ اُؾشا‬٥‫ا‬ٝ ‫سدح‬ٝ‫خ ثززقَ ثطشف ٓغ األ‬٣ٞٓ‫شاد اُذ‬٤‫ ػٌظ اُؾؼ‬٢ِ‫دح ػ‬ٝ‫ب ٓغذ‬ٜ‫أهشاك‬
- have wide pores ‫شح‬٤‫ة ًج‬ٞ‫ب صو‬ٜ٤‫ك‬, while blood capillaries have narrow
gaps ‫شح‬٤‫ة فـ‬ٞ‫ب صو‬ٜ٤ُ ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫شاد اُذ‬٤‫٘ٔب اُؾؼ‬٤‫ث‬
- have many valves ‫ب‬ِٜ‫ش ثذاخ‬ٜ‫شح رظ‬٤‫ب فٔبٓبد ًز‬ُٜ
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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

- at the root of the neck ‫ أعلَ اُشهجخ‬٢‫ك‬, there are 2 large lymphatic
ducts ٖ٣‫ش‬٤‫ٖ ًج‬٤٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ٖ٤‫ػبئ‬ٝ, that collect the lymph from all parts of the
body and pours it into large veins ‫سدح‬ٝ‫ أل‬ِٙٞ‫ف‬ٞ٣ ٝ ْ‫ٔق ٖٓ ًَ اُغغ‬٤ُِ‫ا ا‬ٞ‫غٔؼ‬٤‫ث‬
‫شح‬٤‫ًج‬, these are thoracic duct on the left side ‫خ‬٤‫ اُ٘بؽ‬٢ِ‫ ػ‬١‫ػبء اُقذس‬ُٞ‫ا‬
ٍ‫اُؾٔب‬, the largest lymphatic vessel in the body ْ‫ اُغغ‬٢‫األًجش ك‬, and
right lymphatic duct on the right side.
- lymphatic vessels are not present in the epithelium‫ب ُِغِذ‬٤ِ‫اُطجوخ اُؼ‬,
brain ‫أُخ‬, cartilage ‫ق‬٣‫اُـنبس‬, and bone marrowْ‫ٗخبع اُؼظ‬
- in the wall oh the intestine ‫ عذاس األٓؼبء‬٢‫ك‬, the lymphatic vessels are
called lacteals (contain lymph loaded by fat ٢ِ‫ ػ‬١ٞ‫ؾز‬٣ ١ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ َ‫ب عبئ‬ٜ٤‫ك‬
ٕٞٛ‫ )د‬this lymph is white in appearance called chyle )juice) َ‫اُغبئ‬
‫ش‬٤‫ اُؼق‬١‫ل ص‬٤‫ أث‬ُٚٗٞ ١ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫ا‬
 The vessels called lacteals
 The lymph called chyle

Lymph ‫السائل الليوفاوي‬

 It is a clear colorless fluid ُٕٞ ٕٝ‫عبئَ ؽلبف ثذ‬
 rich in protein ‫٘بد‬٤‫ر‬ٝ‫ ثبُجش‬٢٘‫ؿ‬
 present in lymphatic vessels ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫خ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ األ‬٢‫د ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ
 it comes from excess fluid from organ or tissue that can't deal with
blood capillaries ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫شاد اُذ‬٤‫بدح ػٖ اُؾؼ‬٣‫ ػجبسح ػٖ عبئَ ص‬ٙ‫د‬
 it carries cell debris ‫ب‬٣‫٘ظق األٗغغخ ٖٓ ٓخِلبد اُخال‬٤‫ ث‬, and large sized
microorganisms from tissue fluid

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Circulation of lymph: ‫دورج الليوف في الجسن‬

- lymph capillary network ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫خ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ ؽجٌخ األ‬carry lymph to small
lymphatic vessels ‫شح‬٤‫خ فـ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ‫خ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ٔق أل‬٤ُِ‫ ا‬١‫د‬ٞ‫ثز‬, that carry lymph to
LN ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ‫ ُؼوذح‬ٚ٣‫د‬ٞ٤‫ث‬, then it passes through LN and collected by other
vessels ‫خ أًجش‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ن أ‬٣‫زغٔغ ٖٓ اُؼوذ ػٖ هش‬٤‫ث‬ٝ, these vessels carry lymph to
another LN or to larger lymphatic vessel ‫خ‬٤ٗ‫ٔق آب ُؼوذح رب‬٤ُِ‫خ ثزؾَٔ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ األ‬ٝ
‫ أًجش‬١ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُ ‫ػبء‬ُٞ ٝ‫ أ‬, the lymph finally poured into blood through the
largest lymphatic vessels ‫خ‬٣ٝ‫ٔلب‬٤ُِ‫خ ا‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫فَ ُِذّ ٖٓ خالٍ أًجش األ‬ٞ٤‫خ ث‬٣‫ب‬ُٜ٘‫ ا‬٢‫ك‬ٝ

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Blood Vessels ‫األوعيح الذهىيح‬

Blood vessels are of 3 types; arteries ٖ٤٣‫ؽشا‬, veins ‫سدح‬ٝ‫أ‬, capillaries ‫شاد‬٤‫ؽؼ‬
‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫د‬
Artery Veins
- tubes that carry blood from heart - tubes that carry blood from tissues
to tissues ‫فَ اُذّ ٖٓ اُوِت ُألٗغغخ‬ٞ‫ثز‬ to heart ‫فَ اُذّ ٖٓ األٗغغخ ُِوِت‬ٞ‫ثز‬
- they branch ‫ رزلشع‬and branch; - they accompany arteries in their
called arterioles ‫شح‬٤‫ٖ فـ‬٤٣‫ؽشا‬ course ‫ ٗلظ أُغبس‬٢‫سدح ك‬ٝ‫ ٓغ األ‬٢‫ ثزٔؾ‬so
(when 3mm) end as capillaries called venae comitants ‫سدح‬ٝ‫األ‬
‫شاد‬٤‫ ى ؽؼ‬٢ٜ‫ ر٘ز‬when 7µ ‫أُقبؽجخ‬
- thick wall ‫ي‬٤ٔ‫عذاس ع‬ - thin wall ‫ن‬٤‫عذاس سه‬
- Elastic ‫ٓشٗخ‬ - collapsed ‫ اُغضخ‬٢‫ٌٓ٘ٔؾخ ك‬
- Reddish ُِٕٞ‫ؽٔشاء ا‬ - bluish ‫ب أصسم‬ُٜٗٞ
- No valves ‫بػ فٔبٓبد‬ٜ٤‫ٓل‬ - Have valves so blood pass in one
direction ١‫ؼذ‬٤‫ب فٔبٓبد ػِؾبٕ ًذا اُذّ ث‬ٜ‫ث‬
‫اؽذ‬ٝ ٙ‫ف ارغب‬

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Types of arteries according to their size ‫أنىاع الشرايين حسة الحجن‬

1) large sized arteries(elastic) ‫ ٓشٗخ‬ٝ ‫اُوطش‬ٝ ْ‫شح اُؾغ‬٤‫ٖ ًج‬٤٣‫ؽشا‬
- rich in elastic fibers which keep the continuous stream of blood
ٕ‫ب‬٣‫ اُؾش‬٢‫بٕ اُذّ ك‬٣‫ اعزٔشاس عش‬٢ِ‫ رؾبكع ػ‬٢‫بف أُشٗخ اُز‬٤ُ‫ ثبأل‬٢٘‫ؿ‬
- As aorta ٢‫سه‬ٝ‫بٕ األ‬٣‫ اُؾش‬١‫ص‬

2) medium sized arteries(muscular) ‫خ‬٤ِ‫عطخ اُؾغْ اُؼن‬ٞ‫سدح ٓز‬ٝ‫األ‬

- its wall rich in non-striated muscle fibers ‫ ثبُؼنالد أُِغبء‬٢٘‫ب ؿ‬ٛ‫عذاس‬

3) small sized arteries (arterioles) ْ‫شح اُؾغ‬٤‫سدح فـ‬ٝ‫األ‬

- its wall is relatively thicker than the lumen ‫ش‬٤‫ق فـ‬٣ٞ‫ اُزغ‬ٝ ‫ي‬٤ٔ‫اُغذاس ع‬

End Arteries ‫الشرايين الونتهيح‬:

- arteries of insufficient anastomosis ‫ب‬ٛ‫ش‬٤‫ب ارقبالد ٓغ ؿ‬ُٜ ‫غذ‬٤ُ ٖ٤٣‫ؽشا‬
‫خ‬٤‫سح ًبك‬ٞ‫ثق‬, so when obstructed lead to death
ٚ٣‫ رـز‬١‫ظ اُز‬٤‫د اُ٘غ‬ٞٓ ٢ُ‫ ا‬١‫ُزُي ػ٘ذٓب ر٘غذ رئد‬
As: coronary ٢‫بٕ اُزبع‬٣‫اُؾش‬
Renal ١ٌُِٞ‫بٕ ا‬٣‫اُؾش‬

Tortuous arteries ‫الشرايين الوتعرجح‬

Arteries that supply:
- highly movable organs ‫شح اُؾشًخ‬٤‫ األػنبء ًض‬١‫ٖ ثزـز‬٤٣‫ؽشا‬,
like Lips ‫ق‬٣‫اُؾلب‬
As: in facial artery
- portudable organs ّ‫ ثززؾشى ُألٓب‬٢ُِ‫ األػنبء ا‬like tongue
ٕ‫اُِغب‬
As: in lingual artery
- expansile organs ‫ ثززٔذد‬٢ُِ‫األػنبء ا‬, like uterus ْ‫اُشؽ‬
As: in uterine artery

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

Connection between arteries and veins:

1) capillaries ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫شاد اُذ‬٤‫اُؾؼ‬:
- vessels with thin permeable wall (to allow free
exchange) ٍ‫خ رجبد‬٤ِٔ‫س ػ‬ٝ‫غٔؼ ثؾذ‬٤ُ ‫ن ٓ٘لز‬٤‫خ راد عذاس سه‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫أ‬
ٟ‫اد األخش‬ُٞٔ‫ ا‬ٝ ‫اُـبصاد‬
- they follow the arterioles ٖ٤٣‫دح ثؼذ اُؾشا‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٌٕٞ‫ثز‬
‫شح‬٤‫ اُقـ‬where they lose their muscle coat َ‫ب هجوخ اُؼن‬ٜ٤‫ٕ ك‬ٌٞ٤‫ ٓؼ ث‬ٝ
ٖ٤٣‫طخ ثبُؾشا‬٤‫أُؾ‬
- they of uniform diameter ‫ب هطش ٓز٘بعن‬ٜ٤ُ
- they present in all tissues of the body ْ‫ ًَ أٗغغخ اُغغ‬٢‫دح ك‬ٞ‫ع‬ٞٓ ٌٕٞ‫ثز‬

Certain sites devoid of capillaries ‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫شاد د‬٤‫بػ ؽؼ‬ٜ٤‫ ثؼل أُ٘بهن ٓل‬as
cornea ‫خ‬٤ٗ‫اُوش‬,cartilage ‫ق‬٣‫ اُـنبس‬, epidermis of skin ‫ب ٖٓ اُغِذ‬٤ِ‫اُطجوخ اُؼ‬

2) sinusoids ‫شح‬٤‫ة اُقـ‬ٞ٤‫اُغ‬

- Present in liver ‫ اٌُجذ‬٢‫اعذ ك‬ٞ‫رز‬, spleen ٍ‫اُطؾب‬, BM ‫ٗخبع‬
ْ‫اُؼظ‬, and some endocrine glands ‫ثؼل اُـذد اُقٔبء‬ٝ
- they have wide irregular lumen and thin wall ْ٤‫ش ٓغزو‬٤‫اعغ ؿ‬ٝ ‫ق‬٣ٞ‫ب رغ‬ٜ٤ُ
‫ن‬٤‫ عذاس سه‬ٝ
- their wall lined by phagocytic cells of macrophage type ٖ‫اُغذاس ٓجط‬
‫جخ‬٣‫ش ثزجزِغ األعغبّ اُـش‬٤‫ع اٌُج‬ُٞ٘‫خ ٖٓ ا‬٤ٔ‫ب ثِؼ‬٣‫ة خال‬

3) Arterio-Venous anastomosis‫خ‬٣‫ذ‬٣‫س‬ُٞ‫خ ا‬٤ٗ‫ب‬٣‫فالد اُؾش‬ُٞ‫ا‬

(direct connection ‫)ارقبٍ ٓجبؽش‬
- blood pass directly from arteries to veins
without passing in capillaries ٖٓ ‫ ٓجبؽشح‬١‫ؼذ‬٤‫اُذّ ث‬
‫خ‬٣ٞٓ‫شاد اُذ‬٤‫ ف اُؾؼ‬١‫ؼذ‬٣ ّ ‫ش‬٤‫ذ ٖٓ ؿ‬٣‫س‬ُِٞ ٕ‫ب‬٣‫اُؾش‬
As in:dermis of skin ‫هجوخ ٖٓ اُغِذ‬
sex organs ‫خ‬٤ِ‫ األػنبء اُز٘بع‬٢‫ك‬
mucous membrane of the nose ‫ ُألٗق‬٢‫اُـؾبء أُخبه‬

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

Anastomosis
Definition: the communication between neighboring vessels ٖ٤‫اإلرقبٍ ٓب ث‬
‫سح‬ٝ‫خ أُزغب‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫األ‬
types may be:
a) between arteries and arteries ‫ب‬ٜ‫ثؼن‬ٝ ٖ٤٣‫ٖ اُؾشا‬٤‫ ث‬and found mainly in:
1. around joints of the limbs ‫ٖ ٓلبفَ األهشاف‬٤ُ‫ا‬ٞ‫ؽ‬
2. in the hand and the foot ٖ٤ِ‫اُشع‬ٝ ٖ٣‫ذ‬٤ُ‫ ا‬٢‫ك‬
3. in the abdomen ٖ‫ اُجط‬٢‫ك‬
b) between arteries and veins (arterio-venous anastomosis) see before
c) between veins and veins ‫ب‬ٜ‫ثؼن‬ٝ ‫سدح‬ٝ‫ٖ األ‬٤‫ث‬

significance of anastomosis ‫ب‬ٜ‫ز‬٤ٔٛ‫أ‬:

- it allows collateral circulation in case of
obstruction of one vessels
‫خ‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ ؽبُخ اٗغذاد أػ األ‬٢‫ش ٓجبؽش ُِذّ ك‬٤‫ن ؿ‬٣‫ثزٔضَ هش‬
Example: anastomosis around scapula

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

NERVOUS SYSTEM ‫الجهاز العصثي‬

36
 HUMAN BIOLOGY

Function of nervous system:

- Regulation and control of all body functions
- the nerve cell ‫خ‬٤‫خ اُؼقج‬٤ِ‫( اُخ‬neuron) is the structural and functional
unit of the nervous system (N.S.) ‫خ‬٤‫ل‬٤‫ظ‬ُٞ‫ا‬ٝ ‫خ‬٤‫ؽذح اُج٘بئ‬ُٞ‫ا‬
- it has: 1- body 2-processes ‫صاد‬ٝ‫( ثش‬axon, dendrites)
- Dendrites: transmit information toward cell body
- Axon: transmit information away from cell body to muscle, gland
‫ ؿذح‬or other nerve cell

What is the nerve?

- A whitish cord ‫ل‬٤‫ ؽجَ أث‬of nerve fibers ‫خ‬٤‫بف اُؼقج‬٤ُ‫ٖٓ األ‬
transmit nerve impulse=information to and from CNS
- Nerves may be motor ٢ً‫ ؽش‬or sensory ٢‫ؽغ‬
- motor nerves carry nerve impulses (order) to muscles (to contract
or relax) or gland (to secrete) ٝ‫ ر٘جغو أ‬ٝ‫آش ُِؼنالد ػِؾبٕ ر٘وجل أ‬ٝ‫ؾَٔ األ‬٤‫ث‬
‫ُِـذد ػِؾبٕ رطِغ اإلكشاصاد‬
- sensory: carry impulses to CNS ‫ثز٘وَ اإلؽغبط‬

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

the cranial nerves ‫األعصاب الوخيح‬

- they are attached to the brain ‫ أُخ‬٢‫ ثزٔغي ك‬they are 12 pairs of cranial
nerves:

Autonomic Nervous System:

- function
regulation the function of:
1) heart 2) glands ‫اُـذد‬
2) smooth muscles ‫اُؼنالد أُِغبء‬

Classification : sympathetic + parasympathetic

Sympathetic:
- supplies viscera & body wall (all body)
- arise from spinal cord (thoraco-lumbar ٖ‫اُجط‬ٝ ‫)اُقذس‬
- 2 Sympathetic chains of ganglia are part of symp
division and lie on each side of vertebral column
١‫د اُلوش‬ٞٔ‫ اُؼ‬٢‫ عبٗج‬٢ِ‫خ ػ‬٤‫ٖ ٖٓ اُؼوذ اُؼقج‬٤‫ٕ ٓزقَ ثغِغِز‬ٌٞ٤‫ث‬

38
 HUMAN BIOLOGY

Parasympathetic:
- supplies viscera only
- arise from brain stem and spinal cord (cranio-sacral) ‫طِغ ٖٓ ٓ٘طوخ‬٤‫ث‬
‫ك‬ٞ‫ ٓ٘طوخ اُؾ‬٢٘‫ؼ‬٣ ‫خ‬٣‫ اُؼغض‬ٝ ‫أُخ‬
- cranial outflow passes with 3,4,7,9 and10 cranial nerves ‫اُغضء‬
‫سح‬ًٞ‫خ أُز‬٤‫طِغ ٓغ األػقبة أُخ‬٤‫ ث‬٢‫أُخ‬
- sacral outflow passes with some sacral nerves to supply pelvic
viscera ‫ك‬ٞ‫ أؽؾبء ٓ٘طوخ اُؾ‬١‫ـز‬٣ ٢ً ‫خ‬٣‫ ٓغ ثؼل األػقبة اُؼغض‬١‫ؼذ‬٤‫ث‬
- made up of preganglionic and post ganglionic neurones ٖٓ ٌٕٞ‫ز‬٤‫ث‬
‫أػقبة ثؼذ اُؼوذح‬ٝ ‫أػقبة هجَ اُؼوذح‬
Meninges:
- 3 coverings surround the brain & spinal cord ٢‫خ اُز‬٤‫خ اُغؾبئ‬٤‫األؿؾ‬
٢‫بص اُؼقج‬ٜ‫ اُغ‬٢‫رـط‬
a) Pia-mater (inner) ٕٞ٘‫ األّ اُؾ‬soft & firmly attached to the brain
and spinal cord ٢‫بص اُؼقج‬ٜ‫ٓالفوخ ُِغ‬ٝ ‫وخ‬٤‫سه‬
b) Dura mater (outer) ‫خ‬٤‫ األّ اُغبك‬firm ‫فِجخ‬
c) Arachinoid mater (middle) )ٖ٤‫ٖ اُطجوز‬٤‫خ( ث‬٤‫ر‬ٞ‫األّ اُؼٌ٘ج‬
vascular → secretes CSF ٢‫خ رلشص اُغبئَ اُ٘خبػ‬٣ٞٓ‫خ د‬٤‫ػ‬ٝ‫ب أ‬ٜ‫ث‬

39
 HUMAN BIOLOGY

Spinal nerves ‫األعصاب الشوكية‬:

a) 8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves
‫ أزواج من األعصاب الشوكية العنمية‬8
b) 12 pairs of thoracic spinal nerves
‫ أزواج من األعصاب الشوكية الصدرية‬12
c) 5 pairs of lumbar spinal nerves
‫ أزواج من األعصاب الشوكية المطنية‬5
d) 5 pairs of sacral spinal nerves
‫ أزواج من األعصاب الشوكية العجزية‬5
e) 1 pair of coccygeal spinal nerves
‫زوج واحد من األعصاب الشوكية العصعصية‬

Structure of typical spinal nerve:

- each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by 2 roots:
‫كل عصب يتصل بالنخاع الشوكي عن طريك وصلتين‬
 Anterior(ventral) root :Motor ‫وصلة أمامية بيعدي منها األوامر الحركية‬
 posterior(dorsal) root: Sensory has a ganglion on it
‫وصلة خلفية بيعدي منها المعلومات الحسية وبتكون متصلة بعمدة عصبية‬
- the2 roots unite to form the nerve trunk=mixed fibers
‫الوصلتين بيتحدوا ويكونوا جذع العصب وبيكون فيه ألياف حسية وحركية‬

41
 HUMAN BIOLOGY

- the trunk divides into 2 primary rami ‫فرعين أوليين‬:

 Anterior primary ramus: supply the skin and the muscles of
the anterior wall of the trunk + limbs
‫الفرع األولي األمامي بيغذي الجلد و العضالت الموجودة في الجسم من األمام‬
 posterior primary ramus: supply skin and muscle
- A plexus is the union of some of the anterior primary rami in a
special arrangement as in brachial plexus → to supply the upper
limb ‫الضفيرة العصبية دي عبارة عن اتحاد بعض الفروع األمامية األولية في ترتيب معين زي‬
‫الضفيرة العضدية التي تغذي الطرف العلوي‬

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 ‫‪HUMAN BIOLOGY‬‬

‫اُغِذ ‪Skin‬‬

‫انت عارف إن الجلد أكبر عضو في الجسم ‪The skin is largest organ in the body‬‬
‫الجلد بيتكون من طبمتين هما ‪Formed of 2 layers:‬‬
‫طبمة خارجية " البشرة " ‪- Epidermis‬‬
‫طبمة داخلية "األدمة " ‪- Dermis‬‬
‫هنمول عن كل واحدة كلمتين‬
‫أول واحده هي ال ‪1) Epidermis‬‬
‫وهي عبارة عن طبمة من النسيج الضام ‪stratified‬‬
‫‪squamous keratinized epithelium‬‬
‫" متزعلش من االسم علي اآلخر السنة هتفهمه كله في الهستولوجي"‬

‫‪:‬‬
‫‪ectoderm , endoderm , mesoderm‬‬

‫تفتكروا ال ‪ epidermis‬أصله ايه ؟؟‬

‫ال ‪ epidermis‬منشأها من ال ‪ectoderm‬‬
‫‪ectodermal in origin‬‬
‫بتكون سميكة في راحة اليد ‪ palm‬وباطن المدم ‪sale‬‬
‫ورليمة لدام الذراع ‪ arm‬والساعد ‪forearm‬‬

‫‪2) Dermis‬‬
‫‪deep connective tissue layer , contains B.Vs, lymph vessels , and‬‬
‫‪nerves‬‬
‫دي عبارة عن طبمة داخلية بتتكون من النسيج الضام وبيكون فيها أوعية دموية وليمفاوية وكمان‬
‫أعصاب‬
‫جايه منين الطبمة دي ؟؟‬
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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

mesodermal in origin "mesoderm ‫"جايه من ال‬

thinner in anterior than posterior surfaces and thinner in women
than men

functions of skin:

- protection of deep structures from abrasions and invasion of

microorganisms as bacteria ‫حماية التراكيب الداخلية من الجروح والكائنات‬
‫المجهرية‬
- prevent loss of fluid ‫يمنع فمد السوائل من الجسم‬
- sensation by nerve endings ‫فيه مراكز اإلحساس زي اإلحساس باأللم واللمس‬
‫والحرارة‬
- sweating ‫إفراز العرق‬
- regulate body temperature ‫ينظم درجة حرارة الجسم‬
- synthesis and storage of vitamin D "‫مصنع ومخزن لفيتامين "د‬

skin creases 'lines' ‫خطوط راحة اليد‬

Definition:
skin creases are small grooves due to folds of the dermis that
are attached to deeper structures particularly fascia and bones
‫دي بتكون تجاويف صغيرة بسبب االنثناءات الموجودة في طبمة األدمة وبتكون ماسكه ومتوصله في‬
‫ والعظام كمان‬deep fascia ‫التراكيب العصبية و ال‬
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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

Types of skin creas:

- tension lines: fine creases in the form of network of linear
furrows ‫ودي عبارة عن خطوط بسيطة علي شكل شبكة‬
- papillary bridges or fingerprints: they are deviations on the
palmer surface of hand and foot ‫ودي عبارة عن إرتفاعات موجودة علي‬
‫سطح كف اليد والمدم‬
- flexure lines: are deep skin grooves lying opposite to the
joint and movable parts of the body ‫ودي عبارة عن تجاويف عميمة في‬
‫الجلد موجودة ممابل المفاصل واألجزاء المتحركة في الجسم‬
- Relaxed tension lines: lines along the collagenous bundle in
the dermis and are mainly arranged ‫دي عبارة عن خطوط موجودة علي‬
‫طول األماكن اللي موجود فيها حزم الكوالجين في األدمة‬
- Stria‫ خطوط رفيعة‬: if the skin is subjected to excessive tension
the elastic fibers will rupture producing radiating red line e.g.
stria gravidum in the ant. Abd. Wall of pregnant woman
which disappear after delivery
‫لو الجلد خضع لشد جامد األلياف المطاطة هتتشد وهتديني خطوط حمرا زي خطوط الحمل‬
‫اللي بتكون موجودة علي جلد بطن المرأة الحامل وبتروح بعد الوالدة‬

Skin pigmentation: ‫أكيد عارف إن الجلد له ألوان‬

We have 3 types of pigments ‫ أنواع من الصبغات‬3 ‫في جسمنا في‬
1. Carotine: yellow orange in colour found in the subcutaneous
fat ‫الكاروتين موجودة في الدهون تحت الجلد وبيكون لونها أصفر برتمالي‬
2. Melanin: which is dark brown pigment found in the
melanocytes present at dermis epidermis junction
‫الميالنين لونها بني غامك موجودة بين طبمتين الجلد‬
3. Haemoglobin: is a red pigment present in RBCs of blood
vessels‫صبغة حمراء اللون موجودة في كرات الدم الحمراء‬

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 HUMAN BIOLOGY

Appendeges of skin: ‫في حاجات متعلمة بالجلد زي‬

- sweat glands ‫الغدد العرلية‬
- nails ‫األظافر‬
- hair ‫الشعر‬
- sebaceous gland ‫الغدد الدهنية‬

Blood supply of skin

- superficial plexus superficial part of dermis :
‫ودي بتغذي الجزء السطحي من األدمة‬
- arteriovenous anastomosis : in the middle part of dermis
‫ودي بتغذي الجزء األوسط من األدمة‬
- deep plexus at the junction between dermis and underlying
fascia ‫ودي بتغذي الجزء العميك من األدمة‬

Dermatome : area of skin supplied by single cord segment

Myotome: segmental innervation of muscle

Dermatome

45