02. 09. 2019.

Banana - Wikipedia

Banana
A banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry[1][2] – produced by
several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus
Banana
Musa.[3] In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called
"plantains", distinguishing them from dessert bananas. The fruit is
variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and
curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind, which may be
green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in
Peeled, whole, and longitudinal section
clusters hanging from the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible
seedless (parthenocarp) bananas come from two wild species – Musa Scientific classification
acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most Kingdom: Plantae
cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, and Musa
× paradisiaca for the hybrid Musa acuminata × M. balbisiana,
(unranked): Angiosperms
depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific name for (unranked): Monocots
this hybrid, Musa sapientum, is no longer used.
(unranked): Commelinids
Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are Order: Zingiberales
likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea.[4][5] They
Family: Musaceae
are grown in 135 countries,[6] primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser
extent to make fiber, banana wine, and banana beer and as ornamental Genus: Musa
plants. The world's largest producers of bananas in 2017 were India
and China, which together accounted for approximately 38% of total
production.[7]

Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and

"plantains". Especially in the Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers
to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group,
which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. By contrast,
Fruits of four different banana
Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other
cultivars
regions, such as Southeast Asia, many more kinds of banana are grown and
eaten, so the binary distinction is not useful and is not made in local
languages.

The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants that produce the fruit.[3] This can extend to other
members of the genus Musa, such as the scarlet banana (Musa coccinea), the pink banana (Musa velutina), and the
Fe'i bananas. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, such as the snow banana (Ensete glaucum) and the
economically important false banana (Ensete ventricosum). Both genera are in the banana family, Musaceae.

Contents
Description
Banana equivalent radiation dose
Etymology
Taxonomy
Bananas and plantains
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Historical cultivation
Early cultivation
Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America
Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean
Modern cultivation
Cavendish
Ripening
Storage and transport
Production and export
Developing countries
Pests, diseases, and natural disasters
Panama disease
Tropical race 4
Black sigatoka
Banana bunchy top virus
Banana bacterial wilt
Conservation
Nutrition
Potassium
Allergen
Culture
Food and cooking
Fruit
Flower
Leaves
Trunk
Fiber
Textiles
Paper
Cultural roles
Arts
Religion and popular beliefs
Racist symbol
Unicode
Other uses
See also
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Description

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A banana corm, about Female flowers have Banana 'tree' showing Banana tree with
25 cm (10 in) across petals at the tip of the fruit and inflorescence opening inflorescence
ovary

Banana inflorescence, Wild banana with

partially opened flowers and stem
growing in reverse
direction

The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[8] All the above-ground
parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a "corm".[9] Plants are
normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are often mistaken for trees, but what appears
to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide
variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is
not compacted.[10] The leaves of banana plants are composed of a "stalk" (petiole)
and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly
packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The
edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new
growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart.[11]
Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing
conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish'
Young banana plant
plants at around 3 m (10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.[12][13] Leaves are
spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[1]
They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.[14]

When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike or
inflorescence. A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until
eventually it emerges at the top.[15] Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the
"banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.[16]) After
fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is
perennial. In the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to
maintain spacing.[17] The inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between

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rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the
leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear
at the tip of the ovary.[18]

The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called "hands"), with up
to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers, or commercially as a "banana
stem", and can weigh 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb). Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or
"finger") average 125 grams (0.276 lb), of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower
right).

The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[19] There is a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with numerous
long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and the edible inner portion. The inner
part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner
portions of the three carpels by manually deforming the unopened fruit.[20] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are
diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.[21]

Banana equivalent radiation dose

As with all potassium-containing objects on Earth, including many common foods and people, bananas emit
radioactivity at very low levels occurring naturally from potassium-40 (K40 or K-40),[22] which is one of several
isotopes of potassium.[23][24] The banana equivalent dose of radiation was developed in 1995 as a simple teaching-tool
to educate the public about the natural, small amount of K-40 radiation occurring in every human and in common
foods – where the banana was used as an example.[25][26] The K-40 in a banana contains about 15 becquerels or 0.1
micro-sieverts (units of radioactivity exposure),[27] an amount that does not add to the total body radiation dose when
a banana is consumed.[22][26] The radiation exposure from consuming one banana is approximately 1% of the average
daily exposure to radiation, or about 50 times less than a typical x-ray in a dental exam and 400 times less than taking
a commercial flight across the United States.[27]

Etymology
The word banana is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from the Wolof word banaana, and passed into
English via Spanish or Portuguese.[28]

Taxonomy
The genus Musa was created by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[29] The name may
be derived from Antonius Musa, physician to the Emperor Augustus, or
Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word for banana, mauz.[30] The old
biological name Musa sapientum = "Muse of the wise" arose because of
homophony in Latin with the classical Muses.

Musa is in the family Musaceae. The APG III system assigns Musaceae to
the order Zingiberales, part of the commelinid clade of the
monocotyledonous flowering plants. Some 70 species of Musa were
recognized by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of The Musa 'Nendran' cultivar grown
January 2013;[29] several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated widely in the Indian state of Kerala
is a member of the AAB cultivar
as ornamentals.[31]
group
The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue
for taxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed bananas into two species based
only on their uses as food: Musa sapientum for dessert bananas and Musa paradisiaca for plantains. More species

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names were added, but this approach proved to be inadequate for the
number of cultivars in the primary center of diversity of the genus,
Southeast Asia. Many of these cultivars were given names that were later
discovered to be synonyms.[32]

In a series of papers published from 1947 onwards, Ernest Cheesman

showed that Linnaeus's Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca were
cultivars and descendants of two wild seed-producing species, Musa
acuminata and Musa balbisiana, both first described by Luigi Aloysius Banana plants, Mahamaya Lake,
Colla.[33] Cheesman recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in Chittagong, Bangladesh
favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct
groups of cultivars – those primarily exhibiting the botanical
characteristics of Musa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of Musa acuminata, and
those with characteristics of both.[32] Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based
nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier
classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the original names
are still recognized by some authorities, leading to confusion.[33][34]

The accepted scientific names for most groups of cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana
Colla for the ancestral species, and Musa × paradisiaca L. for the hybrid M. acuminata × M. balbisiana.[35]

Synonyms of M. × paradisica include

a large number of subspecific and varietial names of M. × paradisiaca, including M. p. subsp. sapientum (L.) Kuntze
Musa × dacca Horan.
Musa × sapidisiaca K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl.
Musa × sapientum L., and a large number of its varietal names, including M. × sapientum var. paradisiaca (L.)
Baker, nom. illeg.

Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system. Cultivars are placed in
groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species they are derived from. Thus the Latundan
banana is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a triploid derived from both M. acuminata (A) and M.
balbisiana (B). For a list of the cultivars classified under this system, see "List of banana cultivars".

In 2012, a team of scientists announced they had achieved a draft sequence of the genome of Musa acuminata.[36]

Bananas and plantains

In regions such as North America and Europe, Musa fruits offered for sale can be divided into "bananas" and
"plantains", based on their intended use as food. Thus the banana producer and distributor Chiquita produces
publicity material for the American market which says that "a plantain is not a banana". The stated differences are that
plantains are more starchy and less sweet; they are eaten cooked rather than raw; they have thicker skin, which may be
green, yellow or black; and they can be used at any stage of ripeness.[37] Linnaeus made the same distinction between
plantains and bananas when first naming two "species" of Musa.[38] Members of the "plantain subgroup" of banana
cultivars, most important as food in West Africa and Latin America, correspond to the Chiquita description, having
long pointed fruit. They are described by Ploetz et al. as "true" plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas.[39] The
cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group, the East African Highland bananas,[13] so would not qualify
as "true" plantains on this definition.

An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the
subgroups of cooking bananas.[40] Triploid cultivars derived solely from M. acuminata are examples of "dessert
bananas", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbinosa (in particular
the plantain subgroup of the AAB Group) are "plantains".[41][42] Small farmers in Colombia grow a much wider range

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of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars

showed that they could be placed into at least three groups based on their
characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas, and
plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking
bananas.[43]

In Southeast Asia – the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and
cultivated – the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" does not
work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw and Cavendish bananas are the most
cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those common dessert bananas sold
eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those
grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas.[38] Southeast Asian
languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus
both Cavendish cultivars, the classic yellow dessert bananas, and Saba cultivars, used mainly for cooking, are called
pisang in Malaysia and Indonesia, kluai in Thailand and chuoi in Vietnam.[44] Fe'i bananas, grown and eaten in the
islands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely different wild species than traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i
bananas are cooked, but Karat bananas, which are short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual
yellow dessert bananas, are eaten raw.[45]

In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is possible to
distinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked. In other regions of the world,
particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there are many more kinds of banana and the two-fold
distinction is not useful and not made in local languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cooking bananas, which
are not always distinct from dessert bananas.

Historical cultivation

Early cultivation
Farmers in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea first domesticated
bananas. Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk
Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea suggests
that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE, and possibly
to 8000 BCE.[4][47] It is likely that other species were later and
independently domesticated elsewhere in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is
the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondary diversity
are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in the
region.[48] Original native ranges of the
ancestors of modern edible
Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[50] bananas. Musa acuminata is shown
triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in in green and Musa balbisiana in
Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were known in orange.[46]
Madagascar around that time.[51] The earliest prior evidence indicates that
cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century CE.[52] It is likely,
however, that bananas were brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of
Malagasy colonization of the island from South East Asia c. 400 CE.[53]

The banana may also have been present in isolated locations elsewhere in the Middle East on the eve of Islam. The
spread of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as
poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in texts from Palestine and

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Egypt. From there it diffused into North Africa and Muslim Iberia. During
the medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered among the best
in the Arab world.[49] In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to
Palestine. Today, banana consumption increases significantly in Islamic
countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.[54]

Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian Kingdom of Cyprus by the

late medieval period. Writing in 1458, the Italian traveller and writer Actual and probable diffusion of
bananas during Islamic times (700–
Gabriele Capodilista wrote favourably of the extensive farm produce of the
1500 CE)[49]
estates at Episkopi, near modern-day Limassol, including the region's
banana plantations.[55]

Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who

brought the fruits from West Africa in the 16th century.[56]

Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary

diversity in India, China, and Southeast Asia.

There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink;

green-and-white striped bananas with pulp the color of
orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like
strawberries. The Double Mahoi plant can produce two
bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San
Heong banana means 'You can smell it from the next
mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow fused;
another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only
an inch long.

— Mike Peed, The New Yorker[57]

Illustration of fruit and banana plant
from Acta Eruditorum, 1734

Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and

South America
In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana
plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[58] North
Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high prices
shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that the food
became more widespread.[59] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were
not widely known in Europe, although they were available.[58] Jules Verne
introduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions in Around the
World in Eighty Days (1872).

Fruits of wild-type bananas have

The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related
numerous large, hard seeds.
Western Caribbean Zone, including most of Central America. It involved
the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and
railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening. North
American shippers like Lorenzo Dow Baker and Andrew Preston, the founders of the Boston Fruit Company started
this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like Minor C. Keith also participated, eventually culminating in the
multi-national giant corporations like today's Chiquita Brands International and Dole.[59] These companies were
monopolistic, vertically integrated (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually
used political manipulation to build enclave economies (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax
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exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave
rise to the term Banana republic for states like Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their
rivalries to influence politics or playing the international interests of the United States, especially during the Cold War,
to keep the political climate favorable to their interests.[60]

Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean

The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local markets.
India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African countries where climate and soil
conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana growers who sell at least some of their crop.[61]

Peasant sector banana growers produce for the world market in the Caribbean, however. The Windward Islands are
notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an international market, generally in Europe but also in
North America. In the Caribbean, and especially in Dominica where this sort of cultivation is widespread, holdings are
in the 1–2 acre range. In many cases the farmer earns additional money from other crops, from engaging in labor
outside the farm, and from a share of the earnings of relatives living overseas.[62]

Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or cyclones.[63]

Modern cultivation
All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. While
the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars (some being hybrids) with tiny seeds are
preferred for human raw fruit consumption.[64] These are propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to
produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit
in 6–8 months.

As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.[65]

Cavendish
In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged
to the triploid AAA group of Musa acuminata, commonly referred to as
Cavendish group bananas. They accounted for the majority of banana
exports,[64] despite only coming into existence in 1836.[66] The cultivars
Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in
the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an
AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama
disease, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum which attacks the
Cavendish bananas are the main
roots of the banana plant.[64] Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the commercial banana cultivars sold in
Panama disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the black sigatoka the world market.
fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable.[67]

Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas
where Panama disease is not found.[68] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but
they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any
existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are
attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[64] One such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese
Cavendish, also known as the Formosana.[69]

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Ripening
Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These rooms are
air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color consumers normally associate with
supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused by the artificial ripening process.[70] Flavor and texture are also affected by
ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56.3 and 59.0 °F) during transport. At
lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe
bananas quickly blackens in the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the fruit inside remains
unaffected.

Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (i.e. not treated with
ethylene), and may show up at the supermarket fully green. Guineos verdes
(green bananas) that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before
becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for
cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine.[71]
Ripened bananas (left, under
sunlight) fluoresce in blue when A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to
exposed to UV light.
ultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation of
chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin
of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a
propionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The
study suggested that this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and
pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened bananas.[72]

Storage and transport

Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets.[73] To obtain maximum shelf life,
harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, and
refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This
technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C
(63 °F) and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed
for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown
paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process.[74]

Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures. This
effect can be exploited by packing banana in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium
permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has been shown to
more than double lifespans up to 3–4 weeks without the need for refrigeration.[75][76][77]

Production and export

In 2016, world production of bananas and plantains was 148 million tonnes, led by India and China with a combined
total (only for bananas) of 28% of global production (table). Other major producers were the Philippines, Ecuador,
Indonesia, and Brazil, together accounting for 20% of the world total of bananas and plantains (table).

As reported for 2013, total world exports were 20 million tonnes of bananas and 859,000 tonnes of plantains.[79]
Ecuador and the Philippines were the leading exporters with 5.4 and 3.3 million tonnes, respectively, and the
Dominican Republic was the leading exporter of plantains with 210,350 tonnes.[79]

Developing countries

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Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for

millions of people in developing countries.[73] In most tropical 2016 Production
millions of tonnes
countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the
Country Bananas Plantains Total
main cultivars. Most producers are small-scale farmers either for
home consumption or local markets. Because bananas and plantains India 29.1 29.1
produce fruit year-round, they provide a valuable food source during
China 13.1 13.1
the hunger season (when the food from one annual/semi-annual
harvest has been consumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas 5.8 3.1 8.9
Philippines
and plantains are important for global food security.[80]
6.5 0.6 7.1
Ecuador
Pests, diseases, and natural
7.0 7.0
disasters Indonesia

Brazil 6.8 6.8

While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible
banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely popular in Europe and the 2.0 3.5 5.5
Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the Colombia

next 10–20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the

1.2 4.3 5.5
1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks Cameroon
genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening
0.6 3.7 4.3
both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence Uganda
farming.[81][82] Some commentators remarked that those variants
0.09 4.0 4.1
which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical Ghana
banana" are so different that most people would not consider them
3.8 0.3 4.1
the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic Guatemala
cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.[60] World 113.3 35.1 148.4
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[78] Note:
Some countries produce statistics distinguishing
Panama disease between bananas and plantain production, but four of
Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which the top six producers do not, requiring comparisons
using the total for bananas and plantains combined.
enters the plants through the roots and travels with water into the
trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow of
water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to
lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production
centered on "Gros Michel", which was highly susceptible.[83] Cavendish was chosen
as the replacement for Gros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces
the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required for shipping the
Cavendish,[84] and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.[85]

According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting

Cavendish. All plants are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease
resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.[83]

Tropical race 4
Banana bunches are
Tropical race 4 (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first
sometimes encased in
discovered in 1993. This virulent form of fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in plastic bags for protection.
several southeast Asian countries and has recently spread to Australia, India and The bags may be coated
Mozambique.[86] As the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or with pesticides.
tools, it has recently spread to the Americas despite years of preventative efforts.[87]
Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time Cavendish will almost

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certainly be eliminated from commercial production by this disease.[88] The only known defense to TR4 is genetic
resistance. This is conferred either by RGA2, a gene isolated from a TR4-resistant diploid banana, or by the nematode-
derived Ced9.[89]

Black sigatoka
Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known as black
leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana leaves that were used as
packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars[67]),
impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit
production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen prematurely, making them unsuitable for export.
The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5
acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can
be environmentally justified.

Banana bunchy top virus

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a plant virus of the genus Babuvirus, family Nanonviridae affecting Musa spp.
(including banana, abaca, plantain and ornamental bananas) and Ensete spp. in the family Musaceae.[90] Banana
bunchy top disease (BBTD) symptoms include dark green streaks of variable length in leaf veins, midribs and petioles.
Leaves become short and stunted as the disease progresses, becoming 'bunched' at the apex of the plant. Infected
plants may produce no fruit or the bunch may not emerge from the pseudostem.[91] The virus is transmitted by the
banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa and is widespread in SE Asia, Asia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania and parts
of Africa. There is no cure for BBTD, but it can be effectively controlled by the eradication of diseased plants and the
use of virus-free planting material.[92] No resistant cultivars have been found, but varietal differences in susceptibility
have been reported. The commercially important Cavendish subgroup is severely affected.[91]

Banana bacterial wilt

Banana bacterial wilt (BBW) is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum.[93] After
being originally identified on a close relative of bananas, Ensete ventricosum, in Ethiopia in the 1960s,[94] BBW
occurred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then BBW has been diagnosed in Central and East
Africa including the banana growing regions of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya,
Burundi, and Uganda.[95]

Conservation
Given the narrow range of genetic diversity present in bananas and the
many threats via biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (such as drought)
stress, conservation of the full spectrum of banana genetic resources is
ongoing.[96] Banana germplasm is conserved in many national and
regional gene banks, and at the world's largest banana collection, the
International Musa Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC), managed by
Bioversity International and hosted at KU Leuven in Belgium.[97] Musa
cultivars are usually seedless, and options for their long-term conservation
are constrained by the vegetative nature of the plant's reproductive system. The in vitro banana collection at
Bioversity's International Musa
Consequently, they are conserved by three main methods: in vivo (planted
Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC) in
in field collections), in vitro (as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled
Leuven, Belgium
environment), and by cryopreservation (meristems conserved in liquid
nitrogen at -196 °C).[96] Genes from wild banana species are conserved as
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DNA and as cryopreserved pollen[96] and banana seeds from wild species are also conserved, although less commonly,
as they are difficult to regenerate. In addition, bananas and their crop wild relatives are conserved in situ (in wild
natural habitats where they evolved and continue to do so). Diversity is also conserved in farmers' fields where
continuous cultivation, adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing
traditional local cultivars.[98]

Nutrition
Raw bananas (not including the peel) are 75% water,
Bananas, raw (Daily Value)
23% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain
negligible fat. A 100-gram reference serving supplies Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
89 Calories, 31% of the US recommended Daily Value Energy 371 kJ (89 kcal)
(DV) of vitamin B6, and moderate amounts of
Carbohydrates 22.84 g
vitamin C, manganese and dietary fiber, with no Sugars 12.23 g
other micronutrients in significant content (see Dietary fiber 2.6 g
table).
Fat 0.33 g
Protein 1.09 g
Potassium Vitamins Quantity %DV†
Although bananas are commonly thought to contain Thiamine (B1) 0.031 mg 3%
exceptional potassium content,[26][99] their actual Riboflavin (B2) 0.073 mg 6%
potassium content is not high per typical food Niacin (B3) 0.665 mg 4%
serving, having only 8% of the US recommended Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg 7%
Daily Value for potassium (considered a low level of Vitamin B6 0.4 mg 31%
the DV, see nutrition table), and their potassium- Folate (B9) 20 μg 5%
content ranking among fruits, vegetables, legumes, Choline 9.8 mg 2%
and many other foods is relatively moderate.[100][101] Vitamin C 8.7 mg 10%
Vegetables with higher potassium content than raw Minerals Quantity %DV†
dessert bananas (358 mg per 100 grams) include raw Iron 0.26 mg 2%
spinach (558 mg per 100 grams), baked potatoes Magnesium 27 mg 8%
without skin (391 mg per 100 grams), cooked Manganese 0.27 mg 13%
soybeans (539 mg per 100 grams), grilled portabella Phosphorus 22 mg 3%
mushrooms (437 mg per 100 grams), and processed Potassium 358 mg 8%
tomato sauces (413–439 mg per 100 grams). Raw Sodium 1 mg 0%
plantains contain 499 mg potassium per 100 grams. Zinc 0.15 mg 2%
Dehydrated dessert bananas or banana powder Other constituents Quantity
contain 1491 mg potassium per 100 grams.[100] Water 74.91 g

Link to USDA Database entry (http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/se

Allergen arch/list?qlookup=09040&format=Full) values are for edible
portion
Individuals with a latex allergy may experience a
reaction to bananas.[102] Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Culture †Percentages are roughly approximated using
US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database (https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list)
Food and cooking

Fruit

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Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in
taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked.
The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is isoamyl acetate (also known as banana oil), which, along
with several other compounds such as butyl acetate and isobutyl acetate, is a significant contributor to banana
flavor.[103][104][105]

During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas ethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and indirectly affects
the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into
sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and,
consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar
concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin
between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.[106][107]

Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a banana
leaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes are popular amongst backpackers and other travelers in South
Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expression Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to
this group of travelers. Banana chips are a snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which
have a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting
juice is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently in
Philippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and desserts like maruya, turón, and halo-halo or saba con yelo.
Most of these dishes use the Saba or Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are also commonly used in cuisine in the
South-Indian state of Kerala, where they are steamed (puzhungiyathu), made into curries,[108] fried into chips,
(upperi)[109] or fried in batter (pazhampori).[110] Pisang goreng, bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino
maruya or Kerala pazhampori, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in
the United Kingdom and United States as banana fritters.

Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way as potatoes, such as
the pazham pachadi dish prepared in Kerala.[108]

Kilawin na pusô ng Nicaraguan Nacatamales,

saging, a Filipino dish in banana leaves, ready
Banana with Lemon curry
using banana flowers to be steamed Kaeng yuak is a northern
made in a house in
Vijayawada, Andhra Thai curry made with the
Pradesh, India core of the banana plant

Pisang goreng fried Banana in sweet gravy,

banana coated in batter, known as pengat pisang
popular snack in in Malaysia
Indonesia

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Flower
Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[111] in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or steamed with dips
or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.[112][113] The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with artichokes, both the
fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.[114]

Leaves
Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food
containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries.[115] In Indonesian cuisine, banana leaf is
employed in cooking methods like pepes and botok; banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are
cooked in steam or in boiled water, or are grilled on charcoal. When used so for steaming or grilling, the banana leaves
protect the food ingredients from burning and add a subtle sweet flavor.[116] In South India, it is customary to serve
traditional food on a banana leaf. In Tamil Nadu (India), dried banana leaves are used as to pack food and to make
cups to hold liquid food items.

Trunk
The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Examples include
the Burmese dish mohinga, and the Filipino dish inubaran.[117]

Fiber

Textiles
Banana fiber harvested from the pseudostems and leaves of the plant has been used for textiles in Asia since at least
the 13th century. Both fruit-bearing and fibrous varieties of the banana plant have been used.[118] In the Japanese
system Kijōka-bashōfu, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are
first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varying degrees of softness,
yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are
the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and
kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[119]

In India, a banana fiber separator machine has been developed, which takes the agricultural waste of local banana
harvests and extracts strands of the fiber.[120]

Paper
Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different parts: the bark of
the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. The paper is
either hand-made or by industrial process.[121]

Cultural roles

Arts

The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally released in
1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since then the song has been rerecorded
several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.[122][123]
A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. An American comedy
recording from 1910 features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his own such
incident:[124]

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Now I don't think much of the man that throws a

banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think
much of the banana peel that throws a man on the
sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the bananer peelin' and
I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as
I was pickin' myself up a little boy come runnin' across
the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please do
that agin? My little brother didn't see you do it." Coconut, banana and banana
leaves used while worshiping River
Kaveri at Tiruchirappalli, India.
The poet Bashō is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant.
The "bashō" planted in his garden by a grateful student became a
source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and
home.[125]
The cover artwork for the debut album of The Velvet Underground
features a banana made by Andy Warhol. On the original vinyl LP
version, the design allowed the listener to "peel" this banana to find a
pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside.[126]

Religion and popular beliefs Banana flowers and leaves for sale
In India, bananas serve a prominent part in many festivals and occasions in the Thanin market in Chiang Mai,
Thailand.
of Hindus. In South Indian weddings, particularly Tamil weddings, banana
trees are tied in pairs to form an arch as a blessing to the couple for a long-
lasting, useful life.[127][128]

In Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of banana plants may be inhabited by a

spirit, Nang Tani, a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests
itself as a young woman.[129] Often people tie a length of colored satin cloth around
the pseudostem of the banana plants.[130]

In Malay folklore, the ghost known as Pontianak is associated with banana plants
(pokok pisang), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day.[131]

Racist symbol
There is a long racist history of describing people of African descent as being more
like monkeys than humans, and due to the assumption in popular culture that Nang Tani, the female
monkeys like bananas, bananas have been used in symbolic acts of hate ghost of Thai folklore that
speech.[132][133] haunts banana plants

Particularly in Europe, bananas have long been commonly thrown at black

footballers by racist spectators.[134] In April 2014, during a match at Villarreal's stadium, El Madrigal, Dani Alves was
targeted by Villareal supporter David Campaya Lleo, who threw a banana at him.[135] Alves picked up the banana,
peeled it and took a bite, and the meme went viral on social media in support of him.[136] Racist taunts are an ongoing
problem in football.[137][138] Bananas were hung from nooses around the campus of American University in May 2017
after the student body elected its first black woman student government president.[139]

Unicode
The Unicode standard includes the emoji character U+1F34C 🍌 BANANA (HTML 🍌).[140]

Other uses

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The large leaves may be used as umbrellas.[116]

Banana peel may have capability to extract heavy metal contamination from river water, similar to other
purification materials.[141][142] In 2007, banana peel powder was tested as a means of filtration for heavy metals
and radionuclides occurring in water produced by the nuclear and fertilizer industries (cadmium contaminant is
present in phosphates). When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65%
of heavy metals, and this can be repeated.
Waste bananas can be used to feed livestock.[143]

See also
Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia
List of banana dishes
United Brands Company v Commission of the European Communities

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(2000). Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia (https://web.archive.org/web/20130530235053/ht
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Further reading
Harriet Lamb, "Fighting The Banana Wars and other Fairtrade Battles", ISBN 978-1-84604-083-2

External links
Kew plant profile: Musa acuminata (banana) (http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:797527-1)

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