Culture of Australia

The culture of Australia is primarily a Western culture, to some extent derived from Britain but also influenced by the unique
geography of Australia, the cultural input of Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander and other Australian people. The British
colonization of Australia began in 1788, and waves of multi-ethnic migration followed. Evidence of a significant Anglo-Celtic
heritage includes the predominance of the English language, the existence of a democratic system of government drawing upon
the British traditions of Westminster Government, Parliamentarianism and constitutional monarchy, American constitutionalist
and federalist traditions, Christianity as the dominant religion, and the popularity of sports originating in (or influenced by) the
British Isles. Australian culture has diverged significantly since British settlement.

Aboriginal people are believed to have arrived as early as 60,000 years ago, and evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia dates
back at least 30,000 years.[1] Several states and territories had their origins as penal colonies, with the first British convicts
arriving at Sydney Cove in 1788. Stories of outlaws like the bushranger Ned Kelly have endured in Australian music, cinema and
literature. The Australian gold rushes from the 1850s brought wealth as well as new social tensions to Australia, including the
miners' Eureka Stockade rebellion. The colonies established elected parliaments and rights for workers and women before most
other Western nations.[2]

Federation in 1901 because due to a growing sense of national identity that had developed over the latter half of the 19th century,
as seen in the works of the Heidelberg School painters and writers like Banjo Paterson, Henry Lawson and Dorothea Mackellar.
The World Wars profoundly altered Australia's sense of identity, with World War I introducing the ANZAC legend, and World
War II seeing a reorientation from Britain to the United States as the nation's foremost major ally. After the second war, 6.5
million migrants from 200 nations brought immense new diversity, and Australians at the time grew increasingly aware of their
proximity to Asia. Over time, the diverse food, lifestyle and cultural practices of immigrants have been absorbed into mainstream
Australian culture.[3][4]

Contents
Development of Australian culture
Symbols
Language
Humor
Arts
Literature
Theater
Architecture
Visual arts
Cinema
Music
Indigenous music
Folk music and national songs
Classical music
Popular music
Dance
Television
Religion
 Public holidays
Cuisine
Beverages
Clothing and apparel
Sport
Cricket
Football codes
Water sports
Other sports
Folklore
Attitudes, beliefs and stereotypes
See also
References

Development of Australian culture

The oldest surviving cultural traditions of Australia—and some of the oldest surviving
cultural traditions on earth—are those of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples. Their ancestors have inhabited Australia for between 40,000 and 60,000 years,
living a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In 2006, the Indigenous population was estimated at
517,000 people, or 2.5 per cent of the total population.[5] Most Aboriginal Australians
have a belief system based on the Dreaming, or Dream time, which refers both to a time
when ancestral spirits created land and culture, and to the knowledge and practices that
define individual and community responsibilities and identity.[6] Conflict and
reconciliation between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians has been a source of
much art and literature in Australia, and ancient Aboriginal artistic styles and iconic
inventions such as the boomerang, the didgeridoo and Indigenous Australian music have
become symbols of modern Australia.
A Luritja man demonstrating
method of attack with The arrival of the first British settlers at
boomerang under cover of
what is now Sydney in 1788 introduced
shield (1920)
Western civilization to the Australian
continent. Although Sydney was initially
used by the British as a place of banishment for prisoners, the arrival of the
British laid the foundations for Australia's democratic institutions and rule of
law, and introduced the long traditions of English literature, Western art and
music, and Judeo-Christian ethics and religious outlook to a new continent.

The British Empire expanded across the whole continent and established six Governor Arthur Phillip hoists the
British flag over the new colony at
colonies. The colonies were originally penal colonies, with the exception of
Sydney in 1788
Western Australia and South Australia, which were established as a "free
colony" with no convicts and a vision for a territory with political and religious
freedoms, together with opportunities for wealth through business and pastoral investments.[7] Though Western Australia became
a penal colony after insufficient numbers of free settlers arrived. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, grew from its status as a
convict free region and experienced prosperity from the late nineteenth century.
Contact between the indigenous Australians and the new settlers ranged from
cordiality to violent conflict, but the diseases brought by Europeans were
devastating to Aboriginal populations and culture. According to the historian
Geoffrey Blainey, during the colonial period: "Smallpox, measles, influenza and
other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another ... The main
conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralization."[2]

William Wentworth established Australia's first political party in 1835 to demand

democratic government for New South Wales. From the 1850s, the colonies set
about writing constitutions which produced democratically advanced
parliaments as Constitutional Monarchies with Queen Victoria as the head of
state.[8]

Women's suffrage in Australia was achieved from the 1890s.[9] Women became
eligible to vote in South Australia in 1895. This was the first legislation in the
world permitting women to stand for political office and, in 1897, Catherine
South Australian suffragette
Helen Spence, an Adelaidean, became the first female political candidate.[10][11]
Catherine Helen Spence (1825–
Though constantly evolving, the key foundations for elected parliamentary 1910). The Australian colonies
government have maintained an historical continuity in Australia from the 1850s established democratic parliaments
into the 21st century. from the 1850s and began to grant
women the vote in the 1890s.
During the colonial era, distinctive forms of Australian art, music, language and
literature developed through movements like the Heidelberg school of painters
and the work of bush balladeers like Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson, whose poetry and prose did much to promote an
egalitarian Australian outlook which placed a high value on the concept of mateship. Games like cricket and rugby were imported
from Britain at this time and with a local variant of football, Australian Rules Football, became treasured cultural traditions.

The Commonwealth of Australia was founded in 1901, after a series of referenda conducted in the British colonies of Australasia.
The Australian Constitution established a federal democracy and enshrined human rights such as sections 41 (right to vote), 80
(right to trial by jury) and 116 (freedom of religion) as foundational principles of Australian law and included economic rights
such as restricting the government to acquiring property only "on just terms".[12] The Australian Labor Party was established in
the 1890s and the Liberal Party of Australia in 1944, both rising to be the dominant political parties and rivals of Australian
politics, though various other parties have been and remain influential. Voting is compulsory in Australia and government is
essentially formed by a group commanding a majority of seats in the Australian House of Representatives selecting a leader who
becomes Prime Minister. Australia remains a constitutional monarchy in which the largely ceremonial and procedural duties of
the monarch are performed by a Governor General selected by the Australian government.

Australia fought at Britain's side from the outset of World War I and World War II and came under attack from the Empire of
Japan during the latter conflict. These wars profoundly affected Australia's sense of nationhood and a proud military legend
developed around the spirit of Australia's ANZAC troops, who came to symbolize the virtues of mateship, courage and endurance
for the nation.

The Australian colonies had a period of extensive multi-ethnic immigration during the Australian gold rushes of the latter half of
the 19th century, but following Federation in 1901, the Parliament instigated the White Australia Policy that gave preference to
British migrants and ensured that Australia remained a predominantly Anglo-Celtic society until well into the 20th century. The
post-World War II immigration program saw the policy dismantled by successive governments, permitting large numbers of
Southern European, and later Asian and Middle Eastern migrants to arrive. The Menzies Government (1949-1966) and Holt
Government dismantled the legal barriers to multi-ethnic immigration and by the 1970s, the Whitlam and Fraser Governments
were promoting multiculturalism.[13]
Some States and Territories of Australia
retained discriminatory laws relating to voting
rights for Aborigines into the 1960s, at which
point full legal equality was established. A
1967 referendum to include all Aborigines in
the national electoral roll census was
overwhelmingly approved by voters. In 1984,
a group of Pintupi people who were living a
traditional hunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life
were tracked down in the Gibson Desert and
Countries of birth of Australian estimated resident population,
brought into a settlement. They are believed to
2006[14]
have been the last uncontacted tribe.[15]

While the British cultural influence remained

strong into the 21st century, other influences became increasingly important. The Hawaiian sport of surfing was adopted in
Australia where a beach culture and the locally developed surf lifesaving movement was already burgeoning in the early 20th
century. American pop culture and cinema were embraced in the 20th century, with country music and later rock and roll
sweeping Australia, aided by the new technology of television and a host of American content. The 1956 Melbourne Olympics
announced a confident, prosperous post-war nation, and new cultural icons like Australian country music star Slim Dusty and
dadaist Barry Humphries expressed a uniquely Australian identity.

Australia's contemporary immigration program has two components: a program for skilled and family migrants and a
humanitarian program for refugees and asylum seekers.[16] By 2010, the post-war immigration program had received more than
6.5 million migrants from every continent. The population tripled in the six decades to around 21 million in 2010, including
people originating from 200 countries.[17] More than 43 per cent of Australians were either born overseas or have one parent who
was born overseas. The population is highly urbanized, with more than 75% of Australians living in urban centers, largely along
the coast though there has been increased incentive to decentralize the population, concentrating it into developed regional or
rural areas.[18]

Contemporary Australia is a pluralistic society, rooted in liberal democratic traditions and espousing informality and
egalitarianism as key societal values. While strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic origins, the culture of Australia has also been
shaped by multi-ethnic migration which has influenced all aspects of Australian life, including business, the arts, cuisine, sense of
humor and sporting tastes.[18]

Contemporary Australia is also a culture that is profoundly influenced by global movements of meaning and communication,
including advertising culture. In turn, globalizing corporations from Holden to Exxon have attempted to associate their brand with
Australian cultural identity. This process intensified from the 1970s onwards. According to Paul James,

“ this consciously created interlock of the image of the multinational corporation

with aspects of Australia’s national mythology, has itself over the last decade [the
1970s to 1980s] contributed to the maintenance and evolution of those national
themes. But paradoxically, during the same period it has reinforced Australia’s
international orientation.[19] ”
Symbols
When the Australian colonies federated on 1 January 1901, an official competition for a design for an Australian flag was held.
The design that was adopted contains the Union Flag in the left corner, symbolizing Australia's historical links to the United
Kingdom, the stars of the Southern Cross on the right half of the flag indicating Australia's geographical location, and the seven-
 pointed Federation Star in the bottom left representing the six states and the
territories of Australia. Other official flags include[20] the Australian Aboriginal
Flag, the Torres Strait Islander Flag and the flags of the individual states and
territories.

The Australian Coat of Arms was granted by King George V in 1912 and
consists of a shield containing the badges of the six states, within an ermine
border. The crest above the shield and helmet is a seven-pointed gold star on a
blue and gold wreath, representing the 6 states and the territories. The shield is
Golden Wattle, Australia's floral supported by a red kangaroo and an emu.
emblem and the source of Australia's
national colors, green and gold Green and gold were confirmed as Australia's national colors in 1984, though the
colors had been adopted by many national sporting teams long before this.[21]
The Golden Wattle (Acacia pycnantha) was officially proclaimed as the national
floral emblem in 1988.

Reflecting the country's status as a constitutional monarchy, a number of royal symbols exist in Australia. These include symbols
of the monarch of Australia, as well as the monarch's Vice-regal representatives.

Despite the fact that the Queen of Australia is not resident in Australia, the Crown and royal institutions remain part of Australian
life. The Australian currency, including all coins and the five dollar note, bears an image of the reigning monarch, Queen
Elizabeth II. Around 12% of public lands in Australia are referred to as Crown land, including reserves set aside for
environmental conservation as well as vacant land. There are many geographic places that have been named in honor of a
reigning monarch, including the states of Queensland and Victoria, named after Queen Victoria, with numerous rivers, streets,
squares, parks and buildings carrying the names of past or present members of the Royal Family. Through royal patronage there
are many organizations in Australia that have been granted a Royal prefix. These organizations, including branches of the
Australian Defense Force, often incorporate royal symbols into their imagery.

Language
Although Australia has no official language, it is largely monolingual with
English being the de facto national language. Australian English is a major
variety of the language which is immediately distinguishable from British,
American, and other national dialects by virtue of its unique accents,
pronunciations, idioms and vocabulary, although its spelling more closely
reflects British versions rather than American. According to the 2011 census,
English is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the
population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin
(1.7%), Italian (1.5%), and Arabic (1.4%); almost all migrants speak some C. J. Dennis, poetic humorist of
Australian English
English.[22] Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which in 2004 was
the main language of about 6,500 deaf people.[23]

It is believed that there were between 200 and 300 Australian Aboriginal languages at the time of first European contact, but only
about 70 of these have survived and all but 20 are now endangered. An indigenous language is the main language for 0.25% of
the population.[24]

Humor
 Comedy is an important part of the Australian identity. The "Australian sense of
humor" is often characterized as dry, irreverent and ironic, exemplified by the
works of performing artists like Barry Humphries and Paul Hogan.[25]

The convicts of the early colonial period helped establish anti-authoritarianism

as a hallmark of Australian comedy. Influential in the establishment of stoic, dry
wit as a characteristic of Australian humor were the bush balladeers of the 19th
century, including Henry Lawson, author of "The Loaded Dog".[26] His
contemporary, Banjo Paterson, contributed a number of classic comic poems
including The Man from Ironbark and The Geebung Polo Club. CJ Dennis wrote
humor in the Australian vernacular – notably in The Songs of a Sentimental
Bloke. The Dad and Dave series about a farming family was an enduring hit of
the early 20th century. The World War I ANZAC troops were said to often
display irreverence in their relations with superior officers and dark humor in the
face of battle.[27]

Australian comedy has a strong tradition of self-mockery, from the outlandish

Dame Edna Everage, a comic Barry McKenzie expat-in-Europe ocker comedies of the 1970s, to the quirky
creation of Barry Humphries outback characters of the "Crocodile" Dundee films of the 1980s, the suburban
parody of Working Dog Productions' 1997 film The Castle and the dysfunctional
suburban mother–daughter sitcom Kath & Kim. In the 1970s, satirical talk-show
host Norman Gunston (played by Garry McDonald), with his malapropisms, sweep-over hair and poorly shaven face, rose to
great popularity by pioneering the satirical "ambush" interview technique and giving unique interpretations of pop songs. Roy
and HG provide an affectionate but irreverent parody of Australia's obsession with sport.

The unique character and humor of Australian culture was defined in cartoons by immigrants, Emile Mercier and George Molnar,
and in the novel They're a Weird Mob (1957) by John O'Grady, which looks at Sydney through the eyes of an Italian immigrant.
Post-war immigration has seen migrant humor flourish through the works of Vietnamese refugee Anh Do, Egyptian-Australian
stand-up comic Akmal Saleh and Greek-Australian actor Nick Giannopoulos.

Since the 1950s, the satirical character creations of Barry Humphries have included housewife "gigastar" Edna Everage and
"Australian cultural attaché" Les Patterson, whose interests include boozing, chasing women and flatulence.[28] For his delivery
of dadaist and absurdist humor to millions, biographer Anne Pender described Humphries in 2010 as "the most significant
comedian to emerge since Charlie Chaplin".[29]

The vaudeville talents of Graham Kennedy, Don Lane and Bert Newton earned popular success during the early years of
Australian television. The variety show Hey Hey It's Saturday screened for three decades. Among the best loved Australian
sitcoms was Mother and Son, about a divorcee who had moved back into the suburban home of his mother – but sketch comedy
has been the stalwart of Australian television. The Comedy Company, in the 1980s, featured the comic talents of Mary-Anne
Fahey, Ian McFadyen, Mark Mitchell, Glenn Robbins, Kym Gyngell and others. Growing out of Melbourne University and The
D-Generation came The Late Show (1991–1993), starring the influential talents Santo Cilauro, Tom Gleisner, Jane Kennedy,
Tony Martin, Mick Molloy and Rob Sitch (who later formed Working Dog Productions); and during the 1980s and 1990s Fast
Forward (Steve Vizard, Magda Szubanski, Marg Downey, Michael Veitch, Peter Moon and others) and its successor Full Frontal,
which launched the career of Eric Bana and featured Shaun Micallef.

The perceptive wit of Clive James and Andrew Denton has been popular in the talk-show interview style. Representatives of the
"bawdy" strain of Australian comedy include Rodney Rude, Austen Tayshus and Chad Morgan. Rolf Harris helped defined a
comic tradition in Australian music.
Cynical satire has had enduring popularity, with television series such as Frontline, targeting the inner workings of "news and
current affairs" TV journalism, The Hollowmen (2008), set in the office of the Prime Minister's political advisory (spin)
department, and The Chaser's War on Everything, which cynically examines domestic and international politics.[25] Actor/writer
Chris Lilley has produced a series of award-winning "mockumentary" style television series about Australian characters since
2005.

The annual Melbourne International Comedy Festival is one of the largest comedy festivals in the world, and a popular fixture on
the city's cultural calendar.[30]

Arts
The arts in Australia—film, music, painting, theater, dance and crafts—have achieved international recognition. While much of
Australia's cultural output has traditionally tended to fit with general trends and styles in Western arts, the arts as practiced by
indigenous Australians represent a unique Australian cultural tradition, and Australia's landscape and history have contributed to
some unique variations in the styles inherited by Australia's various migrant communities.[31][32][33]

Literature
As the convict era passed—captured most famously in Marcus Clarke's For the Term of His Natural Life (1874), a seminal work
of Tasmanian Gothic[34]—the bush and Australian daily life assumed primacy as subjects. Charles Harpur, Henry Kendall and
Adam Lindsay Gordon won fame in the mid-19th century for their lyric nature poems and patriotic verse. Gordon drew on
Australian colloquy and idiom; Clarke assessed his work as "the beginnings of a national school of Australian poetry".[35] First
published in serial form in 1882, Rolf Boldrewood's Robbery Under Arms is regarded as the classic bushranging novel.

Founded in 1880, The Bulletin did much to create the idea of an Australian
national character—one of anti-authoritarianism, egalitarianism, mateship and a
concern for the "battler"—forged against the brutalities of the bush. This image
was expressed within the works of its bush poets, the most famous of which are
Henry Lawson, widely regarded as Australia's finest short-story writer, and
Banjo Paterson, author of classics such as "Clancy of the Overflow" (1889) and
"The Man From Snowy River" (1890). In a literary debate about the nature of
life in the bush, Lawson said Paterson was a romantic while Paterson attacked The Bulletin, founded by J. F.
Archibald (left), nurtured bush poets
Lawson's pessimistic outlook.[36] C. J. Dennis wrote humor in the Australian
such as Henry Lawson (right).
vernacular, notably in the verse novel The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke (1915),
while Dorothy Mackellar wrote the iconic patriotic poem "My Country" (1908)
which rejected prevailing fondness for England's "green and shaded lanes" and declared: "I love a sunburned country". Early
Australian children's literature was also embedded in the bush tradition; perennial favorites include Norman Lindsay's The Magic
Pudding (1918), May Gibbs' Snugglepot and Cuddlepie (1918) and Dorothy Wall's Blinky Bill (1933).

Significant poets of the early 20th century include Kenneth Slessor, Mary Gilmore and Judith Wright. The nationalist
Jindyworobak Movement arose in the 1930s and sought to develop a distinctive Australian poetry through the appropriation of
Aboriginal languages and ideas.[37] In contrast, the Angry Penguins, centered around Max Harris' journal of the same name,
promoted international modernism. A backlash resulted in the Ern Malley affair of 1943, Australia's most famous literary
hoax.[38]

The legacy of Miles Franklin, renowned for her 1901 novel My Brilliant Career, is the Miles Franklin Award, which is "presented
each year to a novel which is of the highest literary merit and presents Australian life in any of its phases".[39] Patrick White won
the inaugural award for Voss in 1957; he went on to win the 1973 Nobel Prize in Literature. Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and
Richard Flanagan are recipients of the Man Booker Prize. Other acclaimed Australian authors include Colleen McCullough,
 Nevil Shute, Tim Winton, Ruth Park and Morris West.
Helen Garner's 1977 novel Monkey Grip is widely
considered one of Australia's first contemporary
novels–she has since written both fiction and non-
fiction work.[40] Notable expatriate authors include the
feminist Germaine Greer and humorist Clive James.
Among the best known contemporary poets are Les
Murray and Bruce Dawe.

David Unaipon is known as the first indigenous author.

Oodgeroo Noonuccal was the first Aboriginal
Australian to publish a book of verse.[41] A significant

Miles Franklin, founder and Patrick White, winner of the contemporary account of the experiences of Indigenous
namesake of Australia's first Miles Franklin Award Australia can be found in Sally Morgan's My Place.
most prestigious literary and the Nobel Prize in Contemporary academics and activists including Marcia
award Literature Langton and Noel Pearson are prominent essayists and
authors on Aboriginal issues.

Charles Bean (The Story of Anzac: From the Outbreak

of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli
Campaign 4 May 1915, 1921) Geoffrey Blainey (The
Tyranny of Distance, 1966), Robert Hughes (The Fatal
Shore, 1987), Manning Clark (A History of Australia, 1962–87), and Marcia Langton (First Australians, 2008) are authors of
important Australian histories.

Theater
European traditions came to Australia with the First Fleet in 1788, with the first production being performed in 1789 by
convicts.[42] In 1988, the year of Australia's bicentenary, the circumstances of the foundations of Australian theater were
recounted in Timberlake Wertenbaker's play Our Country's Good.[42]

Hobart's Theater Royal opened in 1837 and is Australia's oldest continuously

operating theater.[43] Inaugurated in 1839, the Melbourne Athenaeum is one of
Melbourne's oldest cultural institutions, and Adelaide's Queen's Theater,
established in 1841, is today the oldest purpose-built theater on the mainland.[44]
The mid-19th-century gold rushes provided funds for the construction of grand
theaters in the Victorian style, such as the Princess Theater in Melbourne,
established in 1854.

The Princess Theater in Melbourne After Federation in 1901, theater productions evidenced the new sense of
national identity. On Our Selection (1912), based on the stories of Steele Rudd,
portrays a pioneer farming family and became immensely popular. Sydney's
grand Capitol Theater opened in 1928 and after restoration remains one of the nation's finest auditoriums.[45]

In 1955, Summer of the Seventeenth Doll by Ray Lawler portrayed resolutely Australian characters and went on to international
acclaim. That same year, young Melbourne artist Barry Humphries performed as Edna Everage for the first time at Melbourne
University's Union Theater. His satirical stage creations, notably Dame Edna and Les Patterson, became Australian cultural icons.
Humphries also achieved success in the US with tours on Broadway and has been honored in Australia and Britain.[46]
Founded in Sydney 1958, the National Institute of Dramatic Art boasts famous alumni including Cate Blanchett, Mel Gibson and
Hugo Weaving.[47] Construction of the Adelaide Festival Center began in 1970 and South Australia's Sir Robert Helpmann
became director of the Adelaide Festival of Arts.[48][49] The new wave of Australian theater debuted in the 1970s. The Belvoir St
Theater presented works by Nick Enright and David Williamson. The Sydney Opera House, inaugurated in 1973, is the home of
Opera Australia and the Sydney Theater Company.

The Bell Shakespeare Company was created in 1990. A period of success for Australian musical theater came in the 1990s with
the debut of musical biographies of Australian music singers Peter Allen (The Boy From Oz in 1998) and Johnny O'Keefe (Shout!
The Legend of The Wild One).

In The One Day of the Year, Alan Seymour studied the paradoxical nature of the ANZAC Day commemoration by Australians of
the defeat of the Battle of Gallipoli. Ngapartji Ngapartji, by Scott Rankin and Trevor Jamieson, recounts the story of the effects
on the Pitjantjatjara people of nuclear testing in the Western Desert during the Cold War. It is an example of the contemporary
fusion of traditions of drama in Australia with Pitjantjatjara actors being supported by a multicultural cast of Greek, Afghan,
Japanese and New Zealand heritage.[50]

Architecture
Australia has three architectural listings on UNESCO's World Heritage list:
Australian Convict Sites (comprising a collection of separate sites around
Australia, including Hyde Park Barracks in Sydney, Port Arthur in Tasmania,
and Fremantle Prison in Western Australia); the Sydney Opera House; and the
Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne. Contemporary Australian architecture
includes a number of other iconic structures, including the Harbor Bridge in
Sydney and Parliament House, Canberra. Significant architects who have
worked in Australia include Governor Lachlan Macquarie's colonial architect,
Sydney Opera House (foreground)
Francis Greenway; the ecclesiastical architect William Wardell; the designer of and Sydney Harbor Bridge
Canberra's layout, Walter Burley Griffin; the modernist Harry Seidler; and Jørn
Utzon, designer of the Sydney Opera House. The National Trust of Australia is a
non-governmental organisation charged with protecting Australia's built
heritage.

Evidence of permanent structures built by Indigenous Australians before

European settlement of Australia in 1788 is limited. Much of what they built was
temporary, and was used for housing and other needs. As a British colony, the
first European buildings were derivative of the European fashions of the time.
Tents and wattle and daub huts preceded more substantial structures. Georgian
architecture is seen in early government buildings of Sydney and Tasmania and
Victorian era buildings in Collins
the homes of the wealthy. While the major Australian cities enjoyed the boom of Street, Melbourne
the Victorian era, the Australian gold rushes of the mid-19th century brought
major construction works and exuberant Victorian architecture to the major
cities, particularly Melbourne, and regional cities such as Ballarat and Bendigo. Other significant architectural movements in
Australian architecture include the Federation style at the turn of the 20th century, and the modern styles of the late 20th century
which also saw many older buildings demolished. The Queenslander is the primarily residential style of warm climate
architecture developed in Queensland and northern parts of New South Wales.

Religious architecture is also prominent throughout Australia, with large Anglican and Catholic cathedrals in every major city
and Christian churches in most towns. Notable examples include St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne and St Mary's Cathedral,
Sydney. Other houses of worship are also common, reflecting the cultural diversity existing in Australia; the oldest Islamic
structure in the Southern Hemisphere is the Central Adelaide Mosque (built in the 1880s),[51] and one of the Southern
Hemisphere's largest Buddhist Temples is Wollongong's Nan Tien Temple.[52] Sydney's Gothic-style Great Synagogue was
consecrated in 1878.[53]

Historically, Australian pubs have also been noted for often distinctive designs.

Significant concern was raised during the 1960s, with developers threatening the destruction of historical buildings, especially in
Sydney. Heritage concerns led to union-initiated green bans, which saved significant examples of Australia's architectural past.
Green bans helped to protect historic 18th-century buildings in The Rocks from being demolished to make way for office towers,
and prevented the Royal Botanic Gardens from being turned into a car park for the Sydney Opera House.[54]

Hyde Park Barracks, Convict architecture at Interior of St Mary's The Royal Exhibition
Sydney Port Arthur, Tasmania Cathedral, Sydney Building, Melbourne

Birdsville Hotel, an Parliament House, Federation Bungalow in A typical Queenslander

Australian pub in outback Canberra Killara, Sydney house in Brisbane
Queensland

Visual arts
Aboriginal rock art is the oldest continuous art tradition in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years. From the Bradshaw and
Wondjina imagery in the Kimberley to the Sydney rock engravings, it is spread across hundreds of thousands of sites, making
Australia the richest continent in terms of prehistoric art.[55] 19th-century Indigenous activist William Barak painted ceremonial
scenes, such as corroborees.[56] The Hermannsburg School, led by Albert Namatjira, received national fame in the 1950s for their
desert watercolors.[57] Leading critic Robert Hughes saw contemporary Indigenous art as "the last great art movement of the 20th
century".[58] Key exponents such as Emily Kame Kngwarreye, Rover Thomas and the Papunya Tula group use acrylic paints on
canvas to depict dreamings set in a symbolic topography. Clifford Possum Tjapaltjarri's Warlugulong (1977) typifies this style,
popularly known as "dot painting". Art is important both culturally and economically to Indigenous society; central Australian
Indigenous communities have "the highest per capita concentrations of artists anywhere in the world".[59] Issues of race and
identity are raised in the works of many 'urban' Indigenous artists, including Gordon Bennett and Tracey Moffatt.
 John Glover and Eugene von Guerard
were among the foremost landscape
painters during the colonial era.[61] The
origins of a distinctly Australian school
of painting is often associated with the
Heidelberg School of the late 1800s.[62]
Major figures of the movement include
Tom Roberts, Arthur Streeton and
Shearing the Rams (1890) by
Frederick McCubbin. They painted en
Bradshaws in the Kimberley Heidelberg School artist Tom Roberts
plein air, like the French Impressionists,
region of Western Australia
and sought to capture the intense light
and unique colours of the Australian
bush. Popular works such as McCubbin's
Down on His Luck (1889) and Roberts'
Shearing the Rams (1890) defined an
emerging sense of national identity in
Sidney Nolan's Snake (1972), held at
the lead-up to Federation.[63] Civic
the Museum of Old and New Art
monuments to national heroes were
Sunbaker (1937), an iconic erected; an early example is Charles
photograph by Max Dupain Summers' 1865 statue of the ill-fated
explorers Burke and Wills, located in
Melbourne.[64]

Among the first Australian artists to gain

a reputation overseas was the impressionist John Peter Russell in the 1880s. He
and Charles Conder of the Heidelberg School were the only Australian painters
Lonely Planet heralded Melbourne as
known to have close links with the European avant-garde at the time.[65] Other
the "street art capital of the
notable expatriates include Rupert Bunny, a salon painter of sensual portraits,
world".[60]
and sculptor Bertram Mackennal, known for his commissioned works in
Australia and abroad.[62]

The Heidelberg tradition lived on in Hans Heysen's imagery of gum trees.[66] Roy de Maistre and Grace Cossington Smith were
pioneers of modernism in Australia.[67] Jessie Traill and Margaret Preston excelled at printmaking;[68] the latter artist advocated
for a modern national art based on Aboriginal designs.[69] The conservative art establishment largely opposed modern art, as did
the Lindsays and Australian Tonalists.[70] Controversy over modern art in Australia reached a climax when William Dobell won
the 1943 Archibald Prize for portraiture.[71] Despite such opposition, new artistic trends grew in popularity. Photographer Max
Dupain created bold modernist compositions of Sydney beach culture.[72] Sidney Nolan, Arthur Boyd, Joy Hester and Albert
Tucker were members of the Angry Penguins, a group of expressionists who revived Australian landscape painting through the
use of myth, folklore and personal symbolism.[73] The use of surrealism allowed artists to evoke the strange disquiet of the
outback, exemplified in Nolan's iconic Ned Kelly series and Russell Drysdale's The Cricketers (1948). The post-war landscapes
of Fred Williams, Ian Fairweather and John Olsen border on abstraction,[62] while the Antipodeans and Brett Whiteley further
explored the possibilities of figurative painting.

Photographer Bill Henson, sculptor Ron Mueck, and "living art exhibit" Leigh Bowery are among Australia's best-known
contemporary artists. Pro Hart's output of Australiana, Michael Leunig's poetic cartoons, and Ken Done's Sydney Harbor views
are widely known through reproductions. Public artworks have sprung up in unlikely places, from the annual Sculpture by the Sea
exhibitions to the rural folk art of "Australia's big things". Australian street art flourished at the turn of the 21st century,
particularly in Melbourne.[60]
Major arts institutions in Australia include the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne, the National Gallery of Australia,
National Museum of Australia and National Portrait Gallery in Canberra, and the Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney. The
Museum of Old and New Art in Hobart is the Southern Hemisphere's largest private museum.[74]

Cinema
Australia's first dedicated film studio, the Limelight Department, was created by
The Salvation Army in Melbourne in 1898, and is believed to be the world's
first.[75] The world's first feature-length film was the 1906 Australian production
The Story of the Kelly Gang.[76] Tales of bushranging, gold mining, convict life
and the colonial frontier dominated the silent film era of Australian cinema.
Filmmakers such as Raymond Longford and W. J. Lincoln based many of their
productions on Australian novels, plays, and even paintings. An enduring classic
is Longford and Lottie Lyell's 1919 film The Sentimental Bloke, adapted from
the 1915 poems by C. J. Dennis. After such early successes, Australian cinema Actor playing the bushranger Ned
Kelly in The Story of the Kelly Gang
suffered from the rise of Hollywood.[77]
(1906), the world's first feature film
In 1933, In the Wake of the Bounty was directed by Charles Chauvel, who cast
Errol Flynn as the leading actor.[78] Flynn went on to a celebrated career in
Hollywood. Chauvel directed a number of successful Australian films, the last being 1955's Jedda, which was notable for being
the first Australian film to be shot in color, and the first to feature Aboriginal actors in lead roles and to be entered at the Cannes
Film Festival.[79] It was not until 2006 and Rolf de Heer's Ten Canoes that a major feature-length drama was shot in an
indigenous language.

Ken G. Hall's 1942 documentary feature Kokoda Front Line! was the first Australian film to win an Academy Award.[80] In 1976,
Peter Finch posthumously became the first Australian actor to win an Oscar for his role in Network.[81]

During the late 1960s and 1970s an influx of government funding saw the development of a new generation of filmmakers telling
distinctively Australian stories, including directors Peter Weir, George Miller and Bruce Beresford. This era became known as the
Australian New Wave. Films such as Wake in Fright, Walkabout and Picnic at Hanging Rock had an immediate international
impact. These successes were followed in the 1980s with the historical epic Gallipoli, the romantic drama The Man From Snowy
River, the comedy "Crocodile" Dundee, and the post-apocalyptic Mad Max series.[82]

The 1990s saw a run of successful comedies including Muriel's Wedding and
Strictly Ballroom, which helped launch the careers of Toni Collette and Baz
Luhrmann respectively. Australian humor features prominently in Australian
film, with a strong tradition of self-mockery, from the Ozploitation style of the
Barry McKenzie expat-in-Europe movies of the 1970s, to the Working Dog
Productions' 1997 homage to suburbia The Castle, starring Eric Bana in his
debut film role. Comedies like the barn yard animation Babe (1995), directed by
Chris Noonan; Rob Sitch's The Dish (2000); and Stephan Elliott's The
Founded in 1993, Sydney's Tropfest
Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994) all feature in the top ten box-
is the world's largest short film
office list.[83] During the 1990s, a new crop of Australian stars were successful
festival.
in Hollywood, including Russell Crowe, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger.
Between 1996 and 2013, Catherine Martin won four Academy Awards for her
costume and production designs, the most for any Australian.[84] Saw (2004) and Wolf Creek (2005) are credited with the revival
of Australian horror.[85] The comedic, exploitative nature and "gimmicky" style of 1970s Ozploitation films waned in the mid to
late 1980s, as social realist dramas such as Romper Stomper (1992), Lantana (2001) and Samson and Delilah (2009) became
more reflective of the Australian experience in the 1980s, 90s and 2000s.
The domestic film industry is also supported by US producers who produce in Australia following the decision by Fox head
Rupert Murdoch to utilize new studios in Melbourne and Sydney where filming could be completed well below US costs.
Notable productions include The Matrix, Star Wars episodes II and III, and Australia starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman.

Music

Indigenous music
Music is an integral part of Aboriginal culture. The most famous feature of their
music is the didgeridoo. This wooden instrument, used among the Aboriginal
tribes of northern Australia, makes a distinctive droning sound and it has been
adopted by a wide variety of non-Aboriginal performers.

Aboriginal musicians have turned their hand to Western popular musical forms,
often to considerable commercial success. Pioneers include Lionel Rose and
Jimmy Little, while notable contemporary examples include Archie Roach, Kev
Didgeridoo performers
Carmody, the Warumpi Band, Troy Cassar-Daley and Yothu Yindi. Geoffrey
Gurrumul Yunupingu (formerly of Yothu Yindi) has attained international
success singing contemporary music in English and in the language of the Yolngu. Christine Anu is a successful Torres Strait
Islander singer. Among young Australian aborigines, African-American and Aboriginal hip hop music and clothing is popular.[86]

The Deadly Awards are an annual celebration of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander achievement in music, sport, entertainment
and community.

Folk music and national songs

The national anthem of Australia is "Advance Australia Fair".

The early Anglo-Celtic immigrants of the 18th and 19th centuries introduced folk ballad
traditions which were adapted to Australian themes: "Bound for Botany Bay" tells of the
voyage of British convicts to Sydney, "The Wild Colonial Boy" evokes the spirit of the
bushrangers, and "Click Go the Shears" speaks of the life of Australian shearers. The lyrics of
Australia's best-known folk song, "Waltzing Matilda", were written by the bush poet Banjo
Paterson in 1895. This song remains popular and is regarded as "the nation's unofficial
national anthem".[87]

Well-known singers of Australian folk music include Rolf Harris (who wrote "Tie Me
Kangaroo Down Sport"), John Williamson, and Eric Bogle whose 1972 song "And the Band
Played Waltzing Matilda" is a sorrowful lament to the Gallipoli Campaign.
Cover of Old Bush
Songs, Banjo Paterson's
Classical music 1905 collection of bush
ballads
The earliest Western musical influences in Australia can be traced back to two distinct
sources: the first free settlers who brought with them the European classical music tradition,
and the large body of convicts and sailors, who brought the traditional folk music of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The
practicalities of building a colony mean that there is very little music extant from this early period, although some samples of
music originating from Hobart and Sydney date back to the early-19th century.[88]
 Nellie Melba traveled to Europe in 1886 to commence her international career as an opera
singer. She became among the best-known Australians of the period and participated in
early gramophone-recording and radio-broadcasting.[89] The establishment of choral
societies (c. 1850) and of symphony orchestras (c. 1890) led to increased compositional
activity, although many Australian classical composers worked entirely within European
models. Popular works such as Percy Grainger's "Country Gardens" (1918) were heavily
influenced by the folk music of other countries and by a conservative British orchestral
tradition.[88]

In the mid 20th century, as pressure built to express a uniquely Australian identity in
music, composers such as John Antill[90] and Peter Sculthorpe drew influences from
nature and Aboriginal culture, and Richard Meale turned to south-east Asian music.[88]
Nigel Butterley combined his penchant for international modernism with his own
individual voice.
Portrait of Madame Melba
At the beginning of the 1960s Australian classical music erupted with influences, with
by Rupert Bunny
composers incorporating disparate elements into their work, ranging from Aboriginal and
Southeast Asian music and instruments, to American jazz and blues, and belatedly
discovering European atonality and the avant-garde. Composers like Don Banks (1923-1980), Don Kay, Malcolm Williamson
and Colin Brumby (1933-2018) epitomize this period.[88] In recent times composers including Liza Lim, Nigel Westlake, Ross
Edwards, Graeme Koehne, Julian Cochran, Georges Lentz, Elena Kats-Chernin, Richard Mills, Brett Dean and Carl Vine have
embodied the pinnacle of established Australian composers.

Well-known Australian classical performers include: sopranos Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Joan Hammond, Joan Carden,
Yvonne Kenny, and Emma Matthews; pianists Roger Woodward, Eileen Joyce, Geoffrey Tozer, Leslie Howard and Ian Munro;
guitarists John Williams and Slava Grigoryan; horn player Barry Tuckwell; oboist Diana Doherty; violinists Richard Tognetti and
Elizabeth Wallfisch; cellist David Pereira; orchestras including the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, the Melbourne Symphony
Orchestra, the Australian Chamber Orchestra and the Australian Brandenburg Orchestra; and conductors Sir Charles Mackerras,
and Simone Young. Indigenous performers like didgeridoo-player William Barton and immigrant musicians like Egyptian-born
oud virtuoso Joseph Tawadros have stimulated interest in their own music traditions and have also collaborated with other
musicians and ensembles, both in Australia and internationally.

Popular music
Johnny O'Keefe became the first Australian rock and roll artist to reach the
national charts with his 1958 hit "Wild One".[91] While American and British
content dominated airwaves and record sales into the 1960s, local successes
began to emerge, notably The Easybeats and The Seekers. The Bee Gees and
AC/DC rose to prominence in Australia before going on to international success.
Australian performers continued to do well at a local and international level into
the 1980s, for example Cold Chisel, INXS, Nick Cave, Crowded House,
Midnight Oil and Little River Band. Held since 1987, the ARIAs are Australia's
Singer-songwriter Paul Kelly
premier music awards. Silverchair, Powderfinger, John Farnham, Savage Garden
and Kylie Minogue are among the most successful artists in the awards' history.
Singer-songwriter Paul Kelly, whose music style straddles folk, rock, and country, has been described as the poet laureate of
Australian music.[92] Spurred in part by the national expansion of ABC youth radio station Triple J, a string of successful
alternative Australian acts have emerged since the 1990s, including You Am I, Gotye, Sia and Tame Impala.
Australian country music has developed a style quite distinct from its American
counterpart, drawing more on Celtic folk and the Australian bush ballad tradition.
Pioneers of popular Australian country music include Tex Morton in the 1930s and
Smoky Dawson from the 1940s onward. Known as the "King of Australian Country
Music", Slim Dusty released over 100 albums in a career spanning almost six decades;
his 1957 hit "A Pub With No Beer" was the first Australian single to go gold.[93] Dusty's
wife Joy McKean penned several of his most popular songs. Other notable Australian
country music performers include John Williamson who wrote the iconic song "True
Blue", Lee Kernaghan, Adam Brand and Kasey Chambers. Olivia Newton-John and
Keith Urban have attained success in the United States. The Tamworth Country Music
Festival is held annually in Tamworth, the "Country Music Capital of Australia". During
the festival the Country Music Association of Australia holds the Country Music Awards
of Australia ceremony awarding the Golden Guitar trophies.
Kylie Minogue is hailed as one
of Australia's most successful
pop musicians
Dance
The ceremonial dances of Indigenous Australians recount stories of the Dreamtime and
have been performed for thousands of years.

Bush dance is a traditional style of Australian dance with strong Celtic roots influenced by country music. It is generally
accompanied by such instruments as the fiddle, accordion, concertina and percussion instruments.[94]

Television
Experiments with television began in Australia in the 1930s and television was
officially launched on 16 September 1956 in Sydney.[95][96] Color TV arrived in
1975.[97] The Logie Awards are the major annual awards for Australian TV.[98]

While US and British television is popular in Australia, locally produced content

has had many successes. Successful local product has included Homicide and
Division 4 in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Skippy the Bush Kangaroo in the
late 1960s, Number 96 and The Box in the 1970s, Prisoner in the 1980s and A
Country Practice (1981–1993), Neighbours and Home and Away in the 1980s
The SBS building in Melbourne's
and 1990s. Many of the shows from the mid-1980s onwards have been exported
Federation Square. SBS is
and have sometimes been even more successful abroad, such as Steve Irwin's
Australia's multicultural broadcaster.
The Crocodile Hunter. Popular stars of Australian TV have included: the pioneer
variety show hosts Graham Kennedy, Bert Newton, Don Lane and Daryl
Somers, and contemporary talk show hosts Andrew Denton and Rove McManus. Popular international exports include Dame
Edna Everage, Clive James, Geoffrey Robertson and The Wiggles.

While Australia has ubiquitous media coverage, the longest established part of that media is the Australian Broadcasting
Corporation (ABC), the Federal Government owned and funded organisation offering national TV and radio coverage. The ABC,
like the BBC in Britain, CBC in Canada, and PBS in the United States, is a non-commercial public service broadcaster, showing
many BBC or ITV productions from Britain. The publicly funded Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) has a multicultural focus,
broadcasting TV and radio programs in a variety of languages, as well as world news and documentary programming in English.
SBS commenced as a commercial-free enterprise, but this changed in 2006 with the broadcasting of commercials between
programs. In 2005, ABC and SBS accounted for 15.7% and 6.1% of the national ratings, respectively.[99]
Commercial broadcasters include the Seven Network, the Nine Network and
Network Ten on free-to-air broadcasting to the larger cities with affiliated
regional networks like Prime Television and Win Television broadcasting to
regional areas. Foxtel, Austar and Optus Television have been the main
providers of pay TV. Fox 8 and Sky News Australia are among the popular Pay
TV channels. The Australia Network, established in 2001, is Australia's
international television service, beaming to more than 44 countries across Asia,
the Pacific and the Indian subcontinent.

The ABC has made a significant contribution to television drama with popular The Wiggles performing in the United
series like Brides of Christ, and to comedy with the 1970s hits Aunty Jack and States in 2007
The Norman Gunston Show and more recently Roy & HG, Kath & Kim and The
Chaser's War On Everything. Debate about the role of the ABC continues; many
assign it a marginal role, as commercial TV and radio stations are far more popular choices. Critics claim that Australian children
view television programs imported largely from the US, however, the Australian Content Standard[100] requires all free-to-air
commercial networks to broadcast an annual minimum of 55% Australian content between 6 a.m. and midnight. American
dramas and comedies rate well on Australian TV.

Religion
Australia has no official state religion and the Australian Constitution prohibits
the Commonwealth government from establishing a church or interfering with
the freedom of religion.[101] According to the 2011 Australian Census, 61.1% of
Australians were listed as Christian. Historically, this proportion has been higher
and a growing proportion of the population define themselves as irreligious, with
22.3% of Australians declaring "no religion" on the census. There are also
growing communities of various other religions.[102] From the early decades
after federation, people from diverse religious backgrounds have held public Corroboree at Newcastle by convict
office. The first Jewish Governor General, Isaac Isaacs, was selected by the first artist Joseph Lycett, ca. 1818.
Aboriginal Australian religious
Catholic prime minister, James Scullin, in the 1930s.[103] In recent times, some
practices associated with the
prime ministers have identified as religious, others as non-religious. Dreamtime have been practized for
tens of thousands of years.
Christianity has had an enduring impact
on Australia. At the time of Federation in
1901, 97% of Australians professed to be Christians. The Anglican Church (formerly
Church of England) remained the largest denomination until 1986, when it was surpassed
by the Roman Catholic Church. Australian Catholics were predominantly of Irish origin
until post-World War II immigration brought more than a million Catholics from
elsewhere in Europe. The Christian festivals of Christmas and Easter are national public
holidays in Australia. Christian charitable organisations, hospitals and schools have played
a prominent role in welfare and education since colonial times. In 2008, 20% of total
students attended Catholic schools.[104] Christian organisations such as the St. Vincent de
Paul Society, the Salvation Army and Anglicare provide social services throughout
St Mary Mackillop
Australia. Historically significant Christians include preachers David Unaipon, the first
established an extensive
Aboriginal author, and the Reverend John Flynn, who founded the Royal Flying Doctor
network of schools and is
Australia's first canonized Service. Suffragette Catherine Helen Spence was not only Australia's first female political
saint of the Catholic Church. candidate, but also one of its first female preachers.[105] Mary MacKillop, who co-
founded an order of nuns in the 19th century, called the Sisters of St. Joseph, became the first Australian to be canonized as a
Catholic Saint in 2010,[106] and Sir Douglas Nicholls, a preacher and Aboriginal rights activist was the first indigenous
Australian to be appointed Governor of an Australian State.[107]

The proportion of the total population who are Christian fell from 71% in 1996
to around 61.1% in 2011, while people affiliated with non-Christian religions
increased from around 3.5% to 7.2% over the same period.[102] Buddhism
increased most rapidly from 1.1% to 2.5%. Increased immigration from South-
East Asia has been a major factor in this growth, but Australians of Anglo-Celtic
origin have also shown increasing interest in Buddhism. Islam increased during
Nan Tien Temple, a Buddhist temple
the period from 1.1% to 2.2% with diverse communities concentrated mainly in
in Wollongong. Multicultural
Sydney and Melbourne. The history of the Jews in Australia dates back to the
immigration has increased Australia's
First Fleet, which brought Jewish convicts to Sydney in 1788. Today, many Jews religious diversity.
in Australia originated as refugees and Holocaust survivors who arrived during
and after World War II.[108] Hindus came to Australia as laborers and merchants
during the 19th century and numbers increased dramatically from the 1960s, more than doubling between 1996 and 2006.[109]

The tradition and spirituality of Aboriginal Australians places great emphasis on the role of tribal Elders in passing down stories
of the Dreaming, and skills and lessons for survival (such as hunting and tracking). The creation story and belief system of the
Aboriginal tradition, known in English as the Dreamtime, reverences the land and the animals and spirits that inhabit the land and
animals. European settlement introduced Indigenous Australians to Christianity, especially through "missions". There was a wide
range of experiences of the missions by Aboriginal people.[109]

Public holidays
Australia's calendar of public holiday festivals begins with New Year's Day. This
is also the day upon which the Australian Federation officially came into being,
however the national day, Australia Day, is celebrated on 26 January, the
anniversary of British colonization. Anzac Day, 25 April is another day strongly
associated with Australian nationhood, however it more particularly
commemorates Australians who fought in wars and is named to honor the
soldiers of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps who landed at
Gallipoli, on that same day in 1915, during World War I.
Anzac Day dawn services are held
throughout Australia every April. The Christian festivals of Easter and Christmas are public holidays in Australia.
Christmas Day, 25 December, falls during the Southern Hemisphere summer.

Labor Day is also a public holiday, but on different days throughout the nation. The Queen's Birthday is generally observed on the
second Monday in June, except in Western Australia, where it usually is observed in September or October to move it away from
Western Australia Day. On the Queen's Birthday holiday, as on Australia Day, national awards are distributed to distinguished
citizens for services to the community.

Cuisine
Contemporary Australian cuisine combines British and indigenous origins with Mediterranean and Asian influences. Australia's
abundant natural resources allow access to a large variety of quality meats, and to barbecue beef or lamb in the open air is
considered a cherished national tradition. The great majority of Australians live close to the sea and Australian seafood
restaurants have been listed among the world's best.[110]
Bush tucker refers to a wide variety of plant and animal foods native to the
Australian bush: bush fruits such as kakadu plums, finger limes and desert
quandongs; fish and shellfish of Australia's saltwater river systems; and bush
meats including emu, crocodile and kangaroo. Many of these are still seasonally
hunted and gathered by Indigenous Australians, and are undergoing a
renaissance of interest on contemporary Australian menus.[111] The macadamia
nut is the most famous bushfood plant harvested and sold in large quantities.

Early British settlers brought familiar Bush tucker harvested in Alice

meats and crops with them from Europe Springs
and these remain important in the
Australian diet. The British settlers found
some familiar game – such as swan, goose, pigeon, and fish – but the new settlers often
had difficulty adjusting to the prospect of native fauna as a staple diet.[112] They
Sheep grazing in rural established agricultural industries producing more familiar Western style produce.
Australia. Early British Queensland and New South Wales became Australia's main beef cattle producers, while
settlers introduced Western dairy cattle farming is found in the southern states, predominantly in Victoria. Wheat and
stock and crops and
other grain crops are spread fairly evenly throughout the mainland states. Sugar cane is
Australian agriculture now
also a major crop in Queensland and New South Wales. Fruit and vegetables are grown
produces an abundance of
fresh produce. throughout Australia.[113] "Meat and three veg", fish and chips, and the Australian meat
pie continue to represent traditional meals for many Australians. The post-World War II
multicultural immigration program brought new flavors and influences, with waves of
immigrants from Greece, Italy, Vietnam, China, and elsewhere bringing about diversification and of the typical diet consumed–
leading to an increasingly gastronomical culinary scene.

Australia's 11 million square kilometer fishing zone is the third largest in the world and allows for easy access to seafood which
significantly influences Australian cuisine. Clean ocean environments produce high quality seafoods. Lobster, prawns, tuna,
salmon and abalone are the main ocean species harvested commercially, while aquaculture produces more than 60 species for
consumption, including oysters, salmonoids, southern bluefin tuna, mussels, prawns, barramundi, yellowtail kingfish, and
freshwater finifish.[114] While inland river and lake systems are relatively sparse, they nevertheless provide some unique fresh
water game fish and crustacea suitable for dining. Fishing and aquaculture constitute Australia's fifth most valuable agricultural
industry after wool, beef, wheat and dairy.[115]

Vegemite is a well-known spread originating from Australia. Iconic Australian desserts include pavlova and lamingtons.[116]
ANZAC biscuits recall the diet of Australia's World War I soldiers at the Battle of Gallipoli.

Beverages
Australia's reputation as a nation of heavy drinkers goes back to the earliest days
of colonial Sydney, when rum was used as currency and grain shortages
followed the installation of the first stills. James Squires is considered to have
founded Australia's first commercial brewery in 1798 and the Cascade Brewery
in Hobart has been operating since 1832. Since the 1970s, Australian beers have
become increasingly popular globally, with Foster's Lager being an iconic
export. Foster's is not however the biggest seller on the local market, with
alternatives including Victoria Bitter outselling it.

A billycan used for heating water

Billy tea was a staple drink of the Australian colonial period. It is typically
boiled over a camp fire with a gum leaf added for flavoring.
The Australian wine industry is the world's fourth largest exporter of wine and contributes $5.5 billion per annum to the nation's
economy. Wine is produced in every state, however, wine regions are mainly in the southern, cooler regions. Among the most
famous wine districts are the Hunter Region and Barossa Valley and among the best known wine producers are Penfolds,
Rosemount Estate, Wynns Coonawarra Estate and Lindemans.[117] The Australian Penfolds Grange was the first wine from
outside France or California to win the Wine Spectator award for Wine of the Year in 1995.[118]

Clothing and apparel

Australia has no official designated national dress, but iconic
local styles include bushwear and surfwear.[119] The country's
best-known fashion event is Australian Fashion Week, a twice
yearly industry gathering showcasing seasonal collections
from Australian and Asia Pacific Designers.[120] Top
Australian models include Elle Macpherson, Miranda Kerr and
Jennifer Hawkins (Miss Universe 2004).

Major clothing brands associated with bushwear are the broad

brimmed Akubra hats, Driza-Bone coats and R.M. Williams
A swagman in bushmen's outfitters (featuring in particular: moleskin trousers,
bushman's apparel, riding boots and merino woolwear). Blundstone Footwear and Elle Macpherson, 2011
wearing a brimmed hat Country Road are also linked to this tradition. Made from the
and carrying swag, and leaves of Livistona australis, the cabbage tree hat was the first
billy can.
uniquely Australian headwear, dating back to the early 1800s, and was the hat of choice for
colonial-born Australians.[121] Traditionally worn by jackaroos and swagmen in the blow-fly
infested Australian outback, the cork hat is a type of headgear strongly associated with Australia, and comprises cork strung from
the brim, to ward off insects.[122]

World-famous Australian surfwear labels include Billabong, Rip Curl, Mambo and Quiksilver. Australian surfers popularized the
ugg boot, a unisex sheepskin boot with fleece on the inside, a tanned outer surface and a synthetic sole. Worn by the working
classes in Australia, the boot style emerged as a global fashion trend in the 2000s.[123]

The slouch hat was first worn by military forces in Australia in 1885, looped up on one side so that rifles could be held at the
slope without damaging the brim. After federation, the slouch hat became standard Australian Army headgear in 1903 and since
then it has developed into an important national symbol and is worn on ceremonial occasions by the Australian army.[124]

Australians generally have a relaxed attitude to what beachgoers wear, although this
has not always been the case. At the start of the twentieth century a proposed
ordinance in Sydney would have forced men to wear skirts over their "bathing
costume" to be decent. This led to the 1907 Sydney bathing costume protests which
resulted in the proposal being dropped.[125] In 1961, Bondi inspector Aub Laidlaw,
already known for kicking women off the beach for wearing bikinis, arrested several
men wearing swim briefs charging them with indecency.[126] The judge found the
men not guilty because no pubic hair was exposed.[127] As time went on Australians' A group of Australian men
attitudes to swimwear became much more relaxed. Over time swim briefs, better wearing budgie smugglers.
known locally as speedos or more recently as budgie smugglers, became an iconic
swimwear for Australian males.

Sport
Many Australians are passionate about sport, and it forms a major part of the country's culture in terms of spectating and
participation. Cricket is popular in the summer, and football codes are popular in the winter. Australian traditions such as grand
finals and footy tipping are shared among the codes.

Australia's successes in events such as the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, World Cup competitions in cricket, rugby
union, rugby league, field hockey, netball, and major tournaments in tennis, golf, surfing, and other sports are a source of pride
for many Australians. Sports people such as Donald Bradman, Dawn Fraser, and Cathy Freeman remain in the nation's cultural
memory and are accorded high civilian honors and public status.[128]

Cricket
Cricket is Australia's most popular summer sport and has been played since
colonial times. It is followed in all states and territories, unlike the football codes
which vary in popularity between regions.[129]

The first recorded cricket match in

Australia took place in Sydney in 1803.
Intercolonial contests started in 1851[130]
and Sheffield Shield inter-state cricket
continues to this day. In 1866–67,
Cricket match at the Melbourne
Cricket Ground, 1860s prominent cricketer and Australian rules
football pioneer Tom Wills coached an
Aboriginal cricket team, which later
toured England in 1868 under the captaincy of Charles Lawrence. The 1876–77 season is
notable for a match between a combined XI from New South Wales and Victoria and a
touring English team at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, which was later recognized as the
first Test match.[131] A famous victory on the 1882 tour of England resulted in the
placement of a satirical obituary in an English newspaper saying that English cricket had
"died", and the "body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia". The English
media then dubbed the next English tour to Australia (1882–83) as the quest to "regain the
ashes".[132] The tradition continues with the Ashes series, an icon of the sporting rivalry
Donald Bradman is often
between the two countries. cited as statistically the
greatest sportsman of any
Successful cricketers often become lasting celebrities in Australia. Sir Donald Bradman,
major sport.
who made his Test debut in the 1928–29 series against England, is regarded as the game's
greatest batsman and a byword for sporting excellence.[133] Other Australian cricketers
who remain household names include Richie Benaud, Dennis Lillee and Shane Warne and others who pursued media careers after
they retired from the game. Internationally, Australia has for most of the last century sat at or near the top of the cricketing world.
In the 1970s, Australian media tycoon Kerry Packer founded World Series Cricket from which many international forms of the
game have evolved.

Events on the cricket pitch have occasionally been elevated to diplomatic incidents in Australian history, such as the infamous
Bodyline controversy of the 1930s, in which the English team bowled in a physically intimidating way leading to accusations of
unsportsmanlike conduct.[134]

Football codes
 Australian rules football is the most highly attended spectator sport in Australia. Its core
support lies in four of the six states: Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and
Tasmania. Originating in Melbourne in the late 1850s and codified in 1859, the sport is the
world's oldest major football code. The national competition, the Australian Football
League (AFL), evolved from the Victorian Football League in 1990, and has expanded to
all states except Tasmania. The AFL Grand Final is traditionally played on the last
Saturday of September at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, the sport's "spiritual home".[135]
Australian rules football culture has a strong set of rituals and traditions, such as kick-to-
kick and barracking. International rules football is a hybrid sport of Australian football
and Gaelic football devised to facilitate matches between Australia and Ireland.

Rugby union was first played in Australia in the 1860s and is followed predominately in
Statue in Fremantle of an Queensland, New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. The national team is
Australian rules footballer known as the Wallabies. Despite having a relatively small player base, Australia has twice
taking a spectacular mark
won the Rugby World Cup, in 1991 and 1999, and hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup.
Other notable competitions include the annual Bledisloe Cup, played against Australia's
main rivals, the New Zealand All Blacks, and the Rugby Championship, involving South Africa, New Zealand, and Argentina.
Provincial teams from Australia, South Africa and New Zealand compete in the annual Super Rugby competition. Rugby test
matches are also popular and have at times become highly politicized, such as when many Australians, including the Wallabies,
demonstrated against the racially selected South African teams of the 1970s.[136] Notable Australian rugby union players include
Sir Edward Dunlop, Mark Ella and David Campese.

In 1908, rugby league was established in Australia, by former rugby union

players and supporters as a breakaway professional code. The new code gained
and has maintained a wider following in Australia than rugby union, which
remained amateur until the 1990s. The sport has roots in the working class
communities of Lancashire and Yorkshire in Northern England, translating to
similar areas in Sydney and Brisbane. The elite club competition is the National
Rugby League (NRL), which features ten teams from New South Wales, three
teams from Queensland, and one team each from Victoria, Australian Capital
Territory and New Zealand. The season culminates in the NRL Grand Final. The
New South Wales Blues and Queensland Maroons compete in the annual State
of Origin series. Australia's national team, the Kangaroos, has contested all 15
Rugby League World Cup titles, winning 11 of them.
The first State of Origin shield
Despite attracting less media attention than Australian rules football and rugby
league, soccer is Australia's highest participation football code.[137] During the
second half of the 20th century many Australian soccer clubs were based around ethnic groups, mostly European.[138][139]
However, the national league was completely reformed in 2004. Australia's national team, the Socceroos, has competed in the
finals of five FIFA World Cup championships. In 2006 the Socceroos moved from the Oceania Football Confederation to the
Asian Football Confederation, a much stronger confederation which has allowed the Australian team to avoid repetition of a
history of missed World Cup qualifications in forced sudden-death playoffs. Australia won the 2015 AFC Asian Cup. Major
international stars from Australia include Tim Cahill, Mark Viduka, Mark Schwarzer and Harry Kewell.

Water sports
Australia's warm climate and long coastline of sandy beaches and rolling waves
provide ideal conditions for water sports such as swimming and surfing. The
majority of Australians live in cities or towns on or near the coast, and so
beaches are a place that millions of Australians visit regularly.[112]

Swimming is a popular pastime for Australians. In the early 1900s, members of

the Australian Cavill family pioneered the crawl stroke ("Australian crawl") and
butterfly stroke.[140] Australia is a world power in Olympic swimming, second
only to the United States in total gold medals in the sport. Swimmers like Dawn
Fraser, Kieren Perkins and Ian Thorpe have taken multiple gold medals.[141]

Australians have a particular affinity for surf lifesaving, and surf lifesavers have
a revered status in Australian culture. The world's first surf lifesaving club, The surf lifesaving movement
Bondi Surf Bathers' Life Saving Club, was founded at Bondi Beach, Sydney, in originated in Australia. (Pictured: surf
lifesavers, Bondi Beach, 1930s).
1906. Surf Life Saving Australia has conducted hundreds of thousands of
rescues around Australia. Tens of thousands of Australians compete in surf
lifesaving training and competitions, such as Ironman events.[112]

In the summer of 1915, Duke Kahanamoku of Hawaii introduced surf board riding to Sydney's Freshwater Beach, amazing locals
and starting a long term love affair with the sport in Australia.[112] Over 1 in 10 Australians surf recreationally,[142] and more
Australians have been declared world surfing champions than any other nation.[143]

The Sydney to Hobart yacht race is a much anticipated fixture on the Australian sporting calendar. Australia won the America's
Cup under skipper John Bertrand in 1983, becoming the first country other than the United States to win the race.

Other sports
Horse racing has had a prominent place in Australian culture since the colonial
era, with the first spectator sports event in Australia being Lachlan Macquarie's
race meeting at Hyde Park, Sydney, in 1810.[144] First run in 1861, the
Melbourne Cup is known as "the race that stops a nation" for the enthusiasm
with which Australians tune in for the annual race, and is said to encapsulate the
country's twin obsessions of sport and gambling.

Basketball is popular in Australia in terms of participation, especially among

children.[145] The National Basketball League (NBL) began in 1979 and is
Phar Lap winning the Melbourne
contested by eight teams—seven from Australia and one from New
Cup, "the race that stops a nation"
Zealand.[146] The Women's National Basketball League (WNBL) is the top
women's basketball league, having begun in 1981, and the national women's
team (the Opals) has won medals at the Olympics since 1994. Netball has the highest participation rate of any women's sport in
Australia. Established in 2008, the ANZ Championship is the premier netball league in Australia and New Zealand, featuring five
teams from each country. The Australian national netball team (the Diamonds) is considered the best in the world, having won 10
of 13 World Netball Championships.

The Australian V8 Supercars series is steadily growing in popularity across the world, where television coverage allows.

Australia regularly raises world champion field hockey teams. Australian cyclists have won international cycling competitions,
most notably Cadel Evans' win in the 2011 Tour de France. In 2008, the Tour Down Under, centered around Adelaide, became the
first UCI ProTour cycling race to be held outside of Europe. Among young people and within schools nationwide, various forms
of handball or downball games have been among the most prevalent sports games for some decades.
Snow sports are enjoyed in the Australian Alps and in Tasmania. Skiing in
Australia was first introduced by Norwegian miners in the gold mining town of
Kiandra in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales around 1859. The sport
remains a popular winter activity in the south-eastern states and territories.
Major alpine skiing resorts include Thredbo, Perisher and Charlotte Pass in New
South Wales; Mount Hotham, Falls Creek and Mount Buller in Victoria and
Mount Ben Lomond in Tasmania. Extensive areas are available for cross country
skiing within national parks including Kosciuszko National Park (NSW), Alpine
National Park (VIC); Namadgi National Park (ACT) and in the Tasmanian
Wilderness. Australia has long participated in the Winter Olympics and has won Skiing in Australia began in Kiandra,
a goldmining town in the Snowy
medals at the Games since the 1990s.
Mountains of New South Wales, in
Increased interest and participation in American sports has led to opportunities the 1860s.
for Australians to play at the top level in sports such as baseball, ice hockey and
American football. Grant Balfour is a relief pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays, and
played in the 2008 World Series. Australian basketballers have done well at the Olympics, coming fourth four times. The skill set
of Australian rules footballers fits the mould of US National Football League (NFL) punters, and they stand out from their
American peers with their ability to tackle returners. Two former AFL footballers competed in the 2009 NFC Championship
game as punters, Saverio Rocca for the Philadelphia Eagles and Ben Graham for the Arizona Cardinals. Graham's appearance in
Super Bowl XLIII made him the first Australian to play in the NFL's championship game. The first College Bowl game to feature
two Australians was the 2012 BCS National Championship Game with punter Brad Wing from LSU and defensive end Jesse
Williams for Alabama. In 2018, Nathan Walker, the first Australian drafted by an NHL team, also became the first to play on a
Stanley Cup winning team, the 2018 Washington Capitals.

Folklore
Australian stories and legends have a cultural significance independent of their empirical
truth or falsehood. This can be seen in the portrayal of bushranger Ned Kelly as a mixture
of the underdog and Robin Hood.

Militarily, Australians have served in numerous overseas wars, ranging from World War I
through to recent regional security missions, such as East Timor, Iraq and Afghanistan.
Australian war culture generally consists of somber reflection and commemoration,
focusing on noble sacrifice rather than glory. An annual national holiday, Anzac Day,
exists for this purpose. The Australian experience of defeat in the Gallipoli Campaign, the
first iconic moment in modern Australia's involvement in war, is viewed by Australians
with both pride for the fighting of the soldiers, and bitterness for the perceived negligence
on the part of British commanders. The incidences of bravery and determination displayed
during the campaign for Gallipoli, as well as the mutual respect for their Turkish
adversaries led by Kemal Atatürk, are seen as part of the ANZAC spirit. During the First A commemorative statue of
World War, Australian soldiers were considered to be remarkably determined, united and John Simpson Kirkpatrick, a
hard-working. Many Australians knew how to ride and shoot prior to enlistment, making famous stretcher bearer who
them talented recruits, but they were also infamous for their lax attitude towards formal was killed in the Gallipoli
Campaign.
parade ground discipline, a notoriety that the Australian soldiers reveled in. From this the
notion of the larrikin Digger emerged, an important part of contemporary Australian
identity.

Attitudes, beliefs and stereotypes

Critics and scholars have sometimes scrutinized Australian culture, with aspects of it loosely criticized for being kitsch, low-brow
or rooted in poor taste.[147] The term "cultural cringe" was coined to describe this entrenched national inferiority complex which
assumes ideas and cultures of other places are automatically superior.[148][149][150][151][152] Some links have been made between
the cultural cringe and a perceived anti-intellectualism that has underpinned public life in Australia.[153] Some commentators
have noted a decline in the cultural cringe in the 21st century, with a "social change" and wider reverence for Australian
culture.[154]

The phrase "the lucky country", coined by Donald Horne, is a reference to Australia's weather, lifestyle, and history.[155]
Ironically, Horne was using the term to denigrate the political philistinism and criticize the complacency of Australian society in
the early 1960s. Since he coined the phrase it has commonly been misapplied by both the media and general public to denote
Australia's perceived fortunes.[9]

"Mateship", or loyal fraternity is the code of conduct, particularly between men, although more recently also between men and
women, stressing equality and friendship.[156][157][157][158][159] The value of mateship is sourced in the difficulty of subduing
the land. Unlike other cultures based on a nurturing landscape that they seek to protect from others, Australian settlers
experienced great hardship and had to support each other in order to survive. The battle against the elements led to the nickname
of a member of Australia's working class being the "Aussie battler".[156]

An aspect of the mateship culture on language is that Australians have a propensity for the diminutive forms of names e.g.
Hargrave → Hargie; Wilkinson → Wilko; John → Johnno; David → Davo; Hogan → Hoges; James → Jimmy → Jim →
Jimbo.[160] This is a display of affection and acceptance rather than belittlement.

One result of the prevalence of the "mateship" culture is that Australian society is stringently anti-hierarchical. Australians are
expected to behave with humility and not think of themselves as better than their peers.[156] Any disloyalty to their "mates" is
treated harshly, and is known as the tall poppy syndrome, where people who grow greater than their peers are harshly criticised as
being narcissistic, or "up themselves". Even the most successful and beautiful Australians are eager to proclaim how ordinary
they are, to the extent that two-thirds of the highest earning households define themselves as middle class, lower middle class or
even working class.[161] This egalitarian social system makes Australian society appear "laid-back" or relaxed to visitors. Most
forms of address are by first name or nickname, even for authority figures.

The mateship culture combined with the original convict and then colonial culture has created an irreverence for established
authority, particularly if it is pompous or out of touch with reality. Politicians, or "pollies", are generally disliked and distrusted.
Politicians who seek to lead must comply to the views of the egalitarian electorate, who will punish any hint of arrogance or
glory-seeking behavior. Voter turnout at elections had in fact been so low that compulsory voting was introduced for the 1925
federal election.[162]

Mirroring the tall poppy syndrome which brings back to Earth the high fliers, the egalitarian Australian society has a traditional
Australian support for the underdog.[156] Australians will show support for those who appear to be at a disadvantage even when
the underdog is competing against fellow Australians, such as in sporting events. Related to the underdog is the belief in a "fair
go", which is said to be a key part of Australian culture and Australian society.[163] One accepted definition of a "fair go" in this
Australian sense is "a chance, an adequate opportunity. Often used to describe a fair and reasonable course of action".[164] The
right to "a fair go" has been found to be the most highly rated value on a recent published survey of the opinion of Australian
citizens.[165] This belief sustains bipartisan political support for strong public health and education systems in Australia, as well
as equal opportunity legislation to ensure people are not excluded from jobs or positions by their race, gender or sexual
orientation.[166] This value is frequently cited by politicians who wish to associate themselves or their party with the positive
connotations of this notion.[167][168] There has been ongoing public and political discussion of the place and future of "the fair
go" in Australian society. This is especially frequent with reference to economics issues and policies.[169][170][171] The call for "a
fair go" is also regularly used by advocates wanting to point out groups who have been overlooked or treated unfairly according
to the expectations of treatment by the wider community. Recent examples of this include media presentation of the treatment of
illegal immigrants asylum seekers, and refugees,[172][173] as well as the community campaign in support of "a fair go" for the
large group of Australian doctors who have been classified as "non-vocationally registered general practitioners" (non-VR
GPs),[174] and are subject to discriminatory pay and conditions compared to their colleagues, for identical work.[175]

See also
Australian cuisine
Honest history
Anglo-related culture

Anglo-Saxon culture
Australian rules football in popular culture
Sport in rural and regional Australia

References
1. "About Australia: Indigenous peoples: an overview" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101122064834/http://dfat.gov.
au/facts/Indigenous_peoples.html). Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.dfat.gov.au/facts/Indigenous_peoples.html) on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
2. Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books; 2004; ISBN 978-0-14-300559-9
3. "About Australia: Our Country" (http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country). australia.gov.au. Retrieved
25 October 2013.
4. "About Australia: People, culture and lifestyle" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120512195954/http://dfat.gov.au/fa
cts/people_culture.html). Dfat.gov.au. Archived from the original (http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/people_culture.htm
l) on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 2013-10-25.
5. "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Population". Year Book Australia (http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/
Lookup/by%20Subject/1301.0~2012~Main%20Features~Aboriginal%20and%20Torres%20Strait%20Islander%2
0population~50). 1301.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
6. "Indigenous Australians – Spirituality" (http://australianmuseum.net.au/Indigenous-Australia-Spirituality).
Australian Museum. 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
7. "Documenting a Democracy – South Australia Act, or Foundation Act, of 1834 (UK)" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20110602002025/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=37). Museum of Australian Democracy.
Archived from the original (http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=37) on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June
2011.
8. AEC.gov.au (http://aec.gov.au/Elections/Australian_Electoral_History/righttovote.htm)
9. AEC.gov.au (http://aec.gov.au/Elections/Australian_Electoral_History/reform.htm)
10. "AEC.gov.au" (http://www.aec.gov.au/Voting/indigenous_vote/indigenous.htm). AEC.gov.au. 25 October 2007.
Retrieved 27 June 2010.
11. Foundingdocs.gov.au (http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=8) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201012
03020826/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=8) 3 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
12. Human Rights under the Australian Constitution by George Williams – [1999] MULR 31; (1999) 23 Melbourne
University Law Review 817 (http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MULR/1999/31.html)
13. Australian Immigration Fact Sheet 8. Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy (http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-s
heets/08abolition.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060901105340/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fac
t-sheets/08abolition.htm) 1 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine
14. "Migration" (http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/E0A79B147EA8E0B5CA2572AC001813E
8/$File/34120_2005-06.pdf) (PDF). 2006 Census. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 29 March 2007. Retrieved
6 March 2009. (table 6.6)
15. "Colliding worlds: first contact in the western desert, 1932–1984" (http://recollections.nma.gov.au/issues/vol_1_no
_2/exhibition_reviews/colliding_worlds/). Recollections.nma.gov.au. Retrieved 12 October 2009.
16. Australian Immigration Fact Sheet 60 – Australia's Refugee and Humanitarian Program (http://www.immi.gov.au/
media/fact-sheets/60refugee.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081001125010/http://www.immi.gov.a
u/media/fact-sheets/60refugee.htm) 1 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine
17. Australia in Brief: Australia – an overview – Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/o
verview.html)
18. "About Australia: People, culture and lifestyle" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120512195954/http://dfat.gov.au/fa
cts/people_culture.html). Dfat.gov.au. Archived from the original (http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/people_culture.htm
l) on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
19. James, Paul (1983). "Australia in the Corporate Image: A New Nationalism" (https://www.academia.edu/3364438
5/Australia_in_the_Corporate_Image_A_New_Nationalism_1983_). Arena (63): 65–106.
20. It's an Honour – Symbols – Other Australian Flags (http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/symbols/otherflag.cfm)
21. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/australia_national_symbols.html) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110219181216/http://dfat.gov.au/facts/australia_national_symbols.html) 19
February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
22. "Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013" (http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Look
up/2071.0main+features902012-2013). Catalogue item 2071.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 21 June 2012.
Retrieved 5 June 2014.
23. "Working with interpreters" (http://www.asliansw.org.au/work.php). Australian Sign Language Interpreters'
Association of NSW. 2014. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
24. Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. Bloomsbury Publishing plc. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-7475-3117-3.
25. Australian humour – australia.gov.au (http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-humour)
26. Henry Lawson: Australian writer – australia.gov.au (http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/henry-l
awson)
27. Australians in France: 1918 – Friends and Foe – Australian soldiers' relations with their superiors | Australian War
Memorial (http://www.awm.gov.au/exhibitions/1918/soldier/superiors.asp)
28. Barry Humphries – australia.gov.au (http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/barry-humphries)
29. Barry Humphries | Absurd moments: in the frocks of Dame Edna (http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/entertainmen
t/books/absurd-moments-in-the-frocks-of-the-dame-20100914-15ar3.html)
30. Media Releases | Oxfam Australia (https://web.archive.org/web/20060630110150/http://www.oxfam.org.au/medi
a/article.php?id=12)
31. "Australian painters" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100205141433/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articl
es/painters/). Australian Culture and Recreation Portal. Australia Government. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/painters/) on 5 February 2010. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
32. "Film in Australia – Australia's Culture Portal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110217010927/http://www.culturean
drecreation.gov.au/articles/film/). Cultureandrecreation.gov.au. Archived from the original (http://www.cultureandr
ecreation.gov.au/articles/film/) on 17 February 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
33. "Australia in Brief: Culture and the arts – Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0101215212137/http://dfat.gov.au/aib/arts_culture.html). Dfat.gov.au. 1 July 2008. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/arts_culture.html) on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
34. Davidson, Jim (1989). "Tasmanian Gothic", Meanjin 48 (2), pp. 307–324
35. Smith, Vivian (2009). "Australian Colonial Poetry, 1788–1888". In Pierce, Peter. The Cambridge History of
Australian Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 73–92. ISBN 9780521881654
36. "Henry Lawson: Australian writer – Australia's Culture Portal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110408180527/htt
p://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/lawson/). Cultureandrecreation.gov.au. 2 September 1922. Archived
from the original (http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/lawson/) on 8 April 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
37. McGregor, Russell (2011). Indifferent Inclusion: Aboriginal People and the Australian Nation. Aboriginal Studies
Press. pp. 24-27. ISBN 9780855757793.
38. Lehman, David (June 2002). "The Ern Malley Poetry Hoax" (http://jacketmagazine.com/17/ern-dl.html), Jacket2.
Retrieved 11 March 2015.
39. Miles Franklin Literary Award (http://www.milesfranklin.com.au/). Retrieved 9 December 2012.
40. "Helen Garner's Monkey Grip (2014)" (https://www.screenaustralia.gov.au/the-screen-guide/t/helen-garners-monk
ey-grip-2014/32187/). 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
41. "Oodgeroo Noonuccal." Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol. 27. Gale, 2007
42. "Our Country's Good: The Recruiting Officer" (http://www.olioweb.me.uk/plays/). Olioweb.me.uk. Retrieved
29 January 2011.
43. "a great night out! – Hobart Tasmania" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101004163331/http://www.theatreroyal.co
m.au/history.html). Theatre Royal. Archived from the original (http://www.theatreroyal.com.au/history.html) on 4
October 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
44. "Queen's Theatre" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110221043342/http://history.sa.gov.au/queens/about.htm).
History.sa.gov.au. 1 July 2010. Archived from the original (http://www.history.sa.gov.au/queens/about.htm) on 21
February 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
45. [1] (http://www.capitoltheatre.com.au/explore.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100210113100/http://
www.capitoltheatre.com.au/explore.htm) 10 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine
46. "Entertainment | The man behind Dame Edna Everage" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6757531.stm).
BBC News. 15 June 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
47. Rawlings-Way, Charles (2007). Sydney (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781741049206/page/167). Lonely
Planet. p. 167 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781741049206/page/167). ISBN 1740598393.
48. "History"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100529170931/http://www.adelaidefestivalcentre.com.au/afc/history.php).
Adelaide Festival Centre. 2 June 1973. Archived from the original (http://www.adelaidefestivalcentre.com.au/afc/h
istory.php) on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
49. "Robert Helpmann" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110217064310/http://helpmannawards.com.au/default.aspx?s
=sir_robert_helpmann). Helpmannawards.com.au. 28 September 1986. Archived from the original (http://www.hel
pmannawards.com.au/default.aspx?s=sir_robert_helpmann) on 17 February 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
50. Review: Ngapartji Ngapartji, Belvoir Street Theatre | thetelegraph.com.au (http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/new
s/review-ngapartji-ngapartji/story-e6frev39-1111115327660)
51. "reCollections – Australia's Muslim cameleer heritage" (http://recollections.nma.gov.au/issues/vol_2_no2/notes_a
nd_comments/australias_muslim_cameleer_heritage/). Recollections.nma.gov.au. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
52. "Nan Tien Temple-History of Temple" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110220170543/http://www.nantien.org.au/e
n/about/history.asp). Nantien.org.au. 28 November 1991. Archived from the original (http://www.nantien.org.au/e
n/about/history.asp) on 20 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
53. "The Great Synagogue Sydney – Home" (http://www.greatsynagogue.org.au/). Greatsynagogue.org.au.
Retrieved 29 January 2011.
54. Mundey, Jack (1981). Green bans and beyond. Sydney: Angus and Robertson. ISBN 0207143676.
55. Taçon, Paul S. C. (2001). "Australia". In Whitely, David S.. Handbook of Rock Art Research. Rowman & Littlefield.
pp. 531–575. ISBN 978-0-7425025-6-7
56. Sayers, Andrew. Aboriginal artists of the nineteenth century. Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-553392-5,
p. 6
57. History of the Hermannsburg School (http://www.hermannsburgschool.com/index.php?history), Hermannsburg
School. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
58. Henly, Susan Gough (6 November 2005). "Powerful growth of Aboriginal art" (https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/0
6/arts/06iht-aborigine.html?pagewanted=all), The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
59. Grishin, Sasha (8 December 2007). "Next generation Papunya". The Canberra Times. p. 6.
60. Freeman-Greene, Suzy (26 February 2011). "Street art deserves more than a city's double standards" (http://ww
w.theage.com.au/opinion/society-and-culture/street-art-deserves-more-than-a-citys-double-standards-20110225-
1b8i0.html), The Age. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
61. Copeland, Julie (1998). "A Brush with Landscape, Part 1" (http://www.abc.net.au/arts/headspace/rn/special/brus
h/brush1.htm), Headspace 2. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
62. Australian art (http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/discover-art/learn-more/australian-art/), Art Gallery of New South
Wales. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
63. Australian Impressionism | National themes (http://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/australianimpressionism/education/insight
s_national.html), National Gallery of Victoria. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
64. Williams, Donald. In Our Own Image: The Story of Australian Art. Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia, 2002.
ISBN 0-07-471030-3, pp. 42—43
65. Hughes, Robert. The Art of Australia. Melbourne: Penguin Books, 1970. ISBN 0-87585-103-7, p. 93
66. Hylton, Jane; Molony, John. Hans Heysen: Into the Light. Adelaide: Wakefield Press, 2004. ISBN 1-86254-657-6,
p. 12
67. McQueen, Humphrey. The Black Swan of Trespass: The Emergence of Modernist Painting in Australia to 1944.
Sydney: Alternative Publishing, 1979. ISBN 0-909188-12-2, p. 4
68. Butler, Roger (2007). Printed. Images by Australian Artists 1885–1955. Canberra, ACT: National Gallery of
Australia. p. 90. ISBN 978 0642 54204 5.
69. Smith, Terry. Transformations in Australian Art, Volume 2: The 20th Century – Modernism and Aboriginality.
Sydney: Craftsman House, 2002. ISBN 1-877004-14-6, p. 8
70. Williams, John Frank. The Quarantined Culture: Australian Reactions to Modernism, 1913–1939. Cambridge
University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-47713-1, pp. 1–14
71. Archibald Prize | Controversy and debate (http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/prizes/archibald/history/controversy-a
nd-debate/), Art Gallery of New South Wales. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
72. White, Jill. Dupain's Beaches. Sydney: Chapter & Verse, 2000. ISBN 978-0-947322-17-5
73. Haese, Richard. Rebels and Precursors: The Revolutionary Years of Australian Art. Melbourne: Penguin Books,
1988. ISBN 0-14-010634-0
74. "Art in Tasmania: Something new" (http://www.economist.com/node/18007819) (27 January 2011), The
Economist. Retrieved 14 December 2012.
75. "Australia's first film studio" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091030184703/http://salvationarmy.org.au/SALV/STA
NDARD/PC_60860.html). Salvationarmy.org.au. 15 January 2010. Archived from the original (http://www.salvatio
narmy.org.au/SALV/STANDARD/PC_60860.html) on 30 October 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
76. The Story of the Kelly Gang (http://www.nfsa.gov.au/collection/film/story-kelly-gang/), National Film and Sound
Archive. Retrieved 27 November 2012.
77. Routt, William D. "Chapter 3: Our reflections in a window: Australian silent cinema (c. 1896–1930)". In Sabine,
James. A Century of Australian Cinema. Melbourne: Mandarin Australia, 1995. ISBN 0-85561-610-5, pp. 44–63
78. "In the Wake of the Bounty (1933) on ASO – Australia's audio and visual heritage online" (http://aso.gov.au/titles/f
eatures/wake-bounty/). Aso.gov.au. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
79. "Festival de Cannes – From 11 to 22 may 2011" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120118215228/http://www.festiv
al-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/3702/year/1955.html). Festival-cannes.com. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.festival-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/3702/year/1955.html) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved
2011-01-29.
80. "Kokoda Front Line! (1942) on ASO – Australia's audio and visual heritage online" (http://aso.gov.au/titles/newsre
els/kokoda-front-line/). Aso.gov.au. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
81. "Peter Finch – About This Person" (https://movies.nytimes.com/person/23460/Peter-Finch?inline=nyt-per). The
New York Times. Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
82. " "Fair Dinkum Fillums": the Crocodile Dundee Phenomenon" (http://wwwmcc.murdoch.edu.au/ReadingRoom/fil
m/Croc.html). Cc.murdoch.edu.au. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
83. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100324201044/http://www.australiamovie.net/2009/02/second-hi
ghest-grossing-australian-film-of-all-time/). Archived from the original (http://www.australiamovie.net/2009/02/sec
ond-highest-grossing-australian-film-of-all-time/) on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
84. Maddox, Garry (3 March 2014). "Catherine Martin breaks record with fourth Oscar win" (http://www.smh.com.au/
entertainment/movies/catherine-martin-breaks-record-with-fourth-oscar-win-20140303-33yjz.html). Sydney
Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
85. "Home-grown horror revival hits our screens" (http://www.couriermail.com.au/entertainment/movies/local-horror-fil
m-revival/story-e6freqex-1111117952346) (5 November 2008), The Courier Mail. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
 86. Mitchell, Tony (1 April 2006). "The New Corroboree" (http://www.theage.com.au/news/music/the-new-corroboree/
2006/03/30/1143441270792.html). The Age. Melbourne.
87. "Who'll come a 'Waltzing Matilda' with me?" (http://www.nla.gov.au/epubs/waltzingmatilda/index.php), National
Library of Australia. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
88. Oxford, A Dictionary of Australian Music, Edited by Warren Bebbington, Copyright 1998
89. "Melba, Dame Nellie (1861–1931) Biographical Entry – Australian Dictionary of Biography Online" (http://www.ad
b.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A100464b.htm). Adb.online.anu.edu.au. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
90. "John Antill : Represented Artist Profile" (http://www.australianmusiccentre.com.au/artist/antill-john). Australian
Music Centre. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
91. "O'Keefe, John Michael (Johnny) (1935–1978) Biographical Entry – Australian Dictionary of Biography Online" (ht
tp://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A150610b.htm). Adb.online.anu.edu.au. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
92. "Civics | Paul Kelly (1955–)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110602031440/http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.a
u/cce/default.asp?id=15390). Civicsandcitizenship.edu.au. Archived from the original (http://www.civicsandcitizen
ship.edu.au/cce/default.asp?id=15390) on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
93. Dave" Laing, "Slim Dusty: Country singer famous for A Pub With No Beer" (https://www.theguardian.com/news/2
003/sep/20/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries), The Guardian (UK), 20 September 2003
94. "How to Do a Bush Dance" (http://home.hiwaay.net/~lkseitz/Australia/bushdance.html). Home.hiwaay.net.
Retrieved 29 January 2011.
95. (in English) http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/extras/federation/Timelines/CMFedTimelineNat3.htm Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080215131629/http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/extras/federation/Timelines/C
MFedTimelineNat3.htm) 15 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
96. (in English) http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,23663,20357015-5007183,00.html
97. (in English) http://www.televisionau.com/seventies.htm
98. Logie Awards (https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Logie_Awards/)
99. Get the Picture – Free-to-air TV – Ratings – By network (http://www.afc.gov.au/gtp/wftvratingsnetwork.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091112035530/http://www.afc.gov.au/gtp/wftvratingsnetwork.html) 12
November 2009 at the Wayback Machine
100. http://www.aba.gov.au/contentreg/codes/television/documents/ACS2004Fulltext.pdf Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20070227104435/http://www.aba.gov.au/contentreg/codes/television/documents/ACS2004Fulltext.pdf)
27 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
101. "Parliament of Australia: Senate: Constitution – Chapter 5" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110116165850/http://
www.aph.gov.au/SEnate/general/constitution/chapter5.htm). Aph.gov.au. 21 May 2003. Archived from the original
(http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/chapter5.htm) on 16 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January
2011.
102. "2071.0 - Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013" (http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.
nsf/Lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013). abs.gov.au. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
103. Biography – James Henry Scullin – Australian Dictionary of Biography (http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/scullin-ja
mes-henry-8375)
104. WebCite query result (https://web.archive.org/web/20110606034747/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.ns
f/0/93EB4563583425CCCA25773700169C91?opendocument)
105. Museum of Australian Currency Notes: Centenary of Federation (http://www.rba.gov.au/Museum/Displays/1988_
onwards_polymer_currency_notes/centenary_of_federation.html) Archived (https://archive.today/2012120308590
8/http://www.rba.gov.au/Museum/Displays/1988_onwards_polymer_currency_notes/centenary_of_federation.htm
l) 3 December 2012 at Archive.today
106. "Nun becomes first Australian saint" (http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia-pacific/2010/10/20101017144255773
848.html). Al Jazeera. 17 October 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
107. Corowa, Miriam (19 September 2010). "Bloodlines: The Nicholls Family" (https://web.archive.org/web/201601121
23902/http://www.abc.net.au/tv/messagestick/stories/s3014566.htm). Message Stick. Australian Broadcasting
Corporation. Archived from the original (http://www.abc.net.au/tv/messagestick/stories/s3014566.htm) on 12
January 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
108. The Virtual Jewish History Tour: Australia (https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/australia.html)
109. "About Australia: Religious Freedom" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101122061450/http://dfat.gov.au/facts/religi
on.html). Dfat.gov.au. Archived from the original (http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/religion.html) on 22 November
2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
110. "The Top 50 Best Restaurants 1–50 | The World's 50 Best Restaurants" (https://web.archive.org/web/201001130
43907/http://www.theworlds50best.com/module/acms_winners?group_id=1). Theworlds50best.com. 15 February
2010. Archived from the original (http://www.theworlds50best.com/module/acms_winners?group_id=1) on 13
January 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
111. White, Janelle. "Bush Tucker: Australian Native Foods". In Vaisutis, Justine. Australia 15. Lonely Planet, 2009.
ISBN 1-74179-160-X, p. 67
112. "Surf Life Saving – Australia's Culture Portal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110228072923/http://culture.gov.au/
articles/surflifesaving/). Culture.gov.au. 6 February 1938. Archived from the original (http://culture.gov.au/articles/
surflifesaving/) on 28 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
113. Australian farms and farming communities – australia.gov.au (http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/far
ms/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110408181402/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/far
ms/) 8 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
114. About Australia: The Australian seafood industry (http://dfat.gov.au/facts/seafoodindustry.html) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20120206144048/http://dfat.gov.au/facts/seafoodindustry.html) 6 February 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
115. Fisheries Home – DAFF (http://www.daff.gov.au/fisheries) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2011092502570
6/http://www.daff.gov.au/fisheries) 25 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
116. "Pavlova" (http://abc.net.au/gnt/history/Transcripts/s1188249.htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation
117. "Australia's wine industry – Australia's Culture Portal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110217023344/http://www.c
ultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/wine/). Cultureandrecreation.gov.au. Archived from the original (http://www.cul
tureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/wine/) on 17 February 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
118. Posert, Harvey; Paul Franson (2004). Spinning the bottle: case studies in wine public relations. HPPR Press.
p. 182. ISBN 978-0-9747566-0-8.
119. "Australian national dress – Australia's Culture Portal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110217025028/http://www.
cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/fashion/nationaldress/). Cultureandrecreation.gov.au. Archived from the
original (http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/fashion/nationaldress/) on 17 February 2011. Retrieved
29 January 2011.
120. "Aussie fashion hits New York – Fashion – Entertainment" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/fashion/aussie-fashion-
hits-new-york/2006/08/27/1156617212361.html). smh.com.au. 28 August 2006. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
121. Barnard, Edwin. Emporium: Selling the Dream in Colonial Australia (2015). National Library of Australia, p. 59.
ISBN 9780642278685.
122. Australian comedy (http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/comedy/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20100921041746/http://cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/comedy/) 21 September 2010 at the Wayback
Machine, Australian Government culture and recreation portal. Retrieved 17 February 2007.
123. Alyssa Abkowitz, reporter (19 August 2009). "Investor Daily: Deckers finds its footing with Uggs – Aug. 19, 2009"
(http://money.cnn.com/2009/08/18/pf/deckers_uggs_boots.fortune/index.htm). Money.cnn.com. Retrieved
29 January 2011.
124. Dennis, Peter, Grey, Jeffrey, Morris, Ewan, Prior, Robin. (eds). (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian
Military History. Second Edition. Oxford University Press: Melbourne. ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2
125. "Skirts and Surf" (http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article14902614). The Sydney Morning Herald. NSW. 15 October
1907. p. 4. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
126. Marks, Kathy (31 December 2008). "Topless wars reignited on Australia's beaches" (https://www.independent.co.
uk/news/world/australasia/topless-wars-reignited-on-australias-beaches-1218251.html). The Independent.
London. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
127. "To be brief - no thanks!" (http://www.nzherald.co.nz/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c_id=6&objectid=9004886). The
New Zealand Herald. 29 December 2004. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
128. "Sporting greats – Stories from Australia's Culture Portal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110408184025/http://w
ww.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/sportinggreats/). Cultureandrecreation.gov.au. Archived from the original
(http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/sportinggreats/) on 8 April 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
129. Cricket Australia Annual Report 2014-15 (http://annualreport.cricketaustralia.com.au/ceos-report) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20170224231059/http://annualreport.cricketaustralia.com.au/ceos-report/) 24 February
2017 at the Wayback Machine Cricket Australia. Retrieved on 15 Dec, 2015
130. Pollard, Jack (1986). The Pictorial History of Australian Cricket (revised edition). Boronia: J.M Dent Pty Ltd &
Australian Broadcasting Corporation. ISBN 0-86770-043-2.
131. Piesse, Ken (2003). Cricket Colosseum:125 Years of Test Cricket at the MCG. South Yarra: Hardie Grant.
ISBN 978-1-74066-064-8.
132. Arnold, Peter; Wynne-Thomas, Peter (1989). An Ashes Anthology:England v. Australia. Brookvale: Simon and
Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7318-0105-3.
133. "Sir Donald Bradman" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120212191148/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/play
er/4188.html). Cricinfo. Archived from the original (http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/4188.html) on
12 February 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2007.
134. Douglas, Christopher (2002). Douglas Jardine: Spartan Cricketer. Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-77216-9.
135. MCG Football - A Brief History (http://www.mcg.org.au/History/Australian%20Football/MCG%20Football%20-%2
0A%20Brief%20History.aspx) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141023020142/http://www.mcg.org.au/His
tory/Australian%20Football/MCG%20Football%20-%20A%20Brief%20History.aspx) 23 October 2014 at the
Wayback Machine, Melbourne Cricket Ground. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
136. AAP (6 July 2001). "Mandela to Honour Anti-Aparteid Wallabies of 71" (https://archive.today/20121215175853/htt
p://www.aru.rugby.com.au/news/2001_july/mandela_to_honour_anti-apartheid_wallabies_o_11660,4273.html/ne
ws/archive/section/21893). ARU. Archived from the original (http://www.aru.rugby.com.au/news/2001_july/mandel
a_to_honour_anti-apartheid_wallabies_o_11660,4273.html/news/archive/section/21893) on 15 December 2012.
Retrieved 10 August 2012.
137. "The Top 20 sports played by Aussies young and old(er)" (http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/6123-australian-sp
orts-participation-rates-among-children-and-adults-december-2014-201503182151), Roy Morgan. Retrieved 18
December 2016.
138. Tayloe, Deborah (2 October 2017). "The Influence of Australian Migrant Minorities on Soccer Today" (https://ww
w.footyalmanac.com.au/the-influence-of-australian-migrant-minorities-on-soccer-today/). The Footy Almanac.
Retrieved 8 June 2019.
139. Kanowski, Sarah; Kanowski, Nicola (7 November 2017). "The story of Australian soccer, from ethnic clubs to the
A-League" (https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/conversations/conversations-joe-gorman/9105786).
Conversations. Series 2017. Episode 9105786. ABC Australia. ABC. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
140. The Cavill Family (http://www.ishof.org/Honorees/70/70cavillfamily.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
071104173114/http://ishof.org/honorees/70/70cavillfamily.html) 2007-11-04 at the Wayback Machine,
International Swimming Hall of Fame. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
141. "Sport: Swimming – Australian Olympic Committee" (http://corporate.olympics.com.au/sport/1/14/Swimming).
Corporate.olympics.com.au. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
142. Surfing Australia Fast Facts (http://www.surfingaustralia.com/statistics.php) Archived (https://archive.today/20140
130025713/http://www.surfingaustralia.com/statistics.php) 30 January 2014 at Archive.today, Surfing Australia.
Retrieved 30 September 2014.
143. 50 Years of ISA World Champions (http://www.isasurf.org/isa-world-champions/), International Surfing
Association. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
144. Lester, Gary and Heads, Ian (2010). And the Crowd Went Wild, Playright Publishing
145. Sport and Physical Recreation (http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/1301.0~2012~M
ain%20Features~Sports%20and%20physical%20recreation~116), Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 9
June 2014.
146. NBL HQ (http://www.nbl.com.au/nbl-hq) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150626103747/http://www.nbl.c
om.au/nbl-hq) 26 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine
147. Bullock, Marita (2012). Memory Fragments: Visualising Difference in Australian History. Intellect Books. p. 17.
ISBN 9781841505534.
148. "Getting over Australia's Cultural Cringe" (http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/07/10/1974488.htm).
Abc.net.au. 10 July 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
149. Phillips, Arthur Angel (January 2006). A. A. Phillips on the Cultural Cringe (https://web.archive.org/web/20061214
115020/http://www.mup.unimelb.edu.au/catalogue/0-522-85221-1.html). Melbourne University Publishing.
ISBN 0-522-85221-1. Archived from the original (http://www.mup.unimelb.edu.au/catalogue/0-522-85221-1.html)
on 14 December 2006.
150. "Expatriate Games" (http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Expatriate-games/2005/03/24/1111525276948.ht
ml). The Age. 25 March 2005. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
151. Alomes, Stephen (1999). When London Calls: The Expatriation of Australian Creative Artists to Britain (https://arc
hive.org/details/whenlondoncalls00step). Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62031-7.
152. Britain, Ian (1997). Once an Australian: Journeys with Barry Humphries, Clive James, Germaine Greer and
Robert Hughes (https://archive.org/details/onceaustralianjo00brit). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-
19-553742-4.
153. "Anti-Intellectualism in Australia" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070820103334/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/au
stback/stories/s198653.htm). Radio National. 5 October 2000. Archived from the original (http://www.abc.net.au/r
n/talks/austback/stories/s198653.htm) on 20 August 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
154. "Getting over Australia's cultural cringe" (http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007-07-10/getting-over-australias-cultural-
cringe/95094). ABC Online. 10 July 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
155. The Lucky Country (http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/luckycountry/) Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20061007062744/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/luckycountry/) 7 October 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
156. Global Perspectives in Workplace Health Promotion (https://books.google.com/books?id=p1q2AgAAQBAJ&pg=P
A8&lpg=PA8&dq=mateship+nicknames&source=bl&ots=Qg4b2_741J&sig=LMFX2MiiRt_ZnWuU6g3HG9_jKSw&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=Q6RJVMy4GMSrmAWPhYL4Aw&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAjgU#v=onepage&q=mateship%20nickna
mes&f=false). Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 8.
157. "Mateship Redefined" (http://www.smh.com.au/national/mateship-redefined-20130124-2d9dm.html). Sydney
Morning Herald.
158. "The Great Mateship Myth" (http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/opinion/the-great-mateship-myth/story-e6f
rg9jx-1226809429369). The Australian.
159. "Mateship: Hit for six" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/418548.stm). BBC.
160. "Nicknames you don't forget" (http://blogs.brisbanetimes.com.au/rhymeorreason/archives/2007/04/nicknames_yo
u_d.html). Brisbane times.
161. "Income distribution: Australia's highest earners think they are battlers" (http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/p
olitical-news/income-distribution-australias-highest-earners-think-they-are-battlers-20160212-gmt62w.html).
Sydney Morning Herald.
162. "Compulsory Voting in Australia" (http://www.aec.gov.au/pdf/voting/compulsory_voting.pdf) (PDF). Australian
Electoral Commission. 16 January 2006. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
163. "Living in Australia" (http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/values/book/english/lia_english_full.pdf) (PDF).
Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship. 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
164. "Fair Go Award" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130813090139/http://www.deafau.org.au/advocacy/fairaward.ph
p). Deaf Australia Inc. Archived from the original (http://www.deafau.org.au/advocacy/fairaward.php/) (webpage)
on 13 August 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
165. "Australians Value a Fair Go Highest" (http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/australians-value-a-fair-go-highe
st/2006/11/11/1162661949374.html/) (webpage). The Age Newspaper. 12 November 2006. Retrieved 19 August
2013.
166. "Equal Employment Opportunity and Antidiscrimination" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130730030300/http://ww
w.business.gov.au/BusinessTopics/Employingpeople/Hiringpeople/Pages/Equalemploymentopportunityandantidis
crimination.aspx). business.gov.au. Archived from the original (http://www.business.gov.au/BusinessTopics/Emplo
yingpeople/Hiringpeople/Pages/Equalemploymentopportunityandantidiscrimination.aspx/) (webpage) on 30 July
2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
167. "A Fair Go For Australian Industries and Jobs" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141008135746/http://www.liberal.o
rg.au/latest-news/2011/02/16/fair-go-australian-industries-and-jobs-0). Liberal Party of Australia. 16 February
2011. Archived from the original (http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2011/02/16/fair-go-australian-industries-an
d-jobs-0/) (webpage) on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
168. "Fair Go Under Fire" (http://www.chifley.org.au/fair-go-under-fire/) (webpage). Australian Labor Party. 27 April
2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
169. "Aussie Fair Go Under Threat" (http://www.news.com.au/money/cost-of-living/aussie-fair-go-under-threat-as-the-r
ich-get-richer/story-fnagkbpv-1226671914315/) (webpage). news.com.au. 30 June 2013. Retrieved 19 August
2013.
170. "The Fair Go has fairly gone" (http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-opinion/the-fair-go-has-fairly-gone-
20120522-1z2zz.html/) (webpage). smh.com.au. 23 May 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
171. "Fair Go: Fact or Fiction" (http://www.cis.org.au/publications/policy-monographs/article/4791-a-fair-go-fact-or-ficti
on/) (webpage). Centre for Independent Studies. 9 May 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
172. A fair go for refugees is a fair go for all Australians (http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/opinion/a-fair-go-for-r
efugees-is-a-fair-go-for-all-australians/story-e6frezz0-1225842035844/) Daily Telegraph
173. Australia's fair-go values must extend to refugees (http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/politics/australias-fairgo-value
s-must-extend-to-refugees-20121009-27ay8.html/) Sydney Morning Herald
174. "AMA Policy on Non-Vocationally Registered General Practitioners" (https://web.archive.org/web/2014100618310
5/https://ama.com.au/ama-policy-non-vocationally-registered-general-practitioners). Australian Medical
Association. 27 June 2013. Archived from the original (https://ama.com.au/ama-policy-non-vocationally-registere
d-general-practitioners) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
175. "Equal Work for Half Pay" (http://www.fairgofordoctors.org/equal-work-for-half-pay/) (webpage). Fair Go For
Doctors. 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Australia&oldid=916152062"

This page was last edited on 17 September 2019, at 09:30 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.