History of the Philippines

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Part of a series on the

History of the Philippines

Prehistory (pre–900)[hide]

Paleolithic age

 Awidon Mesa Formation

 Callao Limestone Formation

Neolithic age

 Callao and Tabon peoples

 Arrival of the Negritos

 Austronesian expansion

 Angono Petroglyphs

 Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens

 Jade culture
 Iron age

 Sa Huỳnh culture

 Society of the Igorot

 Ancient barangays

Events/Artifacts

 Balangay

 grave goods

 Manunggul Jar

 Prehistoric gems

 Sa Huỳnh-Kalanay Complex

 Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery

Archaic epoch (900–1565)[hide]

Historically documented city-states/polities

(by geography from North to South)

 Samtoy chieftaincy

 Caboloan

 Tondo

 Namayan

 Rajahnate of Maynila

 Ma-i

 Madja-as

 Chiefdom of Taytay
  Rajahnate of Cebu

 Rajahnate of Butuan

 Sultanate of Maguindanao

 Lanao confederacy

 Sultanate of Sulu

Legendary

 Suwarnapumi

 Chryse

 Ophir

 Tawalisi

 Wāḳwāḳ

 Sanfotsi

 Zabag kingdom

 Ten Bornean Datus

Events/Artifacts

 Maragtas

 Laguna Copperplate Inscription

 Butuan Ivory Seal

 Limestone tombs

 Batanes citadels

 Golden Tara
  Gold Kinnara

 Ticao Stone Inscription

 Butuan Silver Paleograph

 Buddhist art

 Brunei War

Colonial period (1565–1946)[hide]

Spanish era

 Voyage of Ferdinand Magellan

 Battle of Mactan

 Voyage of Miguel López de Legazpi

 Spanish capture of Manila

 New Spain

 Captaincy General

 Spanish East Indies

 Manila galleon

 Revolts and uprisings

 Chinese invasion

 Spanish–Moro conflict

 Dutch invasions

 British invasion

 Propaganda Movement
  Cavite Mutiny

 La Liga Filipina

 Katipunan

 Cry of Pugad Lawin

 Philippine Revolution

 Tejeros Convention

 Republic of Biak-na-Bato

 Spanish–American War

 Battle of Manila Bay

 American capture of Manila

 Declaration of Independence

 Malolos Congress

 First Republic

 Philippine–American War

American colonial period

 Tagalog Republic

 Negros Republic

 Zamboanga Republic

 Moro Rebellion

 Insular Government

 Jones Law
  Tydings–McDuffie Act

 Commonwealth

 Japanese occupation

 Fall of Bataan and Corregidor

 Second Republic

 Battle of Leyte Gulf

 Liberation of the Philippines

Post-colonial period (1946–1986)[hide]

 Treaty of Manila

 Third Republic

 Hukbalahap Rebellion

 Filipino First policy

 New Society & Fourth Republic

 CPP–NPA–NDF rebellion

 Moro Conflict

 People Power Revolution

Contemporary history (1986–present)[hide]

 Mount Pinatubo eruption

 1997 Asian financial crisis

 2000 All-out war against MILF

 2001 EDSA Revolution

  EDSA III

 Oakwood mutiny

 Typhoon Yolanda

 Philippine Drug War

By topic[hide]
 Ancient religions
 Rulers
 List of Queen consorts
 Military
 Political
 Communications
 Transportation
 Filipino Americans

Timeline

Archaeology

Philippines portal

 v
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 e

Part of a series on the

Culture of the Philippines

History[show]
 People

Languages

Traditions

Mythology and folklore[show]

Cuisine

Festivals

Religion

Art

Literature

Music and performing arts[show]

Media[show]

Sport[show]

Monuments[show]

Symbols[show]

 Philippines portal

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 t
 e

The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans [1][2]
[3]
using rafts or boats at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao Man suggested.
[4]
Negrito groups were the first inhabitants to settle in prehistoric Philippines. After that, groups
of Austronesians later migrated to the islands.
Scholars generally believe that these social groups eventually developed into various settlements or
polities with varying degrees of economic specialization, social stratification, and political
organization.[5] Some of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such
a scale of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be considered early states.[6] This
includes the predecessors of modern-day population centers such
as Maynila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, Lanao, and Sulu[2] as well
as some polities, such as Ma-i, whose possible location are still the subject of debate among
scholars.[7]
These polities were either influenced by the Hindu-
Buddhist[8] Indian religion, language, culture, literature and philosophy from India through many
campaigns from India including the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I,[9] Islam
from Arabia or were Sinifiedtributary states allied to China. These small maritime states flourished
from the 1st millennium.[10][11] These kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan,
Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia.[12] The remainder of the settlements were
independent barangays allied with one of the larger states. These small states alternated from
between being part of or being influenced by larger Asian empires like the Ming
Dynasty, Majapahitand Brunei or rebelling and waging war against them.
The first recorded visit by Europeans is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan. He sighted Samar
Island on March 16, 1521 and landed the next day on Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan,
Eastern Samar.[13] Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi's
expedition on February 13, 1565 from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement
in Cebu.[14] Much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political
structure known as the Philippines. Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity,
the code of law and the oldest modern university in Asia. The Philippines was ruled under the
Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain. After which, the colony was directly governed by Spain.
Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American War. The Philippines then
became a territory of the United States. U.S forces suppressed a Philippine Revolution led by Emilio
Aguinaldo. The United States established the Insular Governmentto rule the Philippines. In 1907, the
elected Philippine Assembly was set up with popular elections. The U.S. promised independence in
the Jones Act.[15] The Philippine Commonwealth was established in 1935, as a 10-year interim step
prior to full independence. However, in 1942 during World War II, Japan occupied the Philippines.
The U.S. military overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The Treaty of Manila in 1946 established an
independent Philippine Republic.

Contents

 1Timeline

 2Prehistory

o 2.1The Jade culture

o 2.2The Sa Huỳnh culture

o 2.3Timeline of Iron Age

 3Pre-colonial period (900 AD to 1565)

o 3.1Initial recorded history

 o 3.2The Polity of Tondo

o 3.3Caboloan (Pangasinan)

o 3.4The Nation of Ma-i

o 3.5The Kedatuan of Dapitan

o 3.6The Kedatuan of Madja-as

o 3.7The Rajahnate of Cebu

o 3.8The Rajahnate of Butuan

o 3.9Struggle against Majapahit

o 3.10The Sultanate of Sulu

o 3.11The Sultanate of Maguindanao

o 3.12The Sultanate of Lanao

o 3.13The Bruneian Empire and the expansion of Islam

 4Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898)

o 4.1Early Spanish expeditions and conquests

o 4.2Spanish settlement during the 16th and 17th centuries

o 4.3Spanish rule during the 18th century

 4.3.1British invasion (1762–1764)

 4.3.2Spanish rule in the second part of the 18th century

o 4.4Spanish rule during the 19th century

o 4.5Philippine Revolution

 5American rule (1898–1946)

o 5.1Philippine–American War

o 5.2The Tagalog, Negros and Zamboanga Cantonal Republics

o 5.3Insular Government (1901–1935)

o 5.4Commonwealth
 o 5.5World War II and Japanese occupation

 5.5.1Military

 5.5.2Home front

 6Postcolonial Philippines and the Third Republic (1946–1965)

o 6.1Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948)

o 6.2Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953)

o 6.3Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957)

o 6.4Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961)

o 6.5Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965)

 6.5.1Land Reform Code

 6.5.2Maphilindo

 7Marcos era

o 7.1Martial law

o 7.2Fourth Republic

 8Fifth Republic (1986–present)

o 8.1Administration of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino (1986–1992)

o 8.2Administration of Fidel Valdez Ramos (1992–1998)

o 8.3Administration of Joseph Ejercito Estrada (1998–2001)

o 8.4Administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001–2010)

o 8.5Administration of Benigno Simeon Aquino III (2010–2016)

o 8.6Administration of Rodrigo Roa Duterte (2016–present)

 9See also

 10Notes

 11References

 12Further reading
  13External links

Timeline[edit]
Main article: Timeline of Philippine history

Prehistory[edit]
Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines
Docking station and entrance to the Tabon Cave Complex Site in Palawan, where one of the oldest human
remains was located.

Discovery in 2018 of stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains in Rizal, Kalinga has
pushed back evidence of early hominins in the country to as early as 709,000 years. [16] Still, the
earliest archeological evidence for man in the archipelago is the 67,000-year-old Callao
Man of Cagayan and the Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal, both of whom appear to suggest the
presence of human settlement prior to the arrival of the Negritos and Austronesian speaking people.
[17][18][19][20][21]
Continued excavations in Callao Cave revealed 12 bones from three hominin individuals
identified as a new species named Homo luzonensis.[22]
There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos. F. Landa
Jocanotheorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally.[citation needed] Wilhelm Solheim's Island
Origin Theory[23] postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks
originating in the Sundaland area around 48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide-scale migration.
The Austronesian Expansion Theory states that Malayo-Polynesians coming from Taiwan began
migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC, displacing earlier arrivals. [24][25]
The Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated.
[26]
They were followed by speakers of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, a branch of
the Austronesian language family, who began to arrive in successive waves beginning about 4000
BC, displacing the earlier arrivals.[27][28] Before the expansion out of Taiwan, archaeological, linguistic
and genetic evidence had linked Austronesian speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to cultures such
as the Hemudu, its successor the Liangzhu[29][30] and Dapenkeng in Neolithic China.[31][32][33][34][35] During
this neolithic period, a "jade culture" is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of
exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC. [36][37] The jade is said to
have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland
Southeast Asia. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between
prehistoric Southeast Asian societies.[38]

The Ifugao/Igorot people utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over
2000 years ago.

By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of
peoples: tribal groups, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended
on hunter-gathering and were concentrated in forests; warrior societies, such as
the Isneg and Kalinga who practiced social ranking and ritualized warfare and roamed the plains; the
petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon;
and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while
participating in trans-island maritime trade.[39] It was also during the first millennium BC that early
metallurgy was said to have reached the archipelagos of maritime Southeast Asia via trade with
India[40][41]
Around 300–700 AD, the seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in balangays began to trade with
the Indianized kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago and the nearby East Asian principalities, adopting
influences from both Buddhism and Hinduism.[42][43]
The Jade culture[edit]

Metal lingling-o earrings from Luzon.

Existence of a "Jade culture" in the Philippines is evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely

crafted jade artifacts found at a site in Batangas province.[36][37]
Jade artifacts are made from white and green nephrite and dating as far back as 2000–1500 BC,
have been discovered at a number of archeological excavations in the Philippines since the 1930s.
The artifacts have been both tools like adzes[44] and chisels, and ornaments such as lingling-o
earrings, bracelets and beads.
Nephrite, otherwise known as Jade, is a mineral widely used throughout Asia as ornaments or for
decorative purposes. The oldest jade artefacts in Asia (6000 BC) were found in China where they
were used as the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpturing. In 3000 BC, jade production in the
Hongsan and Liangzhu cultures of China reached its peak. During this period, the knowledge of jade
craftsmanship spread across the sea to Taiwan and eventually to the Philippines. The artefacts
discovered in several sites in the Philippines were made from nephrite. Nephrite excavated in the
Philippines were of two types: white nephrite and green nephrite. [45]
The Sa Huỳnh culture[edit]
The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed. The dispute is about the
existence of a Sa Huỳnh presence in the Philippines aside from the presence of
their trade products. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably
sourced. See the relevant discussion on the talk page. (October 2017) (Learn how and
when to remove this template message)
 Asia in 200 BC, showing Sa Huỳnh cultures in Southeast Asia.
The Sa Huỳnh culture centred on present-day Vietnam, showed evidence of an extensive trade
network. Sa Huỳnh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet;
most of these materials were not local to the region, and were most likely imported. Han dynasty-
style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huỳnh sites.
Conversely, Sa Huỳnh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central
Thailand, Taiwan (Orchid Island), and in the Philippines, in the Palawan, Tabon Caves. One of the
great examples is the Kalanay Cave in Masbate; the artefacts on the site in one of the "Sa Huỳnh-
Kalanay" pottery complex sites were dated 400BC–1500 AD. The Maitum anthropomorphic
pottery in the Sarangani Province of southern Mindanao is c. 200 AD.[46][47]
Timeline of Iron Age[edit]

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
Pre-colonial period (900 AD to 1565)[edit]
Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1521)

Idjang

Maynila

Kedatuan of Madja-as

Rajahnate of Butuan

Sultanate of Sulu

Ma-i

Kedatuan of Dapitan

Sultanate of Maguindanao

Rajahnate of Cebu
 Namayan

Tondo

Sultanate of Lanao

Igorot Plutocracy

Cainta

Caboloan

Ibalon

Samtoy

Chiefdom of Taytay
Locations of pre-colonial principalities, polities, kingdoms and
sultanates in the Philippine archipelago

Initial recorded history[edit]

During the period of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north
Indian Gupta Empire, Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia and
the Philippines which led to the establishment of Indianized
kingdoms.[48][49] The end of Philippine prehistory is 900,[50] the date
inscribed in the oldest Philippine document found so far, the Laguna
Copperplate Inscription. From the details of the document, written
in Kawi script, the bearer of a debt, Namwaran, along with his
children Lady Angkatan and Bukah, are cleared of a debt by the
ruler of Tondo. From the various Sanskrit terms and titles seen in
the document, the culture and society of Manila Bay was that of
a Hindu–Old Malayamalgamation, similar to the cultures
of Java, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra at the time.
There are no other significant documents from this period of pre-
Hispanic Philippine society and culture until the Doctrina
Christiana of the late 16th century, written at the start of the Spanish
period in both native Baybayin script and Spanish. Other artifacts
with Kawi script and baybayin were found, such as an Ivory seal
from Butuan dated to the early 11th century[51] and the Calatagan pot
with baybayin inscription, dated to the 13th century.[52]
 Tagalog royal couple belonging to the Maginooclass

In the years leading up to 1000, there were already several

maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying
political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago.
Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-
autonomous barangays (settlements ranging in size from villages to
city-states) under the sovereignty of
competing thalassocracies ruled by datus,
wangs, rajahs, sultans or lakans.[53] or by upland agricultural
societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". States such as the Kingdom of
Maynila, the Kingdom of Taytay in Palawan (mentioned by Antonio
Pigafetta to be where they resupplied when the remaining ships
escaped Cebu after Magellan was slain), the Chieftaincy of Coron
Island ruled by fierce warriors called Tagbanua as reported by
Spanish missionaries mentioned by Nilo S. Ocampo,[54]Namayan,
the Kingdom of Tondo, the Sinitic wangdom of Pangasinan, the
nation of Ma-i, the Kedatuans of Madja-as and Dapitan, the
Indianized rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates
of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu existed alongside the highland
societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan.[55][56][57][58] Some of these regions
were part of the Malayan empires of Srivijaya, Majapahitand Brunei.
[59][60][61]

The Polity of Tondo[edit]

Main article: Tondo (historical polity)
Since at least the year 900, this thalassocracy centered in Manila
Bay flourished via an active trade with Chinese, Japanese, Malays,
and various other peoples in Asia. Tondo thrived as the capital and
the seat of power of this ancient kingdom, which was led by kings
under the title "Lakan" which belongs to the caste of the Maharlika,
who were the feudal warrior class in ancient Tagalog society. They
ruled a large part of what is now known
as Luzon from Ilocos to Bicol from possibly before 900 AD to 1571,
becoming the largest pre-colonial state. The Spaniards called
them Hidalgos.[62][63]
The people of Tondo had developed a culture which is
predominantly Hindu and Buddhist, they were also good
agriculturists, and lived through farming and aquaculture. During its
existence, it grew to become one of the most prominent and
wealthy kingdom states in pre-colonial Philippines due to heavy
trade and connections with several neighboring nations such as
China and Japan.

The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, c. 900 CE. The oldest known

historical record found in the Philippines, which indirectly refers to the
polity of Tondo

Due to its very good relations with Japan, the Japanese called
Tondo as Luzon, even a famous Japanese merchant, Luzon
Sukezaemon, went as far as to change his surname from Naya to
Luzon. In 900 AD, the lord-minister Jayadewa presented a
document of debt forgiveness to Lady Angkatan and her brother
Bukah, the children of Namwaran. This is described in the
Philippines' oldest known document, the Laguna Copperplate
Inscription.[64]
Caboloan (Pangasinan)[edit]
Main article: Caboloan
Pangasinan or Feng-chia-hsi-lan in Chinese records, was a
sovereign Prehispanic Philippine state, notable for having traded
with the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Japan and was a tributary state
to Ming Dynasty. The Chinese records of this kingdom began when
the first tributary King (Wang in Chinese), Kamayin, sent an envoy
offering gifts to the Chinese Emperor.[65] The state occupies the
current province of Pangasinan. It was locally known the Luyag na
Kaboloan (also spelled Caboloan), with Binalatongan as its capital,
existed in the fertile Agno River valley. It flourished around the same
period, the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires arose in Indonesia
which had extended their influence to much of the Malay
Archipelago. The Luyag na Kaboloan expanded the territory and
influence of Pangasinan to what are now the neighboring provinces
of Zambales, La Union, Tarlac, Benguet, Nueva Ecija, and Nueva
Vizcaya. Pangasinan enjoyed full independence until the Spanish
conquest.
In the sixteenth century Pangasinan was called the "Port of Japan"
by the Spanish. The locals wore native apparel typical of other
maritime Southeast Asian ethnic groups in addition to Japanese and
Chinese silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and
Japanese cotton garments. They also blackened their teeth and
were disgusted by the white teeth of foreigners, which were likened
to that of animals. Also, used porcelain jars typical of Japanese and
Chinese households. Japanese-style gunpowder weapons were
also encountered in naval battles in the area.[1] In exchange for
these goods, traders from all over Asia would come to trade
primarily for gold and slaves, but also for deerskins, civet and other
local products. Other than a notably more extensive trade network
with Japan and China, they were culturally similar to other Luzon
groups to the south.
According to historian Paul Kekai Manansala, the famed Ming
admiral, Zheng He, attacked Luzon and destroyed Manila but an
alliance of local kingdoms then repulsed his army and the conquest
was forced back and limited to Pangasinan.[66] In northern
Luzon, Caboloan(Pangasinan) (c. 1406–1576) sent emissaries to
China in 1406–1411 as a tributary-state,[67] and it also traded with
Japan.[68] People from Pangasinan were humble despite their
immense power since when the Mongol Empire arose, according to
Moroccan explorer, Ibn Battuta[69] a Warrior-Princess from
Pangasinan (Cabaloan) named Urduja lead a nation and coalition
that became a rival to the entire Mongol Empire. A priceless 3000
year old Platinum Ding (Exclusive Symbol of Imperial Power) has
been recently unearthed in Luzon near Pangasinan. [70] This may be
proof that the legend of Warrior Princess Urduja had legitimate
precedence since it possessed a Dingwith Imperial significance and
rarity that it wielded immense moral and political power to rival even
the legitimacy of Mongol Khans. However Caboloan showed their
solidarity with the Anti-Mongol Ming Dynasty when they became
Ming tributaries.[71]
The Nation of Ma-i[edit]
Main article: Ma-i

Piloncitos, a type of gold nuggetwith Baybayin Ma characters which

could be a symbol for the nation of Ma-i. Used as one of the early
currencies along with gold rings

Around 1225, the nation of Ma-i, a Buddhist pre-Hispanic Philippine

island-state centered in Mindoro,[72] flourished as an entrepôt,
attracting traders and shipping from the Kingdom of Ryukyu to the
Empire of Japan.[73] Chao Jukua, a customs inspector
in Fukien province, China wrote the Zhufan Zhi ("Description of the
Barbarous Peoples"[74]), which described trade with this pre-colonial
state. Its people were noted for their honesty and trustworthiness in
trade.[75]
The Kedatuan of Dapitan[edit]
Main article: Kedatuan of Dapitan
Around the 11th century, a group of people from Northern Mindanao
settled in the strait between mainland Bohol and the island of
Panglao. Those people came from a nation in northern Mindanao
called Lutao (probably the animist kingdom of what will soon be the
Islamic Lanao). Those people established the Kedatuan of Dapitan
in western Bohol because the true indigenous people of Bohol in
the Anda peninsula and nearby areas were not open to them,
forcing them to establish settlement in the western part of the
island. The kedatuan was first built with hardwood on the soft
seabed. It engaged it trade with nearby areas and some Chinese
merchants. The Jesuit Alcina tells tales about a rich nation he called
the 'Venice of the Visayas', pointing to the Kedatuan of Dapitan at
that time. The Jesuit also tells of a Dapitan princess named
Bugbung Hamusanum, whose beauty caused her suitor, Datu
Sumangga of Leyte, to raid parts of southern China to win her hand.
Their dynasty founded the Kedatuan of Dapitan.[76]
The Kedatuan of Madja-as[edit]
Main article: Madja-as

Images from the Boxer Codex illustrating an

ancient kadatuan or tumao (noble class) Visayan couple.

A royal couple of the Visayans.

 A Visayan princess.

During the 11th century several exiled datus of the collapsing

empire of Srivijaya[77] led by Datu Puti led a mass migration to the
central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah Makatunao of
the island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island of Panay and
purchasing the island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they
established a confederation of polities and named it the Kedatuan of
Madja-as centered in Aklan and they settled the surrounding islands
of the Visayas. Madja-as was founded on Panay island (named
after the destroyed state of Pannai as well as populated by Pannai's
descendants, Pannai was a constituent state of Srivijaya which was
located in Sumatra and was home to a Hindu-Buddhist Monastic-
Army that successfully defended the Strait of Malacca,[78] the world's
busiest maritime choke-point,[79]which was a significant challenge to
defend due to it being surrounded by the three most populous
nations of the world back then, China, India and Indonesia. The
people of Pannai policed the Strait against all odds for 727 years.)
Upon their rebellion against an invading Chola Empire, the people
of Madja-as, being loyalist warriors, conducted resistance
movements against the Hindu and Islamic invaders that arrived
from the west from their new home base in the Visayas islands.
[80]
This confederation reached its peak under Datu Padojinog.
During his reign the confederations' hegemony extended over most
of the islands of Visayas. Its people consistently made piratical
attacks against Chinese imperial shipping.[81]
The Rajahnate of Cebu[edit]
Main article: Rajahnate of Cebu
The Rajahnate of Cebu was a pre-colonial state. It was founded by
Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince
of the Hindu Chola dynasty which happened to occupy Sumatra-
Indonesia. He was sent by the maharajah to establish a base for
expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms but he rebelled
and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. This
rajahnate warred against the 'magalos' (Slave traders)
of Maguindanao and had an alliance with the Rajahnate of
Butuan and Indianized Kutai in South Borneo, before it was
weakened by the insurrection of Datu Lapu-Lapu.[82]
The Rajahnate of Butuan[edit]
 Main article: Rajahnate of Butuan

Rajahnate of Butuan

The Butuan Ivory Seal, displayed at the National Museum of the Philippines. The Kawi script lettering says
"But-wan" and the smaller lettering (similar to Baybayin) says "Bu-wa" (diacritics for the "Wan/Ban" in Kawi
and "Bu/Ba" in the smaller letters have worn off).

The Butuan Silver Paleograph excavated from the 1970s in Butuan inside of a wooden coffin. (c. 14th–15th
century).

In the year 1011, Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of

the Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan, a maritime-state famous for its
goldwork[83] sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan-shieh to the
Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with
other states.[84] The request being approved, it opened up direct
commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Chinese
Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade
previously enjoyed by their rivals, Tondo and
the Champa civilization.[85] Evidence of the existence of this
rajahnate is given by the Butuan Silver Paleograph.[86] Butuan was
so wealthy, the quantity of gold recently unearthed in Butuan
surpassed that of the even more famous Srivijaya state even when
most of the gold of the Butuan kingdom were already plundered by
various invaders before modern times.[87]
Struggle against Majapahit[edit]
During the 1300s, the Javanese-centered Hindu empire
of Majapahit briefly ruled over Luzon island and the Sulu
archipelago as recorded in the epic poem Nagarakretagama, which
stated that they had colonies in the Philippines at Saludong (Manila)
and Solot (Sulu). It even incorporated the Butuan and Cebu
Rajahanates' Bornean ally, Kutai. But they failed to take hold of
the Visayasislands, which was populated by Srivijayan loyalists who
were waging incessant guerrilla warfare against them. Eventually,
the kingdoms of Luzon regained independence from Majapahit after
the Battle of Manila (1365) and Sulu also reestablished
independence, and in vengeance, assaulted the Majapahit province
of Poni (Brunei) before a fleet from the capital drove them out.
 The subsequent start of the Islamic era ushered the slow death
[88]

of Majapahit as its provinces eventually seceded and became

independent sultanates. With the upsurge of Islam, the remnants of
Hindu Majapahit eventually fled to the island of Bali.[89]
The Sultanate of Sulu[edit]
Main article: Sultanate of Sulu

The official flag of the Royal Sultanate of Sulu under the guidance of
Ampun Sultan Muedzul Lail Tan Kiram of Sulu.

In 1380, Karim ul' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr,
an Arab trader born in Johore, arrived in Sulu from Malacca and
established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting its previous ruler,
the Hindu king, Rajah Baguinda, to Islam and then marrying his
daughter. This sultanate eventually gained great wealth due to its
diving for fine pearls.[90]
The Sultanate of Maguindanao[edit]
Main article: Sultanate of Maguindanao

The bust of Sultan Muhammad Kudarat of Maguindanao at Rizal Park.

The Sultanate of Maguindanao rose to prominence at the end of the

15th century, Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johorintroduced
Islam in the island of Mindanao and he subsequently married
Paramisuli, an Iranun princess from Mindanao, and established the
Sultanate of Maguindanao.[91]
It ruled most parts of Mindanao and continued to exist prior to the
Spanish colonization until the 19th century. The Sultanate also
traded and maintained good relations with the Chinese, Dutch, and
the British.[92][93]
The Sultanate of Lanao[edit]
Main article: Confederation of sultanates in Lanao
The Sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, Philippines were founded in
the 16th century through the influence of Shariff Kabungsuan, who
was enthroned as first Sultan of Maguindanao in 1520. Islam was
introduced to the area by Muslim missionaries and traders from the
Middle East, Indian and Malay regions who propagated Islam to
Sulu and Maguindanao. Unlike in Sulu and Maguindanao, the
Sultanate system in Lanao was uniquely decentralized. The area
was divided into Four Principalities of Lanao or the Pat a
Pangampong a Ranao which are composed of a number of royal
houses (Sapolo ago Nem a Panoroganan or The Sixteen (16) Royal
Houses) with specific territorial jurisdictions within mainland
Mindanao. This decentralized structure of royal power in Lanao was
adopted by the founders, and maintained up to the present day, in
recognition of the shared power and prestige of the ruling clans in
the area, emphasizing the values of unity of the nation (kaiisaisa o
bangsa), patronage (kaseselai) and fraternity (kapapagaria). By the
16th century, Islam had spread to other parts of the Visayas and
Luzon.
The Bruneian Empire and the expansion of Islam [edit]
Main article: Bruneian Empire
Upon the secession of Poni (Brunei) from the Majapahit Empire,
they imported the Arab Emir from Mecca, Sharif Ali, and became an
independent Sultanate. During the reign of his descendant,
Sultan Bolkiah, in 1485 to 1521, the recently Islamized Bruneian
Empiredecided to break the Dynasty of Tondo's monopoly in the
China trade by attacking Tondo and defeating Rajah Gambang and
then establishing the State of Selurong (Kingdom of Maynila) as a
Bruneian satellite-state and placing his descendants on the throne
of Maynila.[3][94] A new dynasty under the Islamized Rajah
Salalila[95] was also established to challenge the House of Lakandula
in Tondo.[96] In addition to establishing the satellite state of Manila,
Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana, the daughter of Sulu
Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra to expand Brunei's influence in both Luzon
and Mindanao. Furthermore, Islam was further strengthened by the
arrival to the Philippines of traders and proselytizers from Malaysia
and Indonesia.[97]
Concurrent with the spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago,
was the rise of the Lucoes who were the people of Luzon. They
rose to prominence by establishing overseas communities all
across Southeast Asia and participating in trading ventures,
navigation expeditions and military campaigns
in Burma, Malacca and East Timor[98][99][100] where they were employed
as traders and mercenaries.[101][102][103]One prominent Luções
was Regimo de Raja, who was a spice magnate and
a Temenggung (Jawi: ‫[)تمڠݢوڠ‬104] (Governor and Chief General) in
Portuguese Malacca. He was also the head of an international
armada which traded and protected commerce between the Indian
Ocean, the Strait of Malacca, the South China Sea,[105] and
the medieval maritime principalities of the Philippines.[106][107]
Around 1563 AD, at the closing stages of the precolonial era, the
Kedatuan of Dapitan in Bohol achieved prominence and it was
known to a later Spanish missionary, Alcina, as the "Venice of the
Visayas", because it was a wealthy, wooden and floating city-state
in the Visayas. However, this kedatuan was eventually attacked and
destroyed by soldiers from the Sultanate of Ternate, a state made
up of Muslim Papuan people. The survivors of the destruction, led
by their datu, Pagbuaya, migrated to northern Mindanao and
established a new Dapitan there. They then waged war against the
Sultanate of Lanao and settled in the lands conquered from them.
Eventually, in vengeance against the Muslims and Portuguese allied
to the Ternateans, they aided the Spanish in the conquest of Muslim
Manila and in the Spanish expeditions to capture Portuguese
Ternate. There was also a simmering territorial conflict between the
Polity of Tondo and the Bruneian vassal-state, the Islamic
Rajahnate of Maynila, to which the ruler of Maynila, Rajah Matanda,
sought military assistance against Tondo from his relatives at the
Sultanate of Brunei.[108] The Hindu Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu
also endured slave raids from, and waged wars against the
Sultanate of Maguindanao.[109] Simultaneous with these slave-raids,
was the rebellion of Datu Lapu-Lapu of Mactan against Rajah
Humabon of Cebu.[110] The sparse population and the multiple states
competing over the limited territory and people of the islands
simplified Spanish colonization by allowing its conquistadors to
effectively employ a strategy of divide and conquerfor rapid
conquest.

Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898)

[edit]
Main article: History of the Philippines (1521–1898)
Early Spanish expeditions and conquests[edit]
Main article: Spanish-Moro Conflict

Ferdinand Magellanarrived in the Philippines in 1521.

Parts of the Philippine Islands were known to Europeans before the
1521 Spanish expedition around the world led by Portuguese-born
Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan (the Portuguese
conquered Malacca City in 1511 and reached Maluku Islands in
1512 ). Magellan landed on the island called Homonhon, claiming
the islands he saw for Spain, and naming them Islas de San
Lázaro.[111] He established friendly relations with some of the local
leaders especially with Rajah Humabon and converted some of
them to Roman Catholicism.[111] In the Philippines, they explored
many islands including the island of Mactan. However, Magellan
was killed during the Battle of Mactan against the local datu, Lapu-
Lapu.

Old Spanish Chart of the Philippine Islands

Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were

dispatched to the islands. In 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos led an
expedition to the islands and Leyte and Samar Las Islas Filipinas in
honor of Philip of Austria, the Prince of Asturias at the time.[112] Philip
became Philip II of Spain on January 16, 1556, when his father,
Charles I of Spain (who also reigned as Charles V, Holy Roman
Emperor), abdicated the Spanish throne. The name was then
extended to the entire archipelago later on in the Spanish era.
A late 17th-century manuscript by Gaspar de San Agustin from the Archive
of the Indies, depicting López de Legazpi's conquest of the Philippines

European colonization began in earnest when Spanish

explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and
formed the first European settlements in Cebu. Beginning with just
five ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian
monks, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers,
he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for
the colonization of the Archipelago. In 1571, the Spanish, their
Latin-American recruits and their Filipino (Visayan) allies,
commanded by able conquistadors such as Mexico-born Juan de
Salcedo(who was in love with Tondo's princess, Kandarapa)
attacked the Maynila, a vassal-state of the Brunei Sultanate and
liberated plus incorporated the kingdom of Tondo as well as
establishing Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies.[113][114]

Monument in Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu in the Philippines.

Legazpi built a fort in Maynila and made overtures of friendship

to Lakan Dula, Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. However, Maynila's
former ruler, the Muslim rajah, Rajah Sulayman, who was a vassal
to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi, but failed to
get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and
Pangasinan settlements to the north. When Tarik Sulayman and a
force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the
Spaniards in the battle of Bangkusay, he was finally defeated and
killed.
In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between the Christian Spaniards
and Muslim Bruneians over control of the Philippine archipelago. On
one side, the newly Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of
the Kedatuan of Madja-as and Rajahnate of Cebu, plus
the Rajahnate of Butuan (which were from northern Mindanao), as
well as the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan had previously
waged war against the Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of
Maguindanao and Kingdom of Maynila, then joined the Spanish in
the war against the Bruneian Empire and its allies, the Bruneian
puppet-state of Maynila, Sulu which had dynastic links with Brunei
as well as Maguindanao which was an ally of Sulu. The Spanish
and its Visayan allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, Kota
Batu. This was achieved as a result in part of the assistance
rendered to them by two noblemen, Pengiran Seri Lela and
Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer
Brunei as a tributary of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped
by his brother, Saiful Rijal.[115] The Spanish agreed that if they
succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed
become the Sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the
new Bendahara. In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by De Sande
himself, acting as Capitán General, started their journey towards
Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans,
1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans.[116] The campaign was one
of many, which also included action in Mindanao and Sulu.[117][118]

Miguel López de Legazpi

The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on April 16, 1578,

with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan
Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were
forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong. In Jerudong, they
made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The
Spanish suffered heavy losses due to
a cholera or dysentery outbreak.[119][120] They were so weakened by
the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila
on June 26, 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned
the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof. [121]
Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from
the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there
was suspicion he could have been poisoned by the ruling Sultan.
Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish
and went on to marry a Christian Tagalog, named Agustín de
Legazpi of Tondo and had children in the Philippines. [122]
In 1587, Magat Salamat, one of the children of Lakan Dula, along
with Lakan Dula's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of
Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were
executed when the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588 failed[123] in
which a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain,
Gayo, and Brunei's Sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy.
Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the
execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo).
[124]
Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or
Guerrero, Mexico.
Spanish power was further consolidated after Miguel López de
Legazpi's complete assimilation of Madja-as, his subjugation
of Rajah Tupas, the Rajah of Cebu and Juan de Salcedo's conquest
of the provinces of Zambales, La Union, Ilocos, the coast of
Cagayan, and the ransacking of the Chinese warlord Limahong's
pirate kingdom in Pangasinan.
The Spanish also invaded Northern Taiwan and Ternate in
Indonesia, using Filipino warriors, before they were driven out by
the Dutch.[125]
The Spanish and the Moros of the sultanates of Maguindanao,
Lanao and Sulu also waged many wars over hundreds of years in
the Spanish-Moro conflict, not until the 19th century did Spain
succeed in defeating the Sulu Sultanate and taking Mindanao under
nominal suzerainty.
The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast
Asia an extension of the Reconquista, a centuries-long campaign to
retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded
by the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Spanish expeditions
into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world
conflict[126] that included a war against the Ottoman Caliphate which
had just invaded former Christian lands in the Eastern
Mediterranean and which had a center of operations in Southeast
Asia at its nearby vassal, the Sultanate of Aceh.[127]
Spanish settlement during the 16th and 17th
centuries[edit]

The sketch of the Plaza de RomaManila by Fernando Brambila, a

member of the Malaspina Expedition during their stop in Manila in
1792.
 Bahay na bato, a typical Filipino urban house during the colonial era

The "Memoria de las Encomiendas en las Islas" of 1591, just twenty

years after the conquest of Luzon, reveals a remarkable progress in
the work of colonization and the spread of Christianity.[128] A
cathedral was built in the city of Manila with an episcopal palace,
Augustinian, Dominican and Franciscan monasteries and a Jesuit
house. The king maintained a hospital for the Spanish settlers and
there was another hospital for the natives run by the Franciscans. In
order to defend the settlements the Spaniards established in the
Philippines, a network of military fortresses called "Presidios" were
constructed and officered by the Spaniards, and sentried by Latin-
Americans and Filipinos, across the archipelago, to protect it from
foreign nations such as the Portuguese, British and Dutch as well
as raiding Muslims and Wokou.[129] The Manila garrison was
composed of roughly four hundred Spanish soldiers and the area
of Intramuros as well as its surroundings, were initially settled by
1200 Spanish families.[130] In Cebu City, at the Visayas, the
settlement received a total of 2,100 soldier-settlers from New Spain.
[131]
At the immediate south of Manila, Mexicans were present at
Ermita[132] and at Cavite[133][134][135] where they were stationed as
sentries. In addition, men conscripted from Peru, were also sent to
settle Zamboanga City in Mindanao, to wage war upon Muslim
pirates.[136] There were also communities of Spanish-Mestizos that
developed in Iloilo,[137] Negros[138] and Vigan.[139]Interactions between
native Filipinos and immigrant Spaniards, Latin-Americans and their
Spanish-Mestizo descendants eventually caused the formation of a
new language, Chavacano, a creole of Mexican Spanish.
Meanwhile, in the suburb of Tondo, there was a convent run by
Franciscan friars and another by the Dominicans that offered
Christian education to the Chinese converted to Christianity. The
same report reveals that in and around Manila were collected 9,410
tributes, indicating a population of about 30,640 who were under the
instruction of thirteen missionaries (ministers of doctrine), apart from
the monks in monasteries. In the former province of Pampanga the
population estimate was 74,700 and 28 missionaries. In
Pangasinan 2,400 people with eight missionaries. In Cagayan and
islands Babuyanes 96,000 people but no missionaries. In La
Laguna 48,400 people with 27 missionaries. In Bicol and Camarines
Catanduanes islands 86,640 people with fifteen missionaries.
Based on the tribute counts, the total founding population of
Spanish-Philippines was 667,612 people,[140] of which: 20,000 were
Chinese migrant traders,[141] 16,500 were Latino soldier-colonists
sent from Peru and Mexico,[142] 3,000 were Japanese residents,
[143]
and 600 were pure Spaniards from Europe,[144] there was also a
large but unknown number of Indian Filipinos, the rest were Malays
and Negritos. They were under the care of 140 missionaries, of
which 79 were Augustinians, nine Dominicans and 42 Franciscans.
[145]

Maria Clara gown

The fragmented and sparsely populated[146] nature of the islands

made it easy for Spanish colonization. The Spanish then brought
political unification to most of the Philippine archipelago via the
conquest of the various small maritime states although they were
unable to fully incorporate parts of the sultanates of Mindanao and
the areas where the ethnic groups and highland plutocracy of the
animist Ifugao of Northern Luzon were established. The Spanish
introduced elements of western civilization such as the code of law,
western printing and the Gregorian calendar alongside new food
resources such as maize, pineapple and chocolate from Latin
America.[147]

Plaza Santo Tomas in Intramuros, Manila; where the Santo Domingo

Church, Colegio de Santa Rosa and the original University of Santo
Tomaswere built during the Spanish era.

Education played a major role in the socio-economic transformation

of the archipelago. The oldest universities, colleges, and vocational
schools and the first modern public education system in Asia were
all created during the Spanish colonial period, and by the time
Spain was replaced by the United States as the colonial power,
Filipinos were among the most educated subjects in all of Asia.
[148]
The Jesuits founded the Colegio de Manila in 1590, which later
became the Universidad de San Ignacio, a royal and pontifical
university. They also founded the Colegio de San Ildefonso on
August 1, 1595. After the expulsion of the Society of Jesus in 1768,
the management of the Jesuit schools passed to other parties. On
April 28, 1611, through the initiative of Bishop Miguel de Benavides,
the University of Santo Tomas was founded in Manila. The Jesuits
also founded the Colegio de San José (1601) and took over the
Escuela Municipal, later to be called the Ateneo de Manila
University (1859). All institutions offered courses included not only
religious topics but also science subjects such as physics,
chemistry, natural history and mathematics. The University of Santo
Tomás, for example, started by teaching theology, philosophy and
humanities and during the 18th century, the Faculty of
Jurisprudence and Canonical Law, together with the schools of
medicine and pharmacy were opened.

Wife of José Rizal, wearing Maria Clara gown

Outside the tertiary institutions, the efforts of missionaries were in

no way limited to religious instruction but also geared towards
promoting social and economic advancement of the islands. They
cultivated into the natives their innate[citation needed] taste for music and
taught Spanish language to children.[149] They also introduced
advances in rice agriculture, brought from America maize and cocoa
and developed the farming of indigo, coffee and sugar cane. The
only commercial plant introduced by a government agency was the
plant of tobacco. Church and state were inseparably linked in
Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious
establishments.[150] One of Spain's objectives in colonizing the
Philippines was the conversion of the local population to Roman
Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the disunity
and insignificance of other organized religions, except for Islam,
which was still predominant in the southwest.[150] The pageantry of
the church had a wide appeal, reinforced by the incorporation of
indigenous social customs into religious observances. The eventual
outcome was a new Roman Catholic majority, from which the
Muslims of western Mindanao and the upland tribal and animistic
peoples of Luzon remained detached and alienated from (Ethnic
groups such as the Ifugaos of the Cordillera region and the
Mangyans of Mindoro).
At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional
village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of
indirect rule helped create an indigenous upper class, called
the principalía, who had local wealth, high status, and other
privileges. This perpetuated an oligarchic system of local control.
Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that
the indigenous idea of communal use and ownership of land was
replaced with the concept of private ownership and the conferring of
titles on members of the principalía.[150]
Around 1608 William Adams, an English navigator contacted the
interim governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco on
behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who wished to establish direct trade
contacts with New Spain. Friendly letters were exchanged, officially
starting relations between Japan and New Spain. From 1565 to
1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty
of New Spain from Mexico, via the Royal Audiencia of Manila, and
administered directly from Spain from 1821 after the Mexican
revolution,[151] until 1898.
The Manila galleons which linked Manila to Acapulco traveled once
or twice a year between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Spanish
military fought off various indigenous revolts and several external
colonial challenges, especially from the British, Chinese pirates,
Dutch, and Portuguese. Roman Catholic missionaries converted
most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity and founded schools,
universities, and hospitals. In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced
education, establishing public schooling in Spanish.[152]

Manila Cathedral

Coat of arms of Manila were at the corners of the Cross of Burgundyin

the Spanish-Filipino battle standard.
In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the Battles of La
Naval de Manila was fought between the forces of Spain and
the Dutch Republic, as part of the Eighty Years' War. Although the
Spanish forces consisted of just two Manila galleons and
a galley with crews composed mainly of Filipino volunteers, against
three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch
squadrons were severely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish-
Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans for an
invasion of the Philippines.
Spanish rule during the 18th century[edit]
Colonial income derived mainly from entrepôt trade: The Manila
Galleons sailing from the port of Manila to the port of Acapulco on
the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of silver bullion, and
minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Asian, and
Pacific products. A total of 110 Manila galleons set sail in the 250
years of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade (1565 to 1815). There
was no direct trade with Spain until 1766.[150]
The Philippines was never profitable as a colony during Spanish
rule, and the long war against the Dutch from the West, in the 17th
century together with the intermittent conflict with the Muslims in the
South and combating Japanese Wokou piracy from the North nearly
bankrupted the colonial treasury.[150] Furthermore, the state of near
constant war caused a high death and desertion rate among
the Mestizo, Mulatto and Indio (Native American) soldiers[153] sent
from Mexico and Peru that were stationed in the Philippines. [154] The
high death and desertion rate also applied to the native Filipino
warriors conscripted by Spain, to fight in battles all across the
archipelago. The repeated wars, lack of wages and near starvation
were so intense, almost half of the soldiers sent from Latin America
either died or fled to the countryside to live as vagabonds among
the rebellious natives or escaped enslaved Indians (From India)
[155]
where they race-mixed through rape or prostitution, further
blurring the racial caste system Spain tried hard to maintain.
[156]
These circumstances contributed to the increasing difficulty of
governing the Philippines. The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote a letter
to King Charles III of Spain in which he advises to abandon the
colony, but the religious orders opposed this since they considered
the Philippines a launching pad for the conversion of the Far East.
The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy paid by the Spanish
Crown and often procured from taxes and profits accrued by the
Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico), and the 200-year-old
fortifications at Manila had not been improved much since first built
by the early Spanish colonizers.[157] This was one of the
circumstances that made possible the brief British occupation of
Manila between 1762 and 1764.
British invasion (1762–1764)[edit]
Main article: British occupation of Manila
 Fort Santiago Postern of Our Lady of Solitude, Manila, through which
on 5 October 1762, Lieutenant Governor Simón de Anda y Salazar
escaped the British bombardment during the conquest of Manila.

Britain declared war against Spain on January 4, 1762 and on

September 24, 1762 a force of British Army regulars and British
East India Company soldiers, supported by the ships and men of
the East Indies Squadron of the British Royal Navy, sailed
into Manila Bay from Madras, India.[158] Manila was besieged and
fell to the British on October 4, 1762.
Outside of Manila, the Spanish leader Simón de Anda y
Salazar organized a militia of 10,000 of mostly from Pampanga to
resist British rule. Anda y Salazar established his headquarters first
in Bulacan, then in Bacolor.[159] After a number of skirmishes and
failed attempts to support uprisings, the British command admitted
to the War Secretary in London that the Spanish were "in full
possession of the country".[160]The occupation of Manila ended in
April 1764 as agreed to in the peace negotiations for the Seven
Years' War in Europe. The Spanish then persecuted
the Binondo Chinese community for its role in aiding the British.
[161]
An unknown number of Indian soldiers known as sepoys, who
came with the British, deserted and settled in nearby Cainta, Rizal,
which explains the uniquely Indian features of generations of Cainta
residents.[162]
Spanish rule in the second part of the 18th century[edit]
Colonial houses of the Philippines

The Cross of Burgundy served as the flag of the Viceroyalty of New

Spain(1535–1821)

In 1766 direct communication was established with Spain and trade

with Europe through a national ship based on Spain. Those
expeditions were administered since 1785 by the Real Compañía
Filipina, which was granted a monopoly of trade between Spain and
the islands that lasted until 1834, when the company was
terminated by the Spanish crown due to poor management and
financial losses.[citation needed]
In 1781, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established
the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country.[163] The
Philippines was administered from the Viceroyalty of New Spainuntil
the independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct rule
from Spain of the Philippines from that year.
Spanish rule during the 19th century[edit]
José Rizal

The Philippines was included in the vast territory of the Kingdom of

Spain, in the first constitution of Spain promulgated in Cadiz in
1812. It was never a colony as modern-day historical literature
would say, but an overseas region in Asia {Spanish Constitution
1812}. The Spanish Constitution of 1870 provides for the first
autonomous community for "Archipelago Filipino" where all
provinces in the Philippine Islands will be given the semi-
independent home rule program.
During the 19th century Spain invested heavily in education and
infrastructure. Through the Education Decree of December 20,
1863, Queen Isabella II of Spain decreed the establishment of a
free public school system that used Spanish as the language of
instruction, leading to increasing numbers of educated Filipinos.
[164]
Additionally, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cut travel
time to Spain, which facilitated the rise of the ilustrados, an
enlightened class of Spanish-Filipinos that had been able to enroll
in Spanish and European universities.

Holy Rosary Minor Seminary

A great number of infrastructure projects were undertaken during

the 19th century that put the Philippine economy and standard of
living ahead of most of its Asian neighbors and even many
European countries at that time. Among them were a railway
system for Luzon, a tramcar network for Manila, and Asia's first
steel suspension bridge Puente Claveria, later called Puente
Colgante.[165]
On August 1, 1851 the Banco Español-Filipino de Isabel II was
established to attend the needs of the rapid economic boom, that
had greatly increased its pace since the 1800s as a result of a new
economy based on a rational exploitation of the agricultural
resources of the islands. The increase in textile fiber crops such
as abacá, oil products derived from the coconut, indigo, that was
growing in demand, etc., generated an increase in money supply
that led to the creation of the bank. Banco Español-Filipino was also
granted the power to print a Philippine-specific currency
(the Philippine peso) for the first time (before 1851, many currencies
were used, mostly the pieces of eight).

Santa Lucia Gate, Intramuros, Manila

Spanish Manila was seen in the 19th century as a model of colonial

governance that effectively put the interests of the original
inhabitants of the islands before those of the colonial power.
As John Crawfurd put it in its History of the Indian Archipelago, in all
of Asia the "Philippines alone did improve in civilization, wealth, and
populousness under the colonial rule" of a foreign power. [166] John
Bowring, Governor General of British Hong Kong from 1856 to
1860, wrote after his trip to Manila:
"Credit is certainly due to Spain for having bettered the condition of
a people who, though comparatively highly civilized, yet being
continually distracted by petty wars, had sunk into a disordered and
uncultivated state.
The inhabitants of these beautiful Islands upon the whole, may well
be considered to have lived as comfortably during the last hundred
years, protected from all external enemies and governed by mild
laws vis-a-vis those from any other tropical country under native or
European sway, owing in some measure, to the frequently
discussed peculiar (Spanish) circumstances which protect the
interests of the natives."[167]
In The Inhabitants of the Philippines, Frederick Henry Sawyer
wrote:
 Escolta, Manila in 1899

"Until an inept bureaucracy was substituted for the old paternal rule,
and the revenue quadrupled by increased taxation, the Filipinos
were as happy a community as could be found in any colony. The
population greatly multiplied; they lived in competence, if not in
affluence; cultivation was extended, and the exports steadily
increased. [...] Let us be just; what British, French, or Dutch colony,
populated by natives can compare with the Philippines as they were
until 1895?."[168]
The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1878.
The colony's population as of December 31, 1877, was recorded at
5,567,685 persons.[169] This was followed by the 1887 census that
yielded a count of 6,984,727,[170] while that of 1898 yielded
7,832,719 inhabitants.[171]
Spanish-Philippines then reached its peak when the Philippine-
born Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero became Prime Minister of the
Spanish Kingdom.[173][174] However, ideas of rebellion and
independence began to spread through the islands. Many Latin-
Americans[175] and Criollos were mostly officers in the army of
Spanish Philippines. However, the onset of the Latin American wars
of independence led to serious doubts of their loyalty, so they were
soon replaced by Peninsular officers born in
Spain. Criollo and Latino dissatisfaction against
the Peninsulares resulted in the uprising of Andres Novales which
was supported by local soldiers as well as former officers in the
Spanish army of the Philippines who were from the now
independent nations of Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Chile,
Argentina and Costa Rica. The uprising was brutally suppressed but
it foreshadowed the 1872 Cavite Mutiny that was a precursor to the
Philippine Revolution.[176][177][178]
The estimated GDP per capita for the Philippines in 1900, the year
Spain left, was $1,033.00. That made it the second-richest place in
all of Asia, just a little behind Japan ($1,135.00), and far ahead of
China ($652.00) and India ($625.00).[179]
In 2006, the Civil Code of Spain provided that the acquisition of
nationalities of Ibero-American countries, Andorra, the Philippines,
Equatorial Guinea, Portugal and those of the Sephardic Jews
originally from Spain, does not bear the loss of their Spanish
nationalities of origin that paved the way for easier route of Spanish
Nationality reacquisition by the people of the Philippines. A similar
law in the Philippines was enacted later in 1963 that provides
"Natural born citizens of the Philippines who acquired the
citizenship of one of the Iberian countries, Ibero-American Countries
and United Kingdom will not lose their natural born citizen status." [This
quote needs a citation]

Philippine Revolution[edit]
Main article: Philippine Revolution

Andrés Bonifacio, father of the Philippine Revolution.

Revolutionary sentiments arose in 1872 after three Filipino

priests, Mariano Gómez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, known
as Gomburza, were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and
executed by garote. This would inspire the Propaganda
Movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José
Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, that clamored for
adequate representation to the Spanish Cortes and later for
independence. José Rizal, the most celebrated intellectual and
radical ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels "Noli Me Tángere", and
"El filibusterismo", which greatly inspired the movement for
independence.[180] The Katipunan, a secret society whose primary
purpose was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines,
was founded by Andrés Bonifacio who became its Supremo(leader).

An early flag of the Filipino revolutionaries.

The Philippine Revolution began in 1896. Rizal was wrongly

implicated in the outbreak of the revolution and executed
for treason in 1896. The Katipunan in Cavite split into two
groups, Magdiwang, led by Mariano Álvarez (a relative of
Bonifacio's by marriage), and Magdalo, led by Emilio Aguinaldo.
Leadership conflicts between Bonifacio and Aguinaldo culminated in
the execution or assassination of the former by the latter's soldiers.
Aguinaldo agreed to a truce with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and
Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were exiled to Hong Kong.
Not all the revolutionary generals complied with the agreement.
One, General Francisco Makabulos, established a Central
Executive Committee to serve as the interim government until a
more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time
coming from almost every province in Spanish-governed
Philippines.

Revolutionaries gather during the Malolos Congress of

the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines.

In 1898, as conflicts continued in the Philippines, the USS Maine,

having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the safety
of its citizens during an ongoing Cuban revolution, exploded and
sank in Havana harbor. This event precipitated the Spanish–
American War.[181]After Commodore George Dewey defeated the
Spanish squadron at Manila, a German squadron arrived in Manila
and engaged in maneuvers which Dewey, seeing this as obstruction
of his blockade, offered war—after which the Germans backed
down.[182] The German Emperor expected an American defeat, with
Spain left in a sufficiently weak position for the revolutionaries to
capture Manila—leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.[183]
The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope
he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government.
Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898, via transport provided by
Dewey. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of
the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite. Aguinaldo proclaimed
a Revolutionary Government of the Philippines on June 23. By the
time U.S. land forces arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the
entire island of Luzon except for Spanish capitol in the walled city
of Intramuros. In the Battle of Manila, on August 13, 1898, the
United States captured the city from the Spanish. This battle
marked an end of Filipino-American collaboration, as Filipino forces
were prevented from entering the captured city of Manila, an action
deeply resented by the Filipinos.[184] On January 23, 1899, the First
Philippine Republic was proclaimed under Asia's first democratic
constitution, with Aguinaldo as its President.[180]
Spain and the United States had sent commissioners to Paris to
draw up the terms of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish–
American War. The Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo, had
been excluded from sessions as Aguinaldo's government was not
recognized by the family of nations.[184] Although there was
substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided to annex
the Philippines. In addition to Guam and Puerto Rico, Spain was
forced in the negotiations to cede the Philippines to the U.S. in
exchange for US$20,000,000.00.[185] U.S. President McKinley
justified the annexation of the Philippines by saying that it was "a
gift from the gods" and that since "they were unfit for self-
government, ... there was nothing left for us to do but to take them
all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and
Christianize them",[186][187] in spite of the Philippines having been
already Christianized by the Spanish over the course of several
centuries. The First Philippine Republic resisted the U.S.
occupation, resulting in the Philippine–American War (1899–1913).

American rule (1898–1946)[edit]

Main article: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

1898 political cartoon showing U.S. President McKinley with a native

child. Here, returning the Philippines to Spain is compared to throwing
the child off a cliff.

Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that
of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain.
[188]
However, the United States later distanced itself from the
interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy
that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of
support for Philippine independence.[189] Relations deteriorated and
tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in
the islands to stay.[189]
Philippine–American War[edit]
Main article: Philippine–American War
Filipino casualties on the first day of war

Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American

privates killed three Filipino soldiers as American forces launched a
major attack. San Juan, a Manila suburb.[190] This began
the Philippine–American War, which would cost far more money
and take far more lives than the Spanish–American War.[180] Some
126,000 American soldiers would be committed to the conflict;
4,234 Americans died,[190] as did 12,000–20,000 Philippine
Republican Army soldiers who were part of a
nationwide guerrilla movement of at least 80,000 to 100,000
soldiers.[191]
The general population, caught between Americans and rebels,
suffered significantly. At least 200,000 Filipino civilians lost their
lives as an indirect result of the war mostly as a result of
the cholera epidemic at the war's end that took between 150,000
and 200,000 lives.[192] Atrocities were committed by both sides.[190]

American troops guarding the bridge over the River Pasig on the afternoon
of the surrender. From Harper's Pictorial History of the War with Spain, Vol.
II, published by Harper and Brothers in 1899.
 President Emilio Aguinaldoboarding the USS Vicksburg after his
capture by American forces.

The poorly equipped Filipino troops were easily overpowered by

American troops in open combat, but they were formidable
opponents in guerrilla warfare.[190]Malolos, the revolutionary capital,
was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government
escaped, however, establishing a new capital at San Isidro, Nueva
Ecija. On June 5, 1899, Antonio Luna, Aguinaldo's most capable
military commander, was killed by Aguinaldo's guards in an
apparent assassination while visiting Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija to
meet with Aguinaldo.[193]With his best commander dead and his
troops suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into
northern Luzon, Aguinaldo dissolved the regular army on November
13 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla
commands in each of several military zones.[194] Another key
general, Gregorio del Pilar, was killed on December 2, 1899 in
the Battle of Tirad Pass—a rear guard action to delay the Americans
while Aguinaldo made good his escape through the mountains.
Aguinaldo was captured at Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901 and
was brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance,
he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a proclamation
calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing
an end to the war.[190] However, sporadic insurgent resistance
continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the
Muslim south, until 1913.[195]

Flag of the United States, 1896–1908.

In 1900, President McKinley sent the Taft Commission, to the

Philippines, with a mandate to legislate laws and re-engineer the
political system.[196] On July 1, 1901, William Howard Taft, the head
of the commission, was inaugurated as Civil Governor, with limited
executive powers.[197]The authority of the Military Governor was
continued in those areas where the insurrection persisted. [198] The
Taft Commission passed laws to set up the fundamentals of the new
government, including a judicial system, civil service, and local
government. A Philippine Constabulary was organized to deal with
the remnants of the insurgent movement and gradually assume the
responsibilities of the United States Army.[199]
The Tagalog, Negros and Zamboanga Cantonal
Republics[edit]
The Negros Republic, formed in the Visayas under Aniceto
Lacson prior to the formation of the First Philippine Republic,
welcomed the advancing American army as a friendly force. Two
other insurgent republics were briefly formed during American
administration: theTagalog Republic in Luzon, under Macario
Sakay,[200] and the Republic of Zamboanga in Mindanao under
Mariano Arquiza.[201]
Insular Government (1901–1935)[edit]
Main article: Insular Government of the Philippine Islands

William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine

Assembly.

Manuel Luis Quezon, (center), with representatives from the Philippine

Independence Mission

The Philippine Organic Act was the basic law for the Insular
Government, so called because civil administration was under the
authority of the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs. This government saw
its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual
independence.[202] On July 4, 1902 the office of military governor was
abolished and full executive power passed from Adna Chaffee, the
last military governor, to Taft, who became the first U.S. Governor-
General of the Philippines.[203] United States policies towards the
Philippines shifted with changing administrations.[180] During the early
years of territorial administration, the Americans were reluctant to
delegate authority to the Filipinos, but an elected Philippine
Assembly was inaugurated in 1907, as the lower house of
a bicameral legislature, with the appointive Philippine Commission
becoming the upper house.
Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907
report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the
American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition
to the rapid building of a public school system based on English
teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as:
steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated Port of
Manila; dredging the River Pasig,; streamlining of the Insular
Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction
of a telegraph and cable communications network; the
establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and
bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed
civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture;
large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build
railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey.
[204]

In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two

major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners
of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers
such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly
agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in rural
Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic
changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local
elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients.
The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to
landownership for the law's failure and argued that large
plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines’ best path to
development.[205]
Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform
movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on
such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health,
the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about
children's health. The most prominent organizations were the
La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of
Women's Clubs.[206]

Tranvia in Manila during American Era

When Democrat Woodrow Wilson became U.S. president in

1913, new policies were launched designed to gradually lead to
Philippine independence. In 1902 U.S. law established Filipinos
citizenship in the Philippine Islands; unlike Hawaii in 1898 and
Puerto Rico in 1918, they did not become citizens of the United
States. The Jones Law of 1916 became the new basic law,
promised eventual independence. It provide for the election of
both houses of the legislature.
 Manila, Philippines, ca.1900s

In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in

this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in
1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had
increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with the
United States.[207] A health care system was established which,
by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including
various tropical diseases, to a level similar to that of the United
States itself. The practices
of slavery, piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not
entirely extinguished. A new educational system was
established with English as the medium of instruction,
eventually becoming a lingua franca of the Islands. The 1920s
saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with
American governors-general, depending on how intent the
incumbent was on exercising his powers vis-à-vis the Philippine
legislature. Members to the elected legislature lobbied for
immediate and complete independence from the United States.
Several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C.
A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by
Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918.
Philippine politics during the American territorial era was
dominated by the Nacionalista Party, which was founded in
1907. Although the party's platform called for "immediate
independence", their policy toward the Americans was highly
accommodating.[208] Within the political establishment, the call for
independence was spearheaded by Manuel L. Quezon, who
served continuously as Senate presidentfrom 1916 until 1935.
World War I gave the Philippines the opportunity to pledge
assistance to the US war effort. This took the form of an offer to
supply a division of troops, as well as providing funding for the
construction of two warships. A locally recruited national guard
was created and significant numbers of Filipinos volunteered for
service in the US Navy and army.[209]
Frank Murphy was the last Governor-General of the
Philippines (1933–35), and the first U.S. High Commissioner of
the Philippines(1935–36). The change in form was more than
symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to
independence.
Commonwealth[edit]
Main article: Commonwealth of the Philippines
 Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon with United States
President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington, D.C.

Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon

With Manila's Filipino Hispanic roots, Daniel Burnham developed

the Urban planning of Manila through the City Beautiful Movement;
Neo-Classical architecture of Paris through Manila's Government
buildings, Canals of Venice through the Esteros of Manila, Sunset
view of Naplesthrough Manila Bay and Winding River of Paris
through Pasig River. a fine example of the Burnham plan is
the Manila Central Post Officeand Jones Bridge Manila circa
1930s.
The Great Depression in the early thirties hastened the
progress of the Philippines towards independence. In the
United States it was mainly the sugar industry and labor unions
that had a stake in loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines
since they could not compete with the Philippine cheap sugar
(and other commodities) which could freely enter the U.S.
market. Therefore, they agitated in favor of granting
independence to the Philippines so that its cheap products and
labor could be shut out of the United States.[210] In 1933,
the United States Congresspassed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting
Act as a Philippine Independence Act over President Herbert
Hoover's veto.[211]Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of
a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by
Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, partially
because of provisions leaving the United States in control of
naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature
rejected the bill.[212] The following year, a revised act known as
the Tydings–McDuffie Act was finally passed. The act provided
for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines with transition to full independence after a ten-year
period. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and
be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the
responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation
required approval of the United States president. [212] The Act
stipulated that the date of independence would be on July 4
following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the
Commonwealth.
A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July
30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the
Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by
a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935 and ratified
by popular vote on May 14, 1935.[213][214]
On September 17, 1935,[215] presidential elections were held.
Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo,
the Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader Gregorio Aglipay, and
others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of
the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning
the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.[216]
The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the
morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the
steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The event was
attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people. [215] Under the
Tydings–McDuffie Act this meant that the date of full
independence for the Philippines was set for July 4, 1946, a
timetable which was followed after the passage of almost
eleven very eventful years.
World War II and Japanese occupation[edit]
Main articles: Japanese occupation of the Philippines, Second
Philippine Republic, and Home front during World War II § The
Philippines
As many as 10,000 American and FIlipino soldiers died in the Bataan
Death March

Military[edit]

Japanese Army Tankettes in Manila, Philippines 1942

Japan launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base

in Pampanga on the morning of December 8, 1941, just ten
hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Aerial bombardment was
followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending
Philippine and United States troops were under the command
of General Douglas MacArthur. Under the pressure of superior
numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan
Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to
Manila Bay.
Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo and Manuel Roxas began and ended the
conflict on opposite sides.

On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital

city, Manila, an open city to prevent its destruction.[217] The
Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United
States-Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942
and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000
prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were
forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a
prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. About 10,000 Filipinos
and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination.
[218]
President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops
to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set
up a government in exile.[219] MacArthur was ordered to
Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the
Philippines.
The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing
a new government structure in the Philippines and established
the Philippine Executive Commission. They initially organized
a Council of State, through which they directed civil affairs until
October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an
independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored republic
headed by President José P. Laurel proved to be unpopular to
the pro-colonial Filipinos, but very popular to the pro-Asiatic
independence Filipinos.
Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-
scale underground guerrilla activity. The American-
aligned Philippine Army, as well as remnants of the U.S. Army
Forces Far East,[220][221] continued to fight the Japanese and pro-
Japanese paramilitary forces in a guerrilla war and was
considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army.[222] Their
effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan
controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces.[223] One
element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished
by the Hukbalahap, which armed some 30,000 people and
extended their control over much of Luzon.[223]
 Leyte Landing of General Douglas MacArthur to liberate the
Philippines from the Empire of Japan

The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's

conclusion. At the eve of the liberation of the Philippines, the
Allied forces and the Japanese Empire waged the largest naval
battle in history, by gross tonnage in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
[226]
The American army had been fighting the Philippines
Campaign since October 1944, when MacArthur's Sixth United
States Army landed on Leyte. Landings in other parts of the
country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine
Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However,
fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September
2, 1945. Approximately 10,000 U.S. soldiers were missing in
action in the Philippines when the war ended, more than in any
other country in the Pacific or European Theaters. The
Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical
destruction, especially during the Battle of Manila. An estimated
1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the
final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively
damaged, mainly due to excessive use of artillery by the
American forces.[223]

Battle of Manila
 General Tomoyuki Yamashita surrender

Home front[edit]
As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corruption, and
black markets were endemic. Japan in 1943 proposed
independence on new terms, and some collaborators went
along with the plan, but Japan was clearly losing the war and
nothing became of it.[227]
With a view of building up the economic base of the Greater
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Army envisioned
using the islands as a source of agricultural products needed by
its industry. For example, Japan had a surplus of sugar from
Taiwan but, a severe shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow
cotton on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the
seeds, pesticides, and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless
farm workers flocked to the cities, where there was minimal
relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane
sugar for fuel, castor beans and copra for oil, derris for quinine,
cotton for uniforms, and abaca (hemp) for rope. The plans were
very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed
international markets, bad weather, and transportation
shortages. The program was a failure that gave very little help
to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food
production.
The Flag of the United States of America is lowered while the Flag of
the Philippines is raised during the Independence Day ceremonies on
July 4, 1946

Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during

the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult
because of lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, due to
inflation.[228]

Postcolonial Philippines and the Third

Republic (1946–1965)[edit]
Main article: History of the Philippines (1946–1965)
The return of the Americans in spring 1945 was welcomed by
nearly all the Filipinos, in sharp contrast to the situation in
nearby Dutch East Indies. The collaborationist "Philippine
Republic" set up by the Japanese under Jose P. Laurel, was
highly unpopular, and the extreme destructiveness of the
Japanese Army in Manila in its last days solidified Japan's
image as a permanent target of hate. The pre-war
Commonwealth system was reestablished under Sergio
Osmeña, who became president in exile after President
Quezon died in 1944. Osmeña was little-known and
his Nacionalista Party was no longer such a dominant force.
Osmeña supporters challenged the legitimacy of Manuel Roxas
who had served as secretary to Laurel. MacArthur testified to
Roxas' patriotism and the collaborationist issue disappeared
after Roxas was elected in 1946 on a platform calling for closer
ties with the United States; adherence to the new United
Nations; national reconstruction; relief for the masses; social
justice for the working class; the maintenance of peace and
order; the preservation of individual rights and liberties of the
citizenry; and honesty and efficiency of government.[229] The
United States Congress passed a series of programs to help
rehabilitation, including $2 billion over five years for war
damages and rehabilitation, and a new tariff law that provided
for a 20-year transition from free trade to a low tariff with the
United States. Washington also demanded that Americans
would have equal rights with Filipinos in business activities, a
special treatment that was resented. In 1947 the United States
secured an agreement that it would keep its major military and
naval bases. On the whole the transition to independence,
achieved in 1946, was mostly peaceful and highly successful,
despite the extreme difficulties caused by massive war
damages.[230] The special relationship with the United States
remained the dominant feature until sharp criticism arose in the
1960s.[231]
Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948)[edit]

Manuel Roxas, President from 1946 until 1948.

Elpidio Quirino, president from 1948 until 1953.

Elections were held in April 1946, with Manuel Roxas becoming

the first president of the independent Republic of the
Philippines. The United States ceded its sovereignty over the
Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled.[180][232] However,
the Philippine economy remained highly dependent on United
States markets—more dependent, according to United States
high commissioner Paul McNutt, than any single U.S. state was
dependent on the rest of the country.[233] The Philippine Trade
Act, passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation
grants from the United States,[234] exacerbated the dependency
with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries.
A military assistance pact was signed in 1947 granting the
United States a 99-year lease on designated military bases in
the country.
Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953)[edit]

Victoria Quirino-Gonzalezwas the second daughter of Philippine

President Elpidio Quirino. Since her father was a widower, she served
as First Lady of the Philippines, becoming the youngest bearer of the
title at the age of 16.

The Roxas administration granted general amnesty to those

who had collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except
for those who had committed violent crimes. Roxas died
suddenly of a heart attack in April 1948, and the vice
president, Elpidio Quirino, was elevated to the presidency. He
ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating José P.
Laurel and winning a four-year term.
World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely
damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the
activities of the Communist-supported Hukbalahap guerrillas
(known as "Huks"), who had evolved into a violent resistance
force against the new Philippine government. Government
policy towards the Huks alternated between gestures of
negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of
Defense Ramon Magsaysay initiated a campaign to defeat the
insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support
for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early
1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk
leader Luis Taruc in May 1954.
Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957)
[edit]
 President and Mrs. Magsaysay with Eleanor Roosevelt at the
Malacañang Palace.

Supported by the United States, Magsaysay was elected

president in 1953 on a populistplatform. He promised sweeping
economic reform, and made progress in land reform by
promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north
into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population
pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities.
[235]
Nevertheless, he was extremely popular with the common
people, and his death in an airplane crash in March 1957 dealt
a serious blow to national morale.[236]
Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961)
[edit]

Carlos P. Garcia, president of the Philippines from 1957 until 1961.

Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the presidency after

Magsaysay's death, and was elected to a four-year term in the
election of November that same year. His administration
emphasized the nationalist theme of "Filipino first", arguing that
the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the
country's economy.[237] Garcia successfully negotiated for the
United States' relinquishment of large military land reservations.
However, his administration lost popularity on issues of
government corruption as his term advanced.[238]
Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–
1965)[edit]
 President-elect Diosdado Macapagal departs his mother-in-law's
home, his family in tow, for the Malacañang Palace on the day of
his inauguration.

In the presidential elections held on November 14, 1961, Vice

President Diosdado Macapagal defeated re-electionist
President Carlos P. Garcia and Emmanuel Pelaez as a Vice
President. President Macapagal changed the independence
day of the Philippines from July 4 to June 12.
Land Reform Code[edit]
Main article: Agricultural Land Reform Code
See also: Land reform in the Philippines
The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was a major
Philippine land reform law enacted in 1963 under President
Macapagal.[239]
The code declared that it was State policy

1. To establish owner-cultivatorship and the economic

family-size farm as the basis of Philippine agriculture
and, as a consequence, divert landlord capital in
agriculture to industrial development;

2. To achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers

free from pernicious institutional restraints and
practices;

3. To create a truly viable social and economic structure in

agriculture conducive to greater productivity and higher
farm incomes;
 4. To apply all labor laws equally and without
discrimination to both industrial and agricultural wage
earners;

5. To provide a more vigorous and systematic land

resettlement program and public land distribution; and

6. To make the small farmers more independent, self-

reliant and responsible citizens, and a source of
genuine strength in our democratic society.
and, in pursuance of those policies, established the following

1. An agricultural leasehold system to replace all existing

share tenancy systems in agriculture;

2. A declaration of rights for agricultural labor;

3. An authority for the acquisition and equitable

distribution of agricultural land;

4. An institution to finance the acquisition and distribution

of agricultural land;

5. A machinery to extend credit and similar assistance to

agriculture;

6. A machinery to provide marketing, management, and

other technical services to agriculture;

7. A unified administration for formulating and

implementing projects of land reform;

8. An expanded program of land capability survey,

classification, and registration; and

9. A judicial system to decide issues arising under this

Code and other related laws and regulations.
Maphilindo[edit]
Main article: Maphilindo
Maphilindo was a proposed nonpolitical confederation of
Malaya, the Philippines, and Indonesia. It was based on
concepts developed during the Commonwealth government in
the Philippines by Wenceslao Vinzons and by Eduardo L.
Martelino in his 1959 book Someday, Malaysia".[240]
In July 1963, President Diosdado Macapagal of the Philippines
convened a summit meeting in Manila. Maphilindo was
proposed as a realization of José Rizal's dream of bringing
together the Malay peoples. However, this was perceived as a
tactic on the parts of Jakarta and Manila to delay or prevent the
formation of the Federation of Malaysia. The plan failed when
Indonesian President Sukarno adopted his plan
of Konfrontasi with Malaysia.[241]

Marcos era[edit]
Main article: History of the Philippines (1965–1986)

The leaders of the SEATO nations in front of the Congress Building

in Manila, hosted by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos on
October 24, 1966. (L-R:) Prime Minister Nguyen Cao Ky (South
Vietnam), Prime Minister Harold Holt (Australia), President Park
Chung-hee (South Korea), President Ferdinand Marcos (Philippines),
Prime Minister Keith Holyoake (New Zealand), Lt. Gen. Nguyễn Văn
Thiệu (South Vietnam), Prime Minister Thanom Kittikachorn
(Thailand), President Lyndon B. Johnson (United States)

Imelda Marcos
Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but was defeated by his
former party-mate, Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, who
had switched to the Nacionalista Party. Early in his presidency,
Marcos initiated ambitious public works projects and intensified
tax collection which brought the country economic prosperity
throughout the 1970s. His administration built more roads
(including a substantial portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway)
than all his predecessors combined, and more schools than any
previous administration.[242] Marcos was re-elected president in
1969, becoming the first president of the Philippines to achieve
a second term. Opponents of Marcos, however, blocked the
necessary legislation to further implement his expansive
agenda. Because of this, optimism faded early in his second
term and economic growth slowed.[243] Crime and civil
disobedience increased. The Communist Party of the
Philippines formed the New People's Army in response to his
shaky hold over the nation and the Moro National Liberation
Frontcontinued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in
Mindanao. An explosion during the proclamation rally of the
senatorial slate of the Liberal Party on August 21, 1971
prompted Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, which
he restored on January 11, 1972 after public protests.
Martial law[edit]
Main article: Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos

Banda Kawayan Pilipinasperforming c. 1970's

Amidst the rising wave of lawlessness and the conveniently

timed threat of a looming Communist insurgency, Marcos
declared martial law on September 21, 1972 by virtue
of Proclamation No. 1081. The Nacionalista president, ruling by
decree, curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties,
abolished Congress, closed down major media establishments,
ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists,
including his staunchest critics: senators Benigno Aquino,
Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose Diokno.[244] The declaration of
martial law was initially well received, given the social turmoil
the Philippines was experiencing.[245] Crime rates plunged
dramatically after a curfew was implemented.[246] Many political
opponents were forced to go into exile.[citation needed] Corazon C.
Aquino, the Wife of Benigno Aquino, Jr. replaced Marcos by an
Election on 1986.
A constitutional convention, which had been called for in 1970
to replace the colonial 1935 Constitution, continued the work of
framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law.
The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing
the form of government from presidential to parliamentary and
allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973. Marcos claimed
that martial law was the prelude to creating a "New Society"
based on new social and political values.[247] The economy
during the 1970s was robust, with budgetary and trade
surpluses. The Gross National Product rose from P55 billion in
1972 to P193 billion in 1980. Tourism rose, contributing to the
economy's growth.
Fourth Republic[edit]

Manila circa 1980s

Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981.

However, he retained much of the government's power for
arrest and detention. Corruption and nepotism as well as civil
unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and
development under Marcos, whose own health faced obstacles
due to lupus. The political opposition boycotted the 1981
presidential elections, which pitted Marcos against retired
general Alejo Santos, in protest over his control over the
results.[244] Marcos won by a margin of over 16 million votes,
which constitutionally allowed him to have another six-year
term. Finance Minister Cesar Virata was eventually appointed to
succeed Marcos as Prime Minister.[248]
In 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was
assassinated at the Manila International Airport upon his return
to the Philippines after a long period of exile. This coalesced
popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of
events, including pressure from the United States, that
culminated in a snap presidential election in February 1986.
[249]
The opposition united under Aquino's widow, Corazon
Aquino. The official election canvasser, the Commission on
Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the
election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the
Comelec results and that of Namfrel, an accredited poll
watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by
Corazon Aquino and her supporters. International observers,
including a U.S. delegation, denounced the official results.
[249]
General Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce
Enrile withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian-
military uprising, now popularly called the People Power
Revolution, forced Marcos into exile and installed Corazon
Aquino as president on February 25, 1986.

Fifth Republic (1986–present)[edit]

Main article: History of the Philippines (1986–present)
Further information: 1986–90 Philippine coup attempts
Administration of Corazon Cojuangco Aquino
(1986–1992)[edit]

Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991.

Corazon Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary

government to normalize the situation, and provided for a
transitional "Freedom Constitution".[250] A new permanent
constitution was ratified and enacted in February 1987. [251]
The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial
law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in
the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, and restored the
presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.[252]
Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and
respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's administration was also
viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political
stability and economic development was hampered by several
attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the
Philippine military.[253]
Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of
natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless.[254]
During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed six
unsuccessful coup attempts, the most serious occurring in
December 1989.[255]
In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have
allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the
country. The United States turned over Clark Air
Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Subic
Bay Naval Base in Zambales in December 1992, ending almost
a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.
Administration of Fidel Valdez Ramos (1992–
1998)[edit]
In the 1992 elections, Defense Secretary Fidel V. Ramos,
endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 23.6% of the
vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in his administration,
Ramos declared "national reconciliation" his highest priority and
worked at building a coalition to overcome the divisiveness of
the Aquino years.[252]
He legalized the Communist Party and laid the groundwork for
talks with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and
military rebels, attempting to convince them to cease their
armed activities against the government. In June 1994, Ramos
signed into law a general conditional amnesty covering all rebel
groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of
crimes committed while fighting the insurgents.
In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing
the military insurgency to an end. A peace agreement with
the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), a major separatist
group fighting for an independent homeland in Mindanao, was
signed in 1996, ending the 24-year-old struggle. However, an
MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state.
Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain passage of an amendment
that would allow him to run for a second term were met with
large-scale protests, leading Ramos to declare he would not
seek re-election.[256]
On his Presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of
the Rape-slay case of Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in
1993 and the first person to be executed was Leo Echegaray in
1999.
Administration of Joseph Ejercito Estrada (1998–
2001)[edit]

President Joseph Estrada

Joseph Estrada, a former movie actor who had served as
Ramos' vice president, was elected president by a landslide
victory in 1998. His election campaign pledged to help the poor
and develop the country's agricultural sector. He enjoyed
widespread popularity, particularly among the poor.[257] Estrada
assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy
did, however, recover from a low −0.6% growth in 1998 to a
moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999.[258][259][260][261][262][263]
Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the
1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or
Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter
change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal,
according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive'
economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as
impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the
Philippines. However it was not successful in amending the
constitution.
After the worsening secessionist movement in Mindanao in April
2000, President Estrada declared an "all-out-war" against
the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).[264][265] The government
later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF's
headquarters', Camp Abubakar.[264][266][267]
In October 2000, however, Estrada was accused of having
accepted millions of pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling
businesses. He was impeached by the House of
Representatives, but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke
down when the senate voted to block examination of the
president's bank records. In response, massive street
protests erupted demanding Estrada's resignation. Faced with
street protests, cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of
support from the armed forces, Estrada was forced from office
on January 20, 2001.
Administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
(2001–2010)[edit]

Bonifacio Global City, Metro Manila

Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (the daughter of

President Diosdado Macapagal) was sworn in as Estrada's
successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power
was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local
elections held four months later, when her coalition won an
overwhelming victory.[268]
Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition
politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that
led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion.
[268]
Later on in December 2002 she said would not run in May
10, 2004 presidential election, but she reversed herself in
October 2003 and decided to join the race anyway.[268]
She was re-elected and sworn in for her own six-year term as
president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped
conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently
asking an election official if her margin of victory could be
maintained.[269] The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's
resignation.[269] Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an
election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to
step down.[269] Attempts to impeach the president failed later that
year.
Halfway through her second term, Arroyo unsuccessfully
attempted to push for an overhaul of the constitution to
transform the present presidential-bicameral republic into a
federal parliamentary-unicameral form of government, which
critics describe would be a move that would allow her to stay in
power as Prime Minister.[270]
Numerous other scandals (such as the Maguindanao
massacre, wherein 58 people were killed, and the unsuccessful
NBN-ZTE Broadband Deal) took place in the dawn of her
administration. She formally ended her term as president in
2010 (wherein she was succeeded by Senator Benigno Aquino
III) and ran for a seat in congress the same year (becoming the
second president after Jose P. Laurel to run for lower office
following the presidency).
Administration of Benigno Simeon Aquino III
(2010–2016)[edit]
Main article: Presidency of Benigno Aquino III
Benigno Aquino III began his presidency on June 30, 2010, the
fifteenth President of the Philippines. He is a bachelor and the
son of former Philippines president Corazon C. Aquino. His
administration claimed to be focused on major reforms that
would bring greater transparency, reduced poverty, reduced
corruption, and a booming market which will give birth to a
newly industrialized nation.
Just as with his predecessor, however, Aquino's administration
has been marked with a mix of success and scandal since his
inauguration, beginning with the 2010 Manila hostage crisis that
caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong
Kong for a time (affecting major events such as Wikimania
2013).
The Sultanate of Panay, founded in 2011, was recognized by
the Lanao Advisory Council in 2012.
Tensions regarding Sabah due to the Sultanate of Sulu's claim
gradually rose during the early years of his administration.
Standoffs in Sabah between The Sultanate of Sulu's Royal
Army and the Malaysian forces struck in 2013.
In 2012, the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was
signed to create the Bangsamoro Government in Mindanao. In
response, the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF)
was assembled by religious extremists with the goal of
seceding from the Philippines.
The economy performed well at 7.2% GDP growth, the second
fastest in Asia.

Aftermath of Typhoon Haiyan in Tacloban, Leyte

In 2013, Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) struck the country, leading

to massive rehabilitation efforts by foreign world powers
sending aid, inevitably devolving into chaos following the
revelations that the administration and that the government had
not been properly handing out the aid packages and preference
for political maneuvering over the safety of the people, leading
to mass deterioration of food and medical supplies.

Okada Manila

In 2014, the Comprehensive Agreement on the

Bangsamoro was finally signed after 17 years of negotiation
with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a move that is
expected to bring peace in Mindanao and the Sulu.
On April 28, 2014, when United States President Barack
Obama visited the Philippines, the Enhanced Defense
Cooperation Agreement, between the United States of America
and the Philippines, was signed.
From January 15 to 19, 2015, Pope Francis stayed in the
Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the
victims of Typhoon Haiyan.
On January 25, 2015, 44 members of the Philippine National
Police-Special Action Force (PNP-SAF) were killed during an
encounter between MILF and BIFF in Mamasapano,
Maguindanaoputting efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic
Law into law in an impasse.
Under his presidency, the Philippines has had controversial
clashes with the People's Republic of China on a number of
issues (such as the standoff in Scarborough Shoal in the South
China Seaand the dispute over the Spratly islands). This
resulted in the proceedings of the Philippines to file a
sovereignty case against China in a global arbitration tribunal.
Later on in 2014, the Aquino Administration then filed a
memorial to the Arbitration Tribunal in The Hague which
challenged Beijing's claim in the South China Sea after Chinese
ships were accused of harassing a small Philippine vessel
carrying goods for stationed military personnel in the South
Thomas Shoal where an old Philippine ship had been stationed
for many years.
Under his presidency, for aiming to enhance the educational
system in the country, Aquino III signed the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, commonly known as K–12 program on
May 15, 2013.
On December 20, 2015, Pia Wurtzbach won the Miss Universe
2015, making her the third Filipino to win the Miss Universe title
following Gloria Diaz in 1969 and Margarita Moran in 1973.
On January 12, 2016, the Philippine Supreme Court upheld
the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way
for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the
country.
On March 23, 2016, Diwata-1 was launched to the International
Space Station (ISS), becoming the country's first micro-satellite
and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos.
Administration of Rodrigo Roa Duterte (2016–
present)[edit]

Rodrigo Duterte, current President of the Philippines.

 Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte of PDP–Laban won
the 2016 presidential election, garnering 39.01% or 16,601,997
of the total votes, becoming the first Mindanaoan to become
president. On the other hand, Camarines Sur 3rd District
representative Leni Robredo won with the second narrowest
margin in history, against Senator Bongbong Marcos.[271] On 30
May, the Congresshad proclaimed Rodrigo Duterte, despite his
absence, as president-elect and Leni Robredo as vice
president-elect.[272] On July 12, 2016, the Permanent Court of
Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against
China's claims in the South China Sea.[273] Duterte's presidency
began following his inauguration on June 30, 2016 at the Rizal
Ceremonial Hall of the Malacañang Palace in Manila, which
was attended by more than 627 guests.[274] On August 1, 2016,
the Duterte administration launched a 24-hour complaint office
accessible to the public through a nationwide hotline, 8888, and
changed the nationwide emergency telephone number from 117
to 911.[275][276] After winning the Presidency, Duterte launched an
intensified anti-drug campaign to fulfill a campaign promise of
wiping out criminality in six months.[277] By March 2017, the
death toll for the Philippine Drug War passed 8,000 people, with
2,679 killed in legitimate police operations and the rest the
government claims to be homicide cases.[278][279][280] On November
8, 2016, the Supreme Court of the Philippines ruled in favor of
the burial of the late president Ferdinand Marcos in
the Libingan ng Mga Bayani, the country's official cemetery for
heroes, provoking protests from thousands of millennials,
Marcos-regime human rights victims, and relatives of people
who were tortured, killed, or were still missing due to martial
rule. The burial of the late president was a campaign promise of
President Rodrigo Duterte, who was supported by voters
in Ilocos Norte, the home province of Marcos.[281] In November
18, 2016, the remains of Ferdinand Marcos was secretly buried
by the Philippine National Police, Armed Forces of the
Philippines, and the family and friends of Ferdinand Marcos,
despite the Supreme Court order being non-executory due to
protocol. Later in the afternoon, the event was made public.
[282]
On May 23, 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte
signed Proclamation No. 216 declaring a 60-day martial law in
Mindanao following clashes between government forces and
the Maute group in Marawi.[283]

See also[edit]
 Philippines portal

 Ancient Filipino diet and health

 Archaeology of the Philippines

 Battles of Manila
 Battles of the Philippines

 Dambana

 Filipino nationalism

 Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935

 History of Asia

 History of Southeast Asia

 List of disasters in the Philippines

 List of Philippine historic sites

 List of Presidents of the Philippines

 List of sovereign state leaders in the Philippines

 Military history of the Philippines

 National hero of the Philippines

 Politics of the Philippines

 Resident Commissioner of the Philippines

 Sovereignty of the Philippines

 Suyat

 Timeline of Philippine history

 Timeline of Philippine sovereignty

Notes[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to: Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay:
a b

Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon

City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-
135-4.

2. ^ Jump up to: Junker, Laura Lee (1998). "Integrating

a b

History and Archaeology in the Study of Contact Period

Philippine Chiefdoms". International Journal of Historical
Archaeology. 2 (4): 291–320. doi:10.1023/A:1022611908759.

3. ^ Jump up to: Scott 1984.

a b
4. ^ "Callao Man' Could Redraw Filipino History : Discovery
News". DNews.

5. ^ "Pre-colonial Manila". Malacañang Presidential Museum

and Library. Malacañang Presidential Museum and Library
Araw ng Maynila Briefers. Malacañang Presidential Museum
and Library, Presidential Communications Development and
Strategic Planning Office. June 23, 2015. Archived from the
original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved April 27, 2017.

6. ^ Jocano, F. Landa (2001). Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering

Precolonial Heritage. Quezon City: Punlad Research House,
Inc. ISBN 978-971-622-006-3.

7. ^ Go, Bon Juan (2005). "Ma'I in Chinese Records - Mindoro

or Bai? An Examination of a Historical Puzzle". Philippine
Studies. Ateneo de Manila. 53 (1): 119–138. Archived from
the original on October 21, 2013.

8. ^ Demetrio, Francisco R.; Cordero-Fernando, Gilda; Nakpil-

Zialcita, Roberto B.; Feleo, Fernando (1991). The Soul Book:
Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion. GCF Books,
Quezon City. ASIN B007FR4S8G.

9. ^ Thakur, Upendra (1986). Some Aspects of Asian History

and Culture. Abhinav Publications. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7017-
207-9.

10. ^ Junker, Laura Lee (2000). Raiding, Trading, and Feasting:

The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. Ateneo
University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-347-1. Lay summary.

11. ^ Bisht, Bankoti & 2004, p. 69.

12. ^ "The Cultural Influences of India, Indonesia, China, Arabia,

and Japan". philippinealmanac.com. Archived from the
original on July 1, 2012.

13. ^ Bergreen, Laurence (October 14, 2003). Over the Edge of

the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the
Globe. William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-06-621173-2.

14. ^ "Cebu". encyclopedia.com.

15. ^ Zaide 1994, p. 281

16. ^ "Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709

thousand years ago". May 2, 2018.

17. ^ Valmero, Anna (August 5, 2010). "Callao man could be

'oldest' human in Asia Pacific, says Filipino archaeologist".
Yahoo! Southeast Asia, loqal.ph. Retrieved August 5, 2010.
18. ^ Severino, Howie G. (August 1, 2010). Researchers
discover fossil of human older than Tabon
Man Archived August 4, 2010, at the Wayback
Machine. GMA News. Retrieved October 21, 2010.

19. ^ Morella, Cecil. (August 3, 2010). 'Callao Man' Could

Redraw Filipino History. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved
October 21, 2010 from Discovery News.

20. ^ "Archaeologists unearth 67,000-year-old human bone in

Philippines". The Daily Telegraph.

21. ^ The Utrecht Faculty of Education. "The Philippines – The

Philippines in earlier times – The First Inhabitants 40,000
years ago". Archived from the original on August 11, 2009.
Retrieved November 7, 2009.

22. ^ Détroit, Florent; Mijares, Armand Salvador; Corny, Julien;

Daver, Guillaume; Zanolli, Clément; Dizon, Eusebio; Robles,
Emil; Grün, Rainer; Piper, Philip J. (2019). "A new species of
Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the
Philippines". Nature. 568 (7751): 181–
186. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9. ISSN 1476-4687.

23. ^ Solheim, Wilhelm G., II. (2006). Archeology and Culture in

Southeast Asia. University of the Philippines Press. pp. 57–
139. ISBN 978-971-542-508-7.

24. ^ Solheim, Wilhelm G., II. (January 2006). Origins of the

Filipinos and Their Languages (PDF). Archived from the
original (PDF)on August 3, 2008. Retrieved August 27, 2009.

25. ^ Mijares, Armand Salvador B (2006). "The Early

Austronesian Migration To Luzon: Perspectives From The
Peñablanca Cave Sites". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific
Prehistory Association. 26: 72–
78. doi:10.7152/bippa.v26i0.11995. Archived from the
originalon July 7, 2014.

26. ^ Scott 1984, p. 138. "Not one roof beam, not one grain of
rice, not one pygmy Negrito bone has been recovered. Any
theory which describes such details is therefore pure
hypothesis and should be honestly presented as such."

27. ^ Solheim II, Wilhelm G. "The Filipinos and their

Languages"(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
August 3, 2008. Retrieved August 27, 2009.

28. ^ Scott 1984, p. 52.

29. ^ Bellwood, Peter (2014). The Global Prehistory of Human

Migration. p. 213.
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98. ^ Lucoes warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of

Siam in 1547 AD. At the same time, Lusung warriors fought
alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant
army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese
capital at Ayuthaya. SOURCE: Ibidem, page 195.

99. ^ The former sultan of Malacca decided to retake his city

from the Portuguese with a fleet of ships from Lusung in 1525
AD. SOURCE: Barros, Joao de, Decada terciera de Asia de
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100. ^ Pigafetta, Antonio (1969) [1524]. "First voyage round the

world". Translated by J.A. Robertson. Manila: Filipiniana
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101. ^ Pires, Tomé (1944). A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o

livro de Francisco Rodriguez: Leitura e notas de Armando
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102. ^ Lach, Donald Frederick (1994). "Chapter 8: The

Philippine Islands". Asia in the Making of Europe. Chicago:
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103. ^ Reid, Anthony (1995). "Continuity and Change in the

Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity". In Peter
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104. ^ Turnbull, C.M. (1977). A History of Singapore: 1819-1975.

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105. ^ Antony, Robert J. Elusive Pirates, Pervasive Smugglers:

Violence and Clandestine Trade in the Greater China Seas.
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106. ^ Junker, Laura L. Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The

Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. Honolulu:
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107. ^ Wilkinson, R J. An Abridged Malay-English Dictionary

(romanised). London: Macmillan and Co, 1948. Print, 291.

108. ^ Pigafetta, Antonio (1524). Relazione del primo viaggio

intorno al mondo.

109. ^ Marivir Montebon, Retracing Our Roots – A Journey into

Cebu's Pre-Colonial Past, p.15

110. ^ Celestino C. Macachor (2011). "Searching for Kali in the

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111. ^ Jump up to: Lacsamana 1990, p. 47

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112. ^ Scott 1985, p. 51.

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114. ^ Joaquin 1988.

115. ^ Alip 1964, p. 201,317.

116. ^ Annual report of the Secretary of War 1903, p. 379.

117. ^ McAmis 2002, p. 33.

118. ^ "Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II, 1578".

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119. ^ Frankham 2008, p. 278.

120. ^ Atiyah 2002, p. 71.

121. ^ Saunders 2002, pp. 54–60.

122. ^ Saunders 2002, p. 57.

123. ^ Tomas L. "Magat Salamat". Archived from the original on

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125. ^ Peter Borschberg (2015). Journal, Memorials and Letters

of Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge. Security, Diplomacy and
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126. ^ Truxillo, Charles A. (2012). Crusaders in the Far East:

The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-
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127. ^ Peacock Gallop (2015) "From Anatolia to Aceh:

Ottomans, Turks and Southeast Asia".

128. ^ Jiménez, David Sánchez (Fall 2010). "La hispanización y

la identidad hispanaen Filipinas (1a parte)". Revista
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129. ^ "Fortress of Empire, Rene Javellana, S. J. 1997".

130. ^ Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the

Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 179. Within
 the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private
nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal
number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied
by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los
Españoles"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish
families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in
Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison,
at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers
who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and
the official classes.

131. ^ "Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines". PHILIPPINE-

HISTORY.ORG. 2005.

132. ^ "Living in the Philippines: Living, Retiring, Travelling and

Doing Business".

133. ^ Galaup "Travel Accounts" page 375.

134. ^ "Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World" By Eva

Maria Mehl, page 235.

135. ^ Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the

Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1:
229. Reforms under General Arandía.—The demoralization
and misery with which Obando's rule closed were relieved
somewhat by the capable government of Arandía, who
succeeded him. Arandía was one of the few men of talent,
energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs in these
islands during two centuries. He reformed the greatly
disorganized military force, establishing what was known as
the "Regiment of the King," made up very largely of
Mexican soldiers [note: emphasis added]. He also formed a
corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These were regular
troops, who received from Arandía sufficient pay to enable
them to live decently and like an army.

136. ^ "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE

CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND
CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST.
AUGUSTINE"(Zamboanga City History) "He (Governor Don
Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great
reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Peru, as he
made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."

137. ^ Quinze Ans de Voyage Autor de Monde Vol. II

( 1840)Archived 2014-10-09 at the Wayback Machine.
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138. ^ "The Philippine Archipelago" By Yves Boquet Page 262

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140. ^ The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the Philippines in

the 21St Century By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (Page xii)

141. ^ Carol R. Ember; Melvin Ember; Ian A. Skoggard, eds.

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142. ^ Stephanie Mawson, ‘Between Loyalty and Disobedience:

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143. ^ "Japanese Christian". Philippines: Google map of Paco

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144. ^ Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571-1599) By

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146. ^ Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the

Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1:
139. Fourth.—In considering this Spanish conquest, we must
understand that the islands were far more sparsely inhabited
than they are to-day. The Bisayan islands, the rich
Camarines, the island of Luzon, had, in Legaspi's time, only
a small fraction of their present great populations. This
population was not only small, but it was also extremely
disunited. Not only were the great tribes separated by the
differences of language, but, as we have already seen, each
tiny community was practically independent, and the power
of a dato very limited. There were no great princes, with large
forces of fighting retainers whom they could call to arms,
such as the Portuguese had encountered among the Malays
south in the Moluccas.

147. ^ Spain (1680). Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias. Titulo

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148. ^ Coleman 2009, pp. 17–59

149. ^ Antonio de Morga (1609). Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas.

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152. ^ "US Country Studies: Education in the Philippines".

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153. ^ Letter from Fajardo to Felipe III From Manila, August 15

1620.(From the Spanish Archives of the Indies)("The infantry
does not amount to two hundred men, in three companies. If
these men were that number, and Spaniards, it would not be
so bad; but, although I have not seen them, because they
have not yet arrived here, I am told that they are, as at other
times, for the most part boys, mestizos, and mulattoes, with
some Indians (Native Americans). There is no little cause for
regret in the great sums that reënforcements of such men
waste for, and cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what
betterment there will be until your Majesty shall provide it,
since I do not think, that more can be done in Nueva Spaña,
although the viceroy must be endeavoring to do so, as he is
ordered.")

154. ^ Garcıa de los Arcos, “Grupos etnicos,” ´ 65–66

155. ^ The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market

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156. ^ Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia

Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total
population of 2,515,406, “the European Spaniards, and
Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons
of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or
modifications known in America under the name of mulatto,
quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands,
are generally confounded in the three classes of pure
Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese.” In other words, the
Mexicans who had arrived in the previous century had so
intermingled with the local population that distinctions of
origin had been forgotten by the 19th century. The Mexicans
who came with Legázpi and aboard succeeding vessels had
blended with the local residents so well that their country of
origin had been erased from memory.

157. ^ Tracy 1995, pp. 12,55

158. ^ Tracy 1995, p. 9

159. ^ Tracy 1995, p. 58

160. ^ Backhouse, Thomas (1765). The Secretary at War to Mr.

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161. ^ Raitisoja, Geni " Chinatown Manila: Oldest in the

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163. ^ Dolan & 1991-5

164. ^ Fundación Santa María (Madrid) 1994, p. 508

165. ^ Marciano R. De Borja (2005). Basques in the Philippines.

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168. ^ Frederic H. Sawyer, "The inhabitants of the Philippines",

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175. ^ “Officers in the army of the Philippines were almost totally

composed of Americans,” observed the Spanish historian
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because they supposed they would be shoved aside in the
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176. ^ Nuguid, Nati. (1972). "The Cavite Mutiny". in Mary R.

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183. ^ Wionzek 2000, p. xvi.

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194. ^ Linn 2000, p. 148.

195. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 247–260, 294–297

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197. ^ Taft 1908, p. 1

198. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 2143

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213. ^ Super Administrator. "Corpus Juris – 1935

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218. ^ Lacsamana 1990, p. 168

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Further reading[edit]
 Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). State and
Society in the Philippines. Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6872-3.

 Columbia University Press (2001). "Philippines, The". Columbia

Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Bartleby.com. Archived from the
original on July 28, 2008.
 Barrows, David Prescott (1905). A History of the
Philippines . Amer. Bk. Company.

 Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander, eds.

(1903). 1582–1583. The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803. 5.
Historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord
Bourne. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. Explorations
by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples,
their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in
contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political,
economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands
from their earliest relations with European nations.

o Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1493–

1898 (1903) vol 7 online

o vol 8 online

o vol 9 online

o vol 13 online

o vol 24 online

o vol 25 online

o vol 36 online

o vol 42 online

 Corpuz, O.D. (2005). Roots of the Filipino Nation. University of

the Philippines Press. ISBN 978-971-542-461-5.

 Elliott, Charles Burke (1916). The Philippines : To the End of the

Military Régime (PDF). The Bobbs-Merrill Company.

 Elliott, Charles Burke (1917). The Philippines: To the End of the

Commission Government, a Study in Tropical Democracy (pdf).
The Bobbs-Merrill Company.

 Foreman, John (1906). The Philippine Islands, A Political,

Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of
the Philippine Archipelago (HTML). Charles Scribner's
Sons. (other formats available)

 Millis, Walter (1931). The Martial Spirit. Houghton Mifflin

Company. ISBN 978-0-929587-07-3.

 Kalaw, Maximo M. (1927). "Early Political Life in the

Philippines". The development of Philippine politics. Oriental
commercial. p. 1. Retrieved January 21, 2008.
  Nieva, Gregorio (September 28, 1921). "Now Is The Time To
Solve The Philippine Problem: The View Of A Representative
Filipino". The Outlook. Outlook Publishing Company, Inc. 129:
135–137. Retrieved July 30, 2009.

 Scott, William Henry (1992). Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino:

And Other Essays in Philippine History. New Day
Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0524-5.

 Worcester, Dean Conant (1913). The Philippines: Past and

Present. New York: The Macmillan company.

 Worcester, Dean Conant (1898). The Philippine Islands and Their

People.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to History of
the Philippines.

 Official government portal of the Republic of the Philippines.

 National Historical Institute.

 The United States and its Territories 1870–1925: The Age

of Imperialism.

 History of the Philippine Islands by Morga, Antonio de in 55

volumes, from Project Gutenberg. Translated into English,
edited and annotated by E. H. Blair and J. A.
Robertson. Volumes 1–14 and 15–25 indexed under Blair,
Emma Helen.

 Philippine Society and Revolution (archived from the

original on 2010-01-10).

 The European Heritage Library – Balancing Paradise and

Pandemonium: Philippine Encounters with the rest of the
World

 Filipiniana, The Premier Digital Library of the Philippines

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