V.

Architecture
Meaning and Importance
Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect",
from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "creator") is both the process and the product of planning,
designing, and constructing buildings or any other structures.[3] Architectural works, in
the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of
art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural
achievements.
Architecture is the art and science of designing and building large structures. Large
systems, whether buildings, bridges, novels, hardware, or software, require architectures
to manage their size and complexity. Architectures are primarily concerned with
structures and the interrelationship of the components that are used to build those
structures.
Software architecture, defining systems in terms of components, relationships and
rules or conditions, provides a structure for software and manages the size and
complexity of large software systems.
Classification of software architectures into models can be used to explore the
operational characteristics of software. An example of a model is a component-based
model. Java-centric component architectures and ActiveX/DCOM architectures are
specific examples of component architectures.

Construction Style and Structural Materials

An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other
structure notable or historically identifiable.[1] It is a sub-class of style in the visual arts
generally, and most styles in architecture related closely to the wider contemporary artistic
style. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building
materials, and regional character. Most architecture can be classified within a chronology
of styles which changes over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or
the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.
Styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. They are documented in the
subject of architectural history. At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when
a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas.
The new style is sometimes only a rebellion against an existing style, such as post-
modernism (meaning "after modernism"), which in 21st century has found its own
language and split into a number of styles which have acquired other names.
Architectural Styles often spread to other places, so that the style at its source
continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. For
instance, Renaissance ideas emerged in Italy around 1425 and spread to all of Europe
over the next 200 years, with the French, German, English, and Spanish Renaissances
showing recognizably the same style, but with unique characteristics. An architectural
style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from their
home country, or by settlers moving to a new land. One example is the Spanish missions
in California, brought by Spanish priests in the late 18th century and built in a unique
style.
After an architectural style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations
may occur. For instance, classicism has been revived many times and found new life as
neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different. The Spanish mission style was
revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish
Colonial Revival.
Vernacular architecture is listed separately. As vernacular architecture is better
understood as suggestive of culture, writ broadly (as well as a theory and a process rather
than a thing-in-itself), it technically can encompass every architectural style--or none at
all. In and of itself, vernacular architecture is not a style.

The Architect's Dream by Thomas Cole (1840) shows a vision of buildings in the historical styles of the
Western tradition, from Ancient Egypt through to Classical Revival

Evolution and Type of Architecture

Egyptian Architecture
The first great civilization to emerge around the Mediterranean basin was that of Egypt
(c.3100-2040 BCE). In addition to its own written language, religion and dynastic ruling
class, it developed a unique style of Egyptian architecture, largely consisting of massive
burial chambers in the form of Pyramids (at Giza) and underground tombs (in the desolate
Valley of the Kings, Luxor). Design was monumental but not architecturally complex and
employed posts and lintels, rather than arches, although Egyptian expertise in stone had
a strong influence on later Greek architecture. Famous examples of Egyptian pyramid
architecture include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c.2630 BCE) designed by Imhotep -
one of the greatest architects of the ancient world - and The Great Pyramid at Giza
(c.2550 BCE), also called the Pyramid of Khufu or 'Pyramid of Cheops' - the oldest of the
Seven Wonders of the World, as compiled by Antipater of Sidon (170-120 BCE). Later,
during the Middle and Late Kingdoms (c.2040-300 CE), the Egyptians constructed a
series of palaces at Karnak (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE onwards). These structures
were adorned with a diverse range of artworks - few of which survive - including murals,
panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork, depicting various Gods, deities, rulers and
symbolic animals in the unique Egyptian hieratic style of art, together with hieroglyphic
inscriptions. For more specific details, see: Early Egyptian Architecture (3100-2181);
Egyptian Middle Kingdom Architecture (2055-1650); Egyptian New Kingdom Architecture
(1550-1069); Late Egyptian Architecture (1069 BCE - 200 CE).

-Mesopotamian Architecture
Greek Architecture
The history of art and architecture in Ancient Greece is divided into three basic eras:
The Archaic Period (c.600-500 BCE), the Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE) and the
Hellenistic Period (c.323-27 BCE). [See also: Aegean art.] About 600 BCE, inspired by
the theory and practice of earlier Egyptian stone masons and builders, the Greeks set
about replacing the wooden structures of their public buildings with stone structures - a
process known as 'petrification'. Limestone and marble was employed for columns and
walls, while terracotta was used for roof tiles and ornaments. Decoration was done in
metal, like bronze.
Like painters and sculptors, Greek architects enjoyed none of the enhanced status
accorded to their successors. They were not seen as artists but as tradesmen. Thus no
names of architects are known before about the 5th century BCE. The most common
types of public buildings were temples, municipal structures, theatres and sports
stadiums.
Architectural Methods of Ancient Greece
Greek architecture used simple post-and-lintel building techniques. It wasn't until the
Roman era that the arch was developed in order to span greater distances. As a result,
Greek architects were forced to employ a great many more stone columns to support
short horizontal beams overhead. Moreover, they could not construct buildings with large
interior spaces, without having rows of internal support columns. The standard
construction format, used in public buildings like the Hephaesteum at Athens, employed
large blocks of limestone or a light porous stone known as tuff. Marble, being scarcer and
more valuable was reserved for sculptural decoration, except in the grandest buildings,
such as the Parthenon on the Acropolis.
Greek Building Design
The typical rectangular building design was often surrounded by a columns on all four
sides (eg. the Parthenon) or more rarely at the front and rear only (eg the Temple of
Athena Nike). Roofs were laid with timber beams covered by terracotta tiles, and were
not domed. Pediments (the flattened triangular shape at each gable end of the building)
were usually filled with sculptural decoration or friezes, as was the row of lintels along the
top of each side wall, between the roof and the tops of the columns. In the late 4th and
5th centuries BCE, Greek architects began to depart from the strictly rectangular plan of
traditional temples in favor of a circular structure (the tholos), embellished with black
marble to highlight certain architectural elements and provide rich color contrasts.
These buildings were famously adorned with a huge range of Greek sculpture -
pedimental works, friezes, reliefs and various types of free-standing statue - of a figurative
nature, depicting mythological heroes and events in Greek history and culture.
Principles of Greek Architecture: Classical Orders
The theory of Greek architecture - arguably the most influential form of classical Greek
art - was based on a system of 'Classical Orders' - rules for building design based on
proportions of and between the individual parts. This resulted in an aesthetically pleasing
consistency of appearance regardless of size or materials used. There were three orders
in early Greek architecture: the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The Doric style was common
in mainland Greece and later spread to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was
employed in the cities of Ionia along the west coast of Turkey and other islands in the
Aegean. Where the Doric style was formal and austere, the Ionic was less restrained and
more decorative. The third style, Corinthian, came later and represented a more ornate
development of the Ionic order. The differences between these styles is most plainly
visible in the ratio between the base diameter and height of their columns. Doric
architecture (exemplified by Greek structures, like the Parthenon and the Temple of
Hephaestus in Athens) was more popular during the Classical age, while the Ionic style
gained the upper hand during the more relaxed period of Hellenistic Art (c.323-30 BCE).
Famous Buildings of Ancient Greece
Famous examples of ancient Greek architecture include: the Acropolis complex (550-
404 BCE) including the Parthenon (447-422 BCE), the Temples at Paestum (550 BCE
onwards), the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (468-456 BCE), the Temple of Hephaistos
(c.449 BCE), the Temple of Athena Nike (427 BCE), the Theatre at Delphi (c.400 BCE),
the Tholos Temple of Athena Pronaia (380-360 BCE), and the Pergamon Altar of Zeus
(c.166-156 BCE). See also: Sculpture of Ancient Greece.

Roman Architecture
Unlike the more creative and intellectual Greeks, the Romans were essentially
practical people with a flair for engineering, construction and military matters. In their
architecture, as in their art, they borrowed heavily from both the Etruscans (eg. in their
use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and in the construction of arches), and also the
Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors in all visual arts. However, without Roman
art - with its genius for copying and adapting Greek styles - most of the artistic
achievements of Greek antiquity would have been lost.
Architectural Priorities of Ancient Rome
Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen to impress,
entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively confined urban areas. Drainage
was a common problem, as was security. This, together with Rome's growing desire to
increase its power and majesty throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to
be imposing, large-scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman architectural
achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (eg. the aqueduct at Segovia, 100 CE,
and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus),
bridges (eg. the Pont du Gard) roads, municipal structures like public baths (eg. the Baths
of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the
Colosseum 72-80 CE), even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres
were also built. Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized the opportunity
to create new towns from scratch, designing urban grid-plans based on two wide streets
- a north-south axis (the cardo) and an east-west axis (the decumanus). The town centre
was located at the intersection of the two roads. They also built upwards; for example,
Ostia, a rich port city near Rome, boasted a number of 5-storey apartment blocks.
Architectural Advances: Arches & Concrete
Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and new
materials. Design was enhanced through architectural developments in the construction
of arches and roof domes. Arches improved the efficiency and capability of bridges and
aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed to support the structure), while domed
roofs not only permitted the building of larger open areas under cover, but also lent the
exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several important
secular and Christian basilicas, like the Pantheon.
Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Roman architect
Vitruvius (c.78-10 BCE) in his book De Architectura. This is exemplified by the Roman
invention of concrete (opus cementicium), a mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and
stones, in the 3rd century BCE. This exceptionally strong and convenient substitute for
stone revolutionized Roman engineering and architecture. As tile-covered concrete
began to replace marble as the main building material, architects could be more daring.
Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design-plan (with its undomed roofs and
lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and became less geometric and more free-
flowing.
Like their Egyptian and the Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Rome
embellished their public buildings with a wide range of artworks, including: Roman
sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and busts of the Emperor), fresco murals, and
mosaics.
Famous Buildings of Ancient Rome
Two of the greatest structures of Ancient Rome were the Colosseum (the elliptical
Flavian amphitheatre in the centre of Rome) and Trajan's Column (a monument to the
Emperor Trajan). Situated to the east of the Roman Forum, the Colosseum took 8 years
to build, had seating for 50,000 spectators. Historians and archeologists estimate that a
staggering 500,000 people and over 1 million wild animals perished in the 'games' at the
Colosseum. Trajan's Column, located close to the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman
Forum, was finished in 113 CE. It is renowned for its magnificent and highly detailed spiral
bas relief sculpture, which circles the shaft of the monument 23 times, and narrates
Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. The shaft itself is made from 20 huge blocks of
Carrara marble, each weighing about 40 tons. It stands about 30 metres in height and 4
metres in width. A smaller but no less important Roman monument was the Ara Pacis
Augustae (13-9 BCE).
Impact of Politics and Religion on Roman Architecture
In 330 CE, about the time St Peter's Basilica was completed, the Roman Emperor
Constantine I declared that the city of Byzantium (later renamed Constantinople, now
Istanbul in Turkey), was to be the capital of the Roman Empire. Later, in 395 CE, following
the death of Emperor Theodosius, the empire was divided into two parts: a Western half
based first in Rome until it was sacked in the 5th century CE, then Ravenna (See Ravenna
mosaics); and an eastern half based in the more secure city of Constantinople. In addition,
Christianity (previously a minority sect) was declared the sole official religion throughout
the empire. These twin developments impacted on architecture in two ways: first,
relocation to Constantinople helped to preserve and prolong Roman culture, which might
otherwise have been destroyed by the barbarian invaders of Italy; second, the emergence
of Christianity provided what became the dominant theme of architecture and the visual
arts for the next 1,200 years.

European Architecture
Europeans have been carving marble for thousands of years. Throughout these
years, they have developed a number of sculptural and architectural styles. Marble has
been one of the treasured materials for creating these sculptures and architectural
features. It’s brilliant white with light gray veins give the stone visual diversity and create
a beautiful look in the stone. There are many features that make these styles unique
during each period.
Styles of European Marble Architecture and Sculpture Throughout History
Look at how European marble sculpture and architecture has evolved and changed
through the years.
Classical
The Classical period occurred in Greece from 450 BC to 400 BC. During this time, the
Greeks creating a number of beautiful reliefs in marble, creating highly detailed work.
These reliefs were used to decorate the exterior of buildings. Columns were an important
part of Classical architecture and many different styles of columns were developed during
this time. In many ways, the Classical period has had the largest effect on European
sculpture and styles. After the fall of the Greek empire, the Romans adopted a number of
the architectural styles of Greeks.
Gothic
The Gothic period occurred throughout Western Europe during the Middle Ages.
During the Gothic period, stone and marble were used to create cathedrals, universities,
and castles. Gothic architecture is recognizable through pointed arches and ribbed vaults.
Many architects and sculptors see the Pisa Baptistry as an excellent example of marble
architecture during the gothic period. Intricate door surrounds were highly valued during
the Gothic period.
Renaissance
During the Renaissance, architects returned to Classical architectural and sculptural
styles and techniques. Domes and high arches became more popular during this time.
There was also a return of the Classical columns. The Renaissance had a huge impact
on marble sculpture as artists such as Michelangelo and Donatello sculpted Biblical and
Religious figures for a number of churches throughout Venice and Rome. St. Peter’s
Basilica is generally known to be the best example of Renaissance architecture.
Baroque and Rococo
The 17th century and early 18th century marks the height of the Baroque and the
Rococo period. Many of the features of Renaissance architecture were also in the
Baroque period. However, the work became much more detailed and additional flourishes
were desired. This highly detailed work is apparent in various parts of European palaces.
Intricate mantelpieces, fountains, staircases, and courtyards made of marble and other
stone materials were more in demand during this period than other periods of European
architecture. The Baroque and Rococo are most recognizably displayed in the Palace of
Versailles in France and Peterhof Palace in Russia.
Creating the Marble Architectural and Sculptural Styles Today
Many of these historic European architectural and sculptural styles are still highly
desirable in today’s architecture. Our craftsmen have been trained in French hand carving
techniques. We know exactly how to create many different stone features and sculptures
in any style. Talk to our craftsmen about the different European styles of architecture and
the best style of stone features for your home.
American Architecture
American architecture, the architecture produced in the geographical area that now
constitutes the United States.
Early History
American architecture properly begins in the 17th cent. with the colonization of the
North American continent. Settlers from various European countries brought with them
the building techniques and prevailing forms of their respective homelands. Colonial
architecture was subsequently adapted to the topography and climate of the chosen site,
the availability of building materials, the dearth of trained builders and artisans, and the
general poverty of the settlers.
Only in New Orleans, where the French government sent skilled architects and
engineers, was anything produced that approached the sophistication of architecture in
France. The comparatively short Spanish domination of Florida also produced highly
complex structures, including the fort at St. Augustine (begun 1672). The Spanish impress
was more permanent in the American Southwest, where settlers borrowed extensively
from the Native American techniques of construction in adobe. Mexican baroque details
and church forms appeared in a new and simpler guise, as in the Texas, New Mexico,
Arizona, and California missions. The Dutch, who settled in New Amsterdam (now New
York City), were traders for the most part, and examples of their residential work can be
seen throughout the Hudson River Valley.
The English settlements were of two basic types: the small town in the North and the
large plantation in the South. In New England settlers erected many-gabled houses of
wood with prominent brick chimney stacks of late Gothic inspiration, such as the Parson
Capen House in Topsfield, Mass. (1683). In the South, brick rapidly superseded wood as
the chief building material, as for example, in St. Luke's Church in Smithfield, Va. (1632).
The formality and classicism of 18th-century English architecture was almost immediately
reflected in the colonies, as in the official buildings of Williamsburg, Va. or the
Pennsylvania Statehouse in Philadelphia (begun 1731).
During this time a growing prosperity and widening commerce brought a new influx of
well-trained artisans, and English architectural books became increasingly available.
Many Protestant churches were adapted and simplified from contemporary English styles
designed by such architects as Christopher Wren and James Gibbs. Among the American
examples are Christ Church in Philadelphia (begun 1727) and St. Paul's Chapel in New
York City (1764–66). Pioneer building techniques, however, persisted on the Western
frontier where settlers often built cabins of logs or later of sod.
Neoclassicism
Toward the end of the colonial period, architectural styles based on a more precise
study of ancient Roman and Greek buildings were beginning to appear in Europe. This
shift in taste coincided with the American Revolution, and the neoclassical style became
closely identified with the political values of the young republic. In interior decoration, the
Adam style (see Adam, Robert), as it was then popularly known in England, was soon
translated to American use through the pattern books of Asher Benjamin.
A more monumental aesthetic, which became known as the Federal style, was typical
of the work of Charles Bulfinch in Boston and of Samuel McIntire in Salem, both of whom
were among the growing number of native-born designers. Presidents George
Washington and Thomas Jefferson gave serious thought to architecture and were deeply
involved in the planning and building of Washington, D.C. Both statesmen looked to the
classical world as the best source of inspiration. Jefferson's conception of the Roman
ideals of beauty and proportion was elegantly expressed in his design for the Virginia
state capitol at Richmond (1785–89).
Architecture, previously the domain of gentlemen amateurs and master builders,
became increasingly professionalized in the first half of the 19th cent. The field was also
greatly enhanced by the arrival of several European architects, including the English-born
Benjamin Henry Latrobe. Architectural books continued to exert considerable influence
as well. The later pattern books of Asher Benjamin and those of Minard Lafever spread
the taste for classicism beyond the major cities of the east coast to the hinterlands.
The South built great mansions during the antebellum period, often with two-story
colonnades, such as Dunleith Plantation in Natchez, Miss. (c.1848). In both port cities
and small towns there was a subtle shift in taste from the earlier Roman-based classicism
to Greek sources. Prominent Greek revival buildings of the period include William
Strickland's Merchant's Exchange in Philadelphia (1832–34) and Robert Mills's Treasury
Building in Washington, D.C. (1836–42).
Other Styles
Simultaneously, other revival styles began to compete nationally with classicism. In
the Southwest, the Spanish tradition, occasionally modified by Eastern influences (as in
California), remained dominant until the Mexican War. The English-based Gothic revival
style became increasingly popular after 1835, especially for houses and churches.
Prominent examples include A. J. Davis's Lyndhurst in Tarrytown, N.Y. (begun 1838) and
James Renwick's St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City (1853–88). The widely
distributed books of A. J. Downing on the picturesque cottage style and landscape
gardening further advanced the trend. Other revival styles popular at the same time
included the Italian villa and the Lombard Romanesque.
The writings of John Ruskin began to influence American architects at about the time
of the Civil War, and a short-lived fashion for Victorian Gothic buildings ensued, such as
Frank Furness's Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia (1872–76). The
trend toward historical eclecticism intensified in the decades following the Civil War.
Newly wealthy patrons commissioned buildings in styles characterized by unbridled
ostentation, as for example Richard Morris Hunt's designs for the sprawling mansions of
Newport, R.I. The highly influential Henry Hobson Richardson designed massive,
dignified buildings in an abstracted Romanesque style that contrasted sharply with the
surrounding eclecticism. During this period many architects went to Paris, if possible to
the École des Beaux-Arts, to receive their training. Architectural schools were established
in the United States along the model of the École, beginning with the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology in 1865.
The Birth of Modernism
Although divided by stylistic eclecticism, the United States took the lead in the
development of advanced building technologies in the second half of the 19th cent.
Engineering became a distinctly separate profession, and works such as the Brooklyn
Bridge by John and Washington Roebling (1869–83) number among the most impressive
of all-American achievements. The technical innovations of this era included the use of
cast iron, steel, and reinforced concrete in construction.
The trend toward functional design, which had been steadily growing, reached its
greatest expression in the works of the so-called Chicago school of architecture led by
Louis Henry Sullivan. Sullivan broke completely with historical eclecticism and used
modern materials in such a way as to emphasize their function. The commercial buildings
and skyscrapers of Chicago and other cities built under his influence were admired for
their power and originality as well as for the rational organization of their parts.
Neoclassical Revival
Classicism triumphed once again, however, largely because of the 1893 Columbian
World Exposition in Chicago. The major architectural firms that participated in the fair
reinvigorated the classical tradition nationwide, often at an imperial scale, as for example
in McKim, Mead, and White's Pennsylvania RR Station in New York City (1906–10).
Despite the efforts of Sullivan and his pupil Frank Lloyd Wright, neoclassical doctrines
adapted from the École des Beaux-Arts remained solidly entrenched for many decades
after the turn of the 20th cent. There were noticeable exceptions to this, particularly in the
domestic realm, where the English Arts and Crafts movement implemented by William
Morris had a lasting influence in the United States.
Modern American Architecture
Wright, generally acknowledged as one of the greatest architects of the 20th cent.,
developed a highly original approach to residential design before World War I, which
became known as the "Prairie Style." His early work, executed in and around Chicago,
combined open planning principles with horizontal emphasis, asymmetrical facade
elevations, and broad, sheltering roofs, as seen, for example, in his Robie House (1909).
Wright, who stood apart from the European-derived modernist mainstream, continued to
design buildings into his old age, producing some of his finest and most idiosyncratic
works, such as the Guggenheim Museum in New York City (1946–59).
The unornamented, machine-inspired aesthetic of European modernism was
introduced to the United States through such foreign-born architects as Richard Neutra,
Rudolph Schindler, and William Lescaze during the 1920s. Later dubbed the International
style, this functionalist mode of architecture became preeminent in the United States after
World War II, particularly in the design of corporate office buildings. Notable examples
include Skidmore, Owings and Merrill's Lever House (1952) and Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe's Seagram Building (1956–58), both in New York City. With the immigration to the
United States of such prominent Europeans as Walter Gropius and Mies, the curricula of
many American architectural schools were revamped along the lines of the Bauhaus in
Germany.
Around 1960 a formal and theoretical reaction to the International style began to take
shape as architects became increasingly disenchanted with the sterile aestheticism of
much postwar building. Louis I. Kahn reintroduced axial planning and other Beaux-Arts
principles, while Eero Saarinen experimented with dynamic sculptural forms. In addition,
Robert Venturi argued for the value of studying the vernacular and commercial landscape,
thus broadening the theoretical foundations of modern design and ushering in the
postmodern era. By the early 1980s postmodernism had become America's dominant
style, particularly for public buildings. At around this time, the United States, often an
importer and interpreter of modernist architectural trends, became an exporter of
postmodernist concepts. In postmodern design, architects such as Philip Johnson (in one
of his many changes of architectural style), Michael Graves, Richard Meier, Charles
Gwathmey, Robert A. M. Stern, Charles Moore, Helmut Jahn, Thomas Beeby, and others
recombined ornament, historicism, technology, and often vivid color in diverse, eclectic,
and often witty manners. Among postmodernism's most notable buildings are Graves's
Portland Building (1982), Portland, Oreg., and Johnson's AT&T Building, now the Sony
Building (1978–84), New York City. While postmodern architecture remained a dominant
mode in the 1990s, some contemporary architects have created their own styles.
Foremost among these is Frank Gehry, whose asymmetrical, sculptural buildings using
both common and unusual materials, are an architectural world unto themselves. One of
his finest works is the monumental and organic titanium steel Guggenheim Museum,
Bilbao, Spain (1997).

Philippine Architecture
Understanding the roots of Philippine architecture is an interesting adventure as you
revisit your heritage and discover how the lives of Filipinos from different periods of our
history were reflected through structures of houses, churches, mosques, temples,
government buildings, cultural centers and many others. Just by reviewing our history as
a nation, the Philippines is a melting pot of various cultures not just from its Western
colonizers but even from its neighbors in Asia even before the Spaniards came. Our
country’s history produced a conglomeration of architectural design which still exists at
present.
Pre-Hispanic Era
The earliest records of pre-colonial architecture in the Philippines are rock shelters
and caves in Palawan. Early Filipinos are nomadic since they are constantly in search for
food through hunting or fishing so they mainly rely on nature when creating shelter and
do not need to build permanent structures. With the development of tools, tent-like
shelters and tree houses were also created to serve as their abode. As farming became
a stable source of food, the locals were accustomed to creating permanent structures to
serve as their home. The houses of the natives before the Spanish colonization were
predominantly rectangular in shape and built on stilts so it may be lifted and be
transported to a new site. Several factors also affect the type of materials and
configuration of houses such as the difference of climate and topography of numerous
Filipino groups in different parts of the country. For instance, there are variations when it
comes to pre-Hispanic houses of those from Ifugao, the bahay kubo (nipa hut) from the
lowlands and the Maranao’s very intricate torogan house. Beautifully designed mosques
were also widespread in the Mindanao region as early as 14th and 15th century due to
the emergence of the Islamic religion even before the arrival of the conquistadores.
Spanish Colonial Era
The arrival of Spanish conquerors introduced the Antillean style of architecture. This
type of architecture is European (but originated from Central America and not Spain)
which was tweaked to suit the tropical climate of the Philippines and thereafter, had its
own Filipino and unique character. Aside from houses, Mother Spain also bestowed its
influence on the architecture of churches, the symbolism of its major endowment in the
Philippines, Catholicism.
The most glorious colonial churches are still standing firm and most of them are found
in the Visayan islands of Panay, Cebu and Bohol, Ilocos Regions, Southern Luzon
particularly in Laguna and Batangas. According to architectural experts, most of the
colonial churches are Spanish or Mexican baroque based on the evident elements. It is
also notable that the construction of these churches was mainly influenced by the
environmental conditions of the country which would constantly experience natural
disasters (typhoon and earthquake) and human destruction as well (fire and attacks)
during that time.
One thing that we must appreciate from these churches is how they were crafted with
Asian Moorish style and elements. It is not well-known that during the Spanish period,
Chinese and Muslim elements in architectural style became part of the Catholic Church
structures. This is due to the fact that mostly Filipinos are inexperienced with the
construction of stone buildings. Master builders and artisans who participated in the
creation of the churches were Chinese and Muslims from the South. Chinese influence
are shown through red air-dried bricks which were produced from a mixture of coral lime
and/or loam and sugar cane juice and lion figures made of granite apparent in front of
San Agustin Church. On the other hand, Moorish and Islamic style is apparent in deeply
incised relief carvings of church facades and its interior. We learned from Philippine
History that there was obligatory construction work imposed on natives in non-Muslim
areas during that period but most of them involved cutting, transporting and processing
the materials to build the churches.
American and Japanese Era
The 1896 Philippine Revolution paved the way to the country’s independence from
Spain. However, it became a short-lived liberty when the Americans became the country’s
new invaders. There was a drastic change on the architectural design which was
introduced by the Americans as they establish the civil government. A lot of structures
were built to serve as government buildings from cities to municipalities. The design and
style of the establishments were akin to Greek or Roman constructions.
Famous American architects such as William Parsons and Edgar Bourne started the
proto-modernist way of designing constructions and they were commonly unadorned
facades together with large windows. Another prestigious master designer during that
time was American architect and urban planner Daniel Burnham. He was the one
responsible for creating the master plans for Manila and Baguio. His contributions to the
local architecture together with Parsons were the Kahn system of concrete
reinforcements and the introduction of hollow blocks, the use of anti-termite hardwood
and the mass fabrication of building types.
American architecture influence in the Philippines can be classified in two types; the
so-called first-generation Filipino architects who studied architecture and engineering in
the United States who were sponsored by the colonial masters and the Second-
generation architects who emerged in the late 1920s and 1930s.
The first generation exemplifies combined Beaux Arts elements with a touch of
modernism promoting the ideas of utility in architecture.
The second generation on the other hand introduced the Art Deco portraying exotic
embellishments.
The Japanese invasion during World War II lasted only for three years and did not
bring any significant architectural change in the Philippines.
The Late Twentieth Century
During this period in Philippine history starting in the 60’s architects started to merge
modernist style with the use of traditional and local materials.
And in the 70’s Former first Lady Imelda Marcos popularized a national architectural
style through the regime’s ostentatious building projects using indigenous materials and
icons.
The New Millennium
At present, the Philippines has embraced the tripartite decision of columnar
architecture (Tower-on-the-Podium) for skyscrapers. More micro-cities such as Rockwell
Center and Bonifacio Global City are developing.
The Filipino architects nowadays are considered to be “late modernists” and
eventually “neo-modernists” or “super modernists”.
Modern commercial buildings are known for their unpredictability and orchestrated
chaos exuding the architecture of deconstruction vibe just like The Gramercy Residences.
The clamor to fight climate change has generated “green architecture” to minimize
the negative results of modernity and building high rise structures. The current trend is to
improve efficiency of constructed buildings while moderating the use of energy.
True enough, the evolution of Philippine architecture is a source of pride for Filipinos.
Let us make sure that we contribute in the preservation of our cultural heritage through
the structures of the past which will make us appreciate our identity as a nation.

Places of Work ship

A place of worship is a specially designed structure or consecrated space where
individuals or a group of people such as a congregation come to perform acts of devotion,
veneration, or religious study. A building constructed or used for this purpose is
sometimes called a house of worship. Temples, churches, synagogues and mosques are
examples of structures created for worship. A monastery, particularly for Buddhists, may
serve both to house those belonging to religious orders and as a place of worship for
visitors. Natural or topographical features may also serve as places of worship, and are
considered holy or sacrosanct in some religions; the rituals associated with the Ganges
river are an example in Hinduism.
Under International Humanitarian Law and the Geneva Conventions, religious
buildings are offered special protection, similar to the protection guaranteed hospitals
displaying the Red Cross or Red Crescent. These international laws of war bar firing upon
or from a religious building.
Religious architecture expresses the religious beliefs, aesthetic choices, and
economic and technological capacity of those who create or adapt it, and thus places of
worship show great variety depending on time and place.