MICENAE AND THE BRONZE AGE OF GREECE

by William Rowbotham

Table of Contents:
• Greece in the Bronze Age
• The Rise of Palaces
• The Palace System
• The Palace of Nestor at Pylos
• The Texts from Pylos
• The Citadel at Tiryns
• Mycenae, "Rich in Gold"

GREECE IN THE BRONZE AGE

Palaces first appear on the Greek mainland towards the end of the Bronze Age, say about 1400 BC,
with the phenomenon lasting until about 1200 BC. This is the period conventionally known as Late
Helladic IIIA-IIIB - principally based on the styles of pottery in use at the time. It was generally a
prosperous period, dominated by powerful kingdoms and empires - Egypt, Mesopotamia and the
Hittites in their Anatolian stronghold. But it was a highly competitive period as well, with the various
great powers fighting to impose their dominance in the region and to control the trade routes along
which flowed the goods they all prized. Everything linked up in the coastal strip which ran along the
eastern end of the Mediterranean, from Egypt to Anatolia, known as the Levant. The Incense Road
from Yemen ran through here and the Silk Road out of Central Asia ended here. Trading ships from
the Levant plied the waters of the Eastern Mediterranean, exchanging luxury manufactures and exotic
goods for the products of North Africa, the Aegean and beyond.
The Mycenaean Greeks were very much involved in all of this activity and their highly distinctive
pottery (such as the pitcher shown at right) has been found very widely distributed throughout the
region. Some idea of the goods involved is known from the cargo of a Canaanite merchant ship
recovered from the bottom of the sea near Ulu Burun on the southern coast of Turkey. It was carrying
pottery from Cyprus, Greece and the Levant containing olives, grain wine and terebinth resin (used in
making perfume). Ingots of tin from Anatolia, copper from Cyprus and glass from Syria were found
along with various items of bronze, faience objects and jewellery. It would seem that the main exports
of the Greeks were agricultural - wine, olive oil and woollens.

The Greeks were apparently one of the major players of the day. We have letters, found in the Hittite
royal archives at Hattusas, addressed to the king of the land of Ahhiyawa and calling him "brother" and
putting him on a par with the kings of Babylon and the pharaoh of Egypt. It seems pretty clear that
Ahhiyawa refers to Achaea, the Homeric term for Greece - although the idea of a unified kingdom does
not entirely square with Homer's description of Mycenaean society nor with the evidence produced by
archaeology. Both of these sources suggest a fragmented society, dominated by highly competitive
warlords.
 Map 1
Mycenaean
Palaces

In many aspects of its material culture at least, the Mycenaeans owed an enormous debt to the Minoan
civilization of Crete which had dominated the Aegean world for much of the second millennium BC.
At some point in the fifteenth century BC, Mycenaean Greeks from the Mainland appear to have
conquered Crete. The Cretan palaces were all destroyed, save only the one at Knossos which was
maintained by the new rulers. However, the design of Mainland palaces owed little (if anything) to
those found in Crete and seem to have served a somewhat different function.

THE RISE OF PALACES

No building which can be confidently identified as a palace has survived any earlier than Late Helladic
III, although part of a large Late Helladic I building, including a courtyard, was uncovered at Peristeria
in the south-western Peloponnese and traces of earlier walls have been found underlying the later
buildings at Mycenae and Tiryns in the Argolid. The earliest definite remains of a palatial building,
dating to near the end of the LHIIIA period, were uncovered near the Menelaion outside Sparta in the
Peloponnese. The site had been occupied for several centuries at this point (some badly eroded Middle
Helladic walls were found). But the only suggestion of any earlier large-scale construction was the fact
that some re-used stone blocks were used to construct the latest building. That structure was based, like
all subsequent palaces, on the megaron plan. A megaron is essentially an rectangular building with
projecting walls forming a porch at one end. This basic single-roomed plan could be and generally was
elaborated by the addition of other rooms. At the Menelaion, long corridors ran down either side of the
central megaron separating it from rows of storage rooms and possibly a stairway to an upper storey.

Figure 1
Isometric view of the Menelaion
The evidence of the Shaft Graves (see below) at Mycenae testify to an enormous concentration of
wealth and power into the hands of a very few people during the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries BC.
Palaces, with their extensive storage facilities and associated workshops, are clearly the seats of power
of this elite. Insofar as can be determined by the surviving palaces, they are predominantly secular in
character, unlike Crete where religious practices seem most important. As is the case on Crete, purely
domestic and residential suites cannot be identified - presumably they were located on the upper floors
and hence did not survive.

The Palace System

Homer's description of Achaean society seems to be reflected in the number and distribution of palaces
throughout the Greek Mainland. The remains of palaces have been found at Mycenae, Tiryns, Thebes,
Pylos and Athens. The presence of monumental tombs known as tholoi suggest that other centres of
wealth and power were located at Amyklae in Laconia; at Eleusis, Marathon and Brauron in Attica;
and at Delphi and Orchomenos in Central Greece. Remains of palatial buildings are currently being
excavated at the site of Iolkos in Thessaly. The presence of so many centres in such a warlike society
would seem to indicate political fragmentation - at best a some sort of loose confederation under the
hegemony of one of a number of kings. Even with a relatively small area, such as the Argolid or
Attica, there appear to have been a number of important centres. The nature of the relationship
between Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos, Midea and Asine in the former region is unclear - were they allies or
were the smaller centres all under the dominance of Mycenae? It is difficult to imagine the
circumstances under which the latter would tolerate the existence of the massive fortress at Tiryns,
only a few kilometres away unless it was somehow under its control.
Fortified citadels are characteristic of the LHIII Period and all of the major excavated palaces seem to
have them, with the conspicuous exception of Pylos. At Mycenae the earliest phase of Cyclopean
Walls were erected in the 14th century BC - LHIIIA potsherds were found sealed beneath the north
wall. In the absence of any external threats at this early date, they should probably be seen as reflecting
internal conflict within the Mycenaean world. Their destruction, when it does come in the late 13th or
early 12 century BC, seems to be the result of civil wars rather than invasion. According to the
Classical tradition, the various Mycenaean states were almost constantly at war with one another. Two
separate wars were fought against Thebes - the legend of the 'Seven Against Thebes' which failed to
capture the city and the attack of the Epigoni, a generation later, which ended in its destruction.

THE PALACE OF NESTOR AT PYLOS

The Bay of Navarino from Ano Englianos

According to Homer, Pylos was the home of the hero Nestor, the eldest and wisest of the Greeks who
fought at Troy. The site is located on an oblong hill (170 x 90 metres) known as Ano Englianos ("the
hill of the Englishman"), overlooking the Bay of Navarino in the southwest Peloponnese. It is nearly 6
kilometres inland but commands clear views of the coastline in both directions. Excavations began in
1939 but were cut short by World War II and the civil war that followed. The principal work was done
from 1952-64 by Carl Blegen.
Evidence of a Middle Helladic town was found down the slope but all earlier buildings had been
removed from the summit prior to the building of the palace during the Late Helladic IIIA period.
Although the site evidently lacked the cyclopean masonry found at Tiryns and Mycenae, a gateway
was found at the north-eastern end and there are disconnected stretches of masonry suggest some kind
of fortifications.

Figure 2
Pylos: Site Plan

The surviving remains of the palace belong to the Late Helladic IIIB period and consist of four
separate buildings - the Main Building; the Southwest Building; a Workshop; and a Wine Magazine.
These apparently replaced earlier (LHIIIA) structures which have almost entirely disappeared.
Most of the surviving walls were built of stone rubble but some trimmed ashlar blocks were used for
external facades. Indications are that the walls of the upper storeys were made out of mud brick, a
much lighter material. Wood was used to provide a framework for the walls, to frame doors and
windows and for the columns to support the ceilings. The walls were regularly plastered - with lime in
the important rooms and with clay elsewhere. Floors were paved with a kind of concrete consisting of
sand and lime mixed with gravel or broken pottery.

Figure 3
Pylos. Plan of the Palace
 Figure 4
Pylos. View of the Palace

The Main Building measures about 55 x 30 metres with its corners oriented toward the cardinal points.
Most of the fine ashlar from the exterior walls has been robbed but some does survive to a height of ca.
80 cm on the north-eastern side. A stretch of tumbled masonry suggests it stood at least 3½ metres
high while the foundations indicate it was laid out in a series of off-sets. The Propylon (Rooms 1 & 2)
was the main entrance to the palace proper and was laid out in the shape of a capital 'H' with a porch
on either side. To one side of the door was a square emplacement that Blegen, probably rightly,
interpreted as a sentry box. Rooms 7 and 8, to the left of the Propylon, were apparently archive rooms
and produced a huge quantity of Linear B tablets. These were filed on shelves or in baskets (300 were
found in a large lidded pithos) and dealt principally with receipts and expenditures. The walls of the
porches were decorated with murals including a procession of figures (1) along with animals, buildings
and seated women (2).

Figure 5
Pylos. Propylon

Figure 6
Pylos. Archive Room 8

Those whose business took them into the palace proceeded into a modest Forecourt (3), paved with
stucco. There was what appears to have been a Waiting Room (10) to the left, lined with plastered
benches and provided with a large pithos on a stand. Since the adjacent Pantry (9) contained over 500
kylikes, the pithos presumably contained wine.
The core of the Palace was a megaron with a large throne room, an antechamber and a portico. The
Portico (4) was supported by a pair of wooden columns, set on stone bases and contained another
sentry box. The Antechamber (5), like the Portico, had a plaster floor divided into squares painted with
geometric and curvilinear designs. The walls were decorated frescoes, of which fragments were found,
depicting kilted men bearing various objects and robed men and women leading a bull (to slaughter?).
Doors at either end of the room gave access to the east and west wings of the Palace, while another in
the middle (with a sentry box) led to the Throne Room.

Figure 7
Pylos. Throne Room

The Throne Room (6) is a spacious hall (ca. 13 x 11 metres) with a large circular hearth (diameter = 4
metres) in the centre, surrounded by 4 columns (perhaps supporting a balcony). The hearth was coated
with plaster and was painted with spiral and geometric decoration. In the middle of the right-hand wall
was a throne dais next to which were two shallow basins linked by a channel (for libations?). The floor
was laid out (somewhat sloppily) in squares with the same sorts of patterns as in the Antechamber-
except for the octopus in front of the throne. The walls were painted with griffins and lions behind the
throne and a male figure playing a lyre (Orpheus?) in the east corner.
 Throne Room at Pylos (reconstruction)

Two corridors ran on either side of the Throne Room leading to storerooms and pantries in the West
Wing and to oil magazines (23, 24 and 27) at the rear of the building. The function of the larger rooms
(30-34) in the East Wing is unknown. Stairways presumably led to the Domestic Quarters-perhaps
Banqueting Halls in the East Wing.

Figure 8
Pylos. Throne Room & Magazines

A secondary Megaron (46 and 48) lay in the Eastern Quarter of the complex, entered by a small
Portico (44) off the Forecourt - the so-called 'Queen's Hall' (although there is absolutely no evidence to
indicate it belonged to her). The decoration included large-scale lions and griffins but much of it is
unreconstructable. To the rear of the Queen's Hall, but not directly linked to it, was a Bathroom (43)
with a clay larnax against the wall. A stand with two large jars (for oil or water?) was also found and
there were a pair of kylikes in the tub. Presumably, it was here that the "lovely Polycaste who was the
youngest of the daughters of Nestor ... had bathed Telemachos" when he came in search of his father,
Odysseus.

Figure 9
Pylos. The Queen's Megaron
 Figure 10
Pylos. The Bathroom

The Southwest Building was badly eroded and disturbed by later buildings but contained many of the
features of the Palace. These include an open Courtyard (63), and a Portico leading to a Throne Room
(65) but perpendicular to it. The decoration of these rooms included battle scenes and hunting scenes -
a more aristocratic tone. The function of many of the rest of the rooms is not clear although some were
certainly storage rooms and pantries.
The Northeast Building included workshops and certainly functioned as an Armoury - 500 bronze
arrowheads where found in Room 100. There is a Portico (94) running for an undetermined distance
along the front and a curious room which Blegen believed was a Shrine (93) - a pedestal he believed
was an altar stood in front of it.
The Wine Magazine includes Rooms 104 and 105, a single unit lying at the northern corner of the
Palace. There were rows of pithoi set in benches and a number of dockets bearing the ideogram for
wine.

The Texts from Pylos

The clay tablets found at the palace were all written in the syllabic Linear B script which Michael
Ventris demonstrated to be an early form of Greek (although some scholars still disagree). Over 1200
have turned up - by far the largest number on the Mainland - the majority from the Archive Room (8).
The bulk of the them consist of inventories and lists of commodities. A number name various
personnel and mention places nearby. They indicate the presence of a highly organized bureaucracy
which kept detailed records of all of the kingdom's business.
According to the evidence of the texts, social organization at Pylos was clearly hierarchical. At the
head of it was the wanaka, ('king') who was also the largest landholder. Under him was the raweketa
('leader of the people') who also owned extensive estates but whose role seems mainly religious. They
stood at the head of a landed aristocracy known as the eqeta ('followers'). These men possessed estates,
wore a distinctive type of dress, owned chariots and presumably provided the officer class of the army.

Figure 11
Pylos. Fresco of Warriors

The kingdom was divided into two provinces, one ruled from Pu-ro (Pylos) and the other from Re-u-
ko-to-ro (location unknown). Each of these was divided into a number of districts (16 are known) with
its own governor(?) - korete. These were required to contribute supplies of certain raw materials to the
capital-only 2 of the 6 (ox hides and woollen cloth) have been identified. The local gentry were known
as the tereta but there are numerous references to craftsmen of various types. Bronze smiths were
accorded special status and were exempt from certain taxes. There are a number of references to the
damos ('people) who apparently held land in common. Slavery certainly existed as an institution and
there are frequent references to female workers, especially weavers. Many apparently came from the
Eastern Aegean and were presumably prizes of war (the fate of the Trojan Women was similar). A
number of the korete also held religious offices - apparently these were open to women as well as men.
The most important document is a long list of gifts sent to a number of gods and goddesses and to
various sanctuaries. The gods include such well known Greek gods as Zeus, Hermes and Dionysos but
the principal god seems to have been Poseidon. The goddesses apparently include Hera and Artemis
but the term Potnija— the 'Lady' of such-and-such a place - is most common. Gifts to the gods
included gold vessels and 'slaves' both male and female. It may have been considered an honour to
serve the deity in that capacity. Two sanctuaries seem particularly important - one to Poseidon (Po-se-
da-on-e) in Pylos and another known as Pakijane, belonging to an unnamed goddess.

THE CITADEL OF TIRYNS

Unlike Pylos, Tiryns was strongly fortified, sitting high atop a hill and dominating the southern
Argolid. It may have been subordinate to Mycenae a few miles to the north, guarding the approaches
from the sea which was a mere 100 metres away in the Bronze Age.

Map 2
Tiryns. Settlement Map

The site had been occupied as early as the Neolithic although, because of later building activity, little
has survived from that period apart from a few potsherds. The earliest structures belong to the Early
Helladic II period (mid-3rd millennium BC). Substantial houses have been found all over the site,
including the slopes of the hill, but the central feature was a large circular building about 28 metres in
diameter which sat at the summit of the hill (underlying the later palace). It consists of a central space
about 12.2 metres in diameter surrounded by concentric brick walls (see Plan X) with radiating walls
running from the centre to the periphery. The walls are substantial and indicative of a tall structure—
although its precise function is unknown. It may be a shrine or some sort of mortuary building or
merely a watchtower. Occupation continued into the Middle Helladic (the first half of the 2nd
millennium BC) - although there may have been an hiatus between the two periods. Houses were
arranged on a series of terraces which had been created by cutting and filling the surface of the hill.
The Late Helladic period (1600-1100 BC) saw the site reach new heights of splendour with the
construction of the palace and its immense walls (later Greeks believed that they must have been built
by the Cyclopes). The earliest surviving remains of this period found on the site date to the 14th
century BC but it underwent major renovations during this following years. The fortifications were
enlarged and extended on at least two occasions and, although the bulk of the remains date to the late
13th century, there is clear evidence that there had been previous palaces on the summit. Architectural
elements belonging to its immediate predecessor were incorporated into the latest version and fresco
fragments from an even earlier building were found in the fill.
 Tiryns. Aerial of the Palace from the south.

The Fortifications
The walls were built in 3 phases and were gradually extended until they included the entire hill. The
earliest version was erected early in the 14th century BC and enclosed the higher, southern part of the
hill. It followed a somewhat irregular course to take in a roughly quadrangular area measuring roughly
75 x 125 metres. The main gate was on the east side, underlying what was to become the propylon, the
outer entrance of the later palace. Unfortunately, the exact layout of the interior is unknown owing to
the damage done by all of the later construction in the area.
These fortifications were expanded at some time around 1300 BC. A large bastion was built at the
southern end of the citadel, where it was most vulnerable. A small doorway in the outer wall gave
access to a stairway which led up to the interior of the citadel. The ramparts were also extended to the
east, to enclose the area in front of the former gate and a new entrance was created at the north end of
the small courtyard thus created. Later on, the gate was apparently moved further to the north and was
protected by new walls which flanked it and extended beyond it to create a sort of corridor. A similar
arrangement is found at the Lion Gate at Mycenae (see below). It seems highly probable that the so-
called Middle Citadel to the north was fortified at about the same time.

Figure 12
Tiryns. Plans of Successive
Fortresses

Figure 13
Tiryns. Eastern Casemates
 Figure 14
Tiryns. Casemate

Figure 15
Tiryns. South Casemates

The third phase of construction, which took place in the latter part of the 13th century BC, saw the
fortifications reach their final form. Two sets of galleries were attached to the southern and eastern
side of the walls, each consisting of a passageway with a number of rooms opening off it - six on the
east and five on the south. They were all constructed using the corbelling technique, where each course
of stonework overlaps the one below it to form a pointed vault. These blocks were meant to support an
extension of the terraces above. The corbelling technique allowed the builders to economize on stone
while creating some useful storage space in the bargain. On the western side of the hill, a curving
bastion was built to protect a winding stairway which led to a small postern gate. The defenses on that
side were further strengthened by the addition of a tower in the southwest corner. The lower terrace of
the hill, running to the north, was fortified during this period, effectively doubling the area of the site.
The new walls were massive, nearly 7 metres thick, and contained a number of 'casemates' (chambers
built into the thickness of the wall). A couple of long tunnels ran beneath the walls on the western side
to underground springs in the fields beyond. The main entrance was still on the eastern side of the
fortress, at the end of a long ramp running parallel to the new ramparts. The gate opened onto a
corridor (50) which also ran parallel to the walls, leading north to the lower citadel and south to the
palace. At the southern end of the passage was the so-called 'Great Gate' (53) and beyond that, a
covered corridor (54) which led to a double doorway (55). These represent the successive entrances of
the previous phase at the site.

Tiryns. Great Gate

The Palace
At the end of the series of passages and gates was a trapezoidal courtyard (56) dating to the second
phase of the fortress. During the final phase a colonnade was built along its eastern side, supported by
the galleries below. The latter could be reached by a stairway leading from the south side of the
courtyard. On the east side was the Great Propylon (1), the monumental entrance to the palace proper.
Typically, it is laid out in the shape of a capital 'H' with porches on either side of the doorway. In this
case, the porch roofs are supported by pairs of columns rather than single ones as at Pylos. A door in
the north wall of the western porch leads to the east wing of the palace.
Beyond the Great Propylon is the outer courtyard (2) of the palace which occupied all of the southern
part of the upper citadel. Unfortunately, the area was largely eroded and its restoration is somewhat
conjectural. There were probably porticoes along the eastern and western sides and rows of rooms
behind them. A second, smaller propylon (3) was located on the northern side leading to the Central
Court (4) of the palace. To the east of the gateway was a small rectangular building with three rooms,
each of which opened into the outer courtyard. These have been variously interpreted as guard rooms,
archive rooms, workshops or simply store rooms. The Central Court was bounded by porticoes on
three sides, on the south, east and west. Essentially this was a gathering place for people to observe the
religious ceremonies which focussed on the circular altar in the southern half of the court.

Figure 16
Tiryns. Plan of Palace

Figure 17
Tiryns.Palace

The 'throne room' suite, the Great Megaron (5-7), is virtually identical to that at Pylos, a megaron
consisting of a portico with two columns, a broad antechamber and the throne room itself. The
principal difference lies in the fact that here there are three doorways instead of one between the
portico and the antechamber. The main room has the typical setting of four columns (the hearth has not
been preserved) and there was a throne base up against the east wall. The floor was plastered and, as at
Pylos, decorated with painted squares - in this case depicting octopuses and dolphins.
The West Wing of the palace (8-14) is only accessible from the Central Court, through a doorway in
the north-eastern corner. Most of the southern part of the wing has been destroyed but the area next to
the megaron includes a couple of residential units (12a and 13/13a) along with the so-called Bathroom
(11). The floor of the latter is a single large slab of limestone which slopes slightly to drain the water
away. There is a row of holes arranged in pairs around the perimeter of the room, presumably to
support a waterproof dado running along the walls. The surplus water drained into an adjacent light
well (10) and from there to the main drainage system of the palace. The combination of Bath and light
well suggests the room was used for cult purposes rather than mere personal hygiene. Further north is a
stairwell (10a & b) leading to the upper storey of the palace. Finally, a corridor (15) runs around the
back of the Throne Room Suite to the East Wing.
 The main feature of the East Wing is the Small
Megaron (17-18). It is about half the size of the
Throne Room Suite and differs from it in that there is
no antechamber and the hearth in the main room is
rectangular rather than round. Its function is unknown
but the usual interpretation is that it was for the use of
the queen. To the south is a small forecourt (16) while
to the east is suite of rooms, some of which had been
decorated with painted plaster floors depicting
dolphins and octopuses.
To the northwest of the Great Megaron was a stairway
which led down some 2 metres to the Middle Terrace
(49) of the citadel. It is enclosed on three sides by the
thick ramparts of the second phase of construction. It
is not entirely clear what function of this space was
because it has barely been scratched by excavation but
the remains of a pottery kiln suggest it may have been
used for workshops. To the west was a curved
extension of the third phase ramparts which protected
a long staircase (47) which led to a postern gate
running through the wall to the outside. The entrance
Tiryns. Two Ladies in a Chariot to the stairway was further protected by a square
tower (48).
The Lower Terrace
The Lower Terrace, the long spur running north from the palace, was first fortified at the beginning of
the 13th century BC when it was enclosed by a huge wall some 7 metres thick. Until fairly recently the
area had never been properly explored and was generally assumed to have been devoid of buildings. It
was thought that it designed to be used as a refuge for the villagers who lived in the surrounding
countryside. However, restoration work in the 1960's led to systematic excavations in the area which
have revealed that the area was in fact crowded with buildings.

Figure 18
Tiryns. Plan of Lower Terrace

The structures were laid out along laneways running north-south and included workshops as well as
residential units. The terrace was accessible from the main gate by turning right and following the
passageway. There were also smaller gates in the southwest and north which led directly into the area.
The buildings were all destroyed in a particularly severe earthquake around 1200 BC. Thereafter, the
site was occupied by a scatter of smaller houses until occupation ceased at the end of the Bronze Age
about 150 years later.

MYCENAE,"RICH IN GOLD"
Homer tells us that the most powerful king among the Greeks at Troy was Agamemnon who ruled
from his mighty fortress at Mycenae, "rich in gold". When Schliemann began his investigation of the
site in the 1870's he found that the ancient description was no exaggeration. Subsequent excavations,
chiefly by Christos Tsountas, Alan Wace and George Mylonas, have only confirmed this.
The citadel was located at the top of a fairly steep, highly defensible hill which dominates the
surrounding plain. There were apparently several small villages scattered in the hills around it - often
their locations are only indicated by the rock-cut tombs nearby. There is no dense buildup of
occupation normally associated with a city. The picture is more like that of a medieval castle
surrounded by small hamlets and isolated farmsteads.

Figure 19
Mycenae. Plan of Citadel

The earliest remains on the hill date to the 14th century BC when the summit was first fortified.
Unfortunately, these (and subsequent building activity) have destroyed any trace of earlier occupation.
However, the presence nearby of Middle Helladic cemeteries and even earlier material point to a long
occupation, perhaps beginning in the third millennium BC. In the 13th century, two subsequent
extensions of the original ramparts brought a large part of the southern slope, including the existing
cemetery known as Grave Circle A, within their protection. At its greatest extent, the site only covered
some 3 hectares.

Mycenae. View of the palace from the southwest.

The elite and their retainers lived in the palace at the summit of the citadel but their needs were served
by people living beyond its walls. On the ridge to the northwest are the remains of a storehouse which
contained large pithoi and other vessels used to store wine. To the west of the citadel is a row of three
adjacent buildings with another in behind them to the east. The central one is known as the 'House of
the Oil Merchant' and had been destroyed by fire. In the basement were a number of pithoi and a
stoppered vessels known as stirrup jars. Some 38 clay tablets were found, written in a form of Greek
script known as Linear B. The records deal with various commodities including oil, wool and spices.
Next door, to the north, is a building known as the 'House of Shields" which produced a number of
carved ivory pieces, including a number of miniature shields - probably inlays for furniture. On the
other side is a building known as the 'House of the Sphinxes' from an ivory carving found there which
shows a pair of sphinxes flanking a column in an heraldic pose. The texts found there suggest the
occupant was concerned with herbs, spices and various condiments. The 'West House' was badly
damaged but some texts were found dealing with perfumed oils. The excavators have described these
buildings as private businesses, owned and operated by independent merchants but it seems more
plausible that they were controlled directly by the palace.

Figure 20
Mycenae. Plan of Houses

Grave Circle B
Also beyond the citadel walls were the graves of the earliest kings of Mycenae and their families,
dating to the beginning of the Late Helladic I period (ca. 1650- 1550 BC). They were enclosed by a
low circular wall about 28 metres in diameter. The circle partly underlay a later tholos tomb, known as
the Tomb of Klytemnestra, and was discovered in the course of restoration work to it in 1951. Only a
small segment and a few stones of the encircling wall have survived In part this is due to the
construction of the Tomb of Klytemnestra but most of the destruction resulted from the building of the
modern road to the site. It was a double wall of roughly cut stone slabs with a fill of earth and smaller
stones.

Figure 21
Mycenae. Plan of Circle B

Figure 22
Mycenae. Grave in Circle B

The small cemetery contained 10 small cist graves typical of the immediately preceding Middle
Helladic period - simple boxes built of stone slabs with little evidence of wealth or status. The rest of
the graves, 14 in all, are what are known as shaft graves. These were larger and deeper, often
containing more than one burial. They were much richer too.
The Shaft Graves are rectangular and anywhere up to 4 metres deep. The largest, Grave Gamma,
measures 3.8 x 2.8 metres and the smallest, Grave XI, is about two-thirds that size. The lower sections
of the side walls were shored up with masonry or brickwork forming a ledge a metre or so up. This
was used to support a roof which was made of either timber beams or flagstones. The rest of the shaft
was filled with dirt forming a small mound at the top. There is evidence of some sort of funeral feast -
cooked bones and broken drinking vessels were heaped up on top of the fill before the mounding was
complete. Finally, some sort of marker - usually a carved stele - was erected on top. All of this, of
course, had to be removed to permit the interment of additional bodies.

Figure 22
Mycenae. Duck
Vase from Circle B

Figure 23
Mycenae. Jewellery
from Circle B

The bodies were laid out, normally extended and on their backs,
on a bed of pebbles at the bottom of the shaft. They were decked
out in all of their finery, their robes decorated with gold
ornaments and wearing their best jewellery. Grave goods
consisting of offerings of food and drink in clay and metal
containers along with personal items such as weapons were
placed next to the deceased. The most significant finds were an
electrum mask found in Grave Omicron and a vase made out of
rock crystal, carved in the shape of a duck. The number and
quality of the grave goods is far less than those from the slightly
later Grave Circle A. However it does represent a marked
increase in wealth compared with graves from earlier periods.

Mycenae. Grave Upsilon

in Circle B

Grave Circle A
Circle A is very similar in layout to Circle B but slightly later, dating to the period from about 1580-
1500 BC. It is located just inside the Lion Gate but only after the extension of the ramparts in the 13th
century BC - before that it was outside the walls. It was about the same size as Circle B, about 27
metres in diameter, and was surrounded by a similar parapet wall. The wall here is much better
preserved and consists of a double row of vertical slabs about 1 metre high. The space in between the
row was filled with earth and the whole thing capped with more stone slabs. The entrance lies to the
north, facing the Lion Gate, and it similar in construction to the rest of the wall.
 Figure 24
Mycenae. Plan of Circle A

Figure 25
Mycenae. Circle A from the Lion
Gate

Figure 26
Mycenae. Circle A from the Ramp

Within the circle were 6 shaft graves and a number of earlier cists. The shafts are more or less oblong
and range in size from 3 x 3.5 metres (II) and 4.5 x 6.5 metres (VI) and are up to 4 metres deep. They
were built in a similar fashion to those in Circle B. The remains of 19 inhumations (8 men, 9 women
and 2 children) were found accompanied by rich grave goods - far more than was the case in Circle B.
A large number of bronze swords and daggers, many with engraved decoration (swords) or in lays
(daggers) on their blades, accompanied the males. The best examples, inlaid with hunting or 'nature'
scenes come from Graves IV and V. Apparently they had been wrapped in linen. Spearheads,
arrowheads and knives were also found beside men but there were no shields or body armour.
However, flakes of boar's tusks were found in Grave IV which may have come from a helmet.

Mycenae. Mask of Agamemnon

 Figure 26
Mycenae. Objects from Circle A

Figure 27
Mycenae. Jewellery from Circle A

Gold masks had been placed on the faces of five men in Graves IV and V. By far the most
accomplished of these is the so-called 'Mask of Agamemnon'. It is so different from the others that
some scholars have questioned its authenticity. Women wore gold diadems or gold bands on their
heads and their clothing was decorated with gold discs. Over 700 such discs, decorated with spirals,
floral patterns and animals, were found in Grave II alone. Gold rings with carved bezels and gold
figures (including one of a tripartite shrine), gold buttons and boxes covered with gold-leaf were also
found. Gold and silver cups had been placed next to both men and women. In Grave IV, three rhytons
were found - the silver Siege Rhyton (which shows an attack on a city), a gold rhyton in the shape of a
lion's head and another of silver and gold in the shape of a bull's head. Stelae, both plain and carved
with reliefs, were found in the fill of the circle - it has been suggested that the plain ones had marked
women's graves. Three of the decorated ones bore reliefs of men in chariots, possibly hunting but more
likely racing in funeral games.
The Fortifications
The fortification walls at Mycenae are best preserved along the northern side where they are up to 7.5
metres thick stand nearly 12 metres high in places. They were constructed for the most part of huge,
irregularly shape stone blocks of the sort described as "Cyclopean" by later Greeks. There were two
principal entrances, the Lion Gate at the west end and the Postern Gate on the north side. There is also
a 'sally port' at the eastern end which was used to sneak in and out of the citadel during a siege. The
entire circuit at its greatest extent measured something like 900 metres
The Lion Gate was built c. 1250 BC, during the second phase of occupation when the ramparts were
extended to include Grave Circle A. It was approached by a ramp that ran below steep walls on its
north-eastern side and led to an Outer Court (15 x 7.5 metres) designed to reduce the numbers of any
assaulting force. Since gateways were the weakest part of the defences, this consideration was of
extreme importance. The situation was made even more lethal for the attackers by the presence of a
huge projecting bastion on the south-western side. This enabled the defenders to pour fire into their
unshielded right sides.

Mycenae. Approach to the Lion Gate

The gate itself was built out of massive megalithic blocks. The lintel measures 4.5 x 2 x 0.8 metres; the
jambs are 3 x 1.74 x 0.54 metres; and the threshold (which cracked under its own weight in antiquity)
is 4.56 x 2.31 x 0.88 metres. The blocks frame an opening 3.1 metres high and 2.95 metres wide at the
threshold (it tapers slightly) which was closed by wooden double-doors decorated by bronze
ornaments. Pivot holes were preserved in the lintel and threshold (the latter recently damaged).
Rectangular sockets in the doorjambs held a crossbar, while other recesses received the handles of the
open doors. Above the lintel, the superstructure of the wall was corbelled to leave a 'relieving triangle'
which was covered by a slab whose weight rested only on the lower corners. The slab was carved with
a relief depicting a pair of lions flanking a column (perhaps a symbol for the palace itself) with their
forepaws rested on a pair of altars which supported the column. The heads (now missing) were of a
different material and fastened to the bodies by dowels. They faced outwards towards anyone
approaching the gate. Perhaps the composition was the dynastic coat-of-arms.

Figure 28
Mycenae. Ramparts by Lion Gate
 Figure 29
Mycenae. West Bastion

Figure 30
Mycenae. Lion Gate

Figure 31
Mycenae. North Ramparts & Postern

The Postern Gate (or North Gate) was of similar construction and layout to the Lion Gate (but smaller
and undecorated). A lane led from it to an area of houses in the north-western corner of the site and
continued to link up with the road from the Lion Gate.
The Cult Centre
Just inside the Lion Gate was a small inner court (4 x 4 metres) with a tiny guardhouse or shrine on the
east side. Beyond the court, on either side, were ramps leading to the top of the ramparts. To the west
of the court were the foundations of a building known as the Granary (some vessels with carbonized
seed were found inside) but that does not appear to have been its original function. The remains
probably represent the basement of a multi-storeyed structure, possibly a guardhouse.
Grave Circle A was just about 20 metres inside the Lion Gate and beyond it were a number of houses
on the lower, south-eastern terrace of the hill. These included the House of the Warrior Vase (named
after a vessel found there depicting a file of soldiers), the South House, and the Tsountas House.
 Figure 32
Mycenae. Plan of Cult Area

In the midst of all of the houses is an area known as the Cult Centre which is linked by a circuitous
processional way from the palace on the summit. At the bottom of the hill it makes a sharp turn and
leads directly to a large megaron known as the Tsountas House. There is a plastered square altar in the
forecourt of the adjacent building to the northeast and, within it, a horseshoe-shaped fixture with traces
of burning and a rectangular block which may have served as a slaughtering stone. Fragments of
painted wall plaster were found within the Tsountas house and the building on the other (southwest)
side, including one showing a procession of asses. A plaster tablet shows two women who appear to be
priestesses on either side of an altar and the so-called 'shield goddess'. All of this is pretty clear
evidence of a religious function for the buildings.
To the northwest, at a lower level, is an open area with a circular altar associated with deposits of
ashes, potsherds and animal bones. Next to it is a small building known at the House of Idols,
consisting of a large oblong room with a vestibule and a small annex at the rear. The main room has a
central, plastered dais (no trace of burning) and a row of narrow platforms of varying heights at the
back end. Atop the highest, hidden behind a pillar, was a clay statuette of a goddess with an offering
table before her. In the northwest corner, a window opened onto an outcrop of bare rock-screened from
outside view by a diagonal cross wall. This suggests the deities involved were of the earth and
underworld.

Mycenae. Figures from the

House of the Idols
Behind a screen (?) of 3 columns, a flight of steps led to a small room containing a number of broken
idols, clay snakes, offering tables and pottery. There were both male and female deities, perhaps
representing a pantheon, which may have sat on the other staggered platforms in the main hall.
 Figure 33
Mycenae. Room with the Idols

Figure 34
Mycenae. Fresco of Priestess

Another shrine, the House of Frescoes, lay next door, to the west. The layout was somewhat different -
an anteroom led to a rectangular main hall with a central oblong hearth. Against one long wall was a
clay larnakes (bath tub) while a bench ran along the wall opposite. At the end of the bench was a
square altar with frescoes on its face and on the wall above. Fragments of a presentation scene-
goddesses seated and standing with spear and sword. Horns of consecration were depicted along with a
seated goddess and a priestess carrying what appear to be sheaves of wheat in her hands. A small
annex to the southeast was probably a shrine. A terracotta idol was found there along with glass beads
and pottery.

The Palace
The main approach to the palace is the Great Ramp which begins at the back end Inner Court, just
beyond the Lion Gate. It is between 4 and 5.75 metres wide, paved with cobbles and buttressed by a
large retaining wall. It runs southwards for 24 metres before turning to the east at a landing part way
up the hill. After about 30 metres it branches - one fork leading to the Propylon of the palace and the
other to the Grand Stairway.

Figure 35
Mycenae. Plan of the Palace

Figure 36
Mycenae. Great Ramp
 Figure 37
Mycenae. Palace Terrace

Figure 38
Mycenae. Propylon & Lion Gate

The Palace itself was built on the summit and along massive terraces on the south-western and eastern
slopes of the hill. The official entrance was via an H-shaped Propylon of the sort found at Pylos and
Tiryns (2 single-columned, roofed porticoes). From a small court, a passage leads to the rest of the
palace via the Western Portal. This was been the main entrance to the palace and must have been a
pretty imposing structure. Unfortunately, all that remains is the large threshold. Just to the north is a
small room which may have served as a guardroom. Unfortunately, any rooms to the south have long
since disappeared down the hill when the original terrace collapsed. What is visible of the terrace
today has largely been restored in order to prevent the loss of what remains of the buildings on top.
Beyond the West Portal was a small court with a pair of passageways leading off - one to the domestic
apartments at the top of the hill and the other to the throne room suite. To the south of the court was
the Grand Staircase which led directly from the palace to the Cult Centre and was undoubtedly the
scene of great ceremonial processions. At the far side of the court was a suite of rooms, possibly a set
of guest rooms or offices for palace officials. The Forecourt (11 x 15 metres) was reached directly
from the second passage and is reasonably well-preserved. The upper surface had originally been
plastered and divided into painted squares, similar to the decoration of the palace floors at Pylos.

Mycenae. The Palace Forecourt & Throne Room Suite

On the east side was a megaron of identical design to those found at the other palaces. Facing the court
was a covered Portico, paved with gypsum slabs and with painted plaster walls. There is a threshold at
the north end of the room, indicating that a doorway once led from there to the upper passageway and
the domestic apartments. Part of the base of a stone altar was found near one of the column bases along
with a basin for pouring libations. The antechamber was also decorated with frescoes but they had
been severely damaged by the fire that eventually destroyed the palace and only tiny fragments have
survived. The main room measured 12.95 x 11.5 metres but, like the antechamber, was badly eroded
on the south side where a sizeable chunk of the original terrace had crumbled away. Nevertheless, it is
obvious that it had an identical layout to those at Tiryns and Pylos. In the centre was the standard
circular hearth (d=3.4 metres) built of a heavily plastered ring of stones and surrounded by 4 wooden
columns on stone bases. The lower part of the walls were covered with gypsum slabs, with frescoes
above, while the floor was of stucco, divided by painted lines into squares. The throne, on analogy
with the better preserved palaces, presumably sat against the southern (right-hand) wall. There is no
evidence of a second storey (at least there are no staircases) or of any balcony such as there was at
Pylos.

Figure 39
Mycenae. View from the Palace

Figure 40
Mycenae. Hearth in the Throne
Room

Above the Megaron were the domestic apartments of the royal family but most of whatever was there
was levelled during the construction of a temple dedicated to Hera or Athena.
The Eastern Terraces
To the east, the ground sloped away rather steeply but had been terraced to support the Eastern Wing
of the palace. The buildings were arranged on three different levels but little is preserved of the upper
two. The lowest however has the remains of a number of substantial structures. There is a large block
consisting of a narrow courty flanked by four rooms on the eastern and western sides. This is generally
interpreted as having been a workshop and quarters for various craftsmen and artists. Below it, and
separated from it by a long corridor to the east, was a building known as the House of Columns. The
corridor leads to a small courtyard with porticoes on three of its sides (some of the column bases are
still in place). There is a megaron to the east of the court which suggests that it was a residential unit,
probably for a member of the royal family (the crown prince say). A stairway led to a second storey to
the south of the court but only the cellars of that part of the building have survived. Two other
buildings, Gamma and Delta, stood nearby and seem to have been used for storage but, again, only the
basement rooms survive.

Figure 41
Mycenae. Entrance to Cistern
 Figure 42
Mycenae. Sally Port

The north-eastern corner of the site was only brought within the ramparts during the final phase of
construction, around about 1200 BC. This was made necessary because up until then there had been
one glaring weakness in the defensive scheme - there was no natural source of water on the hill. This
was remedied by carving an underground cistern out of the rock and filling it by means of a tunnel
which ran from a spring on Mount Elias. Access to the cistern was by means of a corbel-vaulted
passageway which descends in three sections to a depth of over 15 metres under the northern section
of ramparts. The lower section of the stairway had been waterproofed with a thick coat of plaster so
that it could serve as an extension of the cistern. Next to the entrance to the passage is a small opening
in the ramparts, a "sally port", and there is another on the wall opposite. Like the stairway, these were
splendid examples of the corbel vaulting technique. They were undoubtedly designed to allow people
to slip in and out of the fortress, unseen by any enemies who happened to be about. There are also the
remains of two small buildings in the area. It has been suggested that Building Beta was an office of
some sort while Building Alpha was used for storage (pithos fragments were found in the cellar
rooms).
Tholos Tombs at Mycenae
The latest kings and queens at Mycenae were buried in what are known as tholos tombs. They were
similar in design to chamber tombs with one important difference. Instead of being hollowed out of the
hillside, tholoi were built out of stone blocks and then covered with earth. Usually the side of a hill
would be cut away to provide space for the construction of a dome-shaped burial chamber (tholos) and
a sloping passage (dromos) leading to a deep doorway (stomion). The tholos was built out of ashlar
blocks using a technique known as corbelling to create the dome. This involved laying the stones so
that each horizontal course slightly overlapped the one below it until the distance was small enough so
that a single slab could be used to close the gap. The dirt from the excavation was replaced until the
tholos was at least partly covered. In later examples, the dromos lined with ashlar blocks as well. With
each burial, the stomion would have been walled shut and the dromos filled with earth.

Mycenae. The Treasury of Atreus

The earliest examples, such as the Tomb of Agisthos, were built of rubble and lack a relieving triangle
above the lintel. Unfortunately, the majority of tombs had been robbed and so the dating scheme is
based on very slender evidence.

Figure 43
Mycenae. Tomb of Agisthos

The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae is the largest and best-preserved of the surviving tholoi. The long
dromos is lined with ashlar blocks, reaching a height of 10 metres where it meets the facade. The
facade is well-preserved (although its decoration has been removed). It was flanked by half-engaged
columns (their bases survive) and has a relieving triangle above the door. Fragments of the relief
decorations survive. The stomion is 5.5 metres high and 5.25 metres deep and was fitted with double
doors in the middle (indicated by the paved threshold and nails in the side walls to secure the door
frame). The tholos rose some 33 courses of masonry (13.7 metres high). Holes with bronze nails may
have held rosettes and other decorative elements, fixed to the walls. A doorway in the north side of the
chamber led to a small side chamber which was a feature of some of the later tombs. A mound of earth
surrounded by a low retaining wall covered the dome (probably in the middle of the 13th century BC).

Figure 44
Mycenae. Treasury of Atreus. Plans

Figure 45
Mycenae. Treasury of Atreus.
Stomion
 Figure 46
Mycenae. Treasury of Atreus.
Interior

Figure 47
Mycenae. Treasury of Atreus. Side
Chamber

Figure 48
Mycenae. Treasury of Atreus.
Ceiling

Figure 49
Mycenae. Tomb of Clytemnestra

The Tomb of Clytemnestra, near the foot of the ramp leading to the Lion's Gate is somewhat later in
date (perhaps ca. 1220 BC). Its dromos was somewhat damaged by the construction of a theatre in
Hellenistic times. Although it had been robbed long ago some artefacts, including gems were
recovered in the fill. It is most likely the tomb that the Greek travel writer Pausanias identified as
belonging to Agamemnon.
The Destruction of Mycenae
The final destruction of Mycenae cannot be precisely dated by evidence found within the palace itself.
There is evidence of a major fire (or fires) but whether this took place during Late Helladic IIIB or
IIIC is uncertain (pottery of the latter type is found in the Granary). Outside the citadel, a number of
buildings were destroyed at or before the end of IIIB, suggesting a state of siege.