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Factors influencing job satisfaction among merchant

seamen
a
Craig J. Forsyth
a
The University of Southwestern Louisiana, Department of Sociology and Anthropology ,
University of Southwestern Louisiana , P.O. Box 40198, Lafayette , Louisiana ,
70504-0198 , USA
Published online: 24 May 2006.

To cite this article: Craig J. Forsyth (1990) Factors influencing job satisfaction among merchant seamen, Maritime
Policy & Management: The flagship journal of international shipping and port research, 17:2, 141-146, DOI:
10.1080/03088839000000064

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03088839000000064

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 Factors influencing job satisfaction
among merchant seamen

CRAIG J. FORSYTH
The University of Southwestern Louisiana, Department of Sociology
and Anthropology, University of Southwestern Louisiana,
P.O. Box 40198, Lafayette, Louisiana 70504-0198, USA

This paper explores the occupational and extra-occupational sources of job

satisfaction in merchant seamen. Data were collected using a survey instrument
from a sample of 302 seamen, both officers and crew. Factors determining variance
in levels of job satisfaction are examined using a multiple regression technique.
Several factors were found to have a significant impact on the degree of job
satisfaction, particularly shipboard status and marital status. Collectively, the
independent variables predicted over 63% of the variance.

1. Introduction
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Job satisfaction is a difficult dimension to define. Individual workers can have different
perceptions of a satisfying work environment and those perceptions can be influenced
by unique variables both inside and outside the work place [I]. A number of
researchers have endeavoured to define job satisfaction [2]. Generally, these findings
support greater humanization of the workplace as a means of increasing job
satisfaction. Most research investigating the level of job satisfaction among merchant
seamen has tended to focus either on the physical facilities of the ship (both living and
workplace) and/or on the intrinsic qualities of specific jobs aboard ship [3]. Other
research has investigated the extrinsic qualities of the job (good pay, benefits and
vacation plans) and the job satisfaction of merchant seamen [4]. This paper will
describe structural factors both within and outside the workplace that contribute to the
job satisfaction of seamen.

2. Job satisfaction among seamen

The most significant detraction from a career as a merchant seaman is being away from
the family [5]. All research done in connection with merchant seamen seems to state
this clearly as the major reason for men leaving the sea. This fact is also supported by
my research. When the 302 seamen in this sample were asked if they wished to changed
their occupation only 33.8% (N = 102)said yes. But when only the responses of married
seamen were considered, 62.2% (N =9) indicated that they wished to change their
occupation. Another factor affecting job satisfaction is rank aboard ship. Officers
report higher levels of job satisfaction than unlicensed personnel. Greater job
autonomy was considered the main reason for a higher level of job satisfaction among
maritime officers [6]. Job autonomy is generally considered to be a source of job
satisfaction and is related to higher status occupations [7]. Crew stability has often
been mentioned as a source of job satisfaction because it decreased social isolation
aboard ship. The awareness of fellow crewmembers' capabilities and limitations are
seen as enhancing the cooperative effort of the shipboard tasks. In addition, crew
0308-8839190 $3.00 1990 Taylor & Francis Ltd
 142 C. J. Forsyth

stability increases friendshipsand communication aboard ship [8]. Some researchers

comment on the implicit contract entered into by seamen on going to sea (adventure in
a foreign land) and the denial of that contract due to quick turnaround, remote parts,
etc., as a major detraction from job satisfaction [9]. This research indicates that seamen
beginning their careers are more likely to experience job dissatisfaction than those
further advanced in their careers.

3. Determinants of job satisfaction

The above literature suggests several determinants of job satisfaction. Status aboard
ship should have an effect on job satisfaction. Officers should show higher levels ofjob
satisfaction than ratings. If crew stability is a factor determining job satisfaction then
those seamen who sail on a single ship should have less social isolation at sea and hence
greater satisfaction with the job. This research also includes three variables that are
intended to measure exposure to a seafaring life: (a) length of career, measured by
number of years at sea, (b) average interval of exposure,measured by length of trips, and
(c) the degree of exposure, measured by the number of months per year spent at sea. In
addition to these occupational variables, three other extra-occupational factors are
also included. The influence of family is included in two ways; whether the seaman is
married or single and the presence of children. The presence of children should decrease
job satisfaction among married seamen. Married seamen should have lower levels of
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job satisfaction than those who are single. Level of education is also included. The role
of education in increasing the level of job satisfaction is supported by the literature
[lo]. Education is included even though it will be highly correlated with shipboard
status.

4. Methodology
4.1. Structure of the dependent variables
Job satisfaction was measured by a scale constructed by the author. The scale consisted
of seven Likert-type items (see appendix). For each item, there were six possible
responses, ranging from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree'. Questions 1,2 and 4-7
were reverse scored. The possible score in each case is from 7 to 42. A higher score
indicates a higher level of job satisfaction. The relative degree of job satisfaction
characteristic of each case is determined by the score summed over the seven items.

4.2. Structures of the independent variables

Education is measured in years. Marital status is a dummy variable distinguishing
between not married (0) and married (1). Having children is a dummy variable
distinguishing between those respondents who had no children (0) and those with one
or more (1).Numbers of years as a seaman is measured in years. Average length of trips
is measured in weeks. Months per year at sea is measured in months. Shipboard status
is a dummy variable distinguishing crew (0) from the officers (1). Sailing on a single
ship is a dummy variable, distinguishingbetween those who have held permanent jobs
most of their careers (1) from those who have described themselves as being not
permanent (0).

4.3. Sample
The data used in this study were obtained using survey instruments distributed to a
sample of persons employed as merchant seamen. In all, 520 questionnaires were
 Job satisfaction among merchant seamen 143

distributed. Of these, 460 were distributed to members of the four major United States
maritime unions: The Marine Engineers Beneficial Association; the Masters, Mates
and Pilots Union; the National Maritime Union; and the Seafarers International
Union. This was done at Union halls in a total of seven major Western, Eastern, and
Gulf Coast port cities, and at up-grading schools operated by the unions in New York
and Baltimore. There were 60 questionnaires distributed to non-union seamen. These
were distributed by second mates on four ships. The subjects were given instructions to
complete the questionnaire and return it anonymously in an accompanying stamped
envelope. A total of 302 usable questionnaires, representing 58% of those distributed,
were returned.

4.4. Techniques of analysis

The examination of relative influences of study variables on job satisfaction was
accomplished through correlation and multiple regression analyses. These techniques
are best suited for this research in that they allow identification of the direction of
relationships, an independent degree of influence of each variable, with others
controlled through the examination of individual beta coefficients,and total predictive
power of the independent variables.

5. Findings
Table 1 contains means and standard deviations of the study variables. The mean job
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satisfaction score was 23.81. The mid-point of the scale was 24.5. This represents a low
level of job satisfaction among this sample of merchant seamen.
Since the scale was created by the author, it cannot be compared: thus it cannot be
argued that seamen possess higher or lower levels of job satisfaction than is generally
present in shore-side occupational groups. The focus of this paper is on the
determination of variance within the sample. As the standard deviation of 11.26
suggests, there is considerable variation in respondents' job satisfaction, scores.
Table 2 contains the zero-order correlations between job satisfaction and the
independent variables, and the summary results of the multiple regression analysis. The
findings suggest that occupation and extra-occupational factors are both significant
determinants of social marginality. The pattern of correlation coefficients offers an
initial indication that the independent variables are associated with job satisfaction in
the expected direction. Shipboard status (r = 0.72), marital status (r = -0.64), and
having children (r = -0.51) are highly correlated with job satisfaction. Education
(r = 0.32),months per year at sea (r = 0.28),sailing on a single ship (r =0.26),length of
trips (r = -022), and years as a seaman (r =0.10) are less strongly associated with job
satisfaction.
When the beta coefficients are examined, the findings are consistent with the pattern
of zero-order relationships. The most important occupational determinant of job
satisfaction was shipboard status (beta ~ 0 . 3 4followed
) in predictive power by sailing
on a single ship (beta = 0.22),lengths of trips (beta = -0.14), and months per year at sea
(beta = 0-06).Years as a seaman did not predict sufficient variance to be included in the
equation. Extra-occupational factors are equal in predictive strength. Marital status
has the strongest influence on job satisfaction (beta= -0.31) followed by having
children (beta = -0.18) and education (beta = 0.09).
This sociological model of the determinants of job satisfaction accounts for a
significant amount of variance. Combined, the independent variables predict 63% of
the between-subject differences in the degree of job satisfaction.
 C. J . Forsyth

Table 1. Means and standard deviation (N=302).

Standard
Variable Mean deviation

Job satisfaction
Shipboard status?
Length of trips
Months per year at sea
Years as a seaman
Sailing on a single ship?
Married7
Have children?
Education

t Dummy variable.

Table 2. Summary of stepwise multiple regression, with job satisfaction as dependent variable
(N=302).
Zero Multiple
Variable order R R2 F Beta
Shipboard status 0-72 0.722 0.521 10-946* 0.34
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Married -0.64 0.786 0.618 17.431* -0-31

Education 0.32 0.789 0.623 10.596* 0.09
Sailing on a single ship 0.26 0.792 0.627 11.537* 0.22
Length of trips -0.22 0.793 0.629 10.296* -0.14
Have children -0.5 1 0.794 0.630 4-151* -0.18
Months per year at sea 0.28 0-794 0-631 3.564* 0.06
Years a seaman 0.10 - - -** -

* Significant at 0.01 level.

**Years a seaman did not predict sufficient variance to be included in the equation.

6. Discussion
Licensed maritime officers receive higher wages and benefits and longer vacation
periods. Since all seamen spend a great deal of their lives aboard ships, a consequence is
that occupational position assumes a master status. Other research suggests that this
status is carried ashore [I 11. These factors, along with the greater autonomy in their
jobs apparently leads to greater job satisfaction for officers.
The effect of the seafaring occupation on the family is well documented [12]. Both
being married and having children were. shown to lower job satisfaction scores in this
sample. Marital status may have cancelled some of the effects of having children.
Although education was shown to be positively related to job satisfaction, the effect of
education can be better understood in its relationship to higher shipboard status.
Among the 199 officers in the sample, the average time spent in education was almost 15
years, while among the 103 unlicensed personnel, the average was 9 years.
The effect of sailing on a single ship and returning to the same group of co-workers
each trip can be seen in this research. Sailing on a single ship is a relatively good
predictor of job satisfaction. As shipping companies gradually move to a rotating
schedule for crews, where the seaman works a number of days or weeks for an equal
 Job satisfaction among merchant seamen 145

number of days off, more long-term personal relationships should develop among
seamen. Commensurate with this there should be an increase in job satisfaction.
Among the three variables that measure exposure to the occupation, length of trips
was the best predictor of job satisfaction. Those seamen making shorter trips are
apparently more satisfied with their jobs. Length of trips is also influenced by two
factors associated with shorter trips. Ships that make shorter trips are generally in more
of a predictable schedule and turnover of crews aboard these ships is lower. Both of
these factors are associated with higher job satisfaction [13].
Time spent at sea per year is positively associated with job satisfaction because it
reflects work time or wages. Certainly, seamen not earning expected annual wage levels
would be less satisfied with their occupation. The problem of 'not enough work' is a
critical problem facing American seamen. The problem is less acute among officers.
This research has investigated the sources of job satisfaction in merchant seamen.
The job satisfaction scale used was constructed by the author but it is in a sense
validated by the results of this research. The findings of this research are consistent with
those of others. Ironically, there is only one factor that would appear to be under the
control of management; rotating crews apparently results in higher job satisfaction.
Other factors are beyond the control of shipping companies. Hopefully this research
into the sources of job satisfaction among merchant seamen will generate other
investigations.
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Appendix: Job satisfaction scale

When I am at sea, I wish I were at home.
1. Strongly agree, 2. Agree, 3. Not sure, but probably agree, 4. Not sure, but probably
disagree, 5. Disagree, and 6. Strongly disagree.
Going to sea is like going to jail.
Other seamen make good friends.
I feel different than people who work on the beach.
The adventure and thrill of going to sea is not as great as it is made out to be.
I will be glad when I am no longer going to sea so I can spend more time with my family.
All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
Note: Responses to items 1,2,4,5,6 and 7 were scored 1 to 6. Responses to item 3
were scored 6 to 1.

References and notes

(1982),A Study of Human Resources in Ship Operations Phase 2
ADMINISTRATION
1. MARITIME
(Washington, D.c.: us Department of Commerce), p. 27.
2. HERZBERG, F. (1966),Work and the nature of man (London:Staples Press)and MASLOW, A. H.
(1956), Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper).
3. MOREBY, D. H. (1975), The Human Element in Shipping (Colchester:Seatrade Publications),
pp. 3 M 0 . Moreby's work contains an extensive review of the literature on job satisfaction.
4. MARITIME ADMINISTRATION (1979), A Study of Human Resources in Ship Operations Phase I
(Washington, D.c.: us Department of Commerce), pp. 9697.
 146 Job satisfaction among merchant seamen

5. FORSYTH, C. and BANKSTON, W. (1983), The merchant seaman as a social type: a marginal
life-style. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, 11 (I), 8-12; FORSYTH, C. and BANKSTON, W.
(1984), The social psychological consequence of a life at sea. Maritime Policy and
Management, 11 (2), 123-124; FORSYTH, C. (1988), Determinants of family integration among
merchant seamen. International Journal of Sociology of the Family, 18 (Spring), 33-44, and
MARITIMEADMINISTRATION (1979, 1982) op. cit.
6. MANTIME ADMINISTRATION (1979), op. cit., p. 96; MARITIMEADMINISTRATION (1982), op. cit.,
p. 28.
7. GILBERT, D. and KAHL,J. A. (1987), The American Class Structure (Chicago, IL:The Dorsey
Press).
8. MARITIMEADMIN~STRATION (1979),op. cit., pp. 9697; FORSYTH, C.and BANKSTON, W. (1984),
op. cit., and MOREBY, D. H. (1975), op. cit.
9. MOREBY, D. H. (1975), op. cit., and FORSYTH,C. and BANKSTON, W. (1984), op. cit.
10. GILBERT, D. and KAHL,J. A. (1987), op. cit.
11. FORSYTH, C . and BANKSTON, W. (1984), op. cit.
12. FORSYTH, C.(1988), Op. cit., and MARITIME ADMINISTRATION (1979, 1982), Op. Cit.
13. FRICKE,P. (1973), Seafarer and Community (New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield); and
MARITIME ADMINISTRATION (1979, 1982), op. cit.
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