ORIGINAL RESEARCH

published: 05 February 2019

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00070

Identifying Predictors of Stress and

Job Satisfaction in a Sample of
Merchant Seafarers Using Structural
Equation Modeling
Joanne McVeigh 1,2* , Malcolm MacLachlan 1,2,3,4 , Frédérique Vallières 5,6 , Philip Hyland 1,5 ,
Rudiger Stilz 7 , Henriette Cox 8 and Alistair Fraser 7
1
Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland, 2 Assisting Living and Learning (ALL) Institute,
Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland, 3 Centre for Rehabilitation Studies, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town,
South Africa, 4 Olomouc University Social Health Institute, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia, 5 Centre for Global Health,
Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland, 6 School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland, 7 Shell Health, London,
United Kingdom, 8 Shell International Trading and Shipping Company Limited, London, United Kingdom

Background: Seafarers are amongst occupational groups with the highest risk for
stress, a factor known to impact on mental health. Psychological issues such as
depression, anxiety, suicide, and alcohol or drug dependence are recognized health
problems within the maritime sector. The primary aim of this study was to identify
Edited by: which individual and occupational factors, known to impact on psychological functioning
Badri Bajaj,
Jaypee Institute of Information
across the maritime industry and other sectors, best predict perceived stress and job
Technology, India satisfaction among a sample of merchant seafarers.
Reviewed by: Methods: Secondary data analysis was conducted using a work experiences and
Waldemar Karwowski,
University of Central Florida,
attitudes questionnaire administered by a large shipping company to seafarers within
United States their organization. Structural equation modeling was conducted using a proposed
Gilbert Ernest Franco,
theoretical model of perceived stress and job satisfaction in a sample of merchant
Beacon College, United States
seafarers.
*Correspondence:
Joanne McVeigh Results: While the structural equation model produced acceptable fit to the sample
Joanne.McVeigh@mu.ie
data according to numerous goodness-of-fit statistics, the comparative fit index and
Specialty section: Tucker-Lewis index results indicated less than satisfactory model fit. The model
This article was submitted to explained 23.8% of variance in the criterion variable of perceived stress, and the
Organizational Psychology,
a section of the journal
strongest predictive effect was for dispositional resilience. The model explained 70.6%
Frontiers in Psychology of variance in the criterion variable of job satisfaction, and the strongest predictive effect
Received: 29 August 2018 was for instrumental work support.
Accepted: 10 January 2019
Published: 05 February 2019 Conclusion: When addressing the psychosocial well-being of merchant seafarers,
Citation: findings of this study suggest that dispositional resilience may be a particularly important
McVeigh J, MacLachlan M, factor with regards to perceived stress, while instrumental work support appears
Vallières F, Hyland P, Stilz R, Cox H
to be a critical factor in relation to job satisfaction. Importantly, however, an overall
and Fraser A (2019) Identifying
Predictors of Stress and Job work environment that is perceived by employees as supportive, equal and just is a
Satisfaction in a Sample of Merchant cornerstone for the psychosocial well-being of seafarers.
Seafarers Using Structural Equation
Modeling. Front. Psychol. 10:70. Keywords: merchant seafarers, maritime, psychosocial well-being, perceived stress, job satisfaction, structural
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00070 equation modeling

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

INTRODUCTION depression, anxiety, suicide, and alcohol or drug dependence,

are well-recognized health problems within the maritime sector
Inequities and Exploitation (MacLachlan et al., 2013). Carter (2011) specifies that minor
Over 80% of the volume and 70% of the value of global trade mental health problems are the most common type of ill-health
is transported on ships, with maritime transport constituting on non-passenger ships. Approximately 1.4% of all deaths
a critical foundation of global trade and development (United globally were due to suicide in 2015 (World Health Organization
Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], [WHO], n.d.); while among the seafaring population, this figure
2017). The global supply of merchant seafarers in 2015 was is thought to be significantly higher (Slišković, 2017). The
approximately 1,647,500 seafarers, with the estimated largest United Kingdom Protection and Indemnity Club (Velankar,
supply of seafarers deriving from China, the Philippines, 2017) reported that 4.4% of all deaths on-board were attributable
Indonesia, Russian Federation, and Ukraine (Baltic International to suicide from 2014 to 2015 and that this number proliferated
Maritime Council [BIMCO] and International Chamber of to 15.3% for the year 2015–2016. Mellbye and Carter (2017)
Shipping, 2015). As specified by the International Transport conducted a review of seafarers’ depression and suicide, and
Workers’ Federation, discrimination in accordance with found that investigations of depression and suicide amongst
nationality is endemic in the shipping sector, whereby seafarers indicate improvement, although numerous recent case
ship-owners deem that cost-cutting on crews from low- series suggest that suicide remains problematic.
and middle-income countries (LMICs) can achieve competitive While psychological distress such as depression and anxiety
rates (International Transport Workers’ Federation [ITF], are experienced at an individual level, the causes of such distress
2006). Seafarers from LMICs, with weaker economic power and are varied and cannot be solely explained or addressed at the
positions in the international maritime labour market, are usually level of individual functioning. Quality of social relationships,
given disadvantaged employment contracts and are exposed to for example, remains an important associate of depression
poorer working conditions compared to seafarers from high- (Teo et al., 2013). This association suggests that the social
income countries (Baylon and Santos, 2015; MacLachlan, 2017a). isolation experienced by seafarers on-board (Alderton et al.,
Carter (2005, p. 62) suggests that: “Inequity may also be seen 2004; ITF Seafarers’ Trust, 2017) is associated with poor mental
as a form of neo-colonialism with rich ship owning countries health. Similarly, organizational justice, defined as individuals’
exploiting those with less economic strength.” The term “sweat perceptions of fairness with regards to an organization’s policies,
ships” signifies comparable exploitation of employees at sea pay systems, and practices (Furnham, 2012), is also associated
(War on Want and International Transport Workers’ Federation with mental health (Ndjaboué et al., 2012). As proposed by
[ITF], 2002; MacLachlan, 2017a). The free market structure Carter (2005), perceived inequities amongst seafarers can lead
of the seafaring sector is of concern to seafarers due to the to distress. Correspondingly, Oldenburg et al. (2009) suggest
constant risk of a cheaper supply of labor, hindering demands that the “social gradient” may be a substantial stress factor on-
for higher wages and/or more favorable working conditions board. Therefore, experiences of inequities among seafarers from
(International Transport Workers’ Federation [ITF], 2006). As a LMICs, such as linking nationality to senior positions, longer
result, urgent human rights issues are occurring in the maritime tours of duty, and dissimilar pay for the same work (Carter,
sector (Human Rights at Sea, 2016). 2005; Dimitrova and Blanpain, 2010; Borovnik, 2011; Baylon and
Santos, 2015; MacLachlan, 2017a) may influence their mental
health too.
Psychosocial Well-Being of Seafarers Many interventions addressing psychological functioning,
Faster turnaround schedules in ports, increased technology such as depression and suicide, tend to primarily focus at
use, decreased personnel, labor intensification, and social the level of the individual. As explained by Slišković (2017),
isolation have significantly changed on-board working and living initiatives such as booklets for stress reduction are aimed at
conditions (Allen et al., 2007; Dimitrova and Blanpain, 2010; seafarers themselves, and consequently are only tertiary measures
Borovnik, 2011; Project MARTHA, 2016). In addition, changes (addressing the outcomes of stress) or secondary measures of
to port infrastructures and stricter international security have intervention (support with coping with stressors). In light of this,
resulted in a reduction in shore leave, resulting in greater social Slišković emphasizes that more intervention strategies should
isolation and psychosocial pressure (Walters and Bailey, 2013). focus on moderating the main job-related stressors (primary
Despite some seafarers spending months or even a year or more measures) to reduce mental health risks among seafarers.
on-board, shore leave may be restricted to only a few occasions
lasting only a number of hours, and in some instances, seafarers
may not disembark at all (Clare, 2015). In addition, seafarers also Perceived Stress Amongst the Seafaring
experience months or years away from home, loneliness, bullying, Population
and fatigue (Iversen, 2012). For seafarers operating ships globally, working conditions
It is therefore not surprising that seafarers are among the are often challenging, with exposure to occupational hazards
occupational groups at most risk for stress (Lipowski et al., including vulnerability to exploitation, non-payment of wages,
2014) and adverse mental health outcomes (Jeżewska et al., non-compliance with contracts, poor diet and conditions
2006), including anxiety and depression, and for some seafarers, on-board, and abandonment in foreign ports (International
suicide (Iversen, 2012). Indeed, psychological issues such as Labour Organization [ILO], n.d.). Occupational hazards of

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

seafaring also include restricted treatment for cardiovascular working conditions and wages was associated with a lower level
diseases, communicable diseases, accidents and maritime of turnover intention amongst a sample of Korean seafarers.
disasters, piracy, and exposure to dangerous substances Similarly, Nielsen and colleagues, with a sample of 541 seafarers
(Oldenburg et al., 2010). Indeed, seafarers experience a variety of from two Norwegian shipping companies, reported a relatively
psychosocial and physical stressors, including fatigue and sleep strong negative association between intention to leave and job
deprivation, separation from family, loneliness, multinational satisfaction (Nielsen et al., 2013). In a systematic review exploring
crew, physical demands, and lack of recreation (Carotenuto et al., retention issues for seafarers in global shipping, Caesar et al.
2012; Oldenburg and Jensen, 2012; Oldenburg et al., 2013; Jepsen reported that retention factors primarily pertained to satisfaction
et al., 2015; Bal BeşİkÇİ et al., 2016). with job and employer, opportunities for career advancement,
As seafarers are on-board typically for long durations, and good working conditions (Caesar et al., 2015). In light of
spending both work and recreation time in the same confined the current shortage of officers in the global shipping industry
environment, several stressors may also be chronic (Hystad (Nguyen et al., 2014; Bhattacharya, 2015; European Commission,
and Eid, 2016). Furthermore, many stressors on-board occur 2017), job satisfaction may therefore be a crucial and topical
simultaneously, creating physical and psychological strain concern.
(Comperatore et al., 2005). In the questionnaire study conducted Job satisfaction may also be an important associate of safety
by Jensen et al. (2006) with a sample of 6,461 seafarers across 11 in the maritime sector. For example, in a study conducted
countries, the researchers reported that the majority of seafarers by Nielsen et al. (2013) with a sample of 541 seafarers, job
worked every day of the week, and on average from 67 to satisfaction was positively associated with individual intention
70 h per week throughout durations of 2.5 to 8.5 months on- and motivation to follow safety procedures, and negatively
board. Occupational pressures impact on both the physical and associated with management prioritizing production over safety.
mental health of seafarers, jeopardizing the vessel, alongside Bergheim et al. (2015) conducted a study on the relationship of
the social benefits for seafarers and their families in LMICs psychological capital (efficacy, optimism, hope, and resiliency)
(Borovnik, 2011). to perceptions of safety climate and job satisfaction amongst
The seafaring population is heterogeneous in relation to a sample of 594 maritime workers from Norwegian shipping
socio-demographic and working characteristics such as age, companies. Findings indicated that for European participants,
nationality, length of service, duration of stay on-board, rank a high level of psychological capital resulted in higher job
and type of job on-board (Slišković, 2017), which may influence satisfaction, which resulted in positive perceptions of the safety
how stress is differentially experienced, expressed and alleviated climate; although this mediation through job satisfaction was not
by seafarers. For example, family, including marital satisfaction, found for Filipino participants (Bergheim et al., 2015). Relatedly,
may influence stress experienced by seafarers (Thomas, 2003; with a sample of 986 Norwegian offshore workers, Nielsen et al.
Carter, 2005; Oldenburg and Jensen, 2012; Peplińska et al., (2011) reported that workers who perceived high levels of risk
2013; Slišković, 2017). Stress amongst seafarers has been reported lower job satisfaction levels, while this effect decreased
identified as being associated with several other individual and when workers perceived their safety climate as positive. As
occupational factors, including age (Rydstedt and Lundh, 2012); seafaring is a safety-critical occupation (Smedley et al., 2013;
rank (Oldenburg et al., 2009; Carotenuto et al., 2012, 2013; Liston et al., 2017), this association between job satisfaction and
Kim and Jang, 2016; Project MARTHA, 2016); ethnicity (Nielsen safety may be important for the maritime sector.
et al., 2013); seafaring experience (Jeżewska et al., 2006; Doyle Job satisfaction amongst merchant seafarers is associated with
et al., 2016); resilience (Doyle et al., 2016); instrumental work financial security, free time spent at home, the nature and
support (Doyle et al., 2016); and when vessels are positioned in dynamics of the work (Slišković and Penezić, 2015), in addition to
port (Project MARTHA, 2016). Stress may also be influenced promotion, salary and benefits, the working environment, feeling
by duration at sea. As highlighted by Slišković and Penezić of status, and satisfaction with management (Li et al., 2014).
(2016), amongst the most frequently cited psychosocial stressors Indeed, job satisfaction amongst seafarers has been identified
experienced by seafarers are prolonged separation from family as being associated with numerous individual and occupational
and social isolation on-board. Notably, however, Doyle et al. factors, including job type (Carotenuto et al., 2012); resilience
(2016) reported that duration at sea was not associated with (Bergheim et al., 2015); age (Kim and Jang, 2016); instrumental
self-reported perceived stress. work support (Doyle et al., 2016); duration at sea (Slišković
and Penezić, 2015, 2016); and when vessels are positioned in
port (Shoretoo, 2015). Beyond the seafaring population, job
Job Satisfaction Amongst the Seafaring satisfaction has been identified as being meaningfully associated
Population with several individual factors, including race and ethnicity
Job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1968, 1974; Locke, 1968; Spector, (Niemann and Dovidio, 1998; Miller and Travers, 2005; Hesli
1997; Bekru et al., 2017) is recognized as an important factor in and Lee, 2013); job rank (Oshagbemi, 1997, 2003; Robie et al.,
maritime organizations as indicated by the familiar expression 1998; Oliveira, 2011; Hesli and Lee, 2013); age (Ng and Feldman,
of a “happy ship” (Bergheim et al., 2015). An association 2010; Dobrow Riza et al., 2016); job experience/tenure (Sarker
between job satisfaction and turnover intentions/retention of et al., 2003; Dobrow Riza et al., 2016); and resilience (Youssef and
seafarers is empirically supported. For example, Kim and Lee Luthans, 2007; Hyde, 2015; Hyde and Knocker, n.d.). Based on
(2011) reported that a higher level of satisfaction regarding a review of the above literature, Figure 1 presents schematically

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

asked to complete the work questionnaire. It was therefore not

possible to specify a response rate. Time 0 (T0) questionnaires
were completed between January and July 2014 across 51 of a
possible 53 tanker vessels (N = 575). A follow-up questionnaire
was then distributed between November 2014 and March 2015.
Responses were received from 41 of a possible 52 vessels (N = 329)
at this second time point (Time 1 [T1]). The organization did
not select or exclude any individual or ship when administering
the questionnaires.
Participants were merchant seafarers (officers and
ratings/crew) working in the organization’s fleet, on liquefied
natural gas carriers, product oil tankers, and crude oil tankers,
on a global basis. The categorization of departments in merchant
ships is: (1) deck department, which manages the navigation of
the ship, as well as cargo operations and berthing instruments
on the ship deck; (2) engine department, tasked with the
FIGURE 1 | Simplified theoretical model of perceived stress and job operation and maintenance of the ship’s machinery; and (3)
satisfaction of merchant seafarers.
catering department, responsible for meal preparation and
general housekeeping on-board (Bhattacharjee, 2017). Merchant
seafarers are classified as officers and ratings, and these cohorts
the study’s simplified theoretical model of perceived stress and job
are further categorized by rank, ranging from captain to third
satisfaction amongst merchant seafarers.
officer, chief engineer to fourth engineer, and bosun to ordinary
seaman (Alderton et al., 2004). Demographic characteristics of
Research Aim respondents at T0 and T1 are summarized in Table 1.
There has been a call for more research addressing seafarers’ Ethical approval for this study was granted by the School of
psychosocial health and stress (Carter, 2005; MacLachlan et al., Psychology Ethics Committee, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
2012; Oldenburg and Jensen, 2012; Carotenuto et al., 2013; Data collection was conducted using Survey Monkey, which
ITF Seafarers’ Trust, 2017). Similarly, more research is urgently is a third-party online survey software, and not linked to any
required to support initiatives of the International Maritime systems of the shipping organization from which the study
Organization and International Labor Organization, responsible sample was derived. Due to requirements within the company
for setting international maritime and labor standards, to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of respondents,
including the Maritime Labor Convention (International questionnaire data was not collected on respondents’ names,
Labour Organization [ILO], 2006; International Transport email addresses or phone numbers. Furthermore, demographic
Workers’ Federation [ITF], n.d.). In response to these needs, data was collected on age ranges rather than specific ages.
the primary aim of this study was to identify which individual Such procedures safeguarded the anonymity of respondents.
and occupational factors, known to impact on psychological Consent of participants was therefore implicitly provided by
functioning across the maritime industry and other sectors, best virtue of questionnaire completion. Both the baseline and
predict perceived stress and job satisfaction among a sample follow-up questionnaire specified that information would be
of merchant seafarers. Identifying which of these factors play treated confidentially, that respondents’ identification could
an important role in determining perceived stress and job not be known, that participation was on a voluntary basis,
satisfaction among a sample of seafarers is necessary to inform and the freedom to withdraw from the study at any time
organizational policies in the interest of improving working and without providing a reason. Employees of the shipping company
living conditions for maritime workers. participated in the planning and coordination of the study,
and in jointly reviewing with the primary researcher the study
design, analyses, findings, and interpretations. However, while
METHODS the questionnaire data was collected by the company, the primary
researcher independently conducted secondary analyses of the
Participants and Procedures data, independently interpreted and discussed the findings, and
A secondary data analysis, using work questionnaires independently wrote the original draft of this manuscript and
administered at two time points to seafarers within a large shipping decided to publish it.
organization, was conducted. Fleet information messages were
sent from the organization to ship captains, requesting them Study Materials
to inform seafarers on-board of the questionnaires and upload The work questionnaires administered at T0 and T1 both
them on the ships’ web-based servers. Respondents voluntarily included demographic items; items from the organization’s
completed the anonymous online-based questionnaires whilst on- Employees Survey; the Dispositional Resilience Scale-15; and the
board at sea. Data was not available with respect to the number Perceived Stress Scale-4. The T0 questionnaire comprised 48
of seafarers on each vessel who were informed of the study and items. The T1 questionnaire comprised 64 items, which included

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

TABLE 1 | Demographic characteristics of questionnaire respondents. T0 (Doyle et al., 2016) indicated that the items reflected two
dimensions: “job satisfaction” (five items) and “instrumental
Time 0 Time 1
support” (five items). Notably, instrumental support refers to
Variable n (valid %) more tangible help or information such as assistance with solving
a problem or with performing a difficult task (Semmer et al.,
Gender
2008; Hergatt Huffman and Frevert, 2013; Peeters et al., 2014).
Male 503 (98.2) 271 (98.2)
For the present study, the Instrumental Support Scale comprised
Female 5 (1.0) 2 (0.7)
items assessing, for example, the extent to which respondents
Age
felt well-informed about what was expected in their job; had
18–29 115 (22.5) 55 (19.9)
the necessary tools and equipment to perform their job; and
30–39 182 (35.5) 109 (39.5)
experienced cooperation from colleagues when performing jobs.
40–64 210 (41.0) 110 (39.9)
All items of the Job Satisfaction Scale (JS Scale) and
65+ 4 (0.8) 1 (0.4)
Instrumental Support Scale (IS Scale) were measured on a
Ethnicity
five-point Likert scale, including scales ranging from “very
South Asian 205 (40.0) 92 (33.3)
satisfied” to “very dissatisfied,” “strongly agree” to “strongly
Caucasian 108 (21.1) 58 (21.0)
disagree,” and “very good” to “very poor.” Total scores for
East Asian 105 (20.5) 62 (22.5)
job satisfaction and instrumental support were computed
Other 65 (12.7) 34 (12.3)
by averaging scores ranging from 1 to 5. In both cases,
African 14 (2.7) 15 (5.4)
higher scores reflect higher levels of each variable. The
Mixed 8 (1.6) 5 (1.8)
reliability estimates for both scales were satisfactory: Cronbach’s
Middle Eastern 4 (0.8) 5 (1.8)
alpha = 0.79 at T0 and 0.80 at T1 (job satisfaction),
Latino/Hispanic 3 (0.6) 2 (0.7)
and 0.74 at T0 and 0.76 at T1 (instrumental support).
Job
Given that Doyle et al. (2016) used EFA, the validity of
Officer, Engineer 314 (61.3) 184 (66.7)
the factor structure of the Employee Survey items was
Rating, Crew 150 (29.3) 66 (23.9)
tested in the present study using confirmatory factor analysis
Catering 43 (8.4) 25 (9.1)
(CFA).
Years of seafaring experience
0–1 23 (4.5) 7 (2.5)
Dispositional Resilience Scale-15
1–5 71 (13.9) 33 (12.0)
Resilience was measured using the Dispositional Resilience
5–10 130 (25.4) 68 (24.6)
Scale-15 (DRS-15) (Bartone, 1999, 2007). The decision to use the
10–20 151 (29.5) 105 (38.0)
DRS-15 was based on its established validity, acceptable internal
>20 134 (26.2) 62 (22.5)
consistency, and acceptable test–retest reliability, in addition
Weeks since last shore leave
to its brevity (Bartone, 1995, 2007). The DRS-15 uses both
0 1 (0.2) 2 (0.7)
positively and negatively keyed items, and includes three factors
1–5 252 (50.2) 122 (44.2)
6–10 139 (27.7) 84 (30.4)
of resilience: commitment, control and challenge (Bartone, 2006),
11–15 64 (12.7) 40 (14.5)
each measured by five items scored on a four-point scale ranging
16–20 34 (6.8) 17 (6.2)
from “not at all true” to “completely true.” Example items
21–25 9 (1.8) 6 (2.2)
comprise: “Most of my life gets spent doing things that are
26 or more 3 (0.6) 5 (1.8)
meaningful” (commitment), “By working hard, you can nearly
Current location
always achieve your goals” (control), and “Changes in routine are
On passage 431 (84.2) 241 (87.3)
interesting to me” (challenge) (Bartone et al., 2012; Kelly et al.,
Approaching port 40 (7.8) 18 (6.5)
2014). When the six negatively keyed items are reversed, a total
Loading/discharging 36 (7.0) 15 (5.4)
score for resilience can be calculated by adding scores for all items
(Hystad, 2012). For the present study, as numerous respondents
were missing scores for particular items of the DRS-15, a total
additional items on resilience and a resilience program that was score for each respondent was calculated by averaging rather than
administered to employees by the organization. English has been adding scores.
the lingua franca of the maritime industry for approximately Research by Bartone (1995) reports internal consistency for
the last century (Pritchard, 2006). Therefore, questionnaires were the total scale (α = 0.83) and three subscales of commitment,
administered in English. control and challenge (α ranging from 0.70 to 0.77) that equal
or exceed the acceptable alpha threshold of 0.70 (see Tavakol and
Employees Survey Dennick, 2011). In another study conducted by Bartone (2007),
The organization’s Employees Survey is an annual and the 3-week test–retest reliability coefficient for the DRS-15 was
anonymous employee survey of work attitudes and experiences. 0.78, exceeding the recommended threshold of above 0.70 (Kline,
Sixteen items from the Employees Survey were completed at 2000). However, the test–retest coefficients for the three subscales
T0, and 17 items were completed at T1. Previous exploratory were 0.75 for Commitment, 0.58 for Control, and 0.81 for
factor analysis (EFA) with a subsample of respondents at Challenge, indicating a test–retest coefficient for Control that was

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

below the recommended threshold (Bartone, 2007). While Doyle analytical procedures: CFA, which evaluates the measurement
et al. (2016) reported the internal consistency for the total DRS-15 component of a theoretical model, and path analysis, which
score as 0.72, the internal consistency was 0.65 for Commitment, evaluates the relationship between latent variables (Hyland et al.,
0.57 for Control, and 0.57 for Challenge, which were below the 2015). The “measurement model” is therefore synonymous with
acceptable alpha value of 0.70. Accordingly, total resilience scores CFA by specifying the way in which each measure loads onto
were used in the present study. The internal consistency for the a certain factor, while the “structural model” specifies the way
DRS-15 was 0.70 at TO and 0.73 at T1. in which certain latent variables directly or indirectly influence
changes in the values of other latent variables in the model
Perceived Stress Scale-4 (Byrne, 2006). Notably, an advantage of SEM is that it controls
Perceived stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Scale-4 for measurement error in latent outcomes (Leite, 2017).
(PSS-4). The PSS-4 is a four-item version of the Perceived Stress SEM entails an assessment of how well a proposed theoretical
Scale developed by Cohen and colleagues, which measures an model corresponds with covariance data obtained from a sample
individual’s assessment of stressful situations in the last month (Sivo et al., 2006). The adequacy of a model is determined
(Cohen et al., 1983). The decision to use the PSS-4 was based on in relation to a number of “model fit” indices, and standard
its validity, acceptable internal consistency, and brevity (Cohen recommendations (Hu and Bentler, 1999) indicating that a good
et al., 1983; Cohen and Williamson, 1988; Warttig et al., 2013). model fit is reflected by: a chi-square to degree of freedom ratio
The PSS-4 comprises two positively stated and two negatively of less than 3 to 1; Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker
stated items, with a response set ranging from 0 (never) to 4 Lewis Index (TLI) values > 0.90; Root-Mean-Square Error of
(very often) (Wu and Amtmann, 2013). An example item is: “In Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root-Mean-Square
the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to Residual (SRMR) values < 0.08. Models were assessed using
control the important things in your life?” Positively stated items Mplus 7.0 (Muthén and Muthén, 2013) with robust maximum
are reverse coded prior to summing the items, and higher scores likelihood (MLR) estimation (Yuan and Bentler, 2000).
indicate higher perceived stress (Wu and Amtmann, 2013). For Dummy variables were created for the variables of job
the present study, as numerous respondents were missing scores category, race/ethnicity and location. Categories with the largest
for particular items of the PSS-4, total scores were calculated frequency were omitted when generating dummy variables for
using average rather than summed scores. job category, race/ethnicity and location, namely the categories of
Cohen et al. (1983) reported the internal consistency for the “Officer/Engineer,” “South Asian,” and “On Passage,” respectively.
PSS-4 as 0.72, exceeding the acceptable alpha threshold of 0.70 Dummy variables were formulated for job category as follows:
(see Tavakol and Dennick, 2011). In the same study, Cohen (0 = not crew, 1 = crew), and (0 = not catering, 1 = catering). For
et al. (1983) reported the test–retest reliability over a 2-month race/ethnicity, dummy variables comprised: (0 = not Caucasian,
interval as 0.55, below the recommended threshold of above 0.70 1 = Caucasian), (0 = not East Asian, 1 = East Asian), (0 = not
(Kline, 2000). In another study comprising a probability sample Other, 1 = Other), (0 = not Latino/Hispanic, Middle Eastern,
of the United States (N = 2,387), Cohen and Williamson (1988) or Mixed, 1 = Latino/Hispanic, Middle Eastern, or Mixed), and
reported the internal reliability for the PSS-4 (α = 0.60) as less (0 = not African, 1 = African). For location, dummy variables
than that of the 10-item version (α = 0.78) and 14-item version were as follows: (0 = not approaching port, 1 = approaching port),
(α = 0.75). While the PSS-4 indicates a moderate loss in internal and (0 = not loading/discharging, 1 = loading/discharging).
reliability relative to the 14-item scale, the brevity of this scale Based on the EFA previously conducted with a subsample
is advantageous when time for assessment is limited (Warttig of T0 respondents (Doyle et al., 2016), the JS Scale and IS
et al., 2013). For the present study, the internal consistency for Scale were investigated using CFA with MLR estimation. EFA
the PSS-4 was 0.55 at both T0 and T1. may be used as an exploratory procedure when developing
a measure, followed by CFA to investigate if the structure
Data Analysis identified during EFA works in a different sample (Harrington,
Of the 575 questionnaires returned at T0, 55 respondents 2009). Hence, while EFA was previously conducted with T0
provided only demographic information, and were consequently data, CFA was conducted in the present study with T1
excluded from analyses. Furthermore, 4 respondents who data. For both the JS Scale and IS Scale, the model was
reported their job description as office-based and 4 extreme a one-factor solution, whereby five items loaded onto one
outliers were excluded from analyses, generating a total of 512 latent variable, proposed to represent job satisfaction and
respondents at T0. Of the 329 questionnaires returned at T1, instrumental support, respectively. The measurement models
50 respondents provided only demographic information, and of both latent variables, i.e., job satisfaction and instrumental
were therefore excluded from analyses. Moreover, 3 extreme support, were then incorporated within the full structural
outliers were removed, resulting in a total of 276 questionnaire equation model. The full structural model was tested using
respondents at T1. T0 data (N = 512). A minimum sample size of 500 has been
recommended for SEM (Hazard Munro, 2005). Therefore, T0
Structural Equation Modeling data was used to provide a sufficiently large sample size for
The study’s theoretical model of perceived stress and job SEM. Accordingly, CFA was conducted with T1 data (N = 276),
satisfaction amongst merchant seafarers was tested using while the full structural equation model was tested using T0 data
structural equation modeling (SEM). SEM incorporates two (N = 512).

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

RESULTS TABLE 3 | Standardized and unstandardized factor loadings for the Job
Satisfaction Scale.

Descriptive Statistics of Variables Item B B SE

Table 2 provides the descriptive statistics of variables at T0 Considering everything, how satisfied 0.609 1.00 –
and T1. are you with your job?
I am proud to work for Shell. 0.520 0.856 0.155
Structural Equation Modeling I would recommend Shell as a good 0.588 1.007 0.155
Measurement Modeling – CFA of the Job employer.
The level of work pressure I experience 0.710 1.280 0.203
Satisfaction Scale
is acceptable.
The model produced less than satisfactory fit to the sample
I am able to balance my work and my 0.751 1.370 0.201
data as indicated by the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio personal life.
(>3:1), CFI value (0.75), TLI value (0.51), RMSEA value (0.24),
All factor loadings are statistically significant (p < 0.001).
and SRMR value (0.09). Inspection of the modification indices
indicated an improved fit by correlating the error variances for
item 2 and item 3 (MI = 90.013) (Byrne, 2012). As outlined below (>0.60), while two items had moderately high factor loadings
in Table 3, similar questions are asked by items 2 and 3, with (>0.30) (see Table 3).
the former asking for respondents’ level of agreement with the
statement “I am proud to work for Shell,” and item 3 assessing Measurement Modeling – CFA of the Instrumental
respondents’ agreement with the statement “I would recommend Support Scale
Shell as a good employer.” Accordingly, the error variances of The model produced good fit to the sample data according to the
items 2 and 3 were correlated and the model produced good fit to chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (<3:1), CFI value (0.97),
the sample data according to the chi-square to degrees of freedom TLI value (0.95), RMSEA value (0.05), and SRMR value (0.03).
ratio (<3:1), CFI value (0.99), TLI value (0.97), RMSEA value Factor loadings for each item on the latent variable of
(0.06), and SRMR value (0.01). Factor loadings for each item on instrumental support were statistically significant (p < 0.001) and
the latent variable of job satisfaction were statistically significant positive. Three items had high factor loadings (>0.60), while two
(p < 0.001) and positive. Three items had high factor loadings items had moderately high factor loadings (>0.30) (see Table 4).

Full Structural Model

The measurement models of both latent variables, i.e., the
TABLE 2 | Descriptive statistics of variables.
re-specified measurement model of job satisfaction and the
Variable Time 0 Time 1 measurement model of instrumental support, were then
incorporated within the full structural model. The model
Perceived stress
produced acceptable fit to the sample data according to the
Mean (95% CI) 1.36 (1.30–1.42) 1.37 (1.29–1.46)
chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (<3:1), RMSEA value
Standard deviation 0.66 0.69
(0.05), and SRMR value (0.05). The CFI value (0.87) and
Range 0–3 0–3.25
TLI value (0.83) indicated less than satisfactory model fit.
Possible range 0–4 0–4
The model explained 70.6% of variance in job satisfaction
Cronbach’s alpha 0.55 0.55
scores and 23.8% of variance in perceived stress scores.
Dispositional resilience
Mean (95% CI) 2.00 (1.97–2.04) 1.99 (1.94–2.03)
Standard deviation 0.36 0.37
TABLE 4 | Standardized and unstandardized factor loadings for the Instrumental
Range 0.87–3 1–2.87 Support Scale.
Possible range 0–3 0–3
Cronbach’s alpha 0.70 0.73 Item B B SE
Job satisfaction
I feel well-informed about what is 0.627 1.00 –
Mean (95% CI) 3.71 (3.65–3.77) 3.61 (3.52–3.69) expected in my job.
Standard deviation 0.69 0.72 I have the necessary tools and 0.510 0.932 0.186
Range 1–5 1.20–5 equipment (including computer
Possible range 1–5 1–5 systems and software) to do my job.
Cronbach’s alpha 0.79 0.80 The people I work with cooperate to 0.520 0.743 0.100
get the job done.
Instrumental support
I can see a clear link between my work 0.726 1.110 0.153
Mean (95% CI) 3.92 (3.87–3.97) 3.89 (3.82–3.96)
and the organization’s objectives.
Standard deviation 0.57 0.59
My organization’s leadership gives 0.743 1.331 0.207
Range 2–5 1.80–5
employees a clear picture of the
Possible range 1–5 1–5 direction in which the organization is
Cronbach’s alpha 0.74 0.76 headed.

CI, confidence interval. All factor loadings are statistically significant (p < 0.001).

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

Table 5 provides the regression effects produced from the SEM issues arising from the study with regards to a review of the
analyses. literature.
As presented in Table 5, the regression analysis indicated
that instrumental support significantly predicted job satisfaction, Structural Equation Modeling
as did resilience. The ethnicities of Caucasian and African Job Satisfaction of Ratings
also significantly predicted job satisfaction, which is due to Crew and caterers reported significantly higher job satisfaction
Caucasian and African participants reporting less job satisfaction than officers/engineers. As seafarers’ ranks are conflated
relative to South Asians. Therefore, ethnicity significantly with ethnicity, it was anticipated that findings would
predicted job satisfaction. Furthermore, the job categories of crew instead indicate lower job satisfaction of ratings relative
and catering significantly predicted job satisfaction, signifying to officers/engineers, as the literature specifies inequities
that crew and caterers reported higher job satisfaction than experienced by seafarers from LMICs, such as linking nationality
officers/engineers. Job category therefore significantly predicted to senior positions, longer tours of duty, and different pay
job satisfaction. for the same work (Carter, 2005; Dimitrova and Blanpain,
Instrumental support significantly predicted perceived stress, 2010; Borovnik, 2011; Baylon and Santos, 2015; MacLachlan,
as did resilience. The ethnicities of Caucasian and Other 2017a). This finding was therefore unexpected, in light of
combined (Mixed, Middle Eastern, and Latino/Hispanic) also literature indicating an association between organizational
significantly predicted perceived stress, which is accounted for by justice and job satisfaction (McAuliffe et al., 2009; Furnham,
these ethnicities reporting less perceived stress relative to South 2012; Aamodt, 2013; Schultz and Schultz, 2016; Bekru et al.,
Asians. Ethnicity therefore significantly predicted perceived 2017).
stress. However, comparable with this finding, Bergheim and
colleagues found no difference for job satisfaction between
European and Filipino seafarers, and explained the high scores
DISCUSSION for job satisfaction of Filipino participants in relation to their
The primary aim of this study was to identify which individual more collectivist culture, which prioritizes work-group cohesion
and occupational factors, known to impact on psychological and relationships with peers, thereby explaining job satisfaction
functioning across the maritime industry and other sectors, best of Filipinos in terms of work-group relations (Bergheim et al.,
predict perceived stress and job satisfaction among a sample of 2015). Indeed, regular interaction with others, friendships in
merchant seafarers. This discussion of the findings of the study the workplace, and emotional support may be strong predictors
is not intended to be exhaustive, but to examine several of the of job satisfaction (Morgeson and Humphrey, 2006; Meyers,
2007). Europeans rank higher on individualism than Filipinos,
with the Philippines being largely a more collectivist society
TABLE 5 | Regression effects produced from the SEM analysis. (Hofstede, 2001). Higher job satisfaction of ratings relative
to officers/engineers in this study may therefore possibly
Job satisfaction Perceived stress be accounted for by greater social support amongst ratings.
Support for this explanation is provided by the qualitative
β SE β SE
findings of a related study (McVeigh et al., 2018), whereby two
Instrumental support 0.720 0.047∗∗∗ −0.160 0.058∗∗ superintendents indicated that ratings experienced a better social
Age 0.031 0.074 −0.053 0.064 life on-board than officers due to ratings’ fixed meal times, their
Ethnicity homogenous nationality, and the set-up of their mess/social area
Caucasian −0.113 0.053∗ −0.143 0.049∗∗ on-board, as exemplified by a superintendent’s observation: “For
East Asian 0.035 0.042 0.001 0.046 the crew, for the Filipino lads... they get together more as a
Other −0.018 0.046 −0.008 0.043 group... The social interaction is gone at officer level.” Therefore,
Other combined −0.045 0.050 −0.111 0.036∗∗ ratings’ higher job satisfaction levels relative to officers/engineers
African −0.129 0.039∗∗ 0.021 0.042 may possibly be explained in terms of more cohesive relationships
Job with peers.
Crew 0.262 0.048∗∗∗ 0.042 0.048
Catering 0.211 0.042∗∗∗ 0.021 0.034 Dispositional Resilience
Seafaring experience −0.060 0.078 0.003 0.069 Dispositional resilience significantly predicted job satisfaction
Weeks on-board −0.026 0.045 −0.004 0.041 (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), although resilience emerged as a
Location moderator predictor. This finding is consistent with the literature,
Approaching port 0.032 0.041 −0.018 0.034 which specifies that resilience is positively associated with job
Loading/discharging 0.033 0.031 0.003 0.046 satisfaction (Youssef and Luthans, 2007; Bergheim et al., 2015;
Resilience 0.255 0.045∗∗∗ −0.391 0.041∗∗∗ Hyde, 2015; Hyde and Knocker, n.d.). Moreover, the SEM
R2 0.706∗∗∗ 0.238∗∗∗ analysis indicated that resilience significantly predicted perceived
stress (β = −0.39, p < 0.001), although again it was a moderator
N = 475. β, standardized beta values; SE, standard errors for β; R2 , Percentage
of unique variance explained in each criterion variable; ∗ p < 0.05, ∗∗ p < 0.01, predictor. Indeed, the SEM model explained 23.8% of variance
∗∗∗ p < 0.001. in the criterion variable of perceived stress, and the strongest

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

predictive effect was for dispositional resilience. This finding Response Rate
corresponds with previous research reporting that resilience may Data was not available with respect to the number of seafarers
protect against the adverse impacts of stress (Friborg et al., 2006; on each vessel who were informed of the study and asked to
Hjemdal et al., 2006; Ong et al., 2006; Pietrzak et al., 2010; Doyle complete the work questionnaire. It was not therefore possible to
et al., 2016). specify a response rate. Accordingly, it is possible that a sampling
bias may have occurred. For example, those who completed the
Instrumental Support questionnaire may have been particularly resilient.
Instrumental support significantly predicted job satisfaction
(β = 0.72, p < 0.001), with instrumental support emerging Structural Equation Modeling
as a strong predictor, in accordance with criteria proposed by While the model explained a considerable amount of variation
Acock (2008). Furthermore, instrumental support significantly in job satisfaction scores, the model was not as effective in
predicted perceived stress (β = −0.16, p = 0.005), although explaining variation in perceived stress scores. This suggests
instrumental support was a weak predictor of perceived stress. that the factors included in the model were more effective
Similarly, findings of a previous study with a subsample of at explaining indicators of positive mental health rather than
respondents of the T0 work questionnaire (Doyle et al., 2016) indicators of negative mental health in the study’s sample.
indicated that higher instrumental support was significantly Accordingly, for future research, this model may be more
associated with lower perceived stress, and instrumental support important for researchers aiming to explore indicators of
was significantly positively associated with job satisfaction. positive mental health than for researchers aiming to investigate
The SEM model explained 70.6% of variance in the criterion indicators of negative mental health. This is potentially one of
variable of job satisfaction, explaining a considerable amount the reasons for the slightly less than desirable CFI and TLI
of variance for job satisfaction, and the strongest predictive statistics.
effect was for instrumental work support. This finding signifies
the importance of instrumental support, including more
tangible help or information such as assistance with solving CONCLUSION
a problem or with performing a difficult task (Semmer et al.,
2008; Hergatt Huffman and Frevert, 2013; Peeters et al., Findings of this study suggest that dispositional resilience and
2014). This makes intuitive sense, as with the resources instrumental work support may be important contributors to
to conduct work effectively, one may be more likely to psychosocial well-being in this sample of merchant seafarers,
experience a work environment as more satisfying and less with both variables significantly predicting job satisfaction
stressful. and perceived stress. Notably, the findings indicate that there
are variables beyond work factors that may be impacting on
Limitations psychosocial well-being, as dispositional resilience significantly
Extrapolation of Findings predicted both job satisfaction and perceived stress. Importantly,
This study has focused on a particular organization engaged for the criterion variable of perceived stress, the strongest
in bulk hydrocarbon transport. The specific attributes of predictive effect was for resilience; while for job satisfaction,
this organization, including the distances and routes traveled, the strongest predictive effect was for instrumental work
policies, practices, routines, and the multinational nature of support. Overall, these findings suggest that to understand
the organization alongside its high public profile, all establish and address merchant seafarers’ psychosocial well-being,
a particular working and living environment on-board that dispositional resilience may be a particularly important factor
is not necessarily similar to other shipping organizations or with regards to perceived stress, while instrumental work
groups of seafarers. It is critical to caution against extrapolation support appears to be a critical factor in relation to job
from one study across the maritime industry, which constitutes satisfaction.
a wide diversity of States, employers, flags, ship types, Crucially, however, the psychosocial well-being of seafarers
contract types, and recruitment and remuneration practices. is determined by a just, equal and supportive overall work
We have highlighted elsewhere the importance of considering environment. The maritime industry prioritizes “rationalization”
context when formulating policy initiatives (McVeigh et al., and “optimization” of budgets and work practices, which
2016), and this is certainly also essential in the maritime may lead to violations of rights and standards for seafarers,
industry. jeopardizing their dignity, performance, safety and overall
well-being (McVeigh and MacLachlan, 2019). Neither
Work Questionnaire dispositional resilience nor instrumental work support can
The item in the work questionnaire assessing seafaring experience be expected to compensate for a work environment that is
comprised overlapping response categories, namely 0–1, 1–5, perceived as unequal, unjust and unsupportive. Causes of
5–10, 10–20, and more than 20 years. For example, respondents perceived injustice at organizational and industry levels must
with 5 years of experience may therefore have responded as be addressed, alongside supporting the capacity of individuals
having “1–5” or “5–10 years” of experience. Such overlapping to cope with challenging situations (MacLachlan, 2017b).
response categories were not therefore mutually exclusive Supporting the psychosocial well-being of seafarers is auspicious
(McBurney and White, 2010; Grove et al., 2013). for both the individual seafarer and the seafaring organization,

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McVeigh et al. Stress and Job Satisfaction Amongst Seafarers

through improved well-being and enhanced work performance, data analysis. JM wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All
generating a virtuous reinforcing cycle. A work environment authors contributed to manuscript editing, read and approved the
that is experienced as supportive, equal and just is therefore a submitted version.
cornerstone for the psychosocial well-being of seafarers and an
astute aspiration.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS We wish to extend our gratitude to the participants of this study,
and to Shell International B.V. for financially supporting this
RS, HC, and AF participated in data collection. JM, MM, FV, research. This study first appeared in the primary researcher’s
and PH conceptualized the study and conducted secondary (JM) Doctoral thesis.

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Youssef, C. M., and Luthans, F. (2007). Positive organizational behaviour in the (JM) independently conducted secondary analyses of this questionnaire data,
workplace: the impact of hope, optimism, and resilience. J. Manag. 33, 774–800. independently interpreted and discussed the findings, and independently wrote
doi: 10.1177/0149206307305562 the original draft of this manuscript and decided to publish. RS has a paid
Yuan, K.-H., and Bentler, P. M. (2000). Three likelihood-based methods for consultancy role as a specialist in occupational medicine at Shell Health. Company
mean and covariance structure analysis with non-normal missing data. Sociol. processes and organizational restrictions influenced the study design and methods
Methodol. 30, 165–200. doi: 10.1111/0081-1750.00078 of data collection. The company had no influence through RS on data analyses,
interpretation, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit for publication.
Conflict of Interest Statement: JM received a Ph.D. scholarship from Shell
International B.V. RS, HC, and AF are employees of Shell. MM, FV, and PH Copyright © 2019 McVeigh, MacLachlan, Vallières, Hyland, Stilz, Cox and Fraser.
received no financial benefit for the research reported in this paper. This study This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
was conducted in collaboration with Shell Health and Shell International Trading Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums
and Shipping Company Limited (STASCo). Employees of Shell participated in the is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited
planning and coordination of the study, and in jointly reviewing with the primary and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
researcher the study design, analyses, findings, and interpretations. However, academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not
while the questionnaire data was collected by Shell, the primary researcher comply with these terms.

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