A STUDY OF JOB SATISFACTION IN RELATION

TO OCCUPATIONAL STRESS OF
PROFESSIONALS

A Thesis
Submitted by

PRINCE MARTIN V.

In fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in
Management Studies
Strategic Human Resource Management

Dr. MGR Educational and Research Institute

(Deemed University)
N.H. 4, Periyar E.V.R. Road,
Maduravoyal, Chennai – 600 095
November, 2007
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this thesis titled “A Study Of Job Satisfaction In Relation To

Occupational Stress Of Professionals” is the bonafide work of Mr. Prince Martin V.
who carried out the research under my supervision. Certified further, that to the
best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other
thesis or dissertation of the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an
earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

iv
v
vi
 ABSTRACT

Meaningful work recognizes the need of human beings to be part of society. The study
undertaken on work is significant because it occupies a major portion of man’s life span.
Wages, working conditions, work group, supervision, promotion and work are the
elements which contribute to job satisfaction. A person prefers mentally challenging
work, equitable rewards, supportive work conditions and supportive collogues. There is a
relationship between satisfaction and productivity, satisfaction and employee turnover,
satisfaction and absenteeism, satisfaction and safety.

In this background, the researcher felt the need to study occupational stress of
professionals in Bangalore. Occupational stress is a complex and dynamic process. It can
also be perceived as the imbalance between environmental demands and a person’s
ability to cope with these demands. A profession is one which requires specialized
knowledge, training and study in a particular area. A professional receives payment for
participating and is bound by a strict code of ethics.

The purpose of this investigation was to study the Job Satisfaction of professionals in
relation to Occupational Stress. It was also the intention of the researcher to find out
whether there are differences in the independent variables namely gender, experience and
profession. In addition, the researcher strives to find out whether there are differences
with respect to the various dimensions of Job Satisfaction namely Pay, Promotion,
Supervision, Benefits, Contingent rewards, Operating Procedures, Co-workers, Nature of
work and Communication. Similarly, the study also covers the differences with respect to
the dimensions of Occupational Stress namely Role Overload, Role Ambiguity, Role
Conflict, Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure, Responsibility for Person, Under
participation, Powerlessness, Poor peer relations, Intrinsic improvement, Law status,
Strenuous Working Condition and Un-profitability.

The objectives of the study were to find out the relationship between Job Satisfaction and
Occupational Stress of professionals in Bangalore, to investigate difference in

vii
background variables such as gender, experience and profession that would account for
significant difference in Job Satisfaction of professionals and to find out the impact of
Occupational Stress on Job Satisfaction of professionals.

The variables of the study are Job Satisfaction as a Dependent variable, Occupational
Stress as an Independent variable and Gender, Experience and Profession as Background
variables:

The population of the consists of seven different professionals from Bangalore city. The
sampling technique employed in the study was volunteer sampling. The standard tools
used to measure the variables of the study were Job satisfaction scale and Occupational
stress Index standardized by the investigator.

Hypothesis of the study was stated in null form for testing in this research and they were
categorized under three sets. Set I dealt with correlation between the dependent variable
job satisfaction of professionals and independent variable occupational stress. Set II dealt
with multiple regression and Set III dealt with t-Test analysis.

The correlation analysis revealed that there was a significant negative correlation between
job satisfaction and occupational stress of professionals. This implies that a professional’s
occupational stress is largely dependent on job satisfaction. There was a negative
relationship between the dimensions of job satisfaction and occupational stress. There
was a also a negative relationship between dimensions of occupational stress and job
satisfaction.

Organizations should evolve an appropriate a human resource strategy keeping in mind

the job satisfaction of professionals in their organization which in turn would help to
reduce the occupational stress of professionals. It is very relevant at a time when India is
poised for global leadership and this will help to transform an organization and make it
competitive in the global environment.

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As I embark on my journey in life, I look back with gratitude on all my teachers who
have moulded me in school, college, and during my post graduate studies. They were
milestones and light houses of knowledge. I can never forget all they have done for me in
my academic pursuit.

The title “Job satisfaction and Occupational Stress” also did result in a period of stress
during my thesis work. As a result, I personally experienced what stress can do to an
individual. The support of my spouse, cannot be expressed as she has helped me right
from the inception to the stage of completion. My daughters did a lot of sacrifice on my
behalf and I assure them that I will make up for lost time in the years to come.

I sincerely and graciously thank my guide Dr. Sawitha Harikrishnan for her immense
help and guidance in timely completion of my thesis. A guru is one who keeps a silent
and vigilant watch on his ward. Madam imbibed that both in mind and spirit.

My heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Gopalakrishnan, Dean of DIAS, Mr. Harsha of TIME

Institute, Thirupathi, Dr. Kennedy Thomas, Prof. Helen, Management of Alliance
Business Academy, Libraian and Staff at IIMB, Nimhans, IIMK and British Library for
all the help and support.

I thank my friends who helped me at various stages, especially Mike, Angelus and Pandu.

I thank God Almighty for keeping my mother in good health till I completed my thesis
and I thank all those who are near and dear to me.

Prince Martin V.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ xv
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
JOB SATISFACTION .................................................................................................. 4
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS ...................................................................................... 14
SATISFACTION AND JOB STRESS....................................................................... 63
NEED FOR THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 63
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM......................................................................... 64
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ............................................................................... 64
CHAPTER II - REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................. 65
TRENDS OF RESEARCH ON JOB SATISFACTION .......................................... 65
STUDIES ON JOB SATISFACTION ....................................................................... 67
TRENDS OF RESEARCH ON OCCUPATIONAL STRESS ................................ 71
STUDIES ON OCCUPATIONAL STRESS ............................................................. 72
CHAPTER III - METHODOLOGY ............................................................................. 88
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 88
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM......................................................................... 89
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ............................................................................... 89
VARIABLES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................. 89
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY ............................................................................. 89
SAMPLING DESIGN ................................................................................................. 94
TOOLS OF THE STUDY........................................................................................... 95
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA .................................................................. 103
CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................ 103
CHAPTER IV - ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 104
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 104
BASIC STATISTICAL DATA ON VARIABLES ................................................. 104
CHAPTER V - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................. 167
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 167

x
 NEED FOR THE STUDY ........................................................................................ 167
SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................. 168
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ............................................................................. 168
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............................................................. 169
VARIABLES OF THE STUDY ............................................................................... 169
TOOLS OF THE STUDY......................................................................................... 169
SAMPLING DESIGN ............................................................................................... 170
MAJOR FINDINGS .................................................................................................. 170
IMPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................... 174
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ................................................... 177
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ........................................................................... 178
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 179
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 204
JOB SATISFACTION SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................... 204
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................. 210
CURRICULAM VITAE ............................................................................................... 217

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 LIST OF TABLES

Chapter No. Description

III 3.01 Population of the Study
III 3.02 Assessment of score of the statement
III 3.03 Dimension wise distribution of items of Job satisfaction scale
III 3.04 Reliability analysis of job satisfaction scale
III 3.05 Item analysis of job satisfaction scale
III 3.06 Reliability analysis of job satisfaction scale
III 3.07 Showing the assessment of score of the statement
III 3.08 Dimension wise distribution of items of occupational stress scale
III 3.09 Results of the reliability and validity of occupational stress scores
III 3.10 Item analysis of Occupational stress Index scale
III 3.11 Reliability analysis of Occupational stress Index scale
IV 4.01 The frequency distribution of study subjects according to departments
and professional experiences of the total sample
IV 4.02 The frequency distribution of study subjects according to gender and
professional experiences of the total sample
IV 4.03 The frequency distribution of the job satisfaction scores of the total
sample
IV 4.04 The frequency distribution of the occupational stress scores of the total
sample
IV 4.05 Table showing the variables, size (N), df, and coefficient of correlation
‘r’ and its significance at 0.05 level between job satisfaction of
professionals and their occupational stress
IV 4.06 Table showing the variables, size (N), df, and coefficient of correlation
‘r’ and its significance at 0.05 level between occupational stress and
dimensions of job satisfaction
IV 4.07 Table showing the variables, size (N), df, and coefficient of correlation
‘r’ and its significance at 0.05 level

xii
IV 4.08 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of all different professionals
IV 4.09 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of male professionals
IV 4.10 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of female professionals
IV 4.11 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of sales professionals
IV 4.12 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of marketing professionals
IV 4.13 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of professional service
professionals
IV 4.14 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of customer service
professionals
IV 4.15 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of system engineer
professionals
IV 4.16 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of Administrators
professionals
IV 4.17 Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of consultant professionals
IV 4.18 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between male and female professionals with
respect to job satisfaction and its dimensions
IV 4.19 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between male and female professionals with
respect to occupational stress and its dimensions

xiii
IV 4.20 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3years and 4-10 years of
experiences of professionals with respect to job satisfaction and its
dimensions
IV 4.21 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3years and 4-10 years of
experiences of professionals with respect to job satisfaction and its
dimensions
IV 4.22 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3years and 4-10 years of
experiences of professionals with respect to job satisfaction and its
dimensions
IV 4.23 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3 years and 4-10 years of
experience of professionals with respect to occupational stress and its
dimensions
IV 4.24 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3 years and more than 10 years of
experience of professionals with respect to occupational stress and its
dimensions
IV 4.25 The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 4-10 years and more than 10 years of
experience of professionals with respect to occupational stress and its
dimensions

xiv
 LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter No. Description
I 1.01 Sources of Job Satisfaction
I 1.02 Lawler’s Facet Satisfaction Model
IV 4.01 The frequency polygon of the job satisfaction scores of the total sample
IV 4.02 The frequency polygon of the job satisfaction scores of the total sample
IV 4.03 The frequency polygon of job satisfaction scores by gender
IV 4.04 The frequency polygon of occupational stress scores by gender
IV 4.05 The frequency polygon of job satisfaction scores by different
department
IV 4.06 The frequency polygon of occupational stress by different department
IV 4.07 The frequency polygon of job satisfaction scores by professional
experience (in yrs)
IV 4.08 The frequency polygon of occupational stress scores by professional
experience (in yrs)
IV 4.09 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Pay scores by gender
IV 4.10 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Promotion scores by gender
IV 4.11 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Supervision scores by gender
IV 4.12 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Benefits scores by gender
IV 4.13 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Contingent rewards scores by gender
IV 4.14 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Operating Procedures scores by gender

IV 4.15 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction

i.e., Co-workers scores by gender
IV 4.16 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction

xv
 i.e. Nature of work scores by gender
IV 4.17 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Communication scores by gender
IV 4.18 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Role Overload scores by gender
IV 4.19 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Role Ambiguity scores by gender
IV 4.20 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Role Conflict scores by gender
IV 4.21 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure scores by gender
IV 4.22 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Responsibility for Person scores by gender
IV 4.23 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Under participation scores by gender
IV 4.24 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Powerlessness scores by gender
IV 4.25 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Poor peer relations scores by gender
IV 4.26 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Poor peer relations scores by gender
IV 4.27 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Intrinsic improvement scores by gender
IV 4.28 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Law status scores by gender
IV 4.29 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress
i.e. Strenuous Working Condition scores by gender
IV 4.30 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Un-profitability scores by gender
IV 4.31 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction

xvi
 i.e. Pay scores by different departments
IV 4.32 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Promotion scores by different departments
IV 4.33 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Supervision scores by different departments
IV 4.34 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Benefits scores by different departments
IV 4.35 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Contingent rewards scores by different departments
IV 4.36 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Operating Procedures scores by different departments
IV 4.37 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Co-workers scores by different departments
IV 4.38 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Nature of work scores by different departments
IV 4.39 The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction
i.e. Communication scores by different departments
IV 4.40 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Role Overload scores by different departments
IV 4.41 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Role Ambiguity scores by different departments
IV 4.42 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Role Conflict scores by different departments
IV 4.43 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure scores by different
departments
IV 4.44 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Responsibility for Person scores by different departments
IV 4.45 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Under participation scores by different departments

xvii
IV 4.46 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Powerlessness scores by different departments
IV 4.47 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Poor peer relations scores by different departments
IV 4.48 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.,
Intrinsic improvement scores by different departments
IV 4.49 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.,
Law status scores by different departments
IV 4.50 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Strenuous Working Condition scores by different departments
IV 4.51 The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e., Un-
profitability scores by different departments
IV 4.52 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Total)
IV 4.53 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Male)
IV 4.54 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Female)
IV 4.55 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Sales)
IV 4.56 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(Marketing)
IV 4.57 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(Professional Service)
IV 4.58 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(Customer Service)
IV 4.59 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (System
Engineer)
IV 4.60 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (General
Administration)
IV 4.61 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(Consultants)

xviii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

\
O\ Confident Limit
- Minus sign
< Less than
= Equal
> Greater than
ACTH Adreno Cortico Tropic Hormone
ANOVA Analysis Of Variance
ATM Action Tendency Measure
CAD Coronary Artery Disease
CF Cumulative Frequency
CNS Central Nervous System
CNV Christian Labor Unions
CVS Chronic Variable Stress
df Degree of Freedom
e.g. Example
EAP Employee Assistance Programme
etc Etcetera
F F Test
FNU Federation of Dutch Labor Unions
F-ratio F Test Ratio
GAS General Adaptation Syndrome
GIT Gastro Intestinal Tract
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IAS Indian Administrative Service
i.e. That is
IT Information Technology
JDI Job Description Index
N Number

xix
n Number
NA Negative affectivity
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational safety and health
NISH National Institute of Stress and Health
NS Non Significant
OSI Occupational Stress Index
P Probability
PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
r Coefficient of correlation
R Multiple Correlation
R2 Multiple Correlation Squared
S Significant
SD Standard Deviation
SE of Beta Standard Error of Estimate
std Standard
t-value Test (student's t)
yrs Years

xx
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Profession

A profession is an occupation that requires extensive training and the study and mastery
of specialized knowledge, and usually has a professional association, ethical code and
process of certification or licensing. Examples are accounting, law, teaching, architecture,
nursing, pharmacy, medicine, finance, the military, the clergy, history and engineering.

Classically, there were only three professions: ministry, medicine, and law. These three
professions each hold to a specific code of ethics, and members are almost universally
required to swear some form of oath to uphold those ethics, therefore "professing" to a
higher standard of accountability. Each of these professions also provides and requires
extensive training in the meaning, value, and importance of its particular oath in the
practice of that profession.

Sociologists have been known to define professionalism as self-defined power elitism or

as organized exclusivity along guild lines, much in the sense that George Bernard Shaw
characterized all professions as "conspiracies against the laity". Sociological definitions
of professionalism involving checklists of perceived or claimed characteristics like
altruism, self-governance, esoteric knowledge, special skills, ethical behaviour, etc.
became less fashionable in the late 20th century.

A member of a profession is termed a professional. However, professional is also used

for the acceptance of payment for an activity, in contrast to an amateur. A professional
sportsperson, for example, is one who receives payment for participating in sport, but
sport is not generally considered a profession. Although a profession can also refer to any
activity from which one earns one's living, so in that sense sport is a profession.

Historically, the number of professions was limited: members of the clergy, medical
doctors, and lawyers held the monopoly on professional status and on professional

1
education, with military officers called the grandfather of modern engineers were
recognized as social equals. Self-governing bodies such as guilds or colleges, backed by
state-granted charters guaranteeing monopolies, limited access to and behaviour within
such professions.

With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other
bodies began to claim "professional" status: engineers, educationalists and even nurses,
until today almost any occupational group can, at least unofficially, aspire to professional
rank, and popular recognition of this trend has made possible the widespread recognition
of prostitution as ‘the oldest profession’.

With the church having receded in its role in western society, the remaining classical
professions law and medicine are both noted by many as requiring not just study to enter,
but extensive study and accreditation above and beyond simply getting a university
degree. Accordingly more recently-formalized disciplines, such as architecture, which
now have equally-long periods of study associated with them, and which are becoming
considered as their equal.

In modern usage, professions tend to have certain qualities in common. A profession is

always held by a person, and it is generally that person's way of generating income.
Membership in the profession is usually restricted and regulated by a professional
association. For example, lawyers regulate themselves through a bar association and
restrict membership through licensing and accreditation of law schools. Hence,
professions also typically have a great deal of autonomy, setting rules and enforcing
discipline themselves. Professions are also generally exclusive, which means that laymen
are either legally prohibited from or lack the wherewithal to practice the profession. For
example, people are generally prohibited by law from practicing medicine without a
license, and would likely be unable to practice well without the acquired skills of a
physician. Professions also require rigorous training and schooling beyond a basic college
degree. Lastly, because entrance into professions is so competitive, their members
typically have above average mental skills.

2
There is no standard definition of a modern professional, however. Beyond the classical
examples of lawyers, doctors, etc., there are many groups that claim status as a
profession, and many who would dispute that status. For example, school teachers often
refer to their occupation as a profession, even though it is not exclusive, people teach
others outside of the traditional school environment, nor is entrance competitive, nor are
they self-regulating, laypeople in state legislatures or on boards of education typically set
the rules for and regulate teachers. The process when trade unions or other bodies try to
elevate an occupation to the level of profession is called 'professionalization’, this is often
an attempt to enhance position in the labour markets.

The existence of a traceable historical record of notable members of the profession can
serve as an indicator of a profession. Often, these historic professionals have become well
known to laypersons outside the field, for example, Clarence Darrow (law) or Edward
Jenner (medicine). In modern times, however, there is no standard definition.

It has also been suggested that some professionals feel an obligation to society, beyond
their client relationship. Doctors may not merely sell their service if a procedure is
medically inappropriate, however much the client may want it undertaken, architects may
refuse to work on a project that would be detrimental to its surroundings, lawyers may
refuse to take cases which are merely exploitative. The obligation to educate the client is
often seen as a key part of the definition.

3
 JOB SATISFACTION

The relationship between man and work has always attracted the attention of
philosophers, scientists and novelists. A major part of man’s life is spent in work. Work
is a social reality and social expectation to which man seems to confirm. It not only
provides status to the individual but also binds him to the society. The nature and
significance of work would be important as an area of study, if only on the basis that it
occupies so much of man’s life span.

On the surface, it may seem that with the growing complexities of the industrial society,
work is simply a means of earning a living. This approach appears to be an over
simplification. Work serves many other functions for an individual. As a matter of fact,
by working on a job, most men gratified many of their needs. Work in this regard is a
potent source of need gratification of all types such as physical, security, social and ego
needs. Schaffer (1953) for example opined that job satisfaction is primarily based upon
satisfaction of needs. The stronger that need, the more closely will job satisfaction depend
upon its gratification.

The concept of need has been taken from animal psychology and social psychology
respectively. The term ‘need’ is defined as “condition marked by feelings of lack or want
of something or of requiring the performance of some action”. Needs are terminated by
attainment of incentives. This termination is a simple feeling of state known as
satisfaction. According to Drever, “satisfaction is the end state in feeling accompanying
the attainment of an impulse of its objective”. The resulted feeling of satisfaction is a
function of the motive (need) strength and the opportunity that environment provides for
the attainment of appropriate incentive. In the literature of industrial psychology the term
job satisfaction is quite frequently used for individual’s attitude towards the specific
aspects of total work situation.

Earlier job attitude researches have been focused on economic aim, humanistic aim and
theoretical aim. The economic aim of job attitude research is that a satisfied employee
will be more productive than a dissatisfied employee. The humanistic aim of the job

4
attitude is to make work hours pleasurable and as meaningful as possible. The theoretical
aim of job attitude research is to increase the understanding of man. Knowledge of the
determinants of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work can contribute appreciably of
professionals.

Studies in the area of job satisfaction as an important and popular research topic started
decades ago. In research designs, it has been used variously as dependent, independent
and moderating variables.

In 1935 the concept of job satisfaction gained currency through the publication of a
monograph by Hoppock on ‘job satisfaction”. Hoppock in his monograph has defined job
satisfaction as “any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental
circumstances that causes a person truthfully to say ‘I am satisfied with my job’.

Job satisfaction is a person’s attitude towards the job. Positive attitude towards the job are
equivalent to job satisfaction whereas negative attitudes towards job are equivalent to job
dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction has been defined variously from time to time.

SOURCES OF JOB SATISFACTION

Several job elements contribute to job satisfaction. The most important among them are
wage structure, nature of work, promotion chances, quality of supervisors, work group,
working conditions.

5
 WAGES

WORKING WORK
CONDITIONS

JOB SATISFACTION

WORK GROUP PROMOTION

CHANCES

SUPERVISION

Figure 1.01: Sources of Job Satisfaction

WAGES: Wages play a significant role in influencing job satisfaction. This is because of
two reasons. First, money is an important instrument in fulfilling ones needs and two
employees often sees pay as a reflection of management concern for them. Employees
want pay system, which is simple, fair and in line with their expectations.

NATURE OF WORK: Most employees have intellectual challenges on job. They tend to
prefer being given opportunities to use their skill and abilities and being offered a variety
of tasks, freedom and feedback and how well they are doing. These characteristics make
jobs mentally challenging. Jobs that have too little challenges create boredom.

PROMOTIONS: Promotional opportunities affect job satisfaction considerably. The

desire for promotion is generally strong among employees as it involves change in job
content, pay, responsibility, independence and status.

6
SUPERVISION: There is a positive relationship between the quality of supervision and
job satisfaction. Supervisors who establish supportive personal relationships with
subordinates and take a personal interest in them contribute to their employee
satisfaction.

WORK GROUP: The work group does not serve as a source of satisfaction to individual
employees. It does so primarily by providing group members with opportunities for
interaction with each other. The work group is even stronger source of satisfaction when
members have similar attitudes and values.

WORKING CONDITIONS: Working conditions that are comparative with an

employee’s physical comfort and that facilitate doing a good, contribute to job
satisfaction.

An extensive review of the literate indicates that the more important factors conducive to
job satisfaction are mentally challenging work, equitable rewards, supportive working
conditions and supportive colleagues. To this list we also add the importance of a good
personality- job fit and individual’s genetic disposition.

MENTALLY CHALLENGING WORK

Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their skill and abilities.
Jobs that have too little challenge create boredom but too many challenges create
frustration and feelings of failure. Under conditions of moderate challenge, most
employees will experience satisfaction.

EQUITABLE REWARDS

Employees want pay systems and promotions policies that they perceive as being just,
unambiguous and in line with their expectation, promotion provide opportunities for
personal growth, more responsibilities and increased social status.

7
SUPPORTIVE WORK CONDITIONS

Employees are concerned with their work environment for both personal comfort and
facilitating doing a job. Studies demonstrate that employees prefer physical surroundings
that are not dangerous or uncomfortable. Temperature, light, noise and other environment
factors should not be at either exclusive – for example having too much heat or too much
light.

SUPPORTIVE COLEAGUES

People get more out of work than merely money or tangible achievements. For most
employees, work also fills the need for social interaction. Not surprisingly, therefore
having friendly and supportive co-workers leads to a increased job satisfaction. The
behaviour of one’s boss is a major determinant of job satisfaction.

High agreement between an employee’s personality and occupation results in a more

satisfied employee. People with personality congruent to their chosen vocation rightly
meet the demands of the jobs and are more likely to be successful and more likely of
achieving high satisfaction.

CONSQUENCES OF JOB SATISFACTION

High job satisfaction may lead to improved productivity, decreased turnover, improved
attendance, reduced accidents, less job stress and lower unionization.

SATISFACTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

The relationship between satisfaction and productivity is not definitely established. The
consensus however is that in the long run, job satisfaction leads to increased productivity.

SATISFACTION AND EMPLOYEE TURNOVER

High turnover is of considerable concern for employees because it disrupts normal

operations, causes more problems for those who strike and increases the cost involved in

8
selecting and training replacements. The employer does whatever possible to minimize
turnover, making the employees feel satisfied on their jobs. It has been demonstrated that
workers who have relatively low levels of job satisfaction are the most likely to quit their
jobs and the organizational units with the lowest average satisfaction level tend to have
the highest turnover rates.

SATISFACTION AND ABSENTEEISM

Correlation of satisfaction to absenteeism is also proved conclusively. Simply stated,

absenteeism is high when satisfaction is low. As in turnover absenteeism is subject to
modification by certain factors. The degree to which the people feel that their jobs are
important has a moderating influence on their absences. Employees who feel that their
work is important tend to clock in regular attendance. Besides, it is important to
remember that while high job satisfaction will not necessarily result in low absenteeism,
low satisfaction is likely to bring about high absenteeism.

JOB SATISFACTION AND SAFETY

Poor safety practices are negative consequences of low satisfaction level. When people
are discouraged about their jobs, company and supervisors, they are more liable to
experience accidents. An underlying reason for such accidents is that discouragement
may take one’s attention away from the task at hand.

UNIONIZATION

It has been proved that job dissatisfaction is a major cause for unionization.
Dissatisfaction with wages, job security, benefits, chances for promotion, treatment by
supervisors are the reasons, which make employees join unions.

9
THEORIES OF JOB SATISFACTION

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory:

Two-factor theory also known as the motivator hygiene theory, addresses both motivation
and satisfaction and is based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The two factor theory is
classified as belonging to the subgroup of context theories; theories that attempt to
identify the needs that must be met for the individual to be satisfied on the job. Locke
(1976) evaluated Maslow’s hierarchy theory and Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory
as two of the primary content theories. Herzberg’s theory uses the team motivators to
include satisfying experiences. Because of this, Herzberg’s theory is an excellent example
of the conceptual and definitional overlap between the processes of motivation and
satisfaction. Herzberg’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are based on two different sets of
needs. Motivators originate within the individual; hygiene needs stem from the
environment.

The two factor theory is based to some extent on Maslow’s need hierarchy. Maslow’s
physiological, safety, and social needs are assumed to be provided by society, securing
them would lead to a feeling of mental peace and not having them would lead to
dissatisfaction.

Maslow’s need hierarchy and Herzberg’s two factor theory

MASLOW’S NEEDS HERZBERGS NEEDS JOB ATTITUDE

Physiological Hygiene factors Dissatisfaction -0
Safety
Social
Ego
Self-actualization Motivators Satisafaction -1

10
Hygiene factors Motivators
Company policy Achievement
Supervision Recognition
Salary work
Interpersonal relations Responsibility
Working conditions Advancement

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposite processes, they involve two separate sets
of factors. According to Herzberg, fulfilling hygiene needs leads to only a temporary
absence of dissatisfaction and employees demand for salary increase or will decrease
accordingly.

Organizations can increase employee motivation by designing jobs that provide

opportunities for personal challenge, responsibility, advancement and growth. Herzberg
initiated two concepts by which these new job designs could be accomplished.

JOB ENLARGEMENT In which employees are given more of the same kinds of
activities within which they can apply existing skills.

JOB ENRICHEMENT Means that employees are afforded opportunities to increase their
repertoire of skills and are given the chance to move vertically to other jobs within the
organizations.

CRITICISM

1) Factors that are categorized as motivators (physiological) and hygiene (physical)

should lead both to satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
2) Herzberg did not account for individual differences in the effects of motivators and
hygiene factors on satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
3) Vroom argued that any research results showing differences in the effects of satisfies
and dissatisfies might actually stem from a sense of defensiveness within the
individual.

11
Lawler’s Facet Satisfaction Model

In contrast to the content theories discussed, process theories study and identify the
processes that imitate and terminate behaviour. That is, process models of job satisfaction
attempt to specify the variables that cause satisfaction (e.g. expectancies, perceptions etc.)
and result in particular outcomes. Thus Lawler’s facet satisfaction model is a combination
of process theory, an equity theory and a theory that accounts for individual differences in
terms of subjective perception. This model is applicable to understanding what
determines a person’s satisfaction with any facet of the job.

Similar to equity theory, facet theory is a comparison theory, which includes both self
and social comparison to determine the level of satisfaction with the job or any of its
facets. This comparison process emphasizes the role of perceived inputs and outputs. A
facet satisfaction model is also a discrepancy model: a person’s satisfaction is determined
by the difference of discrepancy between what the person believes he is actually
rewarded and the perception of what it should be. Overall job satisfaction is defined as
the difference between all the things a person feels one should receive from and all the
things one actually does receive.

Lawler regards the facet satisfaction model as distinct from the equity model: equity
theory emphasizes a comparison of the perceived ratio of inputs and outputs of oneself to
other people; discrepancy theory addresses the differences between the individuals
perception of what ‘is’ and what ‘should be’.

Facet satisfaction theory accounts for individual differences by emphasizing personal

perceptions and subjective beliefs. A person’s job input includes factors such as skills,
age, training and abilities. Perceived job demands influence the person’s feeling about
what his or her outcomes should be compared to represent others inputs and outputs.

12
Skill
Experience
Training
Effort
Perceived Personal
Age
Seniority Job Inputs
Education
Company Loyalty
Past Performance A
Present Performance Perceived Inputs & Perceived Amount
Outcomes of referent that should be
others received

Level
Difficulty Perceived Job
Time Span Characteristics
Amount of
Responsibility

Figure 1.02: Lawler’s Facet Satisfaction Model

13
Work Adjustment Theory

Dawis and Loftquist (1984) defined tenure as the amount of time an individual remains
on the job. The purpose of work adjustment theory is to predict the probability that an
individual will adjust to his or her environment and the length of time the individual will
stay at the job. The primary factor affecting tenure is satisfaction; tenure is related to both
the employee’s satisfaction with the job (satisfaction) and the employer’s satisfaction
with the employee’s quality or performance (satisfactoriness).

The mutual process by which the employer and the employee react and respond to meet
each other’s requirements is a continual process called work adjustment. The degree to
which these requirements are met is the correspondence between the individual and the
employer. The theory has been used to predict employee turnover and adjustment to
career and vocational counseling and has contributed to research on job satisfaction,
person –environment fit and person organization fit.

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

In a high velocity and rapidly changing environment, organizations now operate in

cultures of increased speed, efficiency and competition. Economic imperatives and the
need to retain competitive advantage have resulted in restructuring and uncertainty.
Workforces are constantly being downsized or enlarged; small organizations are merging
or being merged by larger, more competitive and efficient organizations. Thus, change is
the only constant. Occupational stress and workplace health has become issues of great
concern over the last decade, both nationally and internationally. Given the value of work
in the society, the amount of time spent at work and the current changes that are affecting
the nature of work, it is not surprising that work stress appears to be increasing
(Szymanski, 1999).

Stress claims were mostly associated with the experience of a traumatic and or life
threatening event, such as violence, injury or a critical incident of some kind.
Occupations at risk of experiencing these types of events include police and prison

14
officers, medical and para-medical professions, banking staff and community care
workers (National Institute for Occupational safety and health – NIOSH, 1999). In recent
years, the number of claims has steadily increased and the reported cause for these claims
has moved away from traumatic stress to chronic conditions (Bull, 1996). Stress creates
enormous costs, both financially and in human terms. The costs are difficult to quantify
as a result of mis-leading statistics, and reported instances, staff turnover and inconsistent
recording.

Discussion of work stress should avoid making the impression that work is a
psychologically dangerous activity as it is not necessarily inherently stressful. The
intrinsic value of work to the health and life satisfaction of the worker is well recognized
(Probert, 1990). Early philosophers such as Freud and Adler contended that work forms
an integral part of basic human existence. In his well accepted theory of development,
Erikson (1950) noted the importance of work to an individual’s sense of selfhood.
Motivational theorists such as Maslow (1968) have suggested that work does not only
fulfill basic needs of security, food or shelter, but also provides a means by which higher
level needs, such as need for competence, meaning and social engagement are met.
Recent researchers have shown that work is integrally involved in the process of identity
development and self esteem (Winefield, Winefield, Tiggermann and Goldney, 1993).
Work, therefore plays a major role in people’s lives and wields an important influence on
their sense of well being and identity (Barling, 1990; Feather 1990). It provides a medium
by which people identify themselves in society (Symanski, Ryan, Merz, Trevino and
Jonston-Rodriguez, 1996) and can be influenced by economic, societal, cultural and
individual factors. As noted by Kielhofner (1995), a person’s identity is a function of his
or her validated social roles, particularly those associated with occupation. Consequently,
the laws of such valued roles can lead to psychological distress and subsequent loss of
function.

For many individuals, the loss of work has been associated with extremely negative
reactions that include psychological or physiological distress, loss of social contact and
suicide (Jahoda, 1979; Keita and Sauter, 1992; Marshall and Hodges, 1981; Winefield,
1995). Studies at both national and international have found a relationship between

15
unemployment and a range of measures of poor health. In addition to loss of income,
unemployment has been found to lead to a breakdown of social relationships and an
increase in stress and anxiety (Junankar, 1991), loneliness and depravation of social
position (Leeflang, Klein-Hesselink and Spruit, 1992), reduced social support, poor
health, a higher incidence of handicap and chronic illness (Machenbach, 1992; Mathers,
1994; Townsend and Davidson, 1992).

Code of Conduct of Professions - Demands

Many organizations have codified their conduct, often designated “code of ethics”, and
what they require for entry into their organization and how to remain in good standing.
Some of these codes are quite detailed and make strong emphasis on their particular area
or expertise, for example, journalists emphasize the use of credible sources and protecting
their identities, psychology emphasis privacy of the patient and communications with
other psychologists, anthropologists emphasize rules on intrusions into a culture being
studied. Most of the codes do show an overlap in such concepts as,’ do no harm’, ‘be
honest’, ‘do not use your position for private gain,’ etc.

Another area of enquiry that will allow a student of this subject to define concepts of
professionalism may be inferred from guarantees. But these are inferences only. The idea
behind a guarantee is that the person offering the guarantee is accountable to the extent of
damages that will be compensated.

One thing these sources hold in common, implicit or explicit, is the idea of
accountability—those who are members of these organizations or professions are held
accountable for what they do. Links to these sources are made in External Links.

Occupational Stress

Stress that occurs due to a person’s employment is termed occupational stress. The terms
work stress, job stress, or occupational stress is used interchangeably (Dollard, 2003).
Employers and governments have had increasing concern about occupational stress for
over twenty years (Le Fevre, 2003). In the past decade, effects of economic globalization

16
and rapid technological changes have resulted in increased workloads and a faster pace in
the work place (Dollard, 2003).

Unmanaged stress for employees can result in short-and-long-term negative health effects
including exhaustion, physical pain, depression, sleep disturbances, and even death
(Brock and Grady, 2002; Le Fevre, 2003). Employers risk the potential loss of talented,
trained employees due to occupational stress and its results. Another concern is the
employer’s risk of being held legally liable for damages that result from stress in the
workplace (Le Fevre, 2003).

There are a variety of work stress models and theories. These explanations of work stress
differ according to the emphasis for the induction of stress and the different outcomes for
the management of stress (Le Fevre 2003; Dollard, 2003). Theories of work stress have
been categorized by as either interactional or transactional (Cox, Griffiths and Rial-
Gonzalez, 2000). Interactional theories of stress focus on the structural features of the
person’s interaction with their work environment. Transactional theories of stress focus
on the person’s emotional reactions and cognitive processes related to their environment.

One general theory of occupational stress is the effort-reward imbalance model. This
model emphasizes the link between self-regulatory needs of the worker and the social
opportunity structure (Siegrist, 2001). Effort reward imbalance is prevalent in service
occupations. Another accepted general theory of occupational stress is the demand
control model. Seigrist (2001) stated that the demand control model claims that a high
level of psychological demands and a low level of authority and skill utilization cause
strain that leads to susceptibility to illness.

Occupational stress has been the topic of much research. Sutherland and Cooper (1998)
devised five categories of potential sources of psychosocial and occupational stress.

Factors intrinsic to the job are Poor physical working conditions, work overload,
pressures of new technology, time pressures. Factors that impact a Role in the
Organization are Role ambiguity or conflict due to conflicting demands; responsibility to
others; relationships with others, boundary conflicts. Career Development factors are Job

17
insecurity, over promotion or under promotion. Relationships at work are influenced by
Poor relations with boss or other colleagues; difficulties delegating responsibility.
Organizational structure and climate are impacted by Lack of participation in decision-
making, office politics, restrictions on behaviour and social support.

Other factors that are potential stressors include life events that may cause stress such as
home, family and financial demands, marital problems and conflicts between job and
family demands (Sutherland and Cooper, 1988). Dollard (2003) presented a categorical
matrix adapted from Cox (2000) to define the stressful characteristics of work, which
included these job characteristics, social and individual components:

Job Characteristics and Nature of Work

Job Contents/demands High physical, mental or emotional demands, high uncertainty and
continuous exposure to people through work
Workload/workplace Work overload, pressures deadlines
Work Schedule Shift working, inflexible work schedules, unpredictable hours, long or
unsocial hours.
Job Control Inadequate or faulty equipment, poor environment conditions

Social and Organizational Context of Work

Organizational Culture Poor communication, low levels of support for problem-solving

and personal development, lack of definition on organizational objectives
Interpersonal relationships at Work Social or physical isolation, poor relationships with
superiors, interpersonal conflict, lack of social support.
Role in Organization Role ambiguity, role conflict, responsibility

Career development Career stagnation and uncertainty, under promotion or over

promotion, poor pay, job insecurity, low social value of work

18
Individual Risk Factors

Individual differences Coping styles, personality, hardiness

Home-work interface Conflicting demand of work and low support at home

An individual’s personal characteristics are an important part of the stress interaction.

Personality traits, behaviours, attitudes, needs, values, past experiences, life
circumstances and abilities all influence the impact of a stressor. Age and health are also
important characteristics that modify responses to stress (Sutherland and Cooper, 1988).
Some research has indicated that the factors of gender and ethnicity impact responses to
stress, particularly if the individual has experienced discrimination or prejudice (Fielden
and Davidson, 2001; Torelli and Gmelch, 1993; Sutherland and Cooper, 1988).

Conceptualization of occupational stress

It is well recognized that stress is a complex and dynamic process (Lazarus, 1990;
Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman and Gruen, 1985). Stress can be defined as the imbalance
between people's perceived environmental demands and their perceived ability to cope
with these demands (Cox, 1978; McGrath, 1970). Stress is recognized to be
predominantly subjective in nature, rather than an objective phenomenon.

A comprehensive understanding of stress involves assessing each important facet of the

stress process (Lazarus, 1990). This includes the key environmental and personal
antecedents (e.g., demands, resources), the intervening processes (e.g., coping,
personality), indicators of the immediate stress response (e.g., subjective experience of
psychological distress), and the longer-term consequences of stress for individuals and
the workplace (e.g., physical health, commitment to the organization). It is now
recognized that a complete understanding of stress in the workplace, requires un-
derstanding the positive experiences and emotions staff experience at work, in addition to
the negative experiences and emotions (e.g., Hart and Wearing, 1995). There is emerging

19
evidence that psychological distress and well-being are not opposite ends of the same
continuum, but are qualitatively different (e.g., Agro, Price and Mueller, 1992; Hart and
Wearing, 1995). That is, employees may experience high, moderate or low levels of
strain coupled with either high, moderate or low levels of job satisfaction.

Efforts to explain the theories of occupational stress have been attempted. These are: (1)
Karasek's (1979) Demands-Control theory; (2) French, Caplan and Harrison's (1984)
Person-Environment Fit; and (3) Siegrist's (1998) Effort-Reward Imbalance model.
According to Karasek's (1979) Demands-Control Theory, jobs that combine high levels
of demand with low levels of autonomy, control, or decision latitude are the most
stressful. In the past, academic jobs would clearly not have fallen in this category.
However, according to Fisher (1994), "The demands on academics have risen rapidly
over the last ten years...there has been a steady erosion of job control. All the signs are
that this will continue". If Fisher is correct, then increases in academic stress can be
explained in terms of Karasek's model. A recent review shows there is considerable
support for this theory (Van der Doef and Maes, 1999).

Another influential theory of occupational stress is the person-environmental fit model

proposed by French, Caplan and Harrison (1984).This theory views stress as arising from
a misfit (either objective or subjective) between the requirements of the job and the skills
and traits of the individual.

A third influential theory is the effort-reward imbalance model proposed by Siegrist

(1998). According to this model, the combination of high effort and low reward at work
results in adverse health effects. For example, "having a demanding, but unstable job or
achieving at a high level without being offered any promotion prospects, are examples of
particularly stressful working contexts". Siegrist presents evidence showing that job
stress (defined as effort-reward imbalance) can increase the risk of coronary heart
disease.

According to each of these theories, an increase in the stress experienced by academics

would be the result of changes to the nature of academic work or the academic working

20
environment. There are good reasons to believe that such changes have occurred. During
the past fifteen years many of the advantages and attractions of academic work have been
eroded. Academic salaries have fallen in relative terms in countries such as the UK,
Australia and New Zealand. Increasing numbers of academic positions are now
untenured, workloads have increased, and academics are under increased pressure to
attract external funds for their research and to 'publish or perish'. The demands on
individual academics have been driven in part by the increasing demands placed on
universities to obtain funding. External 'quality' audits are now conducted that examine
the quality and quantity of research output and teaching of universities and academic
departments, with future funding support influenced by the outcomes of such audits.

To fully understand the phenomenon of work stress, it is necessary first to document the
process that most commonly occurs for workers in this situation. The model shown in
Figure 1.03 has been developed to depict the most negative scenario or trajectory that
could be expected for an individual who is experiencing work stress. The personal
experience of work stress at the level of the individual worker is represented by the solid
line. Highlighted in bold and arrowed boxes in the model are the factors (i.e., points,
pressures and events) that are likely to contribute to the stress process from the time the
individual enters an employment relationship. Although not represented in the model, it is
assumed that individuals could exit the employment relationship at any time. However,
assuming they do not exit, there will be significant points of pressure on that relationship,
represented by small circles.

The model also represents the three major phases of management, namely primary,
secondary and tertiary, and assumes that changes in the management of work stress at any
point in the process could shift the trajectory to a more positive direction. For instance,
primary prevention strategies implemented early in the development of a new
employment relationship could prevent the experience of stress and, thus, prevent the
decline in performance. Similarly, a decline in performance, if managed successfully at
the secondary stage, need not continue to a point of disengagement and appropriate
tertiary management could enable a worker to return to the workplace effectively.

21
 Stress Appraisal and Optimum performance and engagement with employer
Contract Violation

Noticeable decline in performance

Job Demands
Process of
X Personal
Psychological Unresolved
Vulnerabilities
or physical resentment
disengagement And severed bond –
from the workplace Possible long-term
HRM Practices unemployment
and Appraisal
Formal disengagement
Work Adjustment
and Socialization Attempt Return to
Same
Workplace
Cultural and
Market
Pressures

Development of relationship with

Employer and contract
negotiation
Claim lodgment and further Parallel, legal and statutory processes combined
Alienation from employer With ongoing personal decline and alienation

Primary Secondary Tertiary Management Phase

Management Management
Phase Phase

Figure 1.03: Model of Work Stress

Any movement into employment involves a match between an employee or organization

and an employee. As many researchers have agreed, both the job itself and the person,
bring vulnerabilities and characteristics that contribute to the stress process (Kenny,
2000). For instance, research has clearly acknowledged the fact that some individuals
have a predisposition towards negative thinking or affect, have fewer coping resources
than others or an inability to utilize effective coping strategies (Netmeyer, 2000).

Although vulnerabilities are important, there is a growing presence of people in the

workforce who already have a psychiatric condition or have experienced psychological
difficulties in the past. Any attempt to manage and eliminate the ‘risk’ of psychological
injury by screening employees for vulnerability will impact negatively on the humanistic

22
movement towards fairer and more equitable employment practices. It is important to
understand the demands associated with particular jobs, in an effort to ensure that those
demands are reasonable. Although jobs differ in the level of demand they place on
individuals, research has identified a set of reasonably common pressures, role
difficulties, conditions and negative events that are likely to contribute to the stress
process.

It is important to note that irrespective of the demands of particular jobs, stress seems to
have become an inevitable part of working life in the current labour market. Trends in the
global economy have altered the way in which the employee-employer relationship is
defined and have escalated the demands placed on both parties. Many of these forces are
unchangeable and non-negotiable.

Rather than focusing on either the worker or the job, most contemporary organizational
theories have a acknowledged Lewin’s (1952) proposition that behaviour is a function of
both factors. Stress cannot be attributed to the vulnerabilities of the person or the
demands of the job/environment independent of each other. Instead, stress results from
the degree to which the two fail to ‘fit’ together (Blau, 1981). The fit between the person
and the environment can depend on how well the individual’s skills and abilities match
the practical job demands and requirements (Logquist and Dawis, 1969). Researchers
have questioned the notion that perfect fit is associated with the absence of work stress
and clearly, this is unlikely (Dollard, 1996). Indeed, highly stressful work can be offset
by the fact that some workers derive satisfaction from challenge, risk or change. Without
these qualities, the person-environment fit would be deficient (Dollard, 1996).

While the interaction between the worker and the job is an integral component of the
work stress process, this interaction occurs in the strong socializing context of work. Over
time, this context transforms newcomers into participating and effective – or ineffective –
members of that work-culture. Particular work cultures and socialization processes are
likely to encourage specific definitions, interpretations and responses to stress. In
addition, certain types of workplace practices, coping strategies or vulnerabilities may be
associated with different cultures. The process of socialization itself is considered to be

23
stressful, particularly during the first nine months or so when workers are attempting to
define the expectations of their workplace (Nelson, 1987). In many cases, the
expectations that accompany the culture may be unreasonable or conveyed in such a
subtle manner that workers can only learn by trial and error, leaving them vulnerable to
costly repercussions when cultural norms are inadvertently violated. According to Nelson
(1987), socialization failures leave new workers feeling alienated and stressed. In
contrast, those who have been ‘well-socialized’ may be less likely to experience stress in
response to unreasonable demands of the job. An even more negative outcome of
socialization is the possibility that workers may become either less or more likely to
report stress, irrespective of their experience depending on the requirements of the work-
culture.

Socialization is not a one-way process (Kielhofner, 1995). Indeed, socialization is usually

accompanied by a process of ‘contracting’ and relationship-building that occurs between
employees and employers. During this process of contracting, an individual who fills a
new role will negotiate with his or her employer and may shape the work environment as
much as the environment shapes its workers (Swanson and Fouad, 1999). Employment is
a reciprocal relationship – both at the practical level and at the psychological level (Jones,
Flynn and Kelloway, 1995). At the practical level, employees simply exchange labour for
remuneration – an exchange that is often governed by a physical employment contract.
However, at the psychological level, employees offer commitment to an organization in
return for perceived support from that employer. In the optimum employment
relationship, this psychological contract will be flexible in response to changes in the
employment context. Stress-related difficulties are most likely to occur when violations
of the psychological contract are seen as deliberate. In this case, one party is perceived as
having been able to keep the implicit commitment but not having done so, either due to
self-serving actions or negligence. When a violation of contract is perceived to have
occurred, individuals will interpret their situation and seek to understand the meaning of
their loss. This subjective interpretation or appraisal of the situation forms the center of
most theories of work stress (e.g., Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).

24
Once the loss associated with a contract violation has been appraised as being stressful,
the bond between the worker and the employer is likely to begin deteriorating. Ironically,
the relationship between workers and employers is further damaged by the responses that
are often instigated when the symptoms of stress become evident (i.e., human resource
management strategies such as performance appraisal). These processes can alienate the
worker from his or her workplace. As the worker moves further away from the important
role of worker, the social relationships and supports that accompany that role deteriorate
(Keilhofner, 1995).

At some point in this process, the worker’s condition becomes a medical or legal problem
as well as an organizational problem. Cotton (1996) suggested that the entire work stress
process tends to be ‘over-medicalised’ and is more appropriately managed in the
workplace than by medical practitioners. Specifically, he concluded that many people are
not well suited to their occupational choice, and that problems arising from this mismatch
(including stress) should not become medicalised and legalized under the compensation
system. The medicalisation process is likely to introduce third parties into the already
disrupted relationship between the worker and his or her work place. Higgins (1996)
warned that it is the responsibility of this ‘third party’ (i.e., the medical practitioner) to
ensure that the medical certificate is not used as a “device to shift the focus from a
management issue to a medical problem”.

If a claim for psychological injury is lodged, the period for which the individual is
without a functional role or relationship with an employer, is extended. Indeed, at this
stage the relationship with the employer can become hostile. This situation places both
the worker and the employer in ‘victim’ roles, having to prove their argument and defend
their position. More players enter into the relationship and the likelihood of resolution is
minimized. The work stress process becomes a legal and statutory process that is poorly
understood by both workers and their employers, leading to increased stress. The
concurrent medical, legal and statutory process can increase psychological conditions and
obscure the impact of work stress on the injured worker, thus inhibiting recovery.

25
Keilhofner (1995) noted that if the employer-employee relationship is not restored
quickly or, at least replaced, the long-term outcome for the worker is likely to be
negative. In cases of work stress, the loss of work-related roles and relationships has the
potential to increase the psychological condition of the worker, thus complicating the
diagnosis and management of work-related injury. While this process represents a similar
experience to that associated with most work-related injuries, the weakening of the bond
between employer and employee represents a particular problem in cases of occupational
stress as the bond is likely to have already deteriorated significantly prior to the formal
recognition of injury. A major implication of the formal medical, statutory and legal
processes used to manage work-related injury is that no new roles or relationships are
developed for some time. Thus, rehabilitation practices are likely to confront significant
challenges that could be avoided. Further, vocational rehabilitation usually involves
gradual return to the workplace, preferably the existing workplace. However, in cases of
work stress, return to the workplace represents a return to the factors that precipitated the
work stress initially. As a result of the focus on the worker during medical, statutory,
legal and rehabilitation practices, it is unlikely that the workplace will have significantly
altered. This situation leaves the worker vulnerable to repeated psychological injury, but
will less resilience and the added stigma of a mental health condition.

At a primary prevention level, management of stress has involved the development of

occupational health and safety legislation in an attempt to create ‘healthy organizations’.
The most common method of management, however, occurs at the secondary level, once
stress has been identified. These strategies include interventions such as Employee
Assistance Programmes and psychological counseling. Tertiary management begins once
stress and its symptoms, have been identified as a ‘condition’. At this stage, workers are
usually managed individually though medical or psychiatric interventions. When, or if, a
claim for compensation is lodged, management becomes a statutory and legal task that
can differ across the various jurisdictions. Significant complications arise as a result of
these statutory and legal management systems as they profoundly alter the nature of the
relationship between employers and employees. Often it is only when the administration
of a claim has been finalized, that workers move into a ‘return-to-work’ phase. At this

26
point, they must change the mindset that has developed during prior phases (i.e.,
medicalisation and legalization) and must now willingly attempt to return to either the
existing workplace or a new position. The management strategy that most commonly
guides rehabilitation is case management or injury management.

Injury management and vocational rehabilitation process has the potential to create a
cyclical effect in that the experiences of both rehabilitated employees and employers will
influence the manner in which they manage the workplace in future.

There are several points in the work stress process at which causative factors could be
identified. In particular, movement along the trajectory could be associated with factors
such as: Personal vulnerabilities, Characteristics of the job, Organizational climate,
Congruence between the person and the environment, Perceptions and appraisal by the
worker, Culture and socialization processes, Human resource management practices, The
medical, statutory and legal processes and Injury management and return-to-work
practices.

Each of the causative factors will be discussed in more detail below.

Personal Vulnerability to Stress

Specific personal characteristics appear to affect the degree to which particular events or
conditions are perceived as being stressful (Ganster and Schaubroeck, 1991; Kobasa,
1979; Perlin and Schooler, 1978; Watson and Pennebaker, 1989). Since the 1940s, a
massive volume of research has identified an infinite list of personal variables that are
likely to contribute to the experience of stress. These factors are assumed to be associated
with a greater likelihood that individuals will experience stress, be unable to manage
stressful demands, take longer to recover from the effects of stress, or suffer negative
outcomes as a consequence of stress. It has also been claimed that such factors may even
increase individuals’ susceptibility to events that result in negative experience or
emotions (George, 1992). The factors that have been identified include ingrained
personality variables, cognitive, behavioural or affective response styles, and access to
practical or emotional resources.

27
Personality Factors

According to Cotton (1995), there cannot be a ‘work-caused’ personality disorder. He

stated that workplace factors may aggravate a pre-existing personality disorder or
accelerate its manifestation, but not cause it. Further, some personality conditions may be
associated with episodic reductions in personal and vocational functioning, irrespective of
current employment conditions. In some cases, the personality disorder itself may be a
factor in the generation of stressful employment conditions, such as interpersonal conflict
with colleagues and supervisors. This conflict may inaccurately appear to causally relate
to the onset of stress symptoms in the individual.

Negative Affectivity

There is a fairly consistent finding that some individuals exhibit a general tendency
towards negative responses irrespective of the type of stimuli experienced in their
environment. This general tendency, called negative affectivity (NA), was identified in
early research conducted on personality psychology (Watson and Clark, 1984) and refers
to a “broad range of aversive mood states including anger, disgust, guilt, fearfulness and
depression” (Watson and Pennebaker, 1989). NA is believed to be a stable disposition
towards a negative mood-state that permeates much of the individual’s attitude and
behaviour towards events, oneself and others, regardless of the situation (Watson and
Clark, 1984). Researchers have proposed three mechanisms that underlie the relationship
between NA and stress namely, a) predisposition to interpret situations negatively
(Watson and Clark 1984); b) an increased tendency to selectively process information
that emphasizes negative aspects of a particular situation (Necowitz and Roznowski,
1994); and c) a decreased tendency to actively control the environment (Geord, 1989;
Judge, 1993).

According to Watson, Pennebaker and Folger (1987), individuals with high NA are
capable of experiencing a great deal of stress and discomfort, even in relatively
innocuous contexts and their perception of stress is likely to persist even if negative

28
working conditions are altered dramatically. This trait is likely to influence how
individuals experience their environment as well as how they perceive their non well-
being.

Cognitive Distortions and Negative Thinking Patterns

Cognitive theorists have postulated that a range of 'thinking' patterns are likely to impact
on whether or not individuals experience stress in the workplace. Well-known researchers
in this area (Beck, 1984; Ellis, 1962) have identified patterns that occur regularly
amongst those who experience difficulty coping with life demands. Specifically,
individuals whose interpretations of events are characterized by over-generalization,
pessimism, extreme or dichotomous views, catastrophising, the attribution of blame and
rigid or inflexible ideas are most at risk of experiencing stress. These patterns are
responsible for the onset of significant depression and distress (Beck, 1984; Seligman,
1994).

Further, when faced with similar stressful situations, individuals with an external locus of
control are less likely than individuals with internal locus of control to believe that they
have a significant effect on outcomes. People with an internal locus of control are more
likely than those with an external locus of control to take charge of the event and act to
re-negotiate their situation. Those with an externals locus of control, however, are likely
to be passive and defensive, feel helpless in stressful situations and experience stress
(Anderson, Hellriegel and Slocum, 1977; Gemmill and Heisler, 1972). Finally, those with
an internal locus of control are more likely to attribute positive and negative
organizational outcomes to their own actions and, cope better with higher levels of stress.
This leads to lower incidence of sickness, and hence, lower absenteeism (Robbins,
Marsh, Cacioppe and Millett, 1994).

Psychological Hardiness

In contrast to negative affectivity and pessimism, 'hardiness' is a term given to a

particular cluster of personality characteristics that have been identified among people
who appear to cope well with stress (Kobasa, 1979). Hardy individuals believe they can

29
influence their environment, are deeply involved in or committed to the activities of their
life, and view change as a challenge (Rosenweig and Kast, 1984). In fact, psychological
hardiness has been shown to moderate the stress-strain relationship and people with high
levels of these three qualities have been found to be resistant to the deleterious effects of
stress (Kobasa, 1979).

A central characteristic of hardy individuals is their capacity to perceive stressful

situations as challenging instead of threatening or overwhelming. Research has found that
this individual difference variable significantly moderates the stress-strain relationship.

It is important to note that these personal vulnerability factors are not static and can vary
in the individual across time and context. For example, individual determination together
with support and assistance from management can aid an individual to take more control
over their work events. Further, organizations can assist employees by structuring
rewards and recognition for individual initiatives and performance in order to help them
to move towards a more internal orientation (Robbins, 1994).

Acute Stress

The term ‘Acute’ refers to sudden onset. Stress of this nature usually involves a rapid
response to an abrupt, single easily identified cause that will often respond positively to
some form of intervention (Guyton, 1981; Schuler, 1980). In an acute response situation,
a person’s arousal state (anxiety) will rise sharply and then start to decline. For eg., a
person may experience acute stress in response to a negative situation such as abuse,
conflict in workplace or when involved in a dispute or due to an unexpected bereavement
commencing a new position, introduction of new procedures or awaiting renewal of a
contract. There is an increased sense of arousal that can produce psychological responses
such as a dry mouth, diarrhea, heart palpitations or cognitive problems (Guyton, 1981).

Post Traumatic Stress

When events in the workplace are life threatening (i.e., as can be experienced among
military personnel, police, fire fighters, paramedics, service workers exposed to armed

30
robberies or workers involved in large scale disasters and accidents) a more ongoing form
of stress response can develop, mainly post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Anshel,
2000; Humphrey, 1998; Paton, 1999; Pflanz, 1999). Post traumatic stress disorder
develops as a delayed or deferred response to an acute stressful event or situation. This
event usually has a particularly threatening or catastrophic nature with a potential to
cause pervasive distress in almost anyone (World Health Organization, 1992). Commonly
sighted co-morbidity conditions arising from PTSD include panic disorder, anti-social
personality disorder and substance abuse (Green, Lindy, Grace, Leonard, 1992; Keane
and Wolf, 1990; WHO, 1992).

In simple terms, PTSD develops following stressors of traumatic intensity. These

traumatic events are likely to include, but are not limited to, torture, sexual abuse/rape, a
serious life-threatening accident, combat, human-made disasters, or the witnessing of a
violent act (Alzono, 2000; Humphrey, 1998). According to Koopman, Classen, an
Spiegel (1994) and Tomb (1994), PTSD can be considered present if subsequent events
trigger intrusive distressing recollections. It can also be considered if the individual
experiences repeated dreams about the event, a numbing of responses, avoidance of
activities or situations reminiscent of the trauma, and sensitivity to stimuli of the original
traumatic event.

Chronic Stress

Chronic stress is a cumulative reaction to a build-up of pressures over a long period of

time. This type of response tends to begin gradually and proceed slowly. Chronic stress is
defined as an ongoing internal reaction to external circumstances when the ability to cope
with those circumstances is impeded (Evoy, 1998). Unlike acute stress where a return to
normality is expected within a fairly short period of time, chronic stress usually manifests
itself in various ongoing physical or psychological symptoms such a s hypertension, sleep
disturbances, coronary heart disease, stroke, poor concentration, withdrawal and
depression (Cooper and Payne, 1998; Miner, 1999). Chronic stress may also over time,
lead to a weakening of the immune system.

31
The ongoing occurrence of irritating or frustrating demands wears down or overwhelms
an individual’s coping capacity. While there is little doubt as to what constitutes an acute
traumatic stressor, these chronic work characteristics are more difficult to define, creating
significant problems for management and research.

The Impact of Work Stress

The escalating costs associated with workplace stress indicate an international trend
among industrial countries (Karasek and Theorell, 1990; Shergold, 1995). For instance, in
the United States, the number of stress claims has trebled in the last year with 15 percent
of all workers compensation claims being for stress. The cost to organizations of this
level of occupational stress lies anywhere between 200 and 300 billion dollars per year as
a result of high staff turnover, increased health and workers’ compensation claims and
decreased productivity (Wojcik, 1999). In addition, recent figures emanating from Britain
have indicated that approximately 70,000 workers are absent from work due to
occupational stress every year (McKee, 1996), costing the nation around seven billion
pounds in productivity loss, worker entitlements and health care. A subsequent result of
these factors is the loss of 40 million working days per year (Shergold, 1995).

Occupational stress, regardless of whether a claim has been lodged or not, has become an
issue of great concern. Where workplace matters once focused on the safely issues of
physical working conditions (such as hazardous materials, noise, cleanliness, lighting and
physical work overload), concern is now concentrated on the escalation of complaints
relating to psychological pressures (Ivanevich, Matterson, Freedman and Phillips, 1990;
Toohey, 1995; Vagg and Spielberger, 1998). Several studies have linked stress in the
workplace to such factors as increased absenteeism (Cooper and Cartwright, 1994), poor
work performance (Kohler and Kamp, 1992), health problems and staff turnover (Cooper,
1986; Farrington, 1995; Guppy and Gutteridge, 1991; Kalimo and Vuori, 1991). A recent
study that examined the effects of stress on allied health professionals, found that high
levels of stress were associated with depression, anxiety, sick leave and propensity to
leave (Quine, 1998).

32
Several studies over the last fifteen years have provided support for the involvement of
stress as a risk factor in the aetiology of illness and disease (Coooper and Cartwright,
1994; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984; Quick, Nelson and Hurrel, 1997). Indeed, Guyton
(1981) postulated that a person who experiences long term or chronic stress may
potentially experience such debilitating illnesses as hypertension, coronary heart disease,
stroke or peptic ulcer. Moreover, Humphrey (1998) in a recent review of the medical
literature, found that prolonged and unyielding nervous tension developing from
psychological stress, can result in psychosomatic disorders which can lead to serious
diseases. These include cirrhosis of the liver, high blood pressure, cancer and heart
disease.

Clearly, unresolved stressful situations keep a body in a constant state of activation and
increase the likelihood of ‘wear and tear’ to biological systems. Fatigue results as a
compromise in the body’s ability to defend itself; and an increased risk of illness, injury
and disease have all been found to escalate with stress (National Institute of stress and
Health – NISH, 1999). Stress is therefore held to be causally responsible for a vast and
varied range of negative health outcomes that not only affect the individual, but also the
employer and society in general. These outcomes contribute to the hidden costs of stress
in the workplace that are difficult, if not possible, to quantify.

Stress Coping Mechanisms

What are the stress-coping mechanisms related to job performance are planning ahead for
stressful event, talking to spouse or significant other about events, talking to peers about
events, reading, engaging in religious and spiritual pursuits.

Stress-coping mechanisms all require a commitment of time and the desire for physical
activity are playing on an organized athletic team, taking part in individual sports,
recreation and cooking.

McLaughlin (1998) reported that numerous authors advocated religious and spiritual
pursuits, planning for stress, and refining communication skills as effective stress-coping

33
mechanisms. Brock and Grady's (2002) recommendations for stress-coping include
socializing and talking with family, prayer, resting, and managing time effectively.

Stress and Coping in General

Interest in the concept of stress and research on stress has reached an all time high
(Goldberger and Breznitz, 1993). The origin of the “stress” can be traced back to the
fourteenth century as a non-technical term to refer to hardship or adversity. In the late
seventeenth century, physicist Robert Hooke formulated an engineering analysis of stress
(Lazarus, 1999). Hooke analyzed how to design bridges to carry heavy loads. Hooke used
the concepts of load (external forces), stress (the area where the load is applied), and
strain (the deformation of the structure caused by the load and stress). This model greatly
influenced the formulation of stress theory as we know it.

Interest in the topic of psychological stress rose after the two world wars, especially in
the late 1940’s (Lazarus, 1999). A large number of soldiers exposed to battle conditions
developed symptoms of stress, ranging from mild anxiety to more debilitating disorders.
As research in the field of psychology progressed, there was evolution of understanding
the disorders associated with battle stress. The emotional problems that developed were
presumed to be due to stress. Terminology developed from the ‘shell shock’ of World
War I, to the ‘combat fatigue’ of World War II, and ‘post traumatic stress disorder’ of the
Vietnam Was (Lazarus, 1999). From World War I through the Vietnam War, military
laboratories conducted research to understand the basics of how stress works. These
findings fueled the growth of the stress industry.

Military psychology research was implemented in the 1940’s by the US military to learn
two things. First, the military wanted to find out what kind of person would be resistant to
battle stress. Second, psychologists wanted to know how to train people to cope with
battle stress and its negative effects (Lazarus, 1999). After World War II, interest in stress
spread from military concerns to our everyday lives. Heightened stress could be attributed
to the technological advancements of the world that had changed the face of war to a
‘total war’. For the first time, anyone was a potential war victim. It was realized that

34
stress was a problem in peacetime, in relationships, home job or school. Stress became a
major topic in the social and biological sciences and knowledge about it spread by the
media began to reach the public (Lazarus, 1999).

Stress research has developed in four different disciplines; medicine, sociology,

management and psychology (Cumming and Cooper, 1998). Each discipline has its own
paradigm and research differences which lead to difficulties in comparing stress theories
and research (Le Fevre, Matheny and Kolt, 2003). Goldberger and Breznitz (1993) stated
that the key element in the study of stress is the individual’s point of view experiencing
stress.

The term ‘stress’ became a dominant term for research in areas that reflected the
problems of daily life, such as anxiety, depression, frustration, alienation and emotional
distress (Lazarus,1999). Since Selye first used the term ‘stress’ there has been confusion
and debate about its definition (Le Fevre, 2003). There are various definitions of stress.
Some focus on the stimulus or stressor, other definitions focus on the response, the
mental and physical reaction caused by the stressor, physical reactions and outcomes
(Lazarus, 1999; Selye, 1993; Le Fevre, 2003). Selye (1987) defined stress as “the non-
specific response of the body to any demand placed upon it”. Palmer, Cooper and
Thomas (2003) stated that “stress occurs when the perceived pressure exceeds your
perceived ability to cope”. There are commonalities in all of these definitions of stress
because any situation that puts demands on one’s adaptability engages the stress
phenomenon (Selye, 1993). Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS) describe how the
body responds to threats to its integrity (Lazarus, 1999). The three stages of GAS are
Alarm reaction: the body moves to a state of neuro-chemical alert, Resistance: the body is
activated to protect itself and Exhaustion: fatigue that is reached if the stress is prolonged.

Selye’s GAS theory provides information on how stressors affect the body’s nervous
system, but it does not delineate what comprises of stressful event (Golberger and
Breznitz, 1993).

35
Physiological responses to stress are referred to as the ‘fight or flight’ response (Palmer,
Cooper and Thomas, 2003); Pynoos, Soreson, and Steinber, 1993). The fight or flight
response is the body reacting to danger or the need to cope by reacting (Zwickel, 1994).
Sustained high level of stress can lead to serious health conditions including
hypertension, heart attack, cancer and psychological illness such as depression or
breakdowns (Palmer, 2003).

Research by Richard Lazarus contrasts Selye’s physiological response based research by

focusing on the stimulus and cognitive appraisal. Lazarus’ research presumes that there
are specific kinds of information that are influential in appraising a stimulus as a stressor
(Goldberger and Breznitz, 1993). Lazarus determined that there are four categories of
environmental variables that influences stress and emotion; demands, constraints,
opportunities and culture. These four variables influence a person’s reaction through the
process of cognitive appraisal (Lazarus, 1999). Appraisal theory is based on the idea that
people are constantly appraising their relationships with the environment to check their
well-being (Lazarus, 1999). This appraisal can be either deliberate and conscious or
intuitive and unconscious.

Two individuals exposed to the same stimuli could have very different responses due to
the objective nature of the variables (Sutherland and Cooper, 1990). People experience
stress differently for several reasons which may include internal and external factors.
Internal factors may be temperament, age, gender and past experiences. External factors
that may affect reactions to stress include climate, diet and medications. Behavioural
responses to stress also vary as people choose behaviours that they think will help them
cope (Zwickel 1994).

Lazarus (1999) stated that the concepts of stress and coping belong together as a
conceptual unit of the emotional process. Coping is an essential part of the emotion
process and the emotional life (Lazarus, 1999). Bretnitz and Goldberger (1993) referred
to coping as a central element to the adaptational equation. Coping is an effort to manage
psychological stress (Lazarus, 1999). Siegrist (2001) defined coping mechanisms as

36
effort on the behavioural, cognitive, affective or motivational levels by a person to
reverse or to meet the demands of a stressor.

Stress management, that is undertaken to maintain a healthy and productive level of

stimulation, has been a popular theme in wellness programs, continuing education
courses and self help books over the past two decades (Brock and Grady, 2002; Palmer,
2003). Zwickel (1994) recommended two methods of coping with stress. First, respond
directly to the stressor and try to change the situation or deal with the person causing the
stress. Second, reduce the effects of stress on your body and mind. Recommended ways
to reduce mental and physical stress are through meditation, yoga, visualization,
breathing techniques, escape from stressors, vigorous exercise, sports or activities that
require deep concentration (Zwickel, 1994).

Stress can be caused by anything that stimulates us; it is part of life. Some amount of
stress can be stimulating, too much can be destructive. Analysis of it in our everyday
lives is prevalent in our society. The high profile nature of the subject of stress is
evidence that research is important for our social, physiological and psychological health
(Lazarus, 1999).

Coping Style

The ways in which individuals cope with stress is thought to have a significant impact on
outcome, presumably because it enables individuals to execute some control over the
demands that are placed on them (Diamond, 1990).

Researchers have proposed that a third group of coping responses can be identified,
namely perception-focused coping (Pearlin and Schooler, 1978). This group can include
strategies such as positive re-appraisal, minimization or seeking meaning (Parry, 1990),
and generally involve attempts to minimize the threat associated with a problem,
redefining the problem or redirecting attention to a different aspect of the situation. The
characteristic that appears to differentiate these strategies from emotion-focused and
problem-focused coping is that they tend to focus on cognitions and perceptions rather
than on emotions or behaviours (Holohan and Moos, 1983).

37
Inadequate Personal or Environmental Resources

According to some research findings, access to sufficient personal or environmental

resources should mediate the relationship between stressors and outcome by encouraging
individuals to interpret their circumstances positively and implement successful coping
strategies.

Many studies have confirmed that low levels of perceived support are related to higher
levels of distress following negative events, both in the short-term (Rogers and Kreutzer,
1984) and the long-term (Hall, 1994). However, other findings relating to social support
have yielded different results.

Another environmental resource that is mentioned in the stress literature is financial

status.

Family-Work Conflict

Family and work are inter-related and interdependent to the extent that experiences in one
area affect the quality of life in the other (Sarantakos, 1996). The family is an integral
part of the economic process (Edgar, 1991; VandenHeuval, 1993), and when hiring an
employee, an employer automatically accepts the worker's family obligations
(Sarantakos, 1996). This phenomenon is known as 'spillover'.

Demands associated with family and finances can be a major source of 'extra-
organizational' stress that can complicate, or even precipitate, work-place stress (Lasky,
1995). The fact that extra-organizational and intra-organizational influences on the work
stress process are virtually indistinguishable creates significant problems for the study
and management of stress in the workplace. The occurrence of stressors in the workplace
either immediately following a period of chronic stress at home, or in conjunction with
other major life stressors, is likely to have a marked impact on outcome (Russo and
Vitaliano, 1995), presumably by depleting the level of resources the person can devote to
dealing with a work-related event (Terry, 1991). Thus, better adjustment might be

38
expected if work stress occurs in isolation than if it occurs in conjunction with other
stressors.

Job Demands

Although personal vulnerabilities are recognized as an important predictor in the work

stress process (Cotton, 1996), it is also important to note that workers each bring different
skills to the workplace as well as a range of vulnerabilities and strengths. The elimination
of vulnerabilities from the workplace is not possible, nor desirable, as the success of a
workplace often depends on the diversity of personalities from which it is constructed
(Dollard, 1996). With the changing nature of the workforce and the inclusion of
inherently vulnerable individuals in that workforce (e.g., those with pre-existing
psychiatric illnesses or disabilities, and those without adequate social support or financial
resources), employers cannot avoid vulnerability. The inclusion of these individuals in
the workforce is hinged on the notion of equity for all workers — exclusion on the basis
of 'alleged' vulnerability to stress would be a significant threat to human rights. Risk
management strategies that focus on the exclusion of vulnerable workers are subject to
false-positive identification errors that are costly at a broader level than just that of the
individual or the organization.

Workload

Workload is often described in quantitative terms and can be considered to be excessive

when the volume of work exceeds the ability of a worker to meet the demands over a
specified period of time (French and Caplan, 1973). In qualitative terms, excessive
workload would mean that the requirements of the work exceeds the skills, abilities and
knowledge of a worker (Sauter and Murphy, 1995; French and Caplan, 1973).

Several studies have highlighted the deleterious consequences of high workloads or work
overload. As women are most likely to enter these occupations, the pressure of high
workloads is likely to be exacerbated by the conflicting demands of home life. In this
regard, the study concluded that workload was not an isolated source of work stress but
tended to be combined with other factors in the prediction of stress. Clearly, the pervasive

39
influence of globalization on the workplace has resulted in increased organizational
demands upon the worker. As a consequence, there is a high potential for workers to be
adversely affected.

Time Pressure

The issue of unrealistic time constraints and deadlines is as important as work overload -
indeed the two factors usually occur in combination. Several studies have found a strong
relationship between work stress and time factors. These factors such as insufficient time
for planning, inability to complete required tasks in the allocated workday resulting in
work being taken home, constant interruptions relating to other work demands (i.e.,
meetings), and unreasonable deadlines (Humphrey, 1998; Sauter and Hurrell, 1999).

A growing number of organizations have adopted longer working hours, possibly in an

effort to maximise productivity. As a consequence, more workers are committed to
complex and odd shifts (Scabracq and Cooper, 2000). This trend is reflected in the
prevalence of the twelve hour working day that has been adopted by many Australian
workplaces (Heiler, 1998). Along with the marked increase in the number of hours
worked per day, there has been the unprecedented growth in the amount of overtime
worked.

Performance Pressure

A major consequence of the rapidly changing global scene is the increased pace workers
are required to maintain to ensure maximum productivity and enhance competitiveness.
In addition to the need to maintain high organizational performance, there is a
requirement for workers to perform multiple tasks in the workplace to keep abreast of
changing technologies (Cascio, 1995; Quick, 1997). These organizational changes have
been found to be potentially detrimental to workers' health. Indeed, recent research has
found performance pressure in professionals to be one of the most stressful aspects of
their work (Cahn, 2000). Other studies have highlighted concerns regarding the changing
nature of work and its link to an increased risk of injury and illness (Babson, 1993;
Townley, 2000).

40
Further studies have established an association between increased working hours and
impoverished family and social life (Cahn, 2000), thus exacerbating the impact of work
stress.

Under-utilization of skills has become a significant problem in recent years. Under-

utilization of a worker's skill-base usually occurs when the worker is performing tasks
that are often simple in nature and offer little challenge. The primary cause of under-
utilization is the fact that many people are over-qualified for the positions that are
available. However, under-utilization can also result from a worker being prevented
from undertaking training to acquire new skills. This barrier results in an inability to
progress to more complex tasks (Muchinsky, 1997). Under-utilization of work skills and
low skill variety are found to be detrimental to the health and well-being of the worker
(Karasek and Theorell, 1990).

Role Conflict

Role conflict has been defined as two or more sets of role expectations such that the
realization of one set makes it difficult or impossible to actualize the other (Kahn, 1964).
Role conflict can lead to negative job attitudes and behaviours that include a decrease in
job satisfaction, an increase in anxiety, a reduction of trust and confidence in the
organization and damaged interpersonal relations with co-workers and supervisors
(Caplan, 1982; Fisher and Gitleson, 1983; Kahn, 1974). Conflicts of this nature are
reported to be prevalent in such occupations as human services, military and police,
where the division of time and the roles required at any point in time cannot always be
clearly predicted (Muchinsky, 1997).

Both role ambiguity and role conflict have been shown to increase emotional exhaustion
and depersonalization, while decreasing feelings of personal accomplishment (Cordes,
1993; Lee and Ashforth, 1991; Miller, Zook and Ellis, 1989; Siefert, Jayaratne and Chess,
1991). A recent study reported that stress among vocational placement coordinators was
associated with high levels of role conflict (Flett and Biggs, 1992).

41
Conflict at Work

Conflict in the workplace has been identified as a significant source of stress for some
workers, as reflected by the fact that many stress claims can be linked with the
mismanagement of conflict at work, negative interpersonal interactions with co-workers,
and negative reactions to management decisions (Cotton and Fisher, 1995; Shergold,
1995). Toohey (1994) defined conflict as a serious, on-going occurrence of strife between
employees or between the employee and those in supervisory or management positions
that does not include trivial or fleeting matters. In relation to the outcome of conflict in
the workplace, Toohey (1994) argued that workers who have a limited range of options to
deal with situations that are distressing at work are more susceptible to deleterious effects
on their psychological well-being. Conflict is pervasive across all types of organizations
and can manifest itself in a variety of ways including emotional turmoil (i.e., anxiety,
tension, and frustration), increased absenteeism, job turnover, violence and, from a group
conflict perspective, strikes and demonstrations (Cooper and Payne, 1988; Toohey,
1994). Furthermore, conflict can include both overt situations, whereby a worker may be
the victim of an aggressive or violent act, or more subtle forms of disagreement such as
differences of opinion or expectations (Robbins, Waters-Marsh, Cacioppe and Millet,
1994).

Traditionally, conflict in the workplace has been perceived as being 'negative' or 'bad' and
has often resulted in harmful consequences for an organization's performance. However,
it is important to note that not all conflict is detrimental to the workplace or to the worker.
Indeed, several studies have established a positive relationship between conflict at work
and innovative decision-making and productivity. Clearly, it is important to understand
the potentially negative impact that conflict in the workplace may have upon worker
well-being and, subsequently, the organization.

The Emotional Demands of Work

In most workplaces, there is a need to balance the demands of personal and family life
with the demands of the employer. Naturally, emotional events in one sector will impact

42
on performance in the other sector but, to some extent, all workers must manage their
emotions effectively in the workplace to create a publicly acceptable image. Hochschild
(1983) referred to this activity as 'emotional labour' which has been defined as "the effort,
planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions" (Morris and Feldman, 1996).

The ability to manage these emotions is applauded as an indication of professionalism.

Morris and Feldman (1997) suggested that it is this dissonance, between felt and
expressed emotions, together with the frequency and duration of the demand for
emotional labour, which will determine the impact of emotional labour on worker well-
being.

Organizational Climate

The nature of work and the workplace has changed significantly over the last decade,
with major consequences for the experience of work stress. Two of the most significant
forces in recent years have been globalization of the economy and the rapid development
of information technology. These forces have created an organizational climate that is
characterized by increased pressures and demands for productivity. In the search for
competitive advantage within the economy, work is being outsourced or conducted in
virtual workplaces by a temporary workforce (Belous, 1998; Medcof and Needham,
1998). Employees often find that they have multiple roles in organizations, leading to role
conflict (Cooper, 1991). Further, they must contend with constantly changing co-workers,
poorly defined tasks, and job insecurity. At the same time, workloads have increased in
response to greater demands for productivity and the increased speed with which
communication can occur in the workplace (Jacobs, 1994).

Globalization and Impact of Technology

The development of rapidly changing technologies has influenced the working

environment. These advances in technology have resulted in the downsizing of many
organizations as tasks that were undertaken by manual labour become automated.
Technology has also enabled a profound increase in the automated monitoring of

43
performance in the workplace (Aiello and Kolb, 1995), thus increasing performance
pressure. A variety of worker activities are now under surveillance as organizations can
record telephone usage, real-time computer performance (i.e., number of key strokes per
minute) and even the length of restroom breaks. According to Humphrey (1998),
intrusions of this nature are effecting millions of workers worldwide in such industries as
the airlines, government agencies, insurance companies and telephone companies.

Rosch (1991) coined the term 'technostress' to refer to the frustrations, anxiety,
dehumanization and depression that is increasingly evident in 'high-tech' work
environments. He, and many other researchers, have indicated that technostress is
becoming a growing concern among workers. Technostress is particularly relevant in
industries where information overload stems from the sheer volume of information that is
obtained from facsimile machines, cellular telephones, conference calls, electronic mail
and personal pagers.

The Interaction between Worker and Job

Cotton (1996) noted, personal vulnerabilities are probably the most significant predictors
of the experience of stress. However, organizational demands are likely to be the
strongest determinants of morale and organizational commitment (Jones, Flynn and
Kelloway, 1995). As Cotton (1996) suggested, claims for compensation in cases of
psychological injury are most likely to occur when the experience of stress is combined
with low morale in the workplace (see also Schofield, 1996). This notion clearly gives
credence to the importance of the interaction between a worker and his or her
environment.

Several popular models of work stress have acknowledged the role of the interaction or
match between workers and their jobs. The assumptions that underlie the Person-
Environment Fit model (Swanson and Fouad, 1999) stated that individuals will seek out
work environments that are congruent with their characteristics. They search for
environments that will enable them to express their skills, abilities, attitudes, values and
needs (Holland, 1997). Lofquist and Dawis (1984) noted that when an individual's skills

44
and abilities match those required by the job, the match will result in 'satisfactoriness'.
When the individual's attitudes and values match the rewards that are available in the job,
then the worker will experience satisfaction. This theory indicates that both
satisfactoriness and satisfaction are necessary conditions of work adjustment. Thus, strain
is the result of a discrepancy between person and environment at either level.

Other research has suggested that the interaction between the worker and his or her job is
important because the negative effect of job stressors can be offset by benefits the
individual derives from the work environment.

Maslach (1999), in her reformulation of her burnout model, suggested that workload and
hours spent at work may not be considered to be stressful if the work is associated with
sufficient rewards, such as meaningful outcomes, recognition or control.

The converse of the effort-reward model is the effort-distress model (Lundberg and
Frankenhauser, 1980). This model predicts that the need for effort (i.e., due to high
workload) would be most damaging to workers if it was accompanied by a negative
evaluation of the task (i.e., distress, meaninglessness, boredom, irritation, etc.). Similarly,
the experiences of hindrances that prevent the outcomes from one's effort were found to
be associated with negative outcomes (Cavanaugh, Roehling, Boswell and Boudreau,
1999). The interaction between job effort and boredom or frustration has been found to
significantly predict physical symptoms of stress among data entry workers, sawmill
workers and assembly line workers (Frankenhauser and Gardell, 1976).

Warr (1987) suggested that affective well-being at work was determined with reference
to two separate dimensions, pleasure and arousal. According to Warr, the highest level of
well-being at work was associated with high levels of both arousal and pleasure, whereas
low levels on both dimensions would result in depression. This contention has been
supported by the finding that the perception of a job as exhilarating (and presumably
arousing) may be an antidote for the stressful demands of physically or emotionally
dangerous professions (McIntosh, 1995).

45
Lack of control has been identified both as a source of stress and critical health risk for
some workers (Long, 1995). Many studies have found that high job demand and low
control (referred to as decreased decision latitude) lead to job dissatisfaction, mental
strain and cardiovascular disease (Long, 1995). The extent to which individuals are able
to control their work environment may determine the effectiveness of particular coping
strategies and, thus, the extent to which personal and organizational goals are met.

Several researchers have proposed that enhancing worker's commitment to organizational

goals can be achieved by allowing workers to exercise control over meaningful aspects of
their work through their participation in organizational decision-making (Arches, 1991;
Dawson, 1989; Manz, 1986).

Socialization

In addition to examining the traditional personal and organizational factors in the

prediction of work stress, researchers have begun to examine the role of the broad context
in both the experience and reporting of stress. Cherniss (1991) defined this context as the
structures that contribute to the unique 'culture' of an area and, over time, socialize those
who work within that culture. It has been suggested that the conflicts and pressures that
arise as a result of these cultures may have a greater impact on psychological well-being
than any personal or job factors (Leiter, 1991). Indeed, as Cotton (1996) noted, it is these
factors that will be associated with reduced workforce morale, a condition that is thought
to be associated with claim lodgment.

Organizational culture embraces the values, character, attitudes, language and beliefs of
an organization. Culture influences the behaviour of its members and the way in which
those members discern and construe the behaviour of others (Muchinsky, 1997; Robbins,
Waters-Marsh, Cacioppe and Millet, 1994). Schien (1990) postulated that organizational
culture is a system of shared meanings and common understandings. These meanings
form a pattern of basic assumptions that are identified or devised by a specific workgroup
as it learns to deal with external difficulties and integrate internal circumstances. It is
these shared meanings that distinguish one organization from another. Most

46
organizational cultures consist of a dominant culture that signifies the core values shared
by the majority of the organization's members, and many sub-cultures that reflect
common experiences and difficulties shared by smaller groups of members (Robbins,
1994). Sub-cultures are most likely to be delineated by geographical boundaries or by
designations in the workplace.

The first point at which culture can influence an organization is through the socialization
of new workers. Socialization refers to the adaptation process a new employee
experiences on entry into the organization and is the procedure for identifying and
learning norms, values and behaviours that permit acceptance as a member to that
organization (Van Maaen, 1976). The initial entry stage is the most critical in the
socialization process as the worker is likely to be unaware of prevailing beliefs and
customs and will, therefore, cause disruption to the existing culture. The new beliefs and
assumptions employees bring with them challenge or disconfirm the existing culture
(Schein, 1990). Recent research has indicated that in order to gain status as a member of
an organization, a worker experiences periods of internal conflict and adjustment when
initially introduced into the work environment (Bullis, 1993). According to Albrecht and
Bach (1997), it is important to ensure that the new worker is fully informed about all
aspects of the job and the organization during this period of socialization, to ensure that
the worker's expectations about the organization are not unrealistic.

Work cultures can influence both the experience of stress and the reporting of stress, or
the likelihood of stress claim lodgment. The types of work cultures that can influence the
experience of stress or the reporting of stress are likely to be those characterized by
hostility and mistrust (Hart, Wearing and Headley, 1995; Rodridguez, 1997; Winslow,
1998), poor communication (Kyriadou, 1999) or lack of control (Winslow, 1998).
Research has shown that workplaces characterized by hostility and mistrust will have a
two-fold negative impact on workers in that they will increase the experience of stress at
the same time as decreasing the reporting and treatment of stress.

The impact of hostile cultures has been studied extensively. Acts of aggression, violence
and harassment in the workplace have been found to be escalating and are becoming a

47
major cause of work-related disability, illness and death (Biles, 1999; Hepburn, Corneil
and Barling, 1999). Traditionally, workplace violence has been narrowly defined to
include only physical assault or homicide that occurs at the place of work (Hales,
Seligman, Newman and Timbrook, 1988). More recently, this definition has been
expanded to occupational violence and includes behaviours such as verbal threats, sexual
and emotional harassment, bullying, and incidents that cause physical and psychological
harm (Ellis, 1999; Thomas, 1992; Varita, 1995).

A common form of workplace violence is 'bullying'. Workplace bullying involves the

constant, intimidating and often offensive and abusive behaviour, abuse of power or
unfair penalties that have the potential to leave the recipient feeling upset, threatened,
humiliated, or vulnerable (Ellis, 1999). The effects of workplace violence are widespread
and have the potential to result in reduced productivity and morale, absenteeism,
increased incidents of illness and a propensity to leave (Anshel, 2000; Parker, Griffith
and Holdaway, 1999; Stockdale and Phillips, 1989). Hostile and aggressive work cultures
are particularly prevalent in occupations such as the military where a collective identity is
promoted and individuals are expected to respect the values and norms that transcend
individual self-interest. Workplace bullying and harassment are common denominators in
ensuring that this group identity and shared interest are preserved (Winslow, 1998).
Recipients of bullying in the military, or similar cultures, usually find themselves
deliberately ostracized from the group or severely punished. Recent research found that
police officers experience more stress-related physical and psychological complaints than
workers in most other professions, presumably as a result of violence in their culture
(Lobel and Dunkel-Schetter, 1990). A further study of policewomen established an
association between harassment at work and a heightened sense of anxiety about work
performance. These women reported that they constantly had to 'prove' themselves to be
capable of undertaking work that is predominately male dominated (Parker, 1998).
Clearly, such factors have the potential to cause significant strain or stress on the
individual.

Although the culture within an organization is a vital component of its functioning, Jones
and May (1995) noted that organizations do not exist in a vacuum and are influenced by a

48
range of external factors. They suggested that the broad culture within which
organizations operate is defined by the interaction of five major forces, namely, political,
legal, economic, societal and technological. Although these forces are not considered to
be inherently stressful, Cherniss (1991) suggested that it is not uncommon for them to
create a negative working environment that will engender stress.

Of particular concern for stress in the workplace is the fact that economic constraints are
likely to create value-clashes for employees. It has been noted that psychological distress
will occur for workers when two sets of values are discrepant (Jones, Flynn and
Kelloway, 1995). Indeed, stress seems to have a greater prevalence in industries where
economic constraints and bureaucratic forces clash with the values that are instilled in
workers during their training, namely in the health, community and human services
sectors. Workers in these industries continually face conflicts created by the fact that they
are accountable and committed to large employers, but professionally, ethically and
morally devoted to their clients. More than ever before, there is an overriding directive
that workers in the service sector will continue to achieve humanistic outcomes, but for
large numbers of clients, with minimal expenditure and in short periods of time. In an age
of transparency and accountability, they must find ways to balance the competing
demands of employers, funding bodies, clients, families, governments and society (Buys
and Kendall, 1999).

Perceptions

Perceptions also have an important impact on the work stress process during the
development and breakdown of the psychological contract. As noted earlier, the
psychological contract is an unwritten, and often unspoken, agreement between the
worker and the employer. This agreement usually centres around the provision of
commitment by the worker in exchange for support from the employer. Organizational
commitment has been defined as the strength of an individual's identification with, and
involvement in, an organization as shown by a belief in, and acceptance of, the
organization's goals/values, a willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization and

49
a desire to maintain membership in the organization (Brooke). This affective tie to the
organization has been linked to low levels of intention to leave (Wolfe and Feeley, 1999).

In the optimum employment relationship, the psychological contract will operate well
and will be sufficiently flexible to accommodate changes in the employment context
(Anderson and Schalk, 1999), such that violations may not be perceived to have occurred.
Consequently, the employee-employer relationship should continue to function and, when
stress is experienced, it is likely to be dealt with appropriately. However, because
psychological contracts are built on trust and perceptions, perceived violations are likely
to result in intense emotional reactions (Anderson and Schalk, 1999). Research has
shown that when people perceive that they have been unfairly treated, many will become
angry, or even aggressive (Beugre, 1999). According to Beugre (1999), when aggression
is not appropriate, people may find other ways of expression, possibly in the instigation
of industrial relations activity or claim lodgment (Snell, 1995).

Most predictive models in the area of stress have given central importance to the
individual's perceptions, through the concept of appraisal. Thus, these models have
given recognition to the fact that defining stress is a subjective, individual and unique
process. One of the most frequently cited models of stress is that proposed by Lazarus
and Folkman (1984). This model is based on the assumption that an outcome following
any life event (i.e., workplace stressor) is dependent more on the subjective evaluations
of the individual than on any objective characteristics of the event. Specifically, Lazarus
and Folkman proposed that the subjective appraisal an individual makes of an event is
crucial to the adjustment process because an event cannot be considered stressful until it
has been defined as such by the individual.

Typically, stressful events are those that are appraised as extremely threatening or
harmful by the individual rather than those that are appraised as being irrelevant, benign
or challenging. This type of appraisal is called primary appraisal as it is likely to be the
first type of interpretation the individual makes when confronted with a potential stressor.
However, according to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), it is not sufficient that an event be
appraised as threatening - it must also be appraised as unable to be managed. Thus,

50
stressful events are likely to be those that the individual also believes he or she will not be
able to solve or overcome successfully (called secondary appraisal). Secondary appraisal
is similar to the concept of self-efficacy that has been recently reviewed by Bandura
(1997) in the context of occupational stress. Rather than being a generalized tendency to
believe that one has control over one's life, self-efficacy is a situationally-specific belief
that one can successfully bring about the particular outcomes that are desired in this set of
circumstances. According to Bandura, individuals with a low sense of self-efficacy will
experience stress and anxiety in response to excessive demands and responsibilities,
whereas those with a high sense of self-efficacy will experience stress and job
dissatisfaction in response to the lack of opportunities to make use of their skills and
talents.

Thus, the definition of stressful events will differ across individuals, and will be those
that the individual believes to be both threatening and overwhelming. Events perceived to
be threatening but able to be dealt with adequately will not be regarded as stressful.

Events perceived to be threatening may only be considered to be stressful if the

individual has insufficient personal or environmental resources upon which to draw in his
or her coping efforts (e.g., inadequate social support, financial difficulties etc.). The
concept of appraisal has been articulated in various models of stress and coping. The
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) model proposes that appraisal is influenced by the resources
available to the person, his or her personal vulnerabilities, and the situation in which the
individual finds herself or himself. Appraisal, in turn, influences the coping efforts the
individual engages in, which then influences the outcome of the stress transaction.

Human Resource Management Practices

In an employment context where 'perpetual change' is the only certainty and job security
is no longer valid (Baruch and Hind, 1999), change must be managed well. With
recession, many changes have occurred in the human resource management field,
including labour market stake-out, the promotion of enterprise bargaining principles and
practices, rationalization and cost reduction within industry and the demise of award

51
protection. Organizations are responding to the external and internal demands placed
upon them by realigning their organizational structures and strategies (Callan, 1993).
Decentralized, flatter and more flexible structures are evolving as opposed to the
traditional highly centralized, hierarchical organizations of the past decades (Windel and
Zimolong, 1999). These flatter organizations necessitate the need for managers who are
effective and efficient within the fast-moving and unpredictable environments (Atkinson,
1999). However, this devolution revolution is resulting in decisions and resources being
pressed down to business unit level that is, shifting responsibility down the hierarchical
ladder whilst reducing access to necessary resources.

Lack of Job Redesign Skills

One of the most important functional competencies within the human resource
management is job design and appropriate selection. Proficiency within the area of job
design is not only crucial to the overall strategic management of human resources but is
also imperative in relation to human resource planning. Significant technological
advances, such as the increased use of computer assisted design and manufacturing, has
impacted greatly on workers and employment opportunities within a number of industries
(Anthony, Perrewe and Kacmar, 1993). This impact has led to downsizing within those
organizations and, as a consequence, increased expectations for productivity of the
remaining workers. The impact of a poor person-job match (i.e., where worker skills do
not meet the job demands or where an employee is not correctly trained to perform a job)
is immense, as both the effectiveness of the organization and the individual worker are
likely to suffer (Browne, 2000).

Considerable research has confirmed that workers' health is influenced by the quality of
job design (Anthony, 1993; Terra, 1995). However, the design of many jobs has changed
only minimally, despite the dramatic move towards the current highly competitive and
technologically powered marketplace. This situation has lead to decreased performance
levels. Indeed, in highlighting the long-term consequences of poor job design, Terra
(1995) purported that rigid task structure or the failure to respond to the need for changes
in job design has become a "de-motivating factor in further learning and development".

52
Gandham (2000) proposed that jobs require a clear design and purpose with periodic
assessment of the design and the worker. This will identify training and development
needs, assess employee workload and productivity, investigate ergonomic and
environmental aspects, and examine general health and safety. Indeed, Sauter and Keita
(1999) emphasized the need for a broader research agenda, focusing not only on the
identification of health risks within a changing work-force, but also incorporating
intervention strategies to decrease the occurrence of occupational stress through increased
attention on job redesign.

Inadequate Performance Appraisal and Counseling Procedures

When workers who are experiencing stress begin to disengage from the workplace, it is
likely that there will be some indicators at the individual level, including a decline in
performance, anger and absenteeism or sick leave. Often these indicators go unnoticed
until such time as a major issue arises. However, when the indicators are noticed, the
response of human resource managers or supervisors can be a significant cause of further
decline in the worker.

For instance, noticeable performance decline usually instigates a range of performance

appraisal and counseling strategies that, if not managed well, are invasive and add to the
level of stress being experienced. Once performance decline has become significantly
problematic, managers tend to operate in a legislative and industrial relations context
rather than in any humanitarian capacity. Consequently, internal human resource policies
and adversarial interactions become a driving force. As noted by Buegre (1999),
aggression is often a consequence of insensitive treatment by employers. However,
aggression against an employer can be expressed in the form of industrial relations action
or a claim for psychological injury. Thus, the lodgment of a stress claim can become a
protest (Snell, 1996). This course of action is justified by the fact that, at this stage, legal
procedures are the normative way of operating in that work environment.

53
Inability to Manage the Diversity of the Workforce

The globalization of work and the changing nature of the workforce to include a diverse
range of cultures have impacted greatly on internal policy development within
organizations. There is a need for organizations to respond favorably to broader
legislation that supports groups at risk of marginalization, such as individuals with
disabilities, women, ethnic minorities and indigenous populations. This requirement has
meant that human resource managers must operate in a more complicated and
challenging decision-making environment for which they may be ill-prepared.

With regard to diversity, the literature on occupational health and safety is limited. Kelly-
Radford (1999) noted the critical importance of the potential for discrimination to occur
in the selection process, especially as a direct result of poorly designed stress scales based
on majority populations. For instance, issues associated with gender, ethnicity and
language difficulties, and psychiatric disabilities have not been adequately dealt with in
the literature on selection processes. Research has also indicated that discrimination is a
strong predictor of health outcomes for workers in an ethnic minority group (Kelly-
Radford, 1999).

Injury Management and Return to the Workplace

Occupational stress is a prominent issue because of the impact it has on productivity and
health and the financial cost of this damage (Nowland, 1997). Significant cost reduction
can occur through the utilization of proficient rehabilitation strategies and interventions
within the workplace. Unfortunately, however, the complexity of issues associated with
occupational stress can impede the return to work process. The diverse range of key
stakeholders each with their own, and often conflicting agenda, the dyadic and triadic
coalitions that emerge within and throughout the process and delays in referral and
intervention can significantly impede the management and rehabilitation of a worker with
a psychological injury. As Ellis (1995) pointed out, the integration of management
policies, occupational health and safety legislation, human resource management
practices, and effective rehabilitation strategies will provide a win-win situation for all

54
parties. In contrast, Gunningham (1994) argued that, in certain circumstances, workers
are entitled to protection from hazards, regardless of the losses incurred by organizations
in terms of costs or productivity decline.

In its current form, however, rehabilitation remains a separate activity that may not occur
until some time after a claim has been determined. Consequently, the return to work
process is fraught with problems and barriers.

Systemic Factors

Systemic factors are a major barrier to return to work. For instance, research has
consistently found that the adversarial system is particularly detrimental to the return-to-
work process (O'Donnell, 2000). The adversarial system has been described as slow,
inconsistent, costly and unable to predict the needs of individuals (Woodhouse, 1974).
However, it is the contradictory incentives that are created by this system that has a major
impact on rehabilitation and return to work. For instance, the focus of return to work
initiatives is health and functioning, whereas the focus of an adversarial system is
disability, pain and suffering (O'Donnell, 2000).

Tate (1992) argued that systems need to be carefully examined to fully comprehend the
barriers to return to work. She noted that the successful return to work of injured workers
is often obscured by the dynamics and complexities associated with the system. Tate also
proposed that the motivations of key parties in the return to work process (i.e., insurers,
workers, and employers) differ greatly from each other, and can be determined by issues
of political and financial gain. These conflicting and hidden agendas can complicate the
return to work process (Kenny, 1995a).

The involvement of so many key stakeholders ensures the need for efficient information
systems to disseminate essential information.

As a result, there is a reliance on individual focused programmes and a paucity of useful

evaluation of organizational programmes. Indeed, a review of stress intervention
evaluations (Williamson, 1994) indicated that the majority (21 of 24) focused on

55
individualized approaches to managing stress (e.g., stress management programmes,
relaxation training). Only 3 evaluations focused on interventions at the organizational
level.

Individual-focused stress programmes became popular in the late 1980s. Although the
content varies considerably, most involve some component of cognitive reappraisal,
relaxation training, exercise and nutrition education, coping skills training, or
communication. These programmes have also been criticized on the grounds that they
misattribute responsibility for stress management to the individual - workers must
develop greater resilience whereas employers are not required to monitor or change the
working environment. While assisting workers to protect themselves from stress will
remain an important activity, the long-term reduction of stress requires more fundamental
changes to the organization (Schurman and Israel, 1995).

The Healthy Organization

Stress prevention and management at the organizational level involves the creation of the
'healthy organization'. Research into the concept of healthy organizations began in the
1960s (e.g., Argyris, 1964). It has been suggested that at the extreme level, a healthy
organization is one that has created and maintained a relatively stress-free environment
where secondary and tertiary stress management is unnecessary (Cartwright, Cooper and
Murphy, 1995). As this optimal situation is not likely to be achieved, researchers have
suggested that healthy organizations are those that can maintain a relatively well
'balanced' scorecard (Robson, 1999). Beer, Eisenstat and Spector (1990) described a
healthy organization as one that balances the needs and demands of all stakeholders,
namely consumers, stockholders, governments, societies and employees at all levels.
They suggested that organizations cannot and should not be wholly focused on
employees. Instead, healthy organizations must balance power between the range of
interest groups. By doing so, outcomes can be enhanced for all groups (Jaffe, 1995).
Healthy organizations will re-focus responsibility for stress reduction on the organization,
but paradoxically, will give more responsibility to workers by encouraging their
participation in change management, involvement in job re-design, requests for honest

56
communication and feedback, and understanding of the constraints in which the
organization operates.

Jamison and O'Mara (1991) suggested that healthy organizations are those that adopt
appropriate methods of (1) job-person matching or job design that facilitates the expertise
and needs of workers; (2) managing and rewarding performance; (3) informing and
involving workers; and (4) supporting lifestyle and family needs of workers. In order to
achieve these methods, Wearing and Hart (1995) indicated that healthy organizations will
develop efficient stress auditing mechanisms, ongoing monitoring systems, and methods
of benchmarking against which change can be evaluated. Further, healthy organizations
will manage change effectively by assisting employees to understand the need for change
through clear communication, justification for decisions, a shared vision for the future
and transparency in the decision making process (Baruch and Hind, 1999). This type of
communication will allow workers the opportunity to revise and reshape the
psychological contract they have created with their employer.

Thus, the core concept of a healthy organization appears to lie in the redefinition and
clarification of relationships, expectations, obligations and interactions between
employees and organizations (Jaffe, 1995), rather than in simply redesigning jobs,
training employees to cope with stress or effectively managing stressed employees. Some
researchers have suggested that in redefining relationships, it is important to create a
culture of empowerment, affiliation and reasonable achievement (Michela, Lukaszewski
and Allegrante, 1995).

These four steps appear relatively simple. However, research shows that implementation
of organizational management strategies that apply any of these steps has been
inadequate (Schurman and Israel, 1995). Schurman and Israel speculated that these
disappointing results could be attributed to the fact that change was not managed with the
participation of the workers. Further, they indicated that change was managed at the level
of the worker-job interface rather than at the broad cultural level. Consequently, local
changes designed to reduce stress have often been nullified by cultural responses
designed to restore equilibrium to the system (Kenny, 1995). Unfortunately, interventions

57
that seek to bring about systemic-level change are extremely difficult to implement.
According to Schurman and Israel, any organizational intervention must be contextually-
specific rather than "off-the-shelf”. The intervention must engage relevant people in
direct learning activities that allow them to understand the stress-process in their
organization at a systemic level. Finally, the intervention must encourage participants to
be involved in the development of change strategies.

There is support for the fact that interventions at the organizational level are effective.

Secondary Management Strategies

Any discussion of the 'secondary treatment' of occupational stress implies an intervention

aimed at a dysfunction present in the individual. This level of management is provided
primarily by medical practitioners, counselors and clinical psychologists. In this regard,
there are several types of treatment delivery depending on which one of these
professionals is the primary provider of the treatment. Unfortunately, like many other
matters concerning occupational stress, there is little agreement between the various
providers as to the preferred treatment for stress. An area of secondary management that
has received a great deal of attention in recent years is the Employee Assistance
Programme (EAP).

Medical Management

General practitioners are usually the first point of management for a psychologically
injured worker and tend to be the main treatment provider throughout the duration of a
claim. In most cases, however, general practitioners have little special training in
occupational medicine, or the concepts of occupational rehabilitation, which can lead to
difficulties (Workplace Rehabilitation Manual, 1990). For instance, some doctors may
prescribe long periods of rest as a treatment for workplace injuries, even though this can
simply reinforce the sick role and make return to work even more difficult.

There has been some consideration given to the predominance of the medical model in
the ongoing management of claims. Some dangers are highlighted by Toohey (1996) in

58
that the medicalisation of the problem may lead to delays in recovery and return to work
through the transfer of power from the worker or workplace to the medical practitioner.
He stated that in the patient/doctor relationship, it is the doctor who retains control of
determining appropriate behaviour and the criteria for moving from illness to wellness.
The doctor can also foster dependency of the patient, and transfer responsibility from the
patient to doctor. The patient, therefore, need not exercise responsibility for his or her
own actions because he or she is sick and, as such, has diminished responsibility.

The prescription of habit-forming medications is also a common form of management,

with negative consequences for the individual. While current psycho-pharmacological
treatment options more effectively target psychological problems with reduced side
effects in comparison to previous medications, the consequences remain problematic.

Some time will usually have elapsed in the management of occupational stress before the
doctor will refer to more specialist providers (i.e., psychologist or psychiatrist).
Generally, referral will occur when the worker reports that problems are increasing
despite lengthy absences from work and trials of different medications. Interestingly,
there was a marked increase in cost per claim when general practitioners felt it was part
of their role to provide counseling rather than referring to specialists (WorkCover WA,
1999). Late referral can result in weakening of work ties and confidence, and a
strengthening of the 'sick' role within the worker.

Different jurisdictions express different expectations of medical practitioners in the

management of psychological injuries, involvement in the return to work process and the
length of expected incapacity due to psychological injuries. WorkCover South Australia,
for example, state that it is not expected that workers with a psychological injury will be
away from work, and definitely not for any extended period. They also expect a high
level of initial contact between the doctor and the employer, with the responsibility for
this contact placed on the doctor. Such contact must occur prior to certification.
WorkCover Western Australia has encouraged early contact between the medical
practitioner and the employer, and has developed a number of administrative mechanisms
to facilitate communication between these two parties. At present, this success of these

59
mechanisms still relies on the commitment of the both parties to co-operate and move
towards quickly returning the injured worker to the workplace.

Employee Assistance Programmes

The importance of effectively managing stress and an employee's mental health has
significantly magnified as the increased pressures to remain competitive and to
accommodate a more flexible working environment has prevailed. Consequently, many
organizations have been proactive in assisting employees to better manage issues that
negatively impact on work performance, such as organizational stress, by implementing
EAPs. A current definition of an EAP is a "systematic, organized and continuing
provision of counseling, advice and assistance, provided or funded by the employer,
designed to help employees with problems arising from work-related and external
sources" (Berridge, Cooper and Highley-Marchington, 1997).

The second principle, as highlighted by Nankervis (1996), is that of confidentiality,

wherein an employee's participation in the scheme is totally confidential. Consequently,
the organization is not aware of the identity or difficulties experienced by those
employees accessing the programme. Given the negative perceptions often associated
with metal health issues, this principle of confidentially was incorporated to encourage
the participation of people experiencing occupational stress. However, a dilemma arising
from this principle is the lack of communication between an organization and the EAP
counselor should the issues experienced by the employee be directly related to
shortcomings within the organization, such as, job design, conflict with supervisors or
rehabilitation issues.

A third guiding principle of EAPs is the combination of proactive strategies,

incorporating promotion of employee health and development programmes, and the
reactive approach of counseling interventions. Cartwight and Cooper (1996) described
these programmes as multi-modular, with the potential to enhance employees' strategies
for coping and their ability to succinctly appraise stressful instances in a positive manner.

60
The final principle is professional counseling, which highlights the necessity for a
professional therapist to assume the role of counselor in assisting employees to address
concerns. Although the work supervisor is perceived as a pivotal role within the EAP
process, their aim is predominantly within an observational capacity (Kuzmits and
Hammons, 1979). Furthermore, supervisors should be attentive to their limitations within
the area of counseling (Nankervis, 1996), particularly as Australia enters into an era of
litigious practices (Buon and Compton, 1990 cited in Buon, 1992). Critics of EAPs have
criticized the utilization of clinical psychologists within these programmes due to their
limited exposure to organizational life, culture and knowledge of workplace dynamics
(Deves, 1989).

Other core functions seen to be essential to an EAP are the construction of both macro
and micro linkages between EAP service providers and resources within the community
(Bruce, 1990; McGowan, 1984; Pogue, 1997; Quick, Sonnenstuhl and Trice, 1987). By
making these links, the EAP functions are not limited to an intra-organizational level. The
community linkage orientation does not discount EAP practitioner's specialist knowledge
of the workplace and specific jobs (Roman, 1987). It merely affirms that community
assistance cannot occur to the optimal benefit of the employee without knowledge of
workplace contingencies and, as such, linkages between community services and EAP
staff will be beneficial for the worker.

Unfortunately, the haste and enthusiasm that can accompany the development and
implementation of an EAP often fails to transfer into appropriate evaluation activities. As
a result, there is a strong need for well-designed evaluation studies (Freeland and Lubin,
1988). Although a plethora of evaluation studies exist within the literature, the relative
newness of EAPs is reflected in the lack of rigour in the evaluation methods utilized
(Csiernik, 1995). Furthermore, Berridge (1997) argued that these studies typically focus
on outcome of the programme rather than why a programme does or does not work (Perry
and Cayer, 1992). Further gaps in the knowledge base result from the reliance on opinion
surveys in evaluating EAPs. Although employee satisfaction surveys provide meaningful
data with respect to perceptions of counseling services, they fail to assess other areas,

61
such as acceptance and willingness to use the services, or the impact on organizational
outcome measures (Kirk-Brown, 1998).

Clearly, in relation to its applicability to address issues and concerns associated with
occupational stress, a well-defined and properly implemented EAP has the potential to
make abundant contributions when viewed as a integral aspect of organization function.
However, it is important that EAPs focus on secondary management rather than tertiary
management once individuals have been labeled and diagnosed.

Tertiary Management Strategies

Tertiary management strategies are those that occur once the stress experienced by the
worker has been labeled as a condition and the individual requires some form of
rehabilitation or assistance to return to work. The most common tertiary management
strategy that is used in relation to occupational injury is case management. However, in
recent years, the concept of injury management has become popular as this approach
focuses on the early management of the injury in the workplace prior to separation or
degeneration of the employment relationship.

Case Management

In essence, case management is a generic service delivery model that has been subjected
to numerous definitions. For example, this concept has been defined by Akabas, Gates
and Galvin (1992) as "a method of coordinating and integrating a range of social, health
and rehabilitation services to enhance the functioning and quality of life of the individual,
improve the quality of care, and conserve costs".

Case management is essential in the provision of occupational rehabilitation services, as a

result of the complex nature of the rehabilitation process itself, and the large number of
stakeholders often involved with a worker throughout the post injury/illness phase
(Kenny, 1995). The key stakeholders involved in this process can include the worker, the
treating doctor, the insurer, the rehabilitation coordinator (often situated at the
workplace), and in some situations, the rehabilitation providers and solicitors (Shrey and

62
Lacerete, 1995). Case management is, therefore, integral to insurance-based systems as it
provides the vehicle by which the return to work plan is developed, coordinated and
monitored. In fact, case management has been rated by several national studies of
rehabilitation counselors as a vital component of their work (Puckett, 1984; Roessler and
Rubin, 1992; Wright, Leahy and Shapson, 1997).

SATISFACTION AND JOB STRESS

Job stress is the body’s response to any job-related factor that threatens to disturb the
person’s equilibrium. In the process of experiencing stress, the employee’s inner state
changes. Chronic job dissatisfaction is a powerful source of job stress.

Work stress as being the harmful, physical and emotional responses that occur when the
requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker
NIOSH (1999). Occupational stress is a process involving a transaction between an
individual and his or her work environment Lazarus (1991). The worker’s response to
work stress can be either psychological, physical or both (Cooper and Cartwright, 1994;
Kristensen, 1996; Santos and Cox, 2000) and is usually categorized as being acute, post
traumatic or chronic.

NEED FOR THE STUDY

The fact is that there are strong correlations between absenteeism and satisfaction as well
as between turnover and satisfaction. Job satisfaction would be an important focus for
organizations who wish to reduce absenteeism and turnover. The second reason for
interest in job satisfaction comes from low but consistent association with job
performance. Information collected will help a firm to correct certain situations and
thereby improve the job satisfaction of their staff. It helps the organization to know what
individual characteristics and organizational variables contribute significantly to boosting
one’s job satisfaction. Thus the investigator felt imperative the need to study job
satisfaction through action tendencies that is positive and negative emotional experiences
associated with job will evoke respectively approach and avoidance action tendencies.

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 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A study of Job Satisfaction in relation to Occupational Stress of Professionals.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To investigate the relationship between job satisfaction occupational stress of

professionals.
2. To investigate whether difference in occupational stress would account for
significant differences in Job satisfaction of professionals.
3. To investigate whether differences in biographical variables namely Gender,
Different departments and Professional experiences would account for significant
differences in their occupational stress.

RESUME OF THE SUCCEEDING CHAPTERS

Chapter I Introduction to Job Satisfaction, Occupational Stress and Professionals

Chapter II Review of Literature
Chapter III Methodology
Chapter IV Analysis
Chapter V Findings and Conclusions

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 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is on the review of related literature and studies. To carry out the review for
the purpose of the present study the following key concepts have been extracted from the
problem and the review is organized around them. 1. Trends of Research on Occupational
stress 2. Relationship between the independent variable Job Satisfaction, on the one hand
and Occupational stress on the other. The scope and trends of research on Occupational
stress is tackled in a general way examining the extent of coverage of research done in
this area in the past few years in India and abroad. It is also the intention of the
investigator to project the research gap that has been existing in this area and to focus on
the areas that have received priority and attention in this regard. In such a pursuit the
relationship of Occupational stress with the independent variable job satisfaction with
which it has been explored for the relation have been considered. While the relationship
of the independent and dependant variables is considered, it has been done in a very
specific way as far as possible.

TRENDS OF RESEARCH ON JOB SATISFACTION

Since job satisfaction is viewed as the summation of the employee’s feelings in different
areas on and off the job, in a narrow sense, these feelings are related to various aspects of
management, personal adjustment and social relation areas. However, earlier studies were
not so precise in their approach to job satisfaction in the sense that some have dealt only
with attitudes on some specific job factors whereas others have investigated other job
factors. Still others have considered the individual factors and the job factors, and a few
have attempted to measure parts of all three. Nevertheless, all were called job satisfaction
studies. This may be argued as one of the reasons why conflicting findings are reported in
the literature on the topic. In fact, these studies are not faulty but most are incomplete.
For example, an organization that has a good personnel programme and offers steady
work, good supervision, fair work evaluation, etc may expect its particular worker to
have job satisfaction. However, it may be found that the worker has actually lower job

65
satisfaction because of his capabilities in connection with his particular job, family
problems, poor personnel adjustment or unhappiness about his failure in social
interaction.

Investigators have measured employees reactions and have labeled them sometimes a job
satisfaction, sometimes morale, and at other times merely attitudes. Years ago a similar
practice was used in the field of physiological testing. Although in many instances job
satisfaction, employee attitude and industrial morale are used interchangeably, they are
not synonyms. An attitude is not job satisfaction though it any contribute to job
satisfaction. Since the latter is compromised of a number of attitudes. Similarly, job
satisfaction is not the same as industrial morale, though as stated elsewhere, it may be
used interchangeably and it may contribute to morale. However in order to understand
job satisfaction better, a clear-cut decisive study of employees with high and low degree
of satisfaction is needed. It seems that earlier studies which had a similar approach
towards studying job satisfaction were very much in right direction.

Job satisfaction has been linked with a large number of organizational outcome variables
such as absenteeism, turnover, mental and physical health, motivational level,
productivity and general life satisfaction. Even with this widespread interest in the topic,
problems about the concept and its measurement still remain. To overcome some of these
problems it has been suggested that job satisfaction be measured through behavioural
intentions. The rationale for measuring job satisfaction through action tendencies is that
positive and negative emotional experiences associated with job will evoke respectively
approach and avoidance action tendencies. The respondent is asked how he rather
attempting to measure cognitive belief or affect. Action tendencies items may provide
respondents a more description index (JDI). It was with this background that an attempt
to develop action tendency measure of job satisfaction was made. The ATM
demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency, factorial stability and convergent and
discriminant validity.

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Recently the 23ATM and the JDI were administered simultaneously to a sample of 243
managers of a very large transport organization in India. The ATM has been found to
possess satisfactory reliability and factor structure with the Indian sample.

STUDIES ON JOB SATISFACTION

Koteswara Rao, PT Sroinivasan, S George; A Study on Organizational Culture and its

Relationship with Job Satisfaction in Manufacturing and Information Technology
Sectors; 2005. The study explored the association between cultural values of an
organization and employee satisfaction in manufacturing and information technology
companies in India. Four manufacturing companies and four IT companies were taken.
Sample size was 461. The significant findings were 1) Organizational culture differs in
terms of mean scores of is dimensions between manufacturing and the IT sectors. 2)
Employee job satisfaction differs between manufacturing and IT sectors and the level of
job satisfaction is high among employees in the IT sector compared to the manufacturing
sector. 3) Dimensions of organizational culture explain significantly the variance in job
satisfaction of employees in both manufacturing and IT sectors. Customer care,
collaboration, open communication, creativity, culture nurturing, quality conscious and
role clarity had strong association with job satisfaction. In IT organizations, open
communication, code of conduct, employee concern and role clarity were able to explain
the variance in job satisfaction. Negative dimensions of a culture need to be paid attention
and consciously corrected as it can de-motivate and create discontent among employees.

Dr. Naval Bajpal; A Study of Job Satisfaction in Relation to Experience of the

Employees, Region and Pervasiveness of the Organization; 2004. The study was
designed to examine the regional differences in job satisfaction of the employees of
national and international organizations having different levels of experience. One
national and one international organization were selected. Subjects were divided into two
groups based on experience. The study employed 2x2x2 factorial design. Data was
analyzed employing three-way ANOVA. Results reveal that high experienced subjects of
international organizations showed highest level of job satisfaction while low

67
experienced subjects of national and international organizations showed similarly lower
job satisfaction.

Mirza S Saiyadain, Zolzaya Demberel, Marian Murerwa; Demographic variables and

job satisfaction amongst Mongolian and Ugandan employees; 2004. The study was
conducted to examine the effect of age, gender, years of education and work experience
on job satisfaction both across and amongst 120 Mongolian and 100 Ugandan employees.
Differences in gender and years of education did not make any significant impact either
across the country or within the country. The trend analysis showed decreasing
satisfaction with increasing age of employees. However, there was a quadratic
relationship between age and job satisfaction for Mongolian employees only. Work
experience showed an inverse relationship with job satisfaction but only for Mongolian
employees.

The important reoccurring themes in analyses of occupational stress characteristics such

as work overload, time pressures, conflicting demands due to role ambiguity, poor
environmental conditions, and poor communication with superiors are all potential
problems for educational administrators due to the nature of the high demands of their
occupation (Dollard, 2003; Cox, 2000; Sutherland and Cooper, 1988).

Spector (1997) further notes that there is a link between overall health and job
satisfaction. In her study of job satisfaction, attitudes and performance in schools, Ostroff
(1992) found a statistically significant negative correlation between stress and job
satisfaction. Carlson and Thompson (1995) conducted research on the effects of stress of
job burnout on satisfaction and turnover in public school teachers. A significant
correlation between burnout and turnover was found and they made recommendations on
how the school administrators can reduce the stress levels of the teachers.

Although many factors, such as rate of pay, job security, and job benefits, have been
correlated with the level of job satisfaction, many researchers have demonstrated that an
increase in stress level is associated with a decrease in job satisfaction. (Spector 1997;
Murphy and Shoenborn, 1989; Benner, 1984).

68
In a study of burn out and job satisfaction in a chronic care hospital, the researchers have
confirmed a negative correlation between increased stress or “burnout” and decreased job
satisfaction (Belicki and Woolcott, 1996). In his study of job satisfaction among public
sector workers in the Denver municipal water utility, which is a leader in pay, benefits
and job security, Leavitt (1996) found that although overall job satisfaction was low, the
water utility employees claimed to be satisfied in pay, benefits, and job securities. Leavitt
does not discuss what factor is causing overall job satisfaction too be low. Conversely, in
a later study, (O’quinn and Lotempio 1998), found that job insecurity decreases job
satisfaction.

Research regarding occupational stress and the role of educational administrators who
have dual responsibilities of managing people and program finances found that work
overload and handling relationships with staff were the primary sources of stress (Cooper
and Kelly, 1993).

Studies have indicated that the inability to be involved in decisions that affect one's work
is particularly stressful for most workers (Schaubroeck, 1991) and that non-participation
in decision making can lead to such negative consequences as lowered self-esteem, job
dissatisfaction, and emotional distress for the worker (Beehr and Drexler, 1986; Dawson,
1989; Spector, 1986).

In an alternative interpretation of the arousal hypothesis, Lyng (1990) suggested that

dangerous or challenging work may actually provide individuals with an opportunity to
feel a sense of control, probably as a result of the training, fitness and skills that are
required to accomplish their duties. This conclusion concurs with those of Maslach
(1999) and Karasek (1979) regarding the importance of control as a buffer against stress.

(Geare,1989). An Australian study conducted by Geare, found that job satisfaction or

enjoyment at work was high for those who perceived their stress level to be 'just right',
but also for those who reported that their stress was 'too high'. Performance in the job did
not differ across the groups, although those who reported high stress also reported more
physical symptoms of strain and medical treatment over the previous five years. As will

69
be discussed later, it is possible that greater contact with the medical profession actually
caused the perception that stress was too high rather than stress causing medical attention.
Nevertheless, it is possible that these workers who reported high stress were gaining other
positive benefits from their stressful work.

Indeed, Israel, House, Schurman, Heaney, and Mero (1989) concluded that the ability to
control or influence work factors, such as speed and pace of production, is linked to
incidence of cardiovascular disease as well as to psychosomatic disorders, job satisfaction
and depression. Lack of control may also result in feelings of frustration, low morale and,
loss of self-esteem (Rhodes, 1986).

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH); 1988. NIOSH
recognized the need for workers to be given the opportunity to have input into decisions
or actions that affect their jobs and the performance of their tasks.

A study conducted by Bedeian and Armenakis (1981) found that the relationships
between role ambiguity/conflict and the propensity to leave a job were negligible, after
accounting for the effect of job satisfaction. This finding has been replicated by other
researchers (Kemery, Mossholder and Touliatos, 1985; Netemeyer, 1990) indicating that
role conflict and role ambiguity may not have direct effects on the propensity to leave a
job. Instead, these constructs may indirectly affect other constructs, such as job
satisfaction or organisational commitment, which may then impact upon the level of job
stress a worker may be experiencing.

Melhuish (1981) noted several complex attitudinal reasons for the non-identification and
mismanagement of employees who experience stress, in addition to the lack of time and
resources/skills. First, there tends to be a reluctance of management to concede that their
approach may be associated with ill health and stress in their workers. Although some
employees may adapt well, and indeed excel, within an environment characterized by
increased demands and challenges, other employees may respond with distress and
decreased quality of life (McCarthy and Stone 1989; Nankervis, Compton and McCarthy,
1996). Managers must acknowledge these differences in their workers. Second, Melhuish

70
(1981) stated that for many managers, work provides their most satisfactory role,
sometimes to the detriment of other life interests such as relationships with family and
friends and recreational pursuits. An examination of any problems within this work role
may impact greatly on the pride and ambition of the manager. Third, Melhuish (1981)
highlighted reluctance on the part of managers to be educated in the area of prevention
and management of stress-related conditions because such activities are unlikely to be
considered by managers to be part of their work role. Failure of managers to accept such
a role was seen as a prominent explanation for the mismanagement of employees
experiencing stress. This reluctance was also recognized as the source of subsequent
difficulties experienced by the employee on their return to the workplace. Finally, the
actions taken by human resource workers and managers revolve around a process of
determining the degree of intrusion into a worker's private domain that is warranted by an
indication that the worker is psychologically unwell. Although the stresses associated
with the workplace and the home cannot be distinguished easily, and spillover will occur,
many managers still hold the view that discussion about personal problems at work
represents a transgression of some invisible boundary. As a result, potentially preventable
conditions in workers may not be addressed.

Although dissatisfaction with one's job has been primarily considered to be an outcome
of the work stress process (Cherniss, 1980), some research has shown that satisfaction
with one's work content may actually provide an important buffer against the negative
effect of stress (Macdonald and Upsdell, 1996).

Hill; 1974. One study found that among twenty-two teams of system analysts, the more
incompatible groups were likely to be the most productive.

TRENDS OF RESEARCH ON OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

Occupational stress is an important area of research to understand employee behaviour in

general and job satisfaction in particular. Trends of research indicate some major areas
where earlier studies in the nineties relating to work life and family interface do not pose
problems of stress and strain. Experiments conducted in an attorney firm revealed that an

71
individual, stress management methods require a long period of time to provide
noticeable results. Stress level negatively correlates to job satisfaction and a decreased
stress level would give an increase in job satisfaction. It was also noticed that there are
both physical and psychological dimensions of stress. Meditation was also useful to
reduce tension in stress related disorders.

Financial status was also examined as a cause of stress or a consequence of stress. Studies
on individuals reflected that individuals tend to consistently interpret their circumstances
as controlled by external forces. Participation in group meetings had a negative
correlation with perceived job stress, lack of resources have a direct outcome or impact
on stress. Hardy individuals seek ways to gain control and view their situation more
optimistically.

Emotional exhaustion was strongly associated with intra-sender conflict and qualitative
role overload. Financial strain was also a significant predictor of emotion distress.

STUDIES ON OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

R Venkararamana Rao; Work and Family Interface: Its Results on Stress and Strain
Relationship of Executives; 2005. A Bangalore-based public sector unit was selected for
the study as it was a research and design oriented organization where executives have to
spend most of the time in the company. Two hypotheses were derived: 1) The work life
and family life interfaces cause stress and strain to the executives. 2) The work life and
family life interfaces does not cause stress and strain to the executives. Fifty executives
were selected and data was collected using observation method, questionnaire method,
mailed questionnaire and telephone interview. The study revealed that executives are
happy with family life and work life as they are educated; they are able to manage family
requirements and priorities so that stress and strain can be avoided. The hypothesis was
proved partially wrong, work life and family life interface do pose problems of stress and
strain.

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Nazanin Mohajeri-Nelson, 2003 undertook a study titled Stress Level and Job
Satisfaction: Does a causal relationship exist? The purpose of this experiment is to
determine whether causal relationship exists between two variables. Eleven non-
attorney employees of a large firm participated with six participants in the
experimental and five in the control groups. The experimental group practiced stress
management techniques like breathing and stretching for two weeks. The independent
variables of this experiment was stress level, based on pre-test course and stress
management techniques, breathing and stretching which were used or not used. The
dependent variables were stress levels based on post-test course and job satisfaction. Post
test conducted to determine whether stress levels were reduced by stress management
techniques. The results of the experiment based on the statistical tests indicated that
the results do not support the hypothesis that an individual can reduce her own stress
level and thereby increase job satisfaction. There was no significant variance of the
scores in the low stress level and high stress level groups. It was found that extraneous
variables were very difficult to control. Stress management methods require a long period
of time in order to provide noticeable results. It was found that job satisfaction is a
complex state of mind involving many factors other than stress level. Improved health
and personal well being can increase one’s ability to cope with stress. It has been shown
that stress level negatively correlates to job satisfaction and it is reasonable to deduce that
decreased stress level would yield an increase in job satisfaction.

T S Arunkumar (2003) conducted a study titled Stress Management among IT

Professionals: University of Kerala, studied the extent of experienced distress and
consequent quality of life among IT professionals. The aim of the study was to examine
the efficacy of proposed stress management intervention named “Organizational skills
enhancement training”. Three hypotheses were formulated; H01: There will not be any
significant difference in the study variables between the study subjects and control
subjects. H02: There will not be any significant differences between the study subjects
and control subjects in the study variables after the stress management intervention to the
former. H03: There will be no significant difference in stress and quality of life among
the subjects during the pre-intervention, post-intervention and follow-up phases of the

73
stress management intervention concerned. The researcher addressed large groups of IT
professionals. 136 subjects were selected for the study and assigned to two groups of
equal numbers. The tools used were socio-demographic data sheets, quality of life
assessment scale, and comprehensive stress assessment scale. The analysis of the data
was done using ANOVA, Chi-squares and Paired samples. The results indicated that
both physical and psychological dimensions of stress show similar pattern of change. In
social and emotional stress dimensions, greater improvement can be observed during the
post intervention to follow-up phase and a gradual improvement could be noticed with
regard to spiritual stress dimension. There were significant symptoms of stress and poor
quality of life. The problem of work stress in the IT sector which is relevant in India
validates that stress is caused by lack of planning process leading to sudden unrealistic
deadlines originating from peer pressure – fear of left behind and stress caused by poor
inter-personal relationships. Among experienced professionals, disappointment with work
and decreased enthusiasm to work were the reported symptoms of burnout. Qualitative
observations made found that by practicing regular meditation and relaxation techniques,
a feeling of well-being and overall freshness was experienced. Patterns of stress started
with physical dimension followed by psychological dimension, emotional and social
dimensions improved slowly. As stress decreased, the quality of life increased.

PT Srinivasan, P David Jawahar, 2003 studied Empowerment as a Moderator of the

Relationship between Work Stress and Psychosomatic Symptoms. The aim of the
research was to address the effectiveness of psychological empowerment as a moderator
of work stress in relation to individual outcomes. The results prove that qualities of
empowerment and suggests that organizations adopt empowerment strategies. Data for
the study was collected from a large public sector undertaking, a giant oil refinery located
in Chennai and the questionnaire was distributed among top lower and middle level
managerial personnel comprising 175 respondents.

K C Khara, D Jhava (2002) studied the use of Scientific Yoga System for Management
of Stress Induced Disorders.He found that Yogic asanas can be very effective in
providing relief from stress related disorders. Some of the stress induced disorders are:

74
CVS – Hypertension, CAD, angina pectoris; GIT – Peptic ulcer, ulcerative colitis, IBS,
indigestion, dyspepsia, constipation; Respiratory – Psychogenic, cough, bronchial
asthma; Genitourinary – Psychogenic impotence, frigidity vaginismus, functional
dysparunia; Dysmenorrhoea; Endorine – Obesity, diabetes mellitus; Musculoskeletal –
Rhematoid arthritis; CNS – Muscle contraction, headache, migraine, vascular headache;
Skin – neurodermatitis, hyperhydrosis, alopecia areata, lichen planus; Psychological –
Anxiety neurosis, depression, psychogenic vomiting. Stress also produces the following
hormones: Corticotrophin releasing factor; Cortisol; Endorphins; ACTH; Prolactin;
Adrenaline and noradrealine; Serotonin, acetylcholine and dopamine. Suggested
interventions of lifestyle modification like diet, which consists of low fact content, in the
last decade incidents of diabetes and coronary heart disease has increased because of the
use of sunflower oil and safola oil. Diet should be rich and fiber and curd. Curd reduces
absorption of fat and decreases blood cholesterol level. Exercise is also essential and a
person should walk for half an hour in order to achieve fifty to sixty percent of target
heart rate. Avoidance of smoking, alcohol and other sedative drugs. Stretching yoga
techniques which are also known as asanas in Hath Yoga. A person during stretching
exercises concentrates on the part which is being stretched. This awareness is the first
step in healing. The five asanas which can be performed are: 1) Suptavirasana 2)
Suptabadhakonasana 3) Viprithdandasana 4) Sethubandhakonasana 5) Shavasana.
Breathing techniques: Our breath is a bridge between body and mind. When we get
irritated, breathing becomes rapid. During emotional stress, supportive nervous system is
stimulated so that our heart rate, BP and muscle tension increase. Yoga says that rhythm
and pattern is important in maintaining physical and psychological equilibrium just like
our two brain hemispheres which function differently. We can also direct visual
relaxation by the use of our senses of sight, touch, smell and sound. This visualization
should be done after meditation. Similarly Dr. Herbert Benson has conducted pioneering
research in Harvard University and found useful effect of meditation. Meditation
practiced for 20 minutes has shown to produce a lasting reduction in blood pressure and
other stress related disorders. It is a natural antidote to tension.

75
Swami Vijnananda Saraswathi 2006 in a study on Tips to beat the stress at Corporate
Desk. In 1990, the Department of Business Administration, University of Stockholm
carried out an experiment on two management teams. The teams were introduced to
transcendental techniques. One term was studied for a period of 4-7 months and a longer
term of 2-3 years. There was increased energy and alertness of meditating managers of
the group. As a side effect, family relationships also tend to improve. Meditation brought
a balance be it excessive asterism or excessive indulgence for that matter excessive quest
for perfection could never be considered the same as obsession. The answer to efficiency
was in total concentration on the job rather than attaining perfection and bringing about
transformation.

Similar findings have been reported in relation to teachers who believe that, on leaving
university, they will provide an optimal service to the children they teach. When they are
unable to do so due to external constraints in the global environment, they are 'shattered'
(Friedman, 2000).

Studies regarding the occupational stress of teachers show stressors that are similar to
other educational occupations. Conflicting demands by supervisors, work overload, poor
physical working conditions, and fiscal cutbacks are some stressors that recent research
has indicated as leading sources of teacher stress (Travers, 2001; Greenglass and Burke,
2003;). Travers (2001) stated that the concepts of teaching and stress are almost
synonymous.

Educational administrators have experienced profound change in their occupations

(Brock and Grady, 2002). Technology has brought about many changes in job
requirements and work load. Rapid and frequent changes can cause resistance and
frustration (Brock and Grady, 2002). The trend of school reform that started in public
schools in the 1980's and 1990's has trickled down to adult literacy education in the past
decade. Increased accountability, student assessments, state and federal reporting, and the
ever present budget cuts are all changes that can heighten the stress level in an already
stressful occupation.

76
Travers (2001) researched stress in teaching and noted that greater accountability and
public assessment have resulted in disillusionment among teachers.

Excessive work stress and relentless work demands are reasons for teacher burnout
(Travers, 2001). Occupational burnout is the outcome of excessive stress. Burnout, an
extreme reaction to stress, is described as extreme emotional exhaustion that may lead to
apathy, negativity, alienation from work, and a diminished quality of work (Travers,
2001; Brock and Grady, 2002). Physical, intellectual, social, emotional and spiritual
symptoms may affect a person undergoing burnout. Burn out is contagious. A stress-
filled school leader creates a stress-filled atmosphere with a high incidence of teacher
burnout (Grady and Burns, 2002). Changes in how people respond to stress can prevent
burnout and its negative effects (Gmelch, 1996; Brock and Grady, 2002).

Brock and Grady (2002) recommended some positive responses to stress for school
leaders, including some psychological and behavioural responses. Psychological ways to
cope with stress are to develop an internal locus of control, control one's own emotions,
adjust personal attitudes, and perspectives. Behavioural ways of coping with stress are to
manage time effectively, delegate, have excellent interpersonal skills, maintain good
nutrition, rest, pray, meditate, exercise, socialize with friends, and talk with family
(Brock and Grady, 2002).

School administrators as the leaders of educational programs experience stress in their

occupations similar to the stress that corporate executives experience (Smith, 2001).
Much has been written about the intense job stress that school principals, administrators,
and superintendents may undergo due to the demands of their positions (Institute for
Educational Leadership, 2000; Brock and Grady, 2002; Glass, Bjork and Brunner, 2000;
Gmelch, 1996). Many aspects of managing and delivering adult education programs are
similar to the responsibilities of a corporate executive, school superintendent or school
principal.

Nazanin Mohajeri-Nelson, Department of Psychology, University of West Florida;

Stress levels and job satisfaction: Does a casual relationship exist? 1999. Prior

77
researchers have demonstrated a strong negative correlation between stress levels and job
satisfaction. The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether or not a casual
relationship exists between the two variables. Eleven non-attorney employees of a large
(more than 60 employees) of a law firm participated in this experiment with 6
participants in the experimental and 5 in the control groups. Pre-tests were conducted for
stress level and job satisfaction, the results of which were used to assign the participants
to the experimental and control groups The experimental group practiced stress
management techniques (breathing and stretching) for two weeks. Post-tests were
conducted to determine whether stress levels were reduced by stress management
techniques and whether or not job satisfaction has been increased. The results of this
experiment were not statistically significant at the alpha level of 0.05.

Satishchandra Kumar, Anuradha Rayakar, Illa Joshi, Omer Bin Sayeed; Occupational
Stress In Bureaucrat, Stress, Strain and Coping Strategies Among IAS Officers; 2005.
A list of 14 stressors, strains and coping strategies was selected. The results indicated that
salient stressors among IAS officers were responsibility for people, work overload,
inefficient staff, red tapism and pressure from unanticipated quarters. Anxiety, tension,
fatigue, frustration and dissatisfaction with the job were the major strains experienced.
The coping strategies used were analyzing the situation logically, reading, time
management, planning, goal setting and relaxation techniques. The first cluster which
combined anxiety, tension, fatigue and insomnia with coping strategies of watching
television, yoga, taking a vacation and counseling. The other cluster combined
depression, dissatisfaction with life, alienation from others and high consumption of
caffeinated drinks with coping strategies of consuming alcohol. It was suggested that a
stress audit be conducted for the officers.

Dr. Karen Belkic; Occupational Stress Index (OSI): An Introduction; August 2000. Dr.
Belkic studied how stress leads to cardio-vascular disease such as features of work in
high risk occupations. The study attempted to describe in quantitative terms the burden of
work processes upon the human being. A two-dimensional matrix was developed with a
vertical axis comprising of levels of information transmission consisting of sensory input,

78
central decision making and effectors output. The stress dimensions were placed at the
horizontal axis as follows: under load, high demand, strictness, extrinsic time pressure,
aversive exposures, threat avoidant vigilance, disaster potential, conflict and uncertainty.
It was applied to 345 workers of various occupations of both genders in several countries.
OSI for professional drivers identified features of professional driving which were
relatively constant such as the need to make and carry out automatic decisions, no
possibility of ignoring incoming signals, fixed posture behind the wheel and no chance to
influence the rate at which new signals are received. It was found that a more detailed an
operational approach to demand and control dimensions helps identify professional
drivers as a high strain occupational group. Professional drivers were exposed to a very
high level of occupational stressors which was gauged by OSI predictions like cardio-
deleterious behaviour such as smoking intensity. Extrinsic time pressure was greater for
city bus drivers because they were obliged to follow a rigid schedule and were exposed to
glare due to driving at night. More conflicts due to the need to arrive on time and traffic
congestion were also reported. Multiple logistic regression models were developed to
find the set of independent factors that best identify professional drivers with
hypertension and those who had suffered heart disease events. The study suggested rest
breaks and long work hours as general factors affecting high demand.

Arrati; Stress takes its toll, Human Capital; 2001. An estimated 400 million people
worldwide suffer from anxiety and mood disorders. Manifestations of mental disorders
have been found to vary with age, gender, race and culture. The distress caused to
families of such patients results in damage to children’s development. Two-thirds of all
people diagnosable mental disorders do not seek treatment for a variety of reasons.
Modern workplace stress is due to long hours of work and the quality of work life survey
carried out in the west found that a majority of managers believe working long hours had
a negative effect on their health, relationships and productivity. A survey conducted
among five thousand office staff in 16 countries recently has shown that over 54 percent
of office workers believe work to be the main cause of stress in their lives. The main
cause of stress was overwork, with 50 percent of respondents claiming to be either too
busy or having too few staffers has been found to be prevalent in large companies. To

79
cope with stress at work, respondents showed a clear preference for indulging in products
of enjoyment, 68 percent mentioned taking tea or coffee break, 50 percent having a soft
drink, 27 percent smoking. The human factor scored the highest with 81 percent
preferring to talk or joke with colleagues as a way of unwinding at work.

Research reveals that for most managers, working long hours is unacceptable, but
necessary for their career. While only one in eight people who work long hours genuinely
enjoy their jobs, one-third of overworked employees suffer sleepless nights due to stress.
About 55 percent of full-time employees are bad-tempered at home because of work-
related stress. When employees feel harassed, they are literally working themselves to
death and the whole issue of over work has a lot of hidden costs in terms of employees
taking sick days or quitting.

Many companies run Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) design to help stressed staff
better. Initiated in the 1950s largely by social workers to address problems like
alcoholism, drug-abuse, etc. EAPs have grown in proportion over the years. EAPs act as
a bridge between the employers and employees. They provide the much-needed relief to
employees with work related or personal problems and include face-to-face counseling,
help lines and other initiatives.

The stress-buffer or moderator hypothesis suggests that resources reduce individuals'

susceptibility to stress-related pathology and protect them from its deleterious impact.
Thus, those with high levels of resources experience less intense reactions to stress or
recover from the negative impact of stress more quickly than those with fewer resources
(Stroebe, Stroebe, Abakoumkin and Schut, 1996).

Although the stress and adjustment literature is replete with studies demonstrating the
beneficial effect of personal resources on well-being, the most commonly cited resource
is self-esteem. Self-esteem is usually considered to reflect the extent to which individuals
believe themselves to be capable, successful and worthy (Kivimaki and Kalimo, 1996).

80
Indeed, evidence has supported the important role of self-esteem as a predictor of well-
being (Ellsworth, 1995), especially in the emotional and behavioural domains (Leary,
Schreindorfer and Haupt, 1995).

For instance, in a study of people who have contracted HIV, Pakenham, Dadds and Terry
(1994) found that social support did not protect individuals from the stress associated
with their illness.

Rahim and Psenicka (1996) found no role for workplace social support in the prediction
of psychological symptoms following work-related stress.

Excessive social support can be harmful for adjustment following stressful life events
(Krause, 1995; Stroebe, 1996).

Financial status is examined as a cause of stress or a consequence of stress (Pierce, Frone,

Russell and Cooper, 1996), but is rarely examined as a resource.

As Douglas and Bain (1996) noted, work environment factors can be less "fixed than
personality traits, and….more open to intervention by employers and employees".
Therefore, it is clearly more fruitful to examine other causes of stress in the workplace,
such as job characteristics. In this regard, the job-related factors that have been found to
influence stress include pressures such as heavy workload, poor work conditions, time
pressures, unclear work roles, conflict in the workplace, and the emotional demands of
work.

A recent study established that work overload and time constraints were significant
contributors to work stress among community nurses (Wilkes, 1998). A study of work
stress among professionals found that teachers and nurses were most likely to experience
work overload and that this factor, concomitant with other interruptions to work, has the
potential to result in unbearable work demands (Chan, Lai, Ko and Boey, 2000).

Recent national study into the changing workforce found that the proportion of workers
bringing work home from the job once a week or more, has increased by 10 percent since

81
1977. Most workers in this study reported a change in their perceptions of work pressures
in that 66 percent agreed with the statement, 'I never seem to have enough time to get
everything done on my job' (Swamberg, Galinsky and Bond, 1999).

Other research that examined the impact of long hours on managers, found that a range of
stress-related symptoms, including excessive fatigue and headaches, were predominately
associated with the need to manage excessive workloads and simultaneously meet
unrealistic targets and deadlines (Townley, 2000).

In a study conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (1998), it was found that full-
time workers were working 42.5 hours per week on average, a figure that has increased
since previous years. Recent research into the effects of this extended shift has suggested
that there are grounds for concern over the impact of extended working hours on the
physical and psychological health of workers (Bent, 1998).

According to a recent review of overtime in the manufacturing industry, in the United

States, average weekly overtime increased from 1.6 hours to 4.9 hours over a seven year
period. What is notable about this survey is that whilst the employment rate within the
manufacturing industry declined during the year of 1999, total overtime hours remained
stable in the same year. This suggests that fewer workers maintained productivity levels
by working an increased amount of overtime and, potentially, experiencing significant
time pressure (Hetrick, 2000).

In this regard, a recent survey of managers in the United Kingdom indicated that the
majority were unhappy with the current workplace culture where they were required to
work extended hours and cope with large workloads while simultaneously meeting
production targets and deadlines (Townley, 2000). The results of this study highlighted a
range of stress-related symptoms including excessive tiredness, headaches and a loss of
temper as being associated with such workplace demands.

Conflict can, and indeed does, result in destructive consequences for the worker and the
organization. In this regard, a study of four hundred respondents from a broad range of
organizations identified conflicts with supervisors as one of the most significant stressors

82
associated with the majority of maladaptive behaviours at the workplace. These included
excessive drinking and taking frustrations out on co-workers (Sulsky and Smith, 1999;
Toohey, 1994).

A recent study among nurses found a strong association between work-related stress and
unsatisfactory relationships with peers, supervisors and patients (Piko, 1999).

A recent Asian study found that workers tended to tolerate unfair treatment and
unpleasant work conditions in an attempt to avoid open conflict with their co-workers
(Chan, 2000). The study found that this phenomenon was particularly evident in nurses,
lawyers and engineers.

Briner (1999) noted that some jobs are extremely demanding in regard to emotional
labour (e.g., debt collectors, flight attendants, hairdressers, nurses, etc.). In many of these
jobs, emotional labour is directly requested by employers, presumably because of its
impact on organizational outcomes (i.e., increased number of clients as a result of 'happy'
workers), the performance of the individual worker and the maintenance of workplace
morale (Briner, 1999).

However, the need to monitor and control emotions at work has also been found to be
associated with stress among workers in the public service sectors (Wharton and
Erickson, 1995). In these professions, workers are regularly required to deal with the
negative tension created by emotional dissonance (i.e., expression of emotions that differ
from those they are feeling, faking an emotion or hiding an emotion).

The need for emotional labour has also been found among individuals in physically
dangerous professions (e.g., firefighters, police and other emergency personnel) where
there is an ongoing fear of harm or death and in emotionally dangerous professions (e.g.,
nursing, medical, human and community services) where there is ongoing exposure to
human suffering and tragedy. In these professions, there is an enormous demand to
manage and prevent the expression of emotions such as fear or sadness, replacing these
with courage and calm (Beaton, Murphy, Pike and Jarrett, 1995).

83
The findings of the effort-reward model (Siegrist, 1996) suggest that there must be a
perceived balance between the effort that is required in a job and the rewards that are
gained.

In two longitudinal studies of German factory workers and middle managers, Siegrist
(1996) found that the combined 'effort-reward imbalance' variable was a significant
predictor of several behavioural and physical indicators of stress. This model supports the
supposition that the negative effects of job stress can be prevented if other aspects of the
job provide positive outcomes.

Rotter; 1966, 1982. In his study, Rotter identified the importance of the patterns with
which individuals interpreted their ability to control their circumstances. Rotter noted that
some individuals tend to consistently interpret their circumstances as being controlled by
external forces. This external locus of control has been linked to negative outcomes
following events, lowered performance and ongoing depression.

Kobasa; 1979. In a study of middle to upper class businessmen, Kobasa found that
executives who experienced highly stressful events and who displayed hardiness recorded
significantly less illness than those without hardiness.

Menaghen; 1983. Personal resources have been defined as the relatively stable
characteristics that enable some individuals to resist the deleterious effects of stress and
adjust effortlessly across a range of situations.

Jackson; 1983. Jackson, in his study, found that participation (attendance at staff
meetings) had a negative correlation with perceived job stress and a positive correlation
with perceived influence.

Parasuram, Cleek; 1984. In a study of first level managers, Parasurman and Cleek
(1984) reported that NA increased the dissatisfaction associated with role overload.
Despite the fact that only a few of the interactions tested in this study were found to be
significant. NA showed direct effects with perceived stress and job satisfaction. The

84
researchers concluded that such findings demonstrate the importance of prior
susceptibility in influencing stress reactions.

Lazarus and Folkman; 1984. Lazarus and Folkman identified two broad types of coping
strategies, namely, problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping. The primary
aim of problem-focused coping is to confront the event, either by altering the situation
(environment-directed) or by acquiring necessary information, skills or assistance (self-
directed). In contrast, emotion-focused coping is a palliative response that aims to
eliminate negative emotional reactions to the event. Emotion-focused strategies usually
involve attempts to avoid the negative emotions associated with a problem situation
through strategies such as suppression, wishful thinking or distraction.

Howard, Cunningham and Rechnitzer; 1986. A longitudinal study found that hardy
workers showed smaller increases in blood pressure and serum triglycerides in response
to increasing role ambiguity.

Norris and Murrel; 1987. Researchers have found multiple functions for resources,
suggesting that the means by which they influence outcome following stress is unclear.
For instance, some researchers have found that resources, or lack of resources, have a
direct impact on outcome.

Further, Manning, Williams and Wolfe; 1988. The researchers found a direct, rather
than moderating role, of hardiness in that hardy individuals reported higher levels of job
satisfaction, fewer somatic complaints, less depression and less anxiety compared to non-
hardy individuals. It would seem, therefore, that hardy individuals seek ways to gain
control and tend to view their situation more optimistically than non-hardy individuals
and are, therefore, less likely to perceive the existence of work-related stress.

Cohen and Edwards; 1988. In this case, resources appear to have a 'symptom-damper'
effect, in that individuals with more resources tend to experience better outcomes than
those with low resources, irrespective of the existence of stress. In contrast, other

85
researchers have found that resources act as 'stress-buffers' by eliminating the negative
relationship between stress and outcome.

Israel; 1989. One study found that the influence workers believed themselves to have as
a result of participation, rather than participation per se, reduced job stress and ill-health.

Parkes; 1990. Parkes found an interaction effect between NA and work demands in the
prediction of mental strain in trainee teachers. However, NA did not moderate the work
support-outcome relationship, prompting the interpretation that only impersonal
quantitative stressors, such as work load, rather than interpersonal forms of stress, such as
lack of support from colleagues and peers are affected by an NA bias. Overall, the
evidence is more supportive of NA having a direct effect, rather than a moderating effect,
on work stress.

Hermann, Whitman, Wyler, Anton and Vanderzwagg; 1990. Hermann and his
colleagues reported that financial strain was a significant predictor of emotional distress,
even when the effects of personal resources were held constant.

Sharda S Nandram, Bert Klandermans; Stress Experienced by Active Members of

Trade Union; 1991. A study was made on active members who constitute the cadre of
officials or core membership who engage in voluntary union work. There are certain
impediments to their functioning such as stress and emotional exhaustion. The role of
activists and employee may incur conflicts and tensions arising from conflicting interests
of the union and employer or contrasting expectations of the union and union members. A
study was made on four labour union federations in the Netherlands. Hypothesis 1: The
experience of each of the stressors is expected to be positively related to stress reaction
called Emotional Exhaustion. Hypothesis 2: The stressors in combination (overall stress
variable) will correlate higher with emotional exhaustion than will they separately. Data
was collected by a telephone survey involving sixteen labour unions of the Federation of
Dutch Labour Unions (FNV) and the Dutch National Federation of Christian Labour
Unions (CNV). The study was conducted in the year 1991. 500 ex-active members and

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active members were involved in the study. Measures: A five-point response scale was
used (highly in-applicable, in-applicable, neutral, applicable and highly applicable). The
items of the scale were reworded to measure a focal role stressor as it is experienced by
the active members in the context of their union position. The study also investigated the
central component of burnout, which is emotional exhaustion. The report findings
generally supported the expected positive association between active union members
experienced the central component of burnout and each of the examined role problems
individually and in combination. The results of a multiple regression analysis showed that
emotional exhaustion was the most strongly associated with intra-sender conflict and
qualitative role overload.
Northwest Life Insurance Company; 1991. In another study conducted by the Northwest
Life Insurance Company (1991) in America, 35 percent of these interviewed said that
their job was extremely or very stressful and 26 percent said that their job was the
greatest stressor in their life. This study also found that the incidence of stress-related
disabilities had doubled from 6 percent to 13 percent between 1982 and 1991.

OVERVIEW

The investigator arrived at the following inferences from the review of related literature
present at the preceding pages:

I Extensive studies have been carried out in Organizational behaviour research,

industrial psychology and to some extent in nursing. The research in Occupational
stress has been predominantly carried out by management experts rather than
educators. There has been a varied choice of samples consisting of industrial
workers, salesman and employees in industry and health care sectors.
II Research in the area of job satisfaction is extensively carried out on the employees
of industries, IT professionals healthcare and nursing. The studies carried out in
India are few in the last decade.
III Research studies on occupational stress related to background variables especially
sex, age, marital status and experience specifically are very few and needs extended
research.

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 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the terms and concepts used in the study have been operationally defined.
Hypotheses have been stated for empirical validation. The procedures followed in
selecting the sample, tools used for data collection and statistical techniques used are also
presented.

The purpose of this investigation was to study the Job Satisfaction of professionals in
relation to Occupational Stress. It was also the intention of the researcher to find out
whether there are differences in the independent variables namely gender, experience and
profession. In addition, the researcher strives to find out whether there are differences
with respect to the various dimensions of Job Satisfaction namely Pay, Promotion,
Supervision, Benefits, Contingent rewards, Operating Procedures, Co-workers, Nature of
work and Communication. Similarly, the study also covers the differences with respect to
the dimensions of Occupational Stress namely Role Overload, Role Ambiguity, Role
Conflict, Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure, Responsibility for Person, Under
participation, Powerlessness, Poor peer relations, Intrinsic improvement, Law status,
Strenuous Working Condition and Un-profitability.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Job Satisfaction in the present study refers to the employee attitudes about the job and
aspects of the job identified by Paul E Spector. They include 9 facets: Pay, Promotion,
Supervision, Benefits, Contingent rewards, Operating Procedures, Co-workers, Nature of
work and Communication.

Occupational Stress in the present study refers to the extent of stress which professionals
experience arising from various constituent and conditions of their job namely Role

88
 Overload, Role Ambiguity, Role Conflict, Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure,
Responsibility for Person, Under participation, Powerlessness, Poor peer relations,
Intrinsic improvement, Law status, Strenuous Working Condition and Un-profitability.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A study of Job Satisfaction of Professionals in relation to Occupational Stress.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To find out the relationship between Job Satisfaction and Occupational Stress of
professionals in Bangalore.
2. To investigate difference in background variables such as gender, experience and
profession that would account for significant difference in Job Satisfaction of
professionals.
3. To find out the impact of Occupational Stress on Job Satisfaction of professionals.

VARIABLES OF THE STUDY

1. Dependent variable Job Satisfaction

2. Independent variable Occupational Stress
3. Background variables Gender, Experience, Profession

HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

SET I. HYPOTHESIS WITH VARIABLES FOR TESTING RELATIONSHIPS

I. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction of professionals and their

occupational stress.
II. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (pay) and occupational
stress of professionals.

89
 III. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (promotion) and
occupational stress of professionals.
IV. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (supervision) and
occupational stress of professionals.
V. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (benefits) and
occupational stress of professionals.
VI. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (contingent rewards) and
occupational stress of professionals.
VII. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (operating procedures)
and occupational stress of professionals.
VIII. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (co-workers) and
occupational stress of professionals.
IX. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (nature of work) and
occupational stress of professionals.
X. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (communication) and
occupational stress of professionals.
XI. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(role overload) of professionals.
XII. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(role ambiguity) of professionals.
XIII. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(role conflict) of professionals.
XIV. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(unreasonable groups and political pressure) of professionals.
XV. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(responsibility for person) of professionals.
XVI. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(under participation) of professionals.
XVII. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(powerlessness) of professionals.

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XVIII. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(poor peer relations) of professionals.
XIX. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(intrinsic improvement) of professionals.
XX. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(law status) of professionals.
XXI. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(strenuous working condition) of professionals.
XXII. There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress
(un-profitability) of professionals.

SET II. HYPOTHESIS WITH VARIABLES FOR TESTING PREDICTION

I. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of all

different professionals.
II. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of male
professionals.
III. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of female
professionals.
IV. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of sales
professionals.
V. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of
marketing professionals.
VI. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of
professional service professionals.
VII. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of customer
service professionals.
VIII. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of system
engineer professionals.
IX. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of
administrator professionals.

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 X. Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction of
consultant professionals.

SET III. HYPOTHESIS WITH VARIABLES FOR TESTING DIFFERENCE

I. There is no significant difference between male and female professionals with respect
to their job satisfaction (total).
II. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (pay dimension) of male and
female professionals.
III. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (promotion dimension) of male
and female professionals.
IV. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (supervision dimension) of male
and female professionals.
V. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (benefits of job dimension) of
male and female professionals.
VI. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (contingent rewards dimension)
of male and female professionals.
VII. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (operating procedures dimension)
of male and female professionals.
VIII. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (co-workers dimension) of male
and female professionals.
IX. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (nature of work dimension) of
male and female professionals.
X. There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (communication dimension) of
male and female professionals.
XI. There is no significant difference between male and female professionals with respect
to occupational stress (total).
XII. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (role overload dimension) of
male and female professionals.
XIII. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (role ambiguity dimension) of
male and female professionals.

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 XIV. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (role conflict dimension) of
male and female professionals.
XV. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (unreasonable groups
dimension) of male and female professionals.
XVI. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (responsibility for person
dimension) of male and female professionals.
XVII. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (under participation
dimension) of male and female professionals.
XVIII. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (powerlessness dimension) of
male and female professionals.
XIX. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (poor peer relations
dimension) of male and female professionals.
XX. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (intrinsic improvement
dimension) of male and female professionals.
XXI. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (law status dimension) of
male and female professionals.
XXII. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (strenuous working
conditions dimension) of male and female professionals.
XXIII. There is no significant difference in occupational stress (un-profitability dimension)
of male and female professionals.
XXIV. There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and 4-10 years of experiences of
professionals with respect to their job satisfaction.
XXV. There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and more than 10 years of
experiences of professionals with respect to their job satisfaction.
XXVI. There is no significant difference between 4-10 years and more than 10 years of
experiences of professionals with respect to their job satisfaction.
XXVII. There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and 4-10 years of experiences of
professionals with respect to their occupational stress.
XXVIII. There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and more than 10 years of
experiences of professionals with respect to their occupational stress.

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XXIX. There is no significant difference between 4-10 and more than 10 years of
experiences of professionals with respect to their occupational stress.

SAMPLING DESIGN

POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of the study consists of 21,700 from seven different professionals of
Bangalore city.

Sl. No. Professionals Population

1 Sales 1790
2 Marketing 2000
3 Service 310
4 Customer Service 900
5 System Engineer 5000
6 Administrators 400
7 Consultants 800
Total 21,700
Source Yellow Pages directory
Table 3.01: Population of the Study

SAMPLING OF THE STUDY

The sampling technique employed in the study was volunteer sampling. Volunteer
sampling refers to the willingness of professionals to cooperate to respond. From each
profession 30 subjects were selected to form the final sample consisting of 210.

Volunteer sampling or Self selected sampling) consists of participants becoming part of a

study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert.

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In this method people volunteer to be studied Len Ang’s(1985) study of viewers attitudes
to Dallas( an American TV soap) was based on a volunteeer sample of people who
responded to her advertisement in a Dutch Magazine. This sampling technique is used in
a number of the core studies, for example Milgram (1963).This technique, like
opportunity sampling, is useful as it is quick and relatively easy to do. It can also reach a
wide variety of participants. People are recruited and choose to be subjects often they
may be paid for being part of the sample. Often, marketing or medical studies have
examples of this type as Focus groups in Drug experiments.

Researchers sometimes have to resort to volunteer samples as there is no other way of

reaching sufficient number of people to build up a sample. Harvey and Macdonald
(1993).

TOOLS OF THE STUDY

The following two standard tools were used to measure the variables of the study

1. Job satisfaction scale by Paul E Spector (1994) standardized by the investigator.

2. Occupational stress Index by A K Srinivastava and A P Singh( 1984 ) standardized by
the investigator.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS

JOB SATISFACTION SCALE

The Job satisfaction scale was constructed and standardized originally by Paul E Spector
Later it was standardized by the investigator. The job satisfaction scale consists of 36
items to be responded on a six-point scale.

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Scoring

This job satisfaction scale consisted 36 items. The maximum possible score on this scale
is 36x6=216 and minimum score is 36x1=36. One specimen item is given below which
explains the way of assessment.

Statement Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree

very much moderat slightly slightly moderatel very
ely y much
I feel I am 1 2 3 4 5 6
being paid a
fair amount for
the work I do
Table 3.02: Assessment of score of the statement

As shown in the above table scoring is on a six point scale from 1 to 6 for the positive
response of Disagree very much scoring is 1, Disagree moderately it is 2, Disagree
slightly is 3, Agree slightly is 4, Agree moderately is 5 and Agree very much scoring is 6
and for negative items, the scores are given in opposite direction. The total score of the
individual was considered to statistical analysis. The total scores once taken, the totals of
36 items are divided into nine dimensions and are presented in the following table:

Dimensions Item Nos. Total Items

Pay 1,*10,*19,28 4
Promotion *2,11,20,33 4
Supervision 3,*12*21,30 4
Benefits 4,13,22,*29 4
Contingent rewards 5,*14,*23,*32 4
Operating Procedures 6,15,*24,*31 4
Co-workers 7,*16,25,*34 4
Nature of work *8,17,27,35 4
Communication 9,*18,*26,*36 4
* Indicates the items should be reverse scored.
Table 3.03: Dimension wise distribution of items of Job satisfaction scale

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TRY OUT OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Since the questionnaire was constructed and culturally loaded for an American culture, a
pilot study was carried out on a random sample of 100 professionals. This original scale
was standardized to run a pilot study of professionals in India by the investigator.

Reliability and Validity

A pilot study was carried out on a random sample of 100 professionals. The reliability
and validity of the scale was assessed by the split half reliability technique and the split
half reliability coefficient of the occupational stress scale was found to be 0.8125
(81.25%). The internal consistency of the scale was 0.7301 (73.01%). The intra-class
correlations were obtained by using the item analysis technique and intra-class correlation
coefficient is ranging from -0.1005 to 0.9479. All items of the occupational stress are
found to be significant except question number 11and it also included in the study. The
corresponding validity of the occupational stress scale was found to be 90.13%. The
details are presented in the following table:

Summary Values

Cronbach alpha, full scale 0.7301

Standardized alpha 0.7184

Corr. 1st and 2nd half 0.5214

Split-half reliability 0.8125

Guttman split-half 0.8002

Cronbach alpha-first half 0.6473

Cronbach alpha-second half 0.6203

% of reliability 81.2547
Table 3.04: Reliability analysis of job satisfaction scale

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For detailed analysis of the reliability and item analysis are seen in the following table

Cronbach alpha: 0.7301 Standardized alpha: 0.7184

Q. Nos Item total correlation Alpha -value Signi.

1 0.4744 0.77127 S
2 0.5253 0.76527 S
3 0.1478 0.80517 S
4 0.1892 0.79317 S
5 0.6635 0.74647 S
6 0.8149 0.73477 S
7 0.8092 0.73287 S
8 0.7732 0.73917 S
9 0.3116 0.78757 S
10 0.7802 0.73937 S
11 0.9479 0.72087 NS
12 0.2794 0.78517 S
13 0.7069 0.74047 S
14 0.4784 0.77017 S
15 0.4579 0.77237 S
16 0.1127 0.80297 S
17 0.7513 0.73587 S
18 0.3763 0.77827 S
19 0.0471 0.80937 S
20 0.6369 0.75517 S
21 0.669 0.75157 S
22 -0.0853 0.81977 S
23 0.6458 0.74967 S
24 0.204 0.79827 S
25 0.6062 0.75417 S
26 0.2028 0.80207 S
27 0.6717 0.75317 S
28 0.6563 0.75807 S
29 0.6512 0.75677 S
30 0.4955 0.76887 S
31 0.51 0.76657 S
32 0.6896 0.74307 S
33 0.5636 0.75987 S
34 0.2867 0.79247 S
35 -0.1005 0.80817 S
36 0.3733 0.78407 S
Table 3.05: Item analysis of job satisfaction scale

98
Summary Values
Cronbach alpha, full scale 0.7405
Standardized alpha 0.7264
Corr. 1st and 2nd half 0.5214
Split-half reliability 0.8125
Guttman split-half 0.8002
Cronbach alpha-first half 0.6473
Cronbach alpha-second half 0.6203
% of reliability 81.2547
Table 3.06: Reliability analysis of job satisfaction scale

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS INDEX QUESTIONNAIRE

Occupational Stress Index Questionnaire by A K Srivastava and A P Singh (1984)

The scale was originally developed for employees in general. Later it was strandarized
by the investigator. The modified and reconstructed job satisfaction scale included 47
items to be responded on a five-point scale.

Scoring

This Occupational Stress Index Questionniare consisted 46 items. The maximum

possible score on this scale is 46x5=235 and minimum score is 46x1=46. One specimen
item is given below which explains the way of assessment

Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

disagree Agree
Normally I need to 1 2 3 4 5
work more than 10
hour daily to
complete my
responsibilities
Table 3.07: Showing the assessment of score of the statement

As shown in the above table scoring is on a five point scale from 1 to 5 for the positive
response of strongly disagree scoring is 1, Disagree it is 2, Neutral is 3, Agree is 4,

99
Strongly Agree scoring is 5 and for negative items, the scores are given in opposite
direction. The total score of the individual was considered to statistical analysis. The
total scores once taken, the totals of 47 items are divided into twelve dimensions and are
presented in the following table:

Dimensions Item Nos. Total Items

Role Overload 1, 13, 25,36,44,46 6
Role Ambiguity 2,*14,26,37 4
Role Conflict 3,15,*27,38,45 5
Unreasonable groups and 4,16,28,39 4
Political Pressure
Responsibility for Person 5,17,29 3
Under participation *6,*18,*30,*40 4
Powerlessness *7,*19,*31 3
Poor peer relations *8,*20,*32,*41 4
Intrinsic improvement 9,*21,*33,42 4
Law status *10,*22,34 3
Strenuous Working 12,24,35,*43 4
Condition
Un-profitability 11,23 2
* Indicates false keyed items.
Table 3.08: Dimension wise distribution of items of occupational stress scale

TRY OUT OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire was developed to measure the extent of stress of employees in general.
The questionnaire was standardized by the investigator on professionals.

Reliability and Validity

After modification of the original job satisfaction scale by investigator, a pilot study was
carried out on a random sample of 100 professionals. The reliability and validity of the
scale was assessed by the split half reliability technique and the split half reliability
coefficient of the occupational stress scale was found to be 0.7901 (79.01%). The
internal consistency of the scale was 0.8557 (85.57%). The intra-class correlations were

100
obtained by using the item analysis technique and intra-class correlation coefficient is
ranging from -0.5647 to 0.6846. All items of the occupational stress are found to be
significant. The corresponding validity of the occupational stress scale was found to be
85.5729.The details are presented in the following table:

Summary Values
Cronbach alpha, full scale 0.7901
Standardized alpha 0.7891
Corr. 1st and 2nd half 0.7478
Split-half reliability 0.8557
Guttman split-half 0.8556
Cronbach alpha-first half 0.6600
Cronbach alpha-second half 0.6665
% of reliability 85.5729
Table 3.09: Results of the reliability and validity of occupational stress scores

Q. Nos Item total correlation Alpha -value Signi.

1 0.0760 0.8106 S
2 0.6846 0.7917 S
3 0.3190 0.8030 S
4 0.2621 0.8049 S
5 -0.0342 0.8142 S
6 0.2357 0.8056 S
7 0.1670 0.8073 S
8 0.0371 0.8108 S
9 0.5087 0.7974 S
10 0.4324 0.7998 S
11 0.2661 0.8047 S
12 0.4528 0.7987 S
13 0.3412 0.8023 S
14 0.3033 0.8036 S
15 0.2416 0.8055 S
16 0.1134 0.8089 S
17 -0.2563 0.8209 S
18 0.1470 0.8079 S
19 0.1212 0.8084 S
20 -0.5647 0.8284 S

101
21 0.3303 0.8028 S
22 0.4533 0.7990 S
23 0.4137 0.8003 S
24 -0.1272 0.8147 S
25 0.3528 0.8026 S
26 0.6085 0.7957 S
27 0.4480 0.7992 S
28 -0.1181 0.8153 S
29 -0.2206 0.8175 S
30 0.2652 0.8048 S
31 0.3118 0.8033 S
32 0.4116 0.8015 S
33 0.5640 0.7959 S
34 0.5437 0.7969 S
35 0.4985 0.7974 S
36 0.4364 0.7989 S
37 0.4084 0.8010 S
38 -0.1809 0.8162 S
39 0.4551 0.7989 S
40 0.2576 0.8050 S
41 0.3098 0.8034 S
42 0.4899 0.7986 S
43 0.3701 0.8019 S
44 0.4216 0.7994 S
45 0.0450 0.8114 S
46 0.4970 0.7977 S
Table 3.10: Item analysis of Occupational stress Index scale

Summary Values
Cronbach alpha, full scale 0.7901
Standardized alpha 0.7891
Corr. 1st and 2nd half 0.7478
Split-half reliability 0.8557
Guttman split-half 0.8556
Cronbach alpha-first half 0.6600
Cronbach alpha-second half 0.6665
% of reliability 85.5729
Table 3.11: Reliability analysis of Occupational stress Index scale

102
ADMINISTRATION OF THE TOOLS

The investigator personally collected the data from 210 professionals in Bangalore city
area. Professionals were personally administered the two tools. Clear cut instructions
were given to fill-up the responses to the items in the tools. The filled or completed
proforma/tools were collected back. The confidentiality of the responses was assured.
After collection of tools, scores were assigned and systematically pooled for further
analysis

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA

The following statistical techniques were used for analyzing the data as per the objectives
of the study stated earlier.

i. Nature of distributions by qualitative analysis

ii. Correlation analysis
iii. Regression analysis
iv. Differential analysis

CONCLUSIONS
The methodology adopted is described in this chapter. The data collected from the seven
different professionals are analyzed using appropriate techniques for description and
inference. The details of the statistical data analysis is presented in the next chapter

103
 CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION

In the present study, we considered as only one independent variables like occupational
stress and its dimensions (i.e. Role Overload, Role Ambiguity, Role Conflict,
Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure, Responsibility for Person, Under
participation, Powerlessness, Poor peer relations, Intrinsic improvement, Law status,
Strenuous Working Condition and Un-profitability) and dependent variable i.e. Job
satisfaction and its dimensions (i.e. Pay, Promotion, Supervision, Benefits, Contingent
rewards, Operating Procedures, Co-workers, Nature of work, Communication). Hence in
the present context the focus is on the study of the relationship between these variables.

BASIC STATISTICAL DATA ON VARIABLES

In this section presents the nature of distribution of professionals on the dependent and
independent variables employed in the study.

The frequency distribution of subjects according to departments, professional experience,

gender, Job satisfaction (its dimensions) and occupational stress (its dimensions) scores
of the total sample.

More than
Departments 1-3years % 4-10years % 10 years % Total
Sales 4 13.33 23 76.67 3 10.00 30
Marketing 8 26.67 21 70.00 1 3.33 30
Professional services 23 76.67 0 0.00 7 23.33 30
Customer service 18 60.00 5 16.67 7 23.33 30
System engineer 21 70.00 2 6.67 7 23.33 30
Administrators 15 50.00 8 26.67 7 23.33 30
Consultants 11 36.67 0 0.00 19 63.33 30
Total 100 47.62 59 28.10 51 24.29 210
Table 4.01: The frequency distribution of study subjects according to departments
and professional experiences of the total sample

104
The result of the above table represents the distribution of study subjects according to
departments and experiences of professionals. Out of 210 subjects 47.62% of
professionals have 1-3 years of experience compared to 28.10% with 1-4 years and
24.29% of professionals have only more than 10 years experience. The details of study
subjects according to departments and experiences of professionals are presented in the
above table.

Professional
experience Male % Female % Total
1-3 years 45 45.00 55 55.00 100
4-10 years 54 91.53 5 8.47 59
More than 10 years 17 33.33 34 66.67 51
Total 116 55.24 94 44.76 210
Table 4.02: The frequency distribution of study subjects according to gender and
professional experiences of the total sample

The result of the above table represents the distribution of study subjects
according to gender and experiences of professionals. Out of 210 subjects, 55.24% of
subjects are male professionals and 44.76 are female professionals. The details of study
subjects according to gender and experiences of professionals and gender are presented in
the above table.

Class Interval Frequency CF

106-110 9 9
111-115 24 33
116-120 48 81
121-125 31 112
126-130 32 144
131-135 32 176
136-140 28 204
141-145 5 209
146-150 1 210
Table 4.03: The frequency distribution of the job satisfaction scores of the total
sample

105
 The result of the above Table shows the frequency distribution of the job
satisfaction scores of the total sample. The mean of the distribution is 124.8333 and its
standard deviation is 9.0821. The median of the distribution is 124.5000. The Skewness
of the distribution is 0.0792 and the kurtosis coefficient is -0.9648 and its curve is
approaches normal curve. These facts demonstrate that the distribution of the job
satisfaction scores of 210 professionals is approaches normality condition. The
frequency polygon of the distribution given in the Figure:

50.0
40.0
Frequency

30.0

20.0
10.0
0.0
106- 111- 116- 121- 126- 131- 136- 141- 146-
110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
Job satisfaction scores

Figure 4.01:The frequency polygon of the job satisfaction scores of the total sample

Class Interval Frequency CF

104-113 16 16
114-123 58 74
124-133 37 111
134-143 37 148
144-153 37 185
154-163 23 208
164-173 1 209
164-174 1 210
Table 4.04: The frequency distribution of the occupational stress scores of the total
sample

106
The result of the above Table shows the frequency distribution of the occupational stress
scores of the total sample. The mean of the distribution is 132.3619 and its standard
deviation is 15.9875. The median of the distribution is 131.5000. The Skewness of the
distribution is 0.1412 and the kurtosis coefficient is -1.0436 and its curve is approaches
normal curve. These facts demonstrate that the distribution of the job satisfaction scores
of 210 professionals is approaches normality condition. The frequency polygon of the
distribution given in the Figure:

60.0
50.0
40.0
Frequency

30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
104-113 114-123 124-133 134-143 144-153 154-163 164-173 164-174
Job satisfaction scores

Figure 4.02: The frequency polygon of the job satisfaction scores of the total sample

107
 40.0
35.0
30.0
Frequency

25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
106- 111- 116- 121- 126- 131- 136- 141- 146-
110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
Job satisfaction scores
Male Female

Figure 4.03: The frequency polygon of job satisfaction scores by gender

55.0
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
Frequency

30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
104-113 114-123 124-133 134-143 144-153 154-163 164-173 164-174
Occupational stress scores
Male Female

Figure 4.04: The frequency polygon of occupational stress scores by gender

108
 20.0
18.0
16.0
Frequency 14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
106- 111- 116- 121- 126- 131- 136- 141- 146-
110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
Job satisfaction scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.05: The frequency polygon of job satisfaction scores by different

department

25.0

20.0
Frequency

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
104-113 114-123 124-133 134-143 144-153 154-163 164-173 164-174
Job satisfaction scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.06: The frequency polygon of occupational stress by different

department

109
 30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
106- 111- 116- 121- 126- 131- 136- 141- 146-
110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
Job satisfactionty scores
1--3 yrs 4--10 yrs More than 10 yrs

Figure 4.07: The frequency polygon of job satisfaction scores by professional

experience (in yrs)

35.0
30.0
25.0
Frequency

20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
104-113 114-123 124-133 134-143 144-153 154-163 164-173 164-174
Occupational stress scores
1--3 yrs 4--10 yrs More than 10 yrs

Figure 4.08: The frequency polygon of occupational stress scores by professional

experience (in yrs)

110
 50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
Frequency

30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18--19
Pay scores
Male Female

Figure 4.09: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e. Pay
scores by gender

50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
Frequency

30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Promotion scores
Male Female

Figure 4.10: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Promotion scores by gender

111
 50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
Frequency

30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18+
Supervision scores
Male Female

Figure 4.11: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Supervision scores by gender

50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
Frequency

30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Benefits scores
Male Female

Figure 4.12: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Benefits scores by gender

112
 55.0
50.0
45.0
40.0
Frequency

35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18+
Contingent rewards scores
Male Female

Figure 4.13: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Contingent rewards scores by gender

55.0
50.0
45.0
40.0
Frequency

35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
9--10 11--12 13--14 15--16 17--18
Operating Procedures scores
Male Female

Figure 4.14: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Operating Procedures scores by gender

113
 60.0
55.0
50.0
45.0
Frequency

40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Co-workers scores
Male Female

Figure 4.15: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.,
Co-workers scores by gender

55.0
50.0
45.0
40.0
Frequency

35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Nature of work scores
Male Female

Figure 4.16: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e. Nature
of work scores by gender

114
 55.0
50.0
45.0
40.0
Frequency

35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Communication scores
Male Female

Figure 4.17: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Communication scores by gender

65.0
60.0
55.0
50.0
Frequency

45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18--19 20--21 22--23
Role Overload scores
Male Female

Figure 4.18: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Role
Overload scores by gender

115
 60.0
50.0
Frequency

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
4--6 7--9 10--12 13--15
Role Anmbiguity scores
Male Female

Figure 4.19: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Role
Ambiguity scores by gender

70.0
60.0
50.0
Frequency

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
8--10 11--13 14--16 17--19
Role Conflict scores
Male Female

Figure 4.20: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Role
Conflict scores by gender

116
 70.0
60.0
50.0
Frequency

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
6--8 9--11 12--14 15--17
Unreasonable groups & Political Pressure scores
Male Female

Figure 4.21: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure scores by gender

70.0
60.0
50.0
Frequency

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
5--7 8--10 11--13 14--16
Responsibility for Person scores
Male Female

Figure 4.22: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Responsibility for Person scores by gender

117
 70.0
60.0
50.0
Frequency

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
4--6 7--9 10--12 13--15 16--17
Under participation scores
Male Female

Figure 4.23: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Under participation scores by gender

70.0
60.0
Frequency

50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
4--6 7--9 10--12 14+
Powerlessness scores
Male Female

Figure 4.24: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Powerlessness scores by gender

118
 80.0
70.0
60.0
Frequency

50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
7--9 10--12 13--15 16--17
Poor peer relations scores
Male Female

Figure 4.25: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Poor
peer relations scores by gender

80.0
70.0
60.0
Frequency

50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
7--9 10--12 13--15 16--17
Poor peer relations scores
Male Female

Figure 4.26: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Poor
peer relations scores by gender

119
 80.0
70.0
60.0
Frequency

50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
7--9 10--12 13--15 16+
Intrinsic improvement scores
Male Female

Figure 4.27: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Intrinsic improvement scores by gender

50.0
40.0
Frequency

30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
4--5 6--7 8--9 10--11 12+
Law status scores
Male Female

Figure 4.28: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Law status scores by gender

120
 60.0
50.0
Frequency

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
5--7 8--10 11--13 14--15
Strenous Working Condition scores
Male Female

Figure 4.29: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Strenuous Working Condition scores by gender

60.0
50.0
Frequency

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
2--3 4--5 6--7 8--9
Un-profitability scores
Male Female

Figure 4.30: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Un-profitability scores by gender

121
 20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18--19
Pay scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.31: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e. Pay
scores by different departments

20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Promotion scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.32: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Promotion scores by different departments

122
 20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18+
Supervision scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.33: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Supervision scores by different departments

20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Benefits scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.34: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e. Benefits
scores by different departments

123
 20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18+
Contingent rewards scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.35: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Contingent rewards scores by different departments

20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
9--10 11--12 13--14 15--16 17--18
Operating Procedures scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.36: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Operating Procedures scores by different departments

124
 20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Co-workers scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.37: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e. Co-
workers scores by different departments

20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Nature of work scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.38: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e. Nature
of work scores by different departments

125
 20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
Frequency

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17
Communication scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.39: The frequency polygon of the dimension of job satisfaction i.e.
Communication scores by different departments

30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10--11 12--13 14--15 16--17 18--19 20--21 22--23
Role Overload scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.40: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Role
Overload scores by different departments

126
 30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
4--6 7--9 10--12 13--15
Role Ambiguity scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.41: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Role
Ambiguity scores by different departments

30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
8--10 11--13 14--16 17--19
Role Conflict scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.42: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e. Role
Conflict scores by different departments

127
 30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
6--8 9--11 12--14 15--17
Unreasonable groups & Political Pressure scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.43: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Unreasonable groups and Political Pressure scores by different departments

30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
5--7 8--10 11--13 14--16
Responsibility for Person scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.44: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Responsibility for Person scores by different departments

128
 30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
4--6 7--9 10--12 13--15 16--17
Under participation scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.45: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Under participation scores by different departments

30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
4--6 7--9 10--12 14+
Powerlessness scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.46: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.
Powerlessness scores by different departments

129
 30.0
25.0
20.0
Frequency

15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
7--9 10--12 13--15 16--17
Poor peer relations scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.47: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.Poor
peer relations scores by different departments

25.0

20.0
Frequency

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
7--9 10--12 13--15 16+
Intrinsic improvement scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.48: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.,
Intrinsic improvement scores by different departments

130
 25.0
Frequency 20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
4--5 6--7 8--9 10--11 12+
Law status scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.49: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.,
Law status scores by different departments

25.0

20.0
Frequency

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
5--7 8--10 11--13 14--15
Strenous Working Condition scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.50: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress

i.e.Strenous Working Condition scores by different departments

131
 25.0
Frequency 20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
2--3 4--5 6--7 8--9
Un-profitability scores
Sales Marketing
Professional services Customer service
System engineer Administrators
Consultants

Figure 4.51: The frequency polygon of the dimension of occupational stress i.e.,
Un-profitability scores by different departments

Co-relational analysis between dependent variable and independent variables

In order to investigate, the relations of independent variable i.e. occupational stress and
its dimensions and dependent variable like job satisfaction and its dimensions (i.e. Pay,
Promotion, Supervision, Benefits, Contingent rewards, Operating Procedures, Co-
workers, Nature of work, Communication) of seven professionals. Pearson’s correlation
coefficient technique was applied and simple relationships were obtained. In order to test
the significance of obtained ‘r’s, the appropriate students t-test was used.

132
SET I:

Hypothesis I: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction of

professionals and their occupational stress.

To achieve this hypothesis, the Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient technique has been
applied and the results are presented in the following table:

Variables N df r-value Significance

Job satisfaction 210 209 -0.5264 *
Occupational stress
*Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.05: Table showing the variables, size (N), df, and coefficient of correlation
‘r’ and its significance at 0.05 level between job satisfaction of professionals and
their occupational stress

From the above table it can be seen that, a significant negative correlation was observed
between job satisfaction of professionals and their occupational stress (r=-0.5264, <0.05)
at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress is decreasing the job
satisfaction of the different professionals.

Hypothesis II: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (pay) and
occupational stress of professionals.
Hypothesis III: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (promotion)
and occupational stress of professionals.
Hypothesis IV: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction
(supervision) and occupational stress of professionals.
Hypothesis V: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (benefits) and
occupational stress of professionals.
Hypothesis VI: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (contingent
rewards) and occupational stress of professionals.

133
Hypothesis VII: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (operating
procedures) and occupational stress of professionals.
Hypothesis VIII: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (co-
workers) and occupational stress of professionals.
Hypothesis IX: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction (nature of
work) and occupational stress of professionals.
Hypothesis X: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction
(communication) and occupational stress of professionals.

To achieve this hypothesis, the Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient technique has been
applied and the results are presented in the following table:

Dimensions of job satisfaction Occupational stress scores

N df r-value Signi.
Pay 210 209 -0.2928 *
Promotion 210 209 -0.3693 *
Supervision 210 209 -0.3408 *
Benefits 210 209 -0.4303 *
Contingent rewards 210 209 -0.2014 *
Operating Procedures 210 209 -0.2694 *
Co-workers 210 209 -0.2863 *
Nature of work 210 209 -0.2980 *
Communication 210 209 -0.3404 *
*Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.06: Table showing the variables, size (N), df, and coefficient of correlation
‘r’ and its significance at 0.05 level between occupational stress and dimensions of
job satisfaction

From the above table it can be seen that,

1. A significant negative correlation was observed between first dimension of job

satisfaction i.e. pay and occupational stress scores of professionals (r=-0.2928, <0.05)

134
 at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress scores are decreasing the
pay scores of professionals.
2. A significant negative correlation was observed between second dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. promotion and occupational stress scores of professionals (r=-0.3693,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress scores are
decreasing the promotion scores of professionals.
3. A significant negative correlation was observed between third dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. supervision and occupational stress scores of professionals (r=-
0.3408, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected
and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress scores
are decreasing the supervision scores of professionals.
4. A significant negative correlation was observed between fourth dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. benefits and occupational stress scores of professionals (r=-0.4303,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress scores are
decreasing the benefits scores of professionals.
5. A significant negative correlation was observed between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. contingent rewards and occupational stress scores of professionals
(r=-0.2014, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress
scores are decreasing the contingent rewards scores of professionals.
6. A significant negative correlation was observed between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. operating procedures and occupational stress scores of professionals
(r=-0.2694, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress
scores are decreasing the operating procedures scores of professionals.
7. A significant negative correlation was observed between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. co-workers and occupational stress scores of professionals (r=-0.2863,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and

135
 alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress scores are
decreasing the co-workers scores of professionals.
8. A significant negative correlation was observed between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. nature of work and occupational stress scores of professionals (r=-
0.2980, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected
and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress scores
are decreasing the nature of work scores of professionals.
9. A significant negative correlation was observed between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction i.e. communication and occupational stress scores of professionals (r=-
0.3404, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected
and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the occupational stress scores
are decreasing the communication scores of professionals.
Hypothesis XI: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (role overload) of professionals.
Hypothesis XII: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (role ambiguity) of professionals.
Hypothesis XIII: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (role conflict) of professionals.
Hypothesis XIV: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (unreasonable groups and political pressure) of professionals.
Hypothesis XV: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (responsibility for person) of professionals.
Hypothesis XVI: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (under participation) of professionals.
Hypothesis XVII: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (powerlessness) of professionals.
Hypothesis XVIII: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (poor peer relations) of professionals.
Hypothesis XIX: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (intrinsic improvement) of professionals.

136
Hypothesis XX: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (law status) of professionals.
Hypothesis XXI: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (strenuous working condition) of professionals.
Hypothesis XXII: There is no significant relationship between job satisfaction and
occupational stress (un-profitability) of professionals.
To achieve this hypothesis, the Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient technique has been
applied and the results are presented in the following table:

Dimensions of Occupational stress Job satisfaction scores

N df r-value Signi.
Role Overload 210 209 -0.3834 *
Role Ambiguity 210 209 -0.4117 *
Role Conflict 210 209 -0.1815 *
Unreasonable groups and Political 210 209
Pressure -0.2947 *
Responsibility for Person 210 209 0.0704 NS
Under participation 210 209 -0.4138 *
Powerlessness 210 209 -0.4035 *
Poor peer relations 210 209 -0.3043 *
Intrinsic improvement 210 209 -0.5477 *
Law status 210 209 -0.3981 *
Strenuous Working Condition 210 209 -0.3320 *
Un-profitability 210 209 -0.0824 NS
*Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.07: Table showing the variables, size (N), df, and coefficient of correlation
‘r’ and its significance at 0.05 level

From the above table it can be seen that,

1. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. role overload (r=-0.3834,

137
 <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the role overload is decreasing the
job satisfaction of the different professionals.
2. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. role ambiguity (r=-0.4117,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the role ambiguity is decreasing the
job satisfaction of the different professionals.
3. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. role conflict (r=-0.1815,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the role conflict is decreasing the job
satisfaction of the different professionals.
4. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. unreasonable groups and
political pressure (r=-0.2947, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null
hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the
unreasonable groups and political pressure is decreasing the job satisfaction of the
different professionals.
5. A non-significant positive correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. responsibility for person
(r=0.0704, >0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
accepted and alternative hypothesis is rejected.
6. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. under participation (r=-0.4138,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the under participation is decreasing
the job satisfaction of the different professionals.
7. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. powerlessness (r=-0.4035,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and

138
 alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the powerlessness is decreasing the
job satisfaction of the different professionals.
8. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. poor peer relations (r=-0.3043,
<0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the poor peer relations are
decreasing the job satisfaction of the different professionals.
9. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. intrinsic improvement (r=-
0.5477, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected
and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the intrinsic improvement is
decreasing the job satisfaction of the different professionals.
10. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. law status (r=-0.3981, <0.05)
at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypothesis is accepted. It means that the law status is decreasing the job satisfaction
of the different professionals.
11. A significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. strenuous working condition
(r=-0.3320, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that the strenuous working
condition is decreasing the job satisfaction of the different professionals.
12. A non-significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress i.e. un-profitability (r=-0.0824,
>0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted and
alternative hypothesis is rejected. It means that the un-profitability is decreasing the
job satisfaction of the different professionals.

139
SET II:

Multiple Regression analysis

The most commonly used procedure in the prediction of a continuous criterion variable is
the multiple linear regression models. Weights are known, as regression coefficients are
determined for each predictor variable. The resulting sum of squares on the composite of
these variables will show the highest possible relationship (multiple correlation) with the
criterion variable.

The most commonly applied computational procedures for multiple linear regressions,
which have now been made feasible by electronic computers. In this method, multiple
correlation coefficients reveal the degree of relation between linear combination of
independent (or predictor) variable and respective dependent (or criterion) variable.

In this method, multiple correlations and multiple linear regressions reveal the degree to
which each independent variable is related to job satisfaction and its dimensions (i.e. Pay,
Promotion, Supervision, Benefits, Contingent rewards, Operating Procedures, Co-
workers, Nature of work, Communication). To identify this type of relationship between
of independent variable on the one hand and the dependent variable on the other hand, the
multiple correlations and multiple regression analysis were carried out.

Hypothesis I: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction

of all different professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

140
 SE of
Independent SE of Regression regression
variable Beta Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 164.4160 4.4648 36.8253 *
Occupational stress -0.5264 0.0590 -0.2990 0.0335 -8.9297 *
R=0.5264, R²=0.2771, Adjusted R²=0.2736, F=79.7400, p<0.01,
S, Std. Error of estimate: 7.7403
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.08: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of all different professionals

From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of professional is found to be negative and significant (-0.2990)
at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypothesis is accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is decreasing or increasing
the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression equation predicting the job
satisfaction of professionals (Y) in terms occupational stress (X) was found to be under:

Job satisfaction (Y) = 164.4160 - 0.2990 occupational stress.

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.5264. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (79.7400) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of professionals is possible on the
basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
professionals is also presented in the following graph.

141
 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (total)
Job satisfcation= 164.42 - .2990 * Occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.5264
150

140
Job satisfaction

130

120

110

Regression
100
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 95% confid.

Occupational stress
Figure 4.52: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Total)

Hypothesis II: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction
of male professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent SE of Regression regression
variable Beta Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 149.9035 7.8350 19.1325 *
Occupational stress -0.3201 0.0887 -0.1988 0.0551 -3.6073 *
R=0.32008, R²=0.1024, Adjusted R²=0.0945, F=13.0130, p<0.01,
S Std.Error of estimate: 7.9940
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.09: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of male professionals

142
From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of male professional is found to be negative and significant (-
0.1988) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is decreasing or
increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression equation
predicting the job satisfaction of male professionals (Y) in terms occupational stress (X)
was found to be under:

Job satisfaction (Y) = 149.9035- 0.1988 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.32008. For testing multiple

correlation coefficients the F-ratio (13.0130) was found to be statistically significant.
Thus, the significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of male professionals is
possible on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job
satisfaction of male professionals is also presented in the following graph.

Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (male)

Job satisfaction= 149.90 - .1988 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.3201
150

140
Job satisfaction

130

120

110

Regression
100
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 95% confid.

Occupational stress
Figure 4.53: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Male)

143
Hypothesis III: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job
satisfaction of female professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 180.2994 8.5213 21.1588 *
Occupational stress -0.5359 0.0880 -0.4270 0.0701 -6.0883 *
R=0.5359,R²=0.2871, Adjusted R²=0.2794,F=37.0670,p<0.01, S,
Std.Error of estimate: 7.1975
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.10.: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of female professionals

From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of female professional is found to be negative and significant (-
0.4270) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is decreasing or
increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression equation
predicting the job satisfaction of female professionals (Y) in terms occupational stress
(X) was found to be under:

Job satisfaction (Y) = 180.2994- 0.4270 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.5359. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (37.0670) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of female professionals is possible
on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job
satisfactin of female professionals is also presented in the following graph.

144
 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (female)
Job satisfaction = 180.30 - 0.4270 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.5359
150

145

140

135
Job satisfaction

130

125

120

115

110
Regression
105
100 110 120 130 140 150 95% confid.

Occupational stress
Figure 4.54: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Female)

Hypothesis IV: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job

satisfaction of sales professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 184.0495 18.7451 9.8186 *
Occupational -0.5573 0.1569 -0.4321 0.1217 -3.5519 *
stress
R=0.5573, R²=0.3106, Adjusted R²=0.2859, F=12.6160,p<0.01, S,
Std.Error of estimate: 4.5027
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.11: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of sales professionals

145
From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of sales professional is found to be negative and significant (-
0.4321) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is decreasing or
increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression equation
predicting the job satisfaction of sales professionals (Y) in terms occupational stress (X)
was found to be under:
Job satisfaction (Y) = 184.0495- 0.4321 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.5573. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (12.6160) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of sales professionals is possible on
the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job satisfaction
of sales professionals is also presented in the following graph.

Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Sales)

Job satisfaction = 184.05 -0 .4321 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.5573
136

130
Job satisfaction

124

118

112

Regression
106
140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 95% confid.

occupational stress
Figure 4.55: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Sales)

146
HypothesisV: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction
of marketing professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 118.9152 13.6690 8.6997 *
Occupational 0.0417 0.1888 0.0206 0.0934 0.2210 NS
stress
R= 0.0417, R²=0.0017, F=0. 04886, p>0.05, NS Std.Error of estimate: 3.4604
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.12: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of marketing professionals

From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of sales professional is found to be positive and non-significant
(0.0206) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted and
alternative hypothesis is rejected. It means that, the occupational stress is decreasing or
increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression equation
predicting the job satisfaction of sales professionals (Y) in terms occupational stress (X)
was found to be under:

Job satisfaction (Y) = 118.9152- 0.0206 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.0417. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (0. 04886) was found to be statistically non-significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of sales professionals is partially
possible on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job
satisfaction of sales professionals is also presented in the following graph.

147
 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (marketing)
Job satisfaction = 118.92 + 0.0206 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = 0.04174
130

128

126
Job satisfaction

124

122

120

118

116
Regression
114
128 134 140 146 152 158 95% confid.

Occupational stress
Figure 4.56: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(Marketing)

Hypothesis VI: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job

satisfaction of professional service professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 169.6974 13.2281 12.8286 *
Occupational -0.5517 0.1576 -0.3546 0.1013 -3.4998 *
stress
R=0.5516, R²=0.3043, Adjusted R²=0.2794, F=12.2490, p<0.01,
S, Std.Error of estimate: 6.7008
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.13: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of professional service professionals

148
From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of professional service professional is found to be negative and
significant (-0.3546) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis id accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is
decreasing or increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression
equation predicting the job satisfaction of professional service professionals (Y) in terms
occupational stress (X) was found to be under:

Job satisfaction (Y) = 169.6974- 0.3546 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.5516. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (12.2490) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of professional service
professionals is possible on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of
occupational stress on job satisfaction of professional service professionals is also
presented in the following graph.

Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Prof.service)

Job satisfaction = 169.70 - 0.3546 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.5517
140

134

128
Job satisfaction

122

116

110

Regression
104
100 110 120 130 140 150 95% confid.

Occupational stress

Figure 4.57: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

(Professional Service)

149
Hypothesis VII: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job
satisfaction of customer service professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 154.7961 10.1772 15.2101 *
Occupational -0.5029 0.1633 -0.2483 0.0806 -3.0788 *
stress
R=0.5029, R²=0.2529, Adjusted R²=0.2262, F=9.47930,p<0.01,
S, Std.Error of estimate: 7.3193
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.14: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of customer service professionals

From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of customer service professional is found to be negative and
significant (-0.2483) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis id accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is
decreasing or increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression
equation predicting the job satisfaction of customer service professionals (Y) in terms
occupational stress (X) was found to be under:

Job satisfaction (Y) = 154.7961- 0.2483 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.5029. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (9.47930) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of customer service professionals is
possible on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job
satisfaction of customer service professionals is also presented in the following
graph.

150
 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Customer)
Job satisfaction = 154.80 - 0.2483 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.5029
140

136

132
Job satisfaction

128

124

120

116

112
Regression
108
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 95% confid.

Occupational stress
Figure 4.58: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(Customer Service)

Hypothesis VIII: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job

satisfaction of system engineer professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.
SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient
t-value Signi.
Intercept 198.5412 32.2727
6.1520 *
Occupational -0.3798 0.1748 -0.5707 0.2627
-2.1726
stress *
R=0.3798, R²=0.1442, Adjusted R²=0.1137, F=4.7203, p<0.0384,
Std.Error of estimate: 9.8451
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.15: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of system engineer professionals

151
From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of system engineer professional is found to be negative and
significant (-0.5707) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis id accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is
decreasing or increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression
equation predicting the job satisfaction of system engineer professionals (Y) in terms
occupational stress (X) was found to be under:

Job satisfaction (Y) = 198.5412- 0.5707 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.3798. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (4.7203) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of system engineer professionals is
possible on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job
satisfaction of system engineer professionals is also presented in the following graph.

Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (System Engg)

Job satisfaction = 198.54 - 0.5707 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.3798
150

145

140

135
Job satisfaction

130

125

120

115

110
Regression
105
110 116 122 128 134 140 95% confid.

Occupational stress

Figure 4.59: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (System
Engineers)

152
Hypothesis IX: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job
satisfaction of administrator professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 192.5570 11.5966 16.6046 *
Occupational -0.7036 0.1343 -0.4616 0.0881 -5.2387
stress *
R=0.7035, R²=0.4949, Adjusted R²=0.4769, F=27.4440, p<0.01,
S, Std.Error of estimate: 6.5895
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.16: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of Administrators professionals

From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of Administrator professional is found to be negative and
significant (-0.4616) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis id accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is
decreasing or increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression
equation predicting the job satisfaction of Administrator professionals (Y) in terms
occupational stress (X) was found to be under:
Job satisfaction (Y) = 192.5570- 0.4616 occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.7035. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (27.4440) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of Administrator professionals is
possible on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job
satisfaction of Administrator professionals is also presented in the following graph.

153
 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Gen Admini)
Job satisfaction = 192.56 - 0.4616 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.7036
150

145

140
Job satisfaction

135

130

125

120

115

Regression
110
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 95% confid.

Occupational stress

Figure 4.60: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

(Administrators)

Hypothesis X: Occupational stress would not be significant predictors of job satisfaction

of consultant professionals.

To test or achieve this hypothesis, the multiple regression analysis was applied and
results are presented in the table.

SE of
Independent Regression regression
variable Beta SE of Beta coefficient coefficient t-value Signi.
Intercept 370.7317 38.1194 9.7255 *
Occupational -0.7713 0.1203 -2.0750 0.3235 -6.4134 *
stress
R=0.7713, R²=0.5949, Adjusted R²=0.5805, F=41.1310, p<0.01,
S, Std.Error of estimate: 6.2181
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.17: Summary of linear multiple regression analysis: Independent variables
(Occupational stress) on job satisfaction of consultant professionals

154
From the results of the above table, we clearly had seen that, the impact of occupational
stress on job satisfaction of consultant professional is found to be negative and significant
(-2.0750) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and
alternative hypothesis id accepted. It means that, the occupational stress is decreasing or
increasing the job satisfaction of the professionals. The linear regression equation
predicting the job satisfaction of consultant professionals (Y) in terms occupational stress
(X) was found to be under:
Job satisfaction (Y) = 370.7317- 2.0750occupational stress

The R of the linear regression equation is 0.7713. For testing multiple correlation
coefficients the F-ratio (41.1310) was found to be statistically significant. Thus, the
significant R suggests that estimation job satisfaction of consultant professionals is
possible on the basis of occupational stress (X). The impact of occupational stress on job
satisfaction of consultant professionals is also presented in the following graph.

Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Others)

Job satisfaction= 370.73 - 2.0750 * occupational stress
Correlation: r = -0.7713
145

140

135

130
Job satisfaction

125

120

115

110

105
Regression
100
112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 95% confid.

Occupational stress
Figure 4.61: Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction
(Consultants)

155
SET III:
Differential analysis

Hypothesis I: There is no significant difference between male and female professionals

with respect to their job satisfaction (total).
Hypothesis II: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (pay dimension) of
male and female professionals.
Hypothesis III: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (promotion
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis IV: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (supervision
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis V: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (benefits of job
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis VI: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (contingent rewards
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis VII: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (operating
procedures dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis VIII: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (co-workers
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis IX: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (nature of work
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis X: There is no significant difference in job satisfaction (communication
dimension) of male and female professionals.

156
To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

Male (n=116) Female (n=94)

Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Job satisfaction 121.7672 8.4012 128.6170 8.4791 -5.8508 *
Dimensions
Pay 14.2414 1.9544 15.1064 2.0607 -3.1125 *
Promotion 13.0603 1.5731 13.8298 1.4191 -3.6812 *
Supervision 13.3362 1.5986 14.1489 1.7898 -3.4719 *
Benefits 13.1466 1.6165 14.0745 1.5044 -4.2660 *
Contingent rewards 13.9914 1.6603 14.7447 1.5236 -3.3914 *
Operating
Procedures 13.8103 1.8506 14.3617 1.6451 -2.2552 *
Co-workers 13.6034 1.6518 14.3191 1.6926 -3.0879 *
Nature of work 13.4655 1.7267 14.1702 1.7329 -2.9361 *
Communication 13.0259 1.5235 13.8617 1.3568 -4.1499 *
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.18: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between male and female professionals with respect to job
satisfaction and its dimensions

From the results of the above table, we seen that the followings:

1. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their job satisfaction scores (t=-5.8508, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance.
Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means
that female professionals have higher job satisfaction than male professionals.
2. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their pay of job satisfaction scores (t=-3.1125, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is

157
 accepted. It means that female professionals have higher pay of job satisfaction
scores than male professionals.
3. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their promotion of job satisfaction scores (t=-3.6812, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that female professionals have higher promotion of job
satisfaction scores than male professionals.
4. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their supervision of job satisfaction scores (t=-3.4719, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that female professionals have higher supervision of job
satisfaction scores than male professionals.
5. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their benefits of job satisfaction scores (t=-4.2660, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that female professionals have higher benefits of job satisfaction
scores than male professionals.
6. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their contingent rewards of job satisfaction scores (t=-3.3914, <0.05) at 0.05%
level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis
is accepted. It means that female professionals have higher contingent rewards of job
satisfaction scores than male professionals.
7. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their operating procedures of job satisfaction scores (t=-2.2552, <0.05) at 0.05%
level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis
is accepted. It means that female professionals have higher operating procedures of
job satisfaction scores than male professionals.
8. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their co-workers of job satisfaction scores (t=-3.0879, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is

158
 accepted. It means that female professionals have higher co-workers of job
satisfaction scores than male professionals.
9. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their nature of work of job satisfaction scores (t=-2.9361, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that female professionals have higher nature of work of job
satisfaction scores than male professionals.
10. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their communication of job satisfaction scores (t=-4.1499, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that female professionals have higher communication of job
satisfaction scores than male professionals.

Hypothesis XI: There is no significant difference between male and female professionals
with respect to occupational stress (total).
Hypothesis XII: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (role overload
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XIII: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (role ambiguity
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XIV: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (role conflict
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XV: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (unreasonable
groups dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XVI: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (responsibility
for person dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XVII: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (under
participation dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XVIII: There is no significant difference in occupational stress
(powerlessness dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XIX: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (poor peer
relations dimension) of male and female professionals.

159
Hypothesis XX: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (intrinsic
improvement dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XXI: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (law status
dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XXII: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (strenuous
working conditions dimension) of male and female professionals.
Hypothesis XXIII: There is no significant difference in occupational stress (un-
profitability dimension) of male and female professionals.

To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

Male (n=116) Female (n=94)

Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Occupational stress 141.5431 13.5277 121.0319 10.6412 11.9958 *
Dimensions
Role Overload 16.4310 3.4445 13.4362 2.1430 7.3532 *
Role Ambiguity 12.3017 1.6900 10.1170 1.9667 8.6550 *
Role Conflict 14.3793 2.4518 12.9468 2.0758 4.5050 *
Unreasonable groups 12.7931 1.8393 10.7447 1.9285 7.8527 *
and Political Pressure
Responsibility for 10.4483 1.8989 10.1915 1.9470 0.9634 NS
Person
Under participation 12.7069 1.8974 10.6809 2.1910 7.1779 *
Powerlessness 10.0776 1.7651 8.6170 1.8086 5.8971 *
Poor peer relations 12.5000 1.6965 11.5957 1.5611 3.9795 *
Intrinsic 12.5776 2.3962 9.6702 1.9967 9.4096 *
improvement
Law status 8.9052 1.6470 7.0213 2.1502 7.1878 *
Strenuous Working 11.4914 2.1889 9.6383 2.2039 6.0817 *
Condition
Un-profitability 6.9310 1.4846 6.1915 1.5745 3.4935 *
* Significant at 0.05 levels
Table 4.19: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between male and female professionals with respect to
occupational stress and its dimensions

160
From the results of the above table, we seen that the followings:
1. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their occupational stress scores (t=11.9958, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance.
Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means
that male professionals have higher occupational stress than female professionals.
2. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their role overload of occupational stress scores (t=7.3532, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that male professionals have higher role overload of occupational
stress scores than female professionals.
3. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their role ambiguity of occupational stress scores (t=8.6550, <0.05) at 0.05% level
of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that male professionals have higher role ambiguity of
occupational stress scores than female professionals.
4. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their role conflict of occupational stress scores (t=4.5050, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that male professionals have higher role conflict of occupational
stress scores than female professionals.
5. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their unreasonable groups and political pressure of occupational stress scores
(t=7.8527, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that male professionals have
higher unreasonable groups and political pressure of occupational stress scores than
female professionals.
6. A non-significant difference is found between male and female professionals with
respect to their responsibility for person of occupational stress scores (t=0.9634,
>0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted and

161
 alternative hypothesis is rejected. It means that male and female professionals have
similar responsibility for person of occupational stress scores.
7. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their under participation of occupational stress scores (t=7.1779, <0.05) at 0.05%
level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis
is accepted. It means that male professionals have higher under participation of
occupational stress scores than female professionals.
8. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their powerlessness of occupational stress scores (t=5.8971, <0.05) at 0.05% level
of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that male professionals have higher powerlessness of occupational
stress scores than female professionals.
9. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their poor peer relations of occupational stress scores (t=3.9795, <0.05) at 0.05%
level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis
is accepted. It means that male professionals have higher poor peer relations of
occupational stress scores than female professionals.
10. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their intrinsic improvement of occupational stress scores (t=9.4096, <0.05) at
0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative
hypothesis is accepted. It means that male professionals have higher intrinsic
improvement of occupational stress scores than female professionals.
11. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their law status of occupational stress scores (t=7.1878, <0.05) at 0.05% level of
significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that male professionals have higher law status of occupational
stress scores than female professionals.
12. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their strenuous working condition of occupational stress scores (t=6.0817, <0.05) at
0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative

162
 hypothesis is accepted. It means that male professionals have higher strenuous
working condition of occupational stress scores than female professionals.
13. A significant difference is found between male and female professionals with respect
to their un-profitability of occupational stress scores (t=3.4935, <0.05) at 0.05% level
of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted. It means that male professionals have higher un-profitability of
occupational stress scores than female professionals.

Hypothesis XXIV: There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and 4-10 years
of experiences of professionals with respect to their job satisfaction.

To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

1-3years (n=100) 4-10years (n=59)

Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Job satisfaction 125.7000 10.1320 120.3051 5.7363 3.7478 *
Table 4.20: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3years and 4-10 years of experiences of
professionals with respect to job satisfaction and its dimensions

From the results of the above table, we seen that a significant difference is found between
1-3years and 4-10 years of experienced professionals with respect to their job satisfaction
scores (t=3.7478, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that professionals with 1-3years
experiences have higher job satisfaction than professionals with 4-10 years of experience.

Hypothesis XXV: There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and more than 10
years of experiences of professionals with respect to their job satisfaction.

To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

163
 More than 10years
1-3years (n=100) (n=51)
Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Job satisfaction 125.7000 10.1320 128.3725 8.0547 -1.6374 NS
Table 4.21: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3years and 4-10 years of experiences of
professionals with respect to job satisfaction and its dimensions

From the results of the above table, we seen that a non-significant difference is found
between 1-3years and more than years of experienced professionals with respect to their
job satisfaction scores (t=-1.6374, >0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null
hypothesis is accepted and alternative hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesis XXVI: There is no significant difference between 4-10 years and more than
10 years of experiences of professionals with respect to their job satisfaction.

To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

More than 10years

4-10years (n=59) (n=51)
Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Job satisfaction 120.3051 5.7363 128.3725 8.0547 -6.1088 *
Table 4.22: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3years and 4-10 years of experiences of
professionals with respect to job satisfaction and its dimensions

From the results of the above table, we seen that a significant difference is found between
4-10years and more than 10 years of experienced professionals with respect to job
satisfaction scores (t=-6.1088, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null
hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that more than 10
years experienced professionals have higher job satisfaction scores than the 4-10 years of
experienced professionals.

164
Hypothesis XXVII: There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and 4-10 years
of experiences of professionals with respect to their occupational stress.

To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

1-3 years (n=100) 4-10 years (n=59)

Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Occupational stress 125.9800 11.7490 150.9153 7.8043 -14.5126 *
Table 4.23: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3 years and 4-10 years of experience of
professionals with respect to occupational stress and its dimensions

From the results of the above table, we seen that a significant difference is found between
1-3years and 4-10 years of experienced professionals with respect to their occupational
stress scores (t=-14.5126, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the null
hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that 4- 10 years
experienced professionals have higher occupational stress scores than the 1-3 years of
experienced professionals.

Hypothesis XXVIII: There is no significant difference between 1-3 years and more than
10 years of experiences of professionals with respect to their occupational stress.

To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

More than 10 years

1-3 years (n=100) (n=51)
Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Occupational stress 125.9800 11.7490 123.4118 12.4534 1.2448 NS
Table 4.24: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 1-3 years and more than 10 years of experience of
professionals with respect to occupational stress and its dimensions

165
 From the results of the above table, we seen that a non-significant difference is found
between 1-3years and more than 10years of experienced professionals with respect to
their occupational stress scores (t=1.2448, >0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence,
the null hypothesis is accepted and alternative hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesis XXIX: There is no significant difference between 4-10 and more than 10
years of experiences of professionals with respect to their occupational stress.

To achieve this hypothesis, the student’s unpaired t-test was applied and the results are
presented in the following table.

More than 10 years

4-10 years (n=59) (n=51)
Variables Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t-value Signi.
Occupational stress 150.9153 7.8043 123.4118 12.4534 14.0711 *
Table 4.25: The table showing the variables, size (N), mean, SD, t-value and its
significance at 0.05 level between 4-10 years and more than 10 years of experience of
professionals with respect to occupational stress and its dimensions

From the results of the above table, we seen that a significant difference is found between
4-10years and more than 10years experienced professionals with respect to their
occupational stress scores (t=14.0711, <0.05) at 0.05% level of significance. Hence, the
null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. It means that
professionals with 4-10 years of experiences have higher occupational stress than the
professionals with more than 10 years of experience.

166
 CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

INTRODUCTION

Work occupies a significant and important area of study in a man’s life span. At the
outset, work is viewed as a means of earning a living. Men are gratified by working on a
job but the growing complexities of an industrial society makes a satisfied employee as a
more productive employee. Knowledge of the determinants of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction at work can contribute significantly to understanding professionals. The
factors related to the job were taken for a better understanding of job satisfaction.
Industries tend to focus their team building programmes in order to improve productivity.
Every organization tries to know what individual characteristics and organizational
variables contribute significantly to boost one’s job satisfaction.

Health in the work place and occupational stress are two major issues both at the national
and international level. Man spends a significant amount of time at work and current
changes in the nature of work results in work stress. All occupations experience stress
claims at one point or the other. The costs of stress are very difficult to quantify because
the loss is two fold both financially and in human terms. The term “Stress” is used to
reflect problems of daily life, anxiety, depression, frustration, alienation and emotional
distress. Stress management is therefore undertaken to maintain a healthy and productive
level of stimulation. Unmanaged stress results in negative health effects like exhaustion,
physical pain, depression, sleep disturbances and even death.

NEED FOR THE STUDY

The researcher felt a need to study important factors which are conducive to job
satisfaction in mentally challenging work which in turn gives equitable rewards and a
supportive working condition combined with support from peers. The study also
examines the importance of a good personality - job fit and an individual’s genetic
disposition.

167
SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

It was intended through the present investigator to study job satisfaction of professionals
in relation to their occupational stress. The dependent variable studied was Job
Satisfaction and independent variable was Occupational Stress. Biographical variables
included Age, Gender, Experience and Profession. Two tools were adopted and
standardized by the investigator namely Job Satisfaction Scale by Paul E Spector (1994)
and Occupational Stress Index Questionnaire by A K Srivatsava and A P Singh (1984).

A self constructed proforma was used collect the information on biographical variables.
The tools were administered on 210 professionals of Bangalore city. The composition of
the sample was male/female, marketing/sales/professional services/customer
service/system engineer/administrators/consultants. The procedure followed in the
sample selection is given in Chapter III. The data was collected by the researcher himself
by personally visiting the industries. The data was analyzed to test the hypotheses stated.
Considering all these, the present study on job satisfaction of professionals in relation to
occupational stress (gender, age, experience, profession) with the following objectives of
the study.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To investigate the relationship between job satisfaction occupational stress of

professionals.
2. To investigate whether difference in occupational stress would account for significant
differences in Job satisfaction of professionals.
3. To investigate whether differences in biographical variables namely Gender,
Different departments and Professional experiences would account for significant
differences in their occupational stress.

168
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of the related literature in the area of job satisfaction of professionals and the
independent variables studied in this research has provided an insight in to many factors
influencing job satisfaction of professionals. It also provided direction in designing the
present study.

Having reviewed several studies and having identified the gap the investigator felt an
imperative need to undertake the present investigation.

VARIABLES OF THE STUDY

The following variables have been considered in the present study.

Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction
Independent Variable: Occupational Stress
Biographical variables: Gender, Age, Experience, Profession

HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

Hypotheses was stated in null form for testing in this research. They have been
categorized under three sets. Set I dealt with correlation between the dependent variable
Job satisfaction of professionals and the independent variable occupational stress. It
consists of 22 hypotheses. SET II dealt with multiple regression consisting of 10
hypotheses and SET III dealt with t- test analysis and consists of 29 hypotheses.

TOOLS OF THE STUDY

The tools used to measure the variables of the study were Job satisfaction scale by Paul
E Spector (1994) standardized by the investigator and Occupational Stress Index
Questionniare by A K Srinivastava and A P Singh( 1984) standardized by investigator.

169
 SAMPLING DESIGN

A volunteer sampling technique was employed to select 210 professionals of Bangalore

city.

MAJOR FINDINGS

FINDINGS OF THE CORRELATION ANALYSIS

I. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals

and their occupational stress (r=-0.5264)
II. There was a significant negative correlation between first dimension of job
satisfaction (pay and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-0.2928)
III. There was a significant negative correlation was observed between second dimension
of job satisfaction (promotion and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-
0.3693)
IV. There was a significant negative correlation between third dimension of job
satisfaction (supervision and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-0.3408)
V. There was a significant negative correlation was observed between fourth dimension
of job satisfaction (benefits and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-
0.4303
VI. There was a significant negative correlation between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction (contingent rewards and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-
0.2014)
VII. There was a significant negative correlation between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction (operating procedures and occupational stress scores of professionals)
(r=-0.2694)
VIII. There was a significant negative correlation between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction (co-workers and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-0.2863)
IX. There was a significant negative correlation between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction (nature of work and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-
0.2980)

170
 X. There was a significant negative correlation between fifth dimension of job
satisfaction (communication and occupational stress scores of professionals) (r=-
0.3404)
XI. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (role overload) (r=-0.3834)
XII. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (role ambiguity) (r=-0.4117)
XIII. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (role conflict) (r=-0.1815)
XIV. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (unreasonable groups and political pressure)
(r=-0.2947)
XV. There was a significant positive correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (responsibility for person) (r=0.0704)
XVI. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (under participation) (r=-0.4138)
XVII. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (powerlessness) (r=-0.4035)
XVIII. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (poor peer relations) (r=-0.3043)
XIX. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress i.e. intrinsic improvement (r=-0.5477)
XX. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (law status) (r=-0.3981)
XXI. There was a significant negative correlation was observed between job satisfaction of
professionals and dimension of occupational stress (strenuous working condition) (r=-
0.3320)
XXII. There was a significant negative correlation between job satisfaction of professionals
and dimension of occupational stress (un-profitability) (r=-0.0824)

171
 FINDINGS OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

I. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of

all professionals (r=-0.2990)
II. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
male professionals (r=-0.1988)
III. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
female professionals (r=-0.4270)
IV. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
sales professionals (r=-0.4321)
V. There was a non-significant positive influence of occupational stress on job
satisfaction of marketing professionals (r=-0.0206)
VI. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
service professionals (r=-0.3546)
VII. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
customer service professionals (r=-0.2483)
VIII. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
system engineer professionals (r=-0.5707)
IX. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
administrator professionals (r=-0.4616)
X. There was a significant negative influence of occupational stress on job satisfaction of
consultant professionals (r=-2.0750.)

FINDINGS OF DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS

I. There was a significant difference between male and female professions with respect
to their job satisfaction (t=-5.8508)
II. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their pay of job satisfaction (t=-3.1125)
III. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their promotion of job satisfaction (t=-3.6812)

172
 IV. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their supervision of job satisfaction (t=-3.4719)
V. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their benefits of job satisfaction (t=-4.2660)
VI. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their contingent rewards of job satisfaction (t=-3.3914)
VII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their operating procedures of job satisfaction (t=-2.2552)
VIII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their co-workers of job satisfaction (t=-3.0879)
IX. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their nature of work of job satisfaction (t=-2.9361)
X. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their communication of job satisfaction (t=-4.1499)
XI. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their occupational stress (t=11.9958)
XII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their role overload of occupational stress (t=7.3532)
XIII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their role ambiguity of occupational stress (t=8.6550)
XIV. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their role conflict of occupational stress (t=4.5050)
XV. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their unreasonable groups and political pressure of occupational stress
(t=7.8527)
XVI. There was a non-significant difference is found between male and female
professionals with respect to their responsibility for person of occupational stress
(t=0.9634)
XVII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their under participation of occupational stress (t=7.1779)

173
 XVIII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their powerlessness of occupational stress (t=5.8971)
XIX. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their poor peer relations of occupational stress (t=3.9795)
XX. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their intrinsic improvement of occupational stress (t=9.4096)
XXI. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their law status of occupational stress (t=7.1878)
XXII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their strenuous working condition of occupational stress (t=6.0817)
XXIII. There was a significant difference between male and female professionals with
respect to their un-profitability of occupational stress (t=3.4935)
XXIV. There was a significant difference between 1-3 years and 4-10 years of experienced
professionals with respect to their job satisfaction (t=3.7478)
XXV. There was a non-significant difference between 1-3years and more than years of
experienced professionals with respect to their job satisfaction (t=-1.6374)
XXVI. There was a significant difference between 4-10years and more than 10 years of
experienced professionals with respect to job satisfaction (t=-6.1088)
XXVII. There was a significant difference between 1-3years and 4-10 years of experienced
professionals with respect to their occupational stress (t=-14.5126)
XXVIII. There was a non-significant difference between 1-3years and more than 10years of
experienced professionals with respect to their occupational stress (t=1.2448)
XXIX. There was a significant difference between 4-10years and more than 10years
experienced professionals with respect to their occupational stress (t=14.0711)

IMPLICATIONS

The correlation analysis of the data reveals that there was a significant negative
correlation between job satisfaction and occupational stress of professionals. This implies
that a professional’s occupational stress is largely dependent on job satisfaction.

174
A person is productive and content in an organization when there is no stress. Industry
managers should therefore consider on increasing job satisfaction in order to enhance the
work motivation of professionals. Management should discover ways to create a
favorable and conducive environment for professionals in order to increase job
satisfaction.

1. The needs of professionals need to be identified through personal meetings and

discussions.
2. Programmes and activities to be designed in organizations in order to meet individual
needs of professionals as each professional have unique needs.
3. Pay and salary are to be recognized as significant factors which contribute to job
satisfaction. Management should evolve an equitable pay package which takes care of
the needs of the professional.
4. Promotion is an incentive and it helps to satisfy the professional needs. This in turn
increases the skills and competencies of the professional. Delay in promotion leads to
dissatisfaction.
5. Supervision forms an important source of job satisfaction. The behaviour of the
supervisor in turn influences the professional. An understanding superior is able to act
as a mentor and guide to the professional. This helps the professional to nurture and
grow in the organization.
6. The work atmosphere such as attractive work place, equipment, shift system and
work schedules help to improve the work environment.
7. Job security is also necessary in order to reduce the stress of the professional. This
can be done by providing employee stock options.

Further, there was a negative relationship between the dimensions of job satisfaction
namely pay, promotion, supervision, benefits, contingent rewards, operating procedures,
co-workers, nature of work and communication and occupational stress.

This implies that pay significantly influences job satisfaction of professionals which in
turn reduce occupational stress.

175
This implies that promotion significantly influences job satisfaction of professionals
which in turn reduce occupational stress.

This implies that supervision significantly influences job satisfaction of professionals

which in turn reduce occupational stress.

This implies that benefits significantly influence job satisfaction of professionals which in
turn reduce occupational stress.

This implies that contingent rewards significantly influences job satisfaction of

professionals which in turn reduce occupational stress.

This implies that operating procedures significantly influences job satisfaction of

professionals which in turn reduce occupational stress.

This implies that co-workers significantly influence job satisfaction of professionals

which in turn reduce occupational stress.

This implies that nature of work significantly influences job satisfaction of professionals
which in turn reduce occupational stress.

This implies that communication significantly influences job satisfaction of professionals

which in turn reduce occupational stress.

Also, there was a negative relationship between the dimensions of occupational stress
namely role overload, role ambiguity, role conflict, unreasonable groups and political
pressure, powerlessness, poor peer relations, intrinsic improvement, law status and
strenuous working condition and job satisfaction.

This implies that role overload significantly influences occupational stress of

professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that role ambiguity significantly influences occupational stress of

professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

176
This implies that role overload significantly influences occupational stress of
professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that role conflict significantly influences occupational stress of professionals
which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that unreasonable groups and political pressure significantly influences
occupational stress of professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that powerlessness significantly influences occupational stress of

professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that poor peer relations significantly influences occupational stress of
professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that intrinsic improvement significantly influences occupational stress of

professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that law status significantly influences occupational stress of professionals
which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

This implies that strenuous working conditions significantly influence occupational stress
of professionals which in turn reduce job satisfaction.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

1. A study can be undertaken on other independent variables like role ambiguity, family
pressure and role conflict.
2. Studies on organizational health, culture and environment can also be undertaken.
3. Professionals abroad and in India can be studied. Cross cultural studies can be
undertaken.
4. Studies on job satisfaction can be undertaken where new tools can be standardized
and there is vast scope for validation.

177
5. The thesis also suggests that the user should read carefully the methods and the
bibliography and if possible consult with experts in the relevant areas before using
these methods.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

1. The study is limited to the study of professionals in Bangalore only.

2. The universe being large, the study was conducted using voluntary sample.
3. Data collection was a difficult task. Many questionnaires were distributed but all were
not returned.

178
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Zimolong B. and Windel A., (1999). New Management Concepts for New Types of
Work Organization, Bochum: Ruhr University of Bochum.

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 APPENDICES

JOB SATISFACTION SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

JOB SATISFACTION SURVEY

Prince Martin V.
This questionnaire is meant for a psychological investigation. The
questionnaire consists of some statements that employees say or feel about
various components and conditions of their job. You are required to select any
one of the following 'five responses' as given in the below example, to indicate
the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement to describe the
nature and conditions of your job and also your own experiences and feelings
about your job.
PLEASE CIRCLE THE ONE NUMBER FOR EACH QUESTION THAT COMES
CLOSES TO REFLECTING YOUR OPINION ABOUT IT.
Disagree Agree Agree
Very Disagree Disagree Agree Moder Very
Much Moderately Slightly Slightly ately Much
1 I feel I am
being paid a fair
amount for the
work I do.
2 There is really
too little chance
for promotion
on my job.
3 My supervisor
is quite
competent in
doing his/her
job.

204
 4 I am not
satisfied with
the benefits I
receive.
5 When I do a
good job, I
receive the
recognition for
it that I should
receive.
6 Many of our
rules and
procedures
make doing a
good job
difficult.
7 I like the people
I work with.
8 I sometimes
feel my job is
meaningless.
9 Communication
seems good
within this
organisation.
10 Raises are too
few and far
between.

205
11 Those who do
well on the job
stand a fair
chance of being
promoted.
12 My supervisor
is unfair to me.
13 The benefits we
receive are as
good as most
other
organisations
offer.
14 I do not feel
that the work I
do is
appreciated.
15 My efforts to do
a good job are
seldom blocked
by red tape.

16 I find I have to
work harder at
my job because
of the
incompetence
of people I
work with.

206
17 I like doing the
things I do at
work.
18 The goals of
this
organisation are
not clear to me.
19 I feel
unappreciated
by the
organisation
when I think
about what they
pay me.
20 People get
ahead as fast
here as they do
in other places.
21 My supervisor
shows too little
interest in the
feelings of
subordinates.
22 The benefit
package we
have equitable.
23 There are few
rewards for
those who work
here.

207
24 I have too much
to do at work.
25 I enjoy my
coworkers.
26 I often feel that
I do not know
what is going
on with the
organisation.
27 I feel a sense of
pride in doing
my job.
28 I feel satisfied
with my
chances for
salary increases.
29 There are
benefits we do
not have which
we should have.
30 I like my
supervisor.
31 I have too much
paper work.
32 I don't feel my
efforts are
rewarded the
way they should
be.

208
33 I am satisfied
with my
chances for
promotion.
34 There is too
much bickering
and fighting at
work.
35 My job is
enjoyable.
36 Work
assignments are
not fully
explained.

209
 OCCUPATIONAL STRESS QUESTIONNAIRE

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS INDEX

Prince Martin V.

This questionnaire is meant for a psychological investigation. The

questionnaire consists of some statements that employees say or feel about various
components and conditions of their job. You are required to select any one of the
following 'five responses' as given in the below example, to indicate the extent to
which you agree or disagree with each statement to describe the nature and
conditions of your job and also your own experiences and feelings about your job.
Give your responses frankly and truthfully. Your responses will be kept strictly
confidential.
KINDLY ANSWER ALL THE QUESTIONS

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree

1 Normally I need to work

more than 10 hours daily to
complete my
responsibilities.
2 The available information
relating to my job/role and
its outcomes are vague and
insufficient.
3 My different officers often
give contradictory
instructions regarding my
work.

210
 4 Office politics play a critical
role while making
adjustments to group
pressures as against formal
rules and instructions
5 The responsibility for the
efficiency and productivity
of many employees is upon
me.
6 Most of my suggestions are
heeded and implemented
here.
7 My decisions and
instructions concerning
allocation of assignments for
employees are properly
followed.
8 I have to work with persons
whom I like.
9 My assignments are of
monotonous in nature.
10 Higher authorities do care
for my self-respect.
11 I get less salary in
comparison to the quantum
of my labour / work.
12 I am always under stress at
work

211
13 Inspite of excessive work
load, I have to manage with
insufficient number of
employees and resources.
14 The objectives of my
work/role are quite clear and
adequately planned.
15 Higher officials do not
interfere with my work and
working methods until and
unless I fail to deliver.
16 Some parts of my work are
not pleasant .
17 I am responsible for the
career growth and
development of my team
members
18 My cooperation is frequently
sought in solving the issues
and concerns at higher level.
19 My suggestions regarding
the training programmes of
the employees are given due
significance.
20 Some of my colleagues and
subordinates try to defame
and malign me as
unsuccessful.
21 I get ample opportunity to
utilise my abilities and
experience independently.

212
22 This job has enhanced my
social status.
23 I am seldom rewarded for
my hard labour and efficient
performance.
24 Some of my assignments are
quite risky and complicated.
25 I have to dispose off my
work hurriedly owing to
excessive work load.
26 I am unable to perform my
duties smoothly owing to
uncertainty and ambiguity of
the scope of my jurisdiction
and authorities.
27 I am not provided with clear
instructions and sufficient
facilities regarding the new
assignments entrusted to me.
28 In order to maintain group
conformity, sometimes I
have to work more than
usual.
29 I am directly responsible for
the progress and prosperity
of this organisation.
30 My opinions are sought in
framing important policies
of the Organisation
Department.

213
31 Our interests and opinions
are duly considered in
making appointments for
important posts.
32 My colleagues do cooperate
with me voluntarily in
solving administrative and
industrial problems.
33 I get ample opportunity to
develop my aptitude and
proficiency properly.
34 My higher authorities do not
give due significance to my
position and work.
35 I often feel that this job has
made my life cumbersome.
36 Being too busy with official
work, I am not able to
devote sufficient time to my
domestic and personal
problems.
37 It is not clear that what type
of work and behaviour my
higher authorities and
colleagues expect from me.
38 Employees attach due
importance to the official
instructions and formal
working procedures of the
organization.

214
39 I am compelled to violate
the formal and
administrative procedures
and policies owning to
group/political pressures.
40 My opinion is sought in
changing or modifying the
working system, instruments
and conditions.
41 There exists sufficient
mutual cooperation and
team-spirit among the
employees of this
Organization/Department.
42 My suggestions and
cooperation are not sought in
solving even those problems
for which I am quite
competent.
43 Working conditions are
satisfactory here from the
point of view of our welfare
and convenience.
44 Have you ever needed
medical
(physical/psychological)
help because of your work?

215
45 It becomes difficult to
implement all of a sudden,
the new dealing procedures
and policies in place of those
already in practice.
46 I am unable to carry out my
assignments to my
satisfaction on account of
excessive load of work and
lack of time.
47 Do you find it difficult to go
to sleep at nights?

216
 CURRICULAM VITAE
EDUCATION:

M.Phil. in Strategic Management

Bharathidasan University

MBA – Marketing Management

Annamalai University.

Post Graduate Diploma in Business Administration.

St. Joseph's College of Business Administration, Bangalore.
Subjects : Business Administration, Management Accounts and Marketing Management.

Master of Commerce.
Loyola College, Madras, Madras University.
Subjects : Industrial Relations and Personnel Management.

Bachelor of Commerce.
Sacred Heart College, Tirupattur, Madras University.
Subjects : Accountancy, Commerce, Economics and Advanced English.

Project Study:

MBA.: 'Oral Health Care Industry in India - A study'

P.G.D.B.A.: 'Quality Management'
M.Com.: 'Conventional and Precured Retreading' for Tyre Retreading Industry
'Standing Orders' in Industrial Relations

217
Extra Curricular Activities:

Chairman - M.Com Seminar Committee at Loyola College

Presented a seminar on 'Quality Management'
Secretary - College English Association at Sacred Heart College

Publication:

Topic : Learning Management through Jataka Tales

Submitted to: Cartman, Bangalore

Topic : Strategies for Globalisation – Wipro, a case study

Submitted to: MT & M, Manufacturing Technology & Management, Volume 1, No. 1,
April-June 2007

PRESENT POSITION

Professor and Coordinator, Alliance Business Academy, Bangalore

From June 2005 onwards

Area : General Management, Organisational Behaviour, International Human

Resource Management, Industrial Relations and Personnel Management, Marketing
Management, Banking.
Courses : PGDBA-Swiss Business School, MBA-Bangalore University

Workshops Attended:

• International Human Resource Confluence – Indian Institute of Science in 2006

• Member of Strategic Management Programme at IIM
• Attended Foundation course of Management Teachers Programme 2004, IIM
Kozhicode

218
• Presented a paper on “Business for Strategies for Globalisation – Wipro a Case
Study” at Time Business School, Thirupathi in 2004
• ENTREPRENUERSHIP, Faculty Development Programme on 31-Dec-01 to 12-Jan-
02, conducted by EDI
• Empowering college teachers in the Emerging Millennium on 9th December 2002
• Two day workshop on managerial skills on 31st October 2001

Academic Achievements:

• Coordinator Entrepreneurship Cell for Distance Learning Programme on

Entrepreneurship conducted by EDI, Ahmedabad
• Examiner for MBA, Bangalore University in 2005 and 2006
• Examiner for Final Year BHM, Bangalore University Examination conducted in 2002
and 2005
• Examiner for II Year BCA, Bangalore University Examination conducted in 2002 and
2003
• Examiner, Bangalore University, BBM and MBA, 2007

PAST EXPERIENCE

Christ College, Department of Management Studies, Bangalore

Area: General Management, Organisational Behaviour, Banking, Auditing, Business
Communication and Personality Development, Industrial Relations and Personnel
Management, Entrepreneurship.
Courses: MBA, MTA, BBM, B.Com, BHM, BCA (Bangalore University)
Duration: From June 1999 to June 2005
Designation: Faculty, Department of Management Studies,

Snowman Frozen Foods Limited

Amalgam House, Bristow Road, Wellington Island, Cochin
[A joint venture with Mitsubishi Logistics, Brooke Bond, Lipton & Amalgam Foods Ltd]

219
Liasoned with Mahashtra Governement to construct a Cold Store in Pune.
Duration: From November 1996 to May 1999
Designation: Profit Center - Head

Alsa Marine and Harvests Limited

Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Construction, setting up and managing Sea food production unit in Nellore.
Duration: From April 1992 to October 1996
Designation: Manager - Operations

The India Poultry Farm

101, 1st Main Road Jayamahal Extension, Bangalore
Managed a breeding farm in Hosakotte and monitoring of hatcheries situated in
Mangalore, Cochin, Trivandrum, Chennai and Madurai.
Duration: From May 1988 to March 1992
Designation: Farm Manager

Other Special Areas:

Topic : Two Day Workshop on Managerial Skills, 2001

At : Centre for Education beyond Curriculum(CEDBEC),Christ College, Bangalore

Topic : Empowering College Teachers in the Emerging Millennium, 2000

At : Department of Science, Mount Carmel College, Bangalore

Topic : Scientific Poultry Production and Quality Management

At : Kasila Farms, Hyderabad

220
Topic : Export Marketing & Quality Maintenance of Seafoods in EC Markets
At : Marine Products Exports Development Authority of India Cochin,
In Association with the State office for Development Co-operation and
Frigo Fiuschtechnik GmbH & Co., Germany

Topic : Rearing Rabbits for Wool and Meat production

At : Central Research Institute for Sheep and wool, Kodaikanal

Topic : Apiculture
At : Agriculture University, Tiruchirapalli

Topic : Sheep and Goat Production, Dairy Farming and Milk production
At : University Training Research Centre, Tiruchirapalli

Personal Information:

Contact Address : F 10/2, Vijay Kiran Apartments, Loyola Layout

32, Victoria Road, Bangalore 560 047.
Contact Number : +91-80-25544165, +91-98808 31320
Contact e-Maid Id : vpmt@yahoo.com

Date of Birth : 24-January-1965

Languages known : To speak, read and write Tamil and English

To speak Hindi, Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada

221