STRUCTURE and POETRY

An important method of analyzing a poem is to look at the stanza structure or

style of a poem. Generally speaking, structure has to do with the overall
organization of lines and/or the conventional patterns of sound. Again, many
modern poems may not have any identifiable structure (i.e. they are free
verse), so don't panic if you can't find it!

STANZAS: Stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by

an empty line from other stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in
an essay. One way to identify a stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus:

 couplet (2 lines)
 tercet (3 lines)
 quatrain (4 lines)
 cinquain (5 lines)
 sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain)
 septet (7 lines)
 octave (8 lines)

FORM: A poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme
scheme and/or metrical pattern, but it can still be labeled according to its form
or style. Here are the three most common types of poems according to
form:

1. Lyric Poetry: It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet)
who expresses strong thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially
modern ones, are lyric poems.

2. Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the
plot line of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action,
climax and the denouement].

3. Descriptive Poem: It is a poem that describes the world that surrounds

the speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is
more "outward-focused" than lyric poetry, which is more personal and
introspective.
 In a sense, almost all poems, whether they have consistent patterns of
sound and/or structure, or are free verse, are in one of the three categories
above. Or, of course, they may be a combination of 2 or 3 of the above styles!
Here are some more types of poems that are subtypes of the three styles
above:

Ode: It is usually a lyric poem of moderate length, with a serious subject, an

elevated style, and an elaborate stanza pattern.

Elegy: It is a lyric poem that mourns the dead. [It's not to be confused with
a eulogy.]It has no set metric or stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by
reminiscing about the dead person, then laments the reason for the death,
and then resolves the grief by concluding that death leads to immortality. It
often uses "apostrophe" (calling out to the dead person) as a literary
technique. It can have a fairly formal style, and sound similar to an ode.

Sonnet: It is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and, in the English version, is

usually written in iambic pentameter. There are two basic kinds of sonnets:
the Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet and the Shakespearean (or
Elizabethan/English) sonnet. The Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after
Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet. The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an
octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines). The Shakespearean sonnet
consists of three quatrains (four lines each) and a concluding couplet (two
lines). The Petrarchan sonnet tends to divide the thought into two parts
(argument and conclusion); the Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet is
the summary).

Ballad: It is a narrative poem that has a musical rhythm and can be sung. A
ballad is usually organized into quatrains or cinquains, has a simple rhythm
structure, and tells the tales of ordinary people.

Epic: It is a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a

legendary or historical hero.

Qualities of an Epic Poem:

 narrative poem of great scope; dealing with the founding of a

nation or some other heroic theme requires a dignified
theme requires an organic unity requires orderly progress of the
action always has a heroic figure or figures involves supernatural
forces
  written in deliberately ceremonial style

Other types of poems include:

Haiku: It has an unrhymed verse form having three lines (a tercet) and
usually 5,7,5 syllables, respectively. It's usually considered a lyric poem.

Limerick: It has a very structured poem, usually humorous & composed of five
lines (a cinquain), in an aabba rhyming pattern; beat must
be anapestic (weak, weak, strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2 feet in
lines 3 & 4. It's usually a narrative poem based upon a short and often ribald
anecdote.

For more about poetic forms, see the Open School Notes on Poetry Forms.

SOUND PATTERNS
Three other elements of poetry are rhyme scheme, meter (ie. regular
rhythm) and word sounds (like alliteration). These are sometimes collectively
called sound play because they take advantage of the performative, spoken
nature of poetry.

RHYME

Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of
rhyme is the end rhyme, which occurs at the end of two or more lines. It is
usually identified with lower case letters, and a new letter is used to identify
each new end sound. Take a look at the rhyme scheme for the following poem
:
I saw a fairy in the wood,
He was dressed all in green.
He drew his sword while I just stood,
And realized I'd been seen.

The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab.

Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from

Coleridge, "In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the
night through fog-smoke white" ("The Ancient Mariner"). Remember that most
modern poems do not have rhyme.

Meter: the systematic regularity in rhythm; this systematic rhythm (or sound
pattern) is usually identified by examining the type of "foot" and
the number of feet.

1. Poetic Foot: The traditional line of metered poetry contains a number of rhythmical
units, which are called feet. The feet in a line are distinguished as a recurring pattern
of two or three syllables("apple" has 2 syllables, "banana" has 3 syllables, etc.). The
pattern, or foot, is designated according to the number of syllables contained, and
the relationship in each foot between the strong and weak syllables.Thus:

__ = a stressed (or strong, or LOUD) syllable

U = an unstressed (or weak, or quiet) syllable

In other words, any line of poetry with a systematic rhythm has a certain number of feet,
and each foot has two or three syllables with a constant beat pattern .

a. Iamb (Iambic) - weak syllable followed by strong syllable. [Note that the pattern is
sometimes fairly hard to maintain, as in the third foot.]

b. Trochee (Trochaic): strong syllable followed by a weak syllable.

c. Anapest (Anapestic): two weak syllables followed by a strong syllable.

e.g.
In her room at the prow of the house
Where light breaks, and the windows are tossed...

From "The Writer", by Richard Wilbur

d. Dactyl (Dactylic): a strong syllable followed by two weak syllables.

DD

Here's another (silly) example of dactylic rhythm.

DDDA was an / archer, who / shot at a / frog
DDDB was a / butcher, and / had a great / dog
DDDC was a / captain, all / covered with / lace
DDDD was a / drunkard, and / had a red / face.

e. Spondee (Spondaic): two strong syllables (not common as lines, but

appears as a foot). A spondee usually appears at the end of a line.

2. The Number of Feet: The second part of meter is the number of feet
contained in a line.

Thus:
one foot=monometer
two feet=dimeter
three feet=trimeter
four feet=tetrameter
five feet=pentameter
six feet=hexameter (when hexameter is in iambic rhythm, it is called an
alexandrine)

Poems with an identifiable meter are therefore identified by the type of feet
(e.g. iambic) and the number of feet in a line (e.g. pentameter). The following
line is iambic pentameter because it (1) has five feet [pentameter], and (2) each foot
has two syllables with the stress on the second syllable [iambic].

That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold

Thus, you will hear meter identified as iambic pentameter, trochaic tetrameter,
and so on.

3. Irregularity: Many metered poems in English avoid perfectly regular

rhythm because it is monotonous. Irregularities in rhythm add interest and
emphasis to the lines. In this line:

The first foot substitutes a trochee for an iamb. Thus, the basic iambic
pentameter is varied with the opening trochee.

4. Blank Verse: Any poetry that does have a set metrical pattern (usually
iambic pentameter), but does not have rhyme, is blank verse. Shakespeare
frequently used unrhymed iambic pentameter in his plays; his works are an
early example of blank verse.

5. Free Verse: Most modern poetry no longer follows strict rules of

meter or rhyme, especially throughout an entire poem. Free verse, frankly,
has no rules about meter or rhyme whatsoever! [In other words, blank
verse has rhythm, but no rhyme, while free verse
has neither rhythm norrhyme.] So, you may find it difficult to find regular
iambic pentameter in a modern poem, though you might find it in particular
lines. Modern poets do like to throw in the occasional line or phrase of
metered poetry, particularly if they’re trying to create a certain effect. Free
verse can also apply to a lack of a formal verse structure.

WORD SOUNDS

Another type of sound play is the emphasis on individual sounds and words:

Alliteration: the repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza -

Big bad Bob bounced bravely.
Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or
stanza) - Tilting at windmills
Consonance: the repetition of consonant sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a
line or stanza) - And all the air a solemn stillness holds. (T. Gray)
Onomatopoeia: words that sound like that which they describe - Boom! Crash! Pow!
Quack! Moo!Caress...
Repetition: the repetition of entire lines or phrases to emphasize key thematic ideas.
Parallel Stucture: a form of repetition where the order of verbs and nouns is repeated;
it may involve exact words, but it more importantly repeats sentence structure
- "I came, I saw, I conquered".

FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary

form of resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or "as."
These comparisons are usually between dissimilar situations or objects
that have something in common, such as "My love is like a red, red
rose."
2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison
between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." For more
on metaphor, click here.
3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important
(and attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an
object closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to
stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the bench
for the judicial system).
5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My
love is like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification
of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to associate the rose
with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become
a symbol.
 6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a
series of abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in
the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal
Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution
through a fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.
7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate
objects as human, that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or
feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").
8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in
which actual intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite
meaning.

o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater
perspective than the characters
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
 Overstatement (hyperbole)
 Understatement (meiosis)
 Sarcasm

Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of

perception that assists the poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes,
and to see the often conflicting interpretations that come from our examination
of life.

FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary

form of resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or "as."
These comparisons are usually between dissimilar situations or objects
that have something in common, such as "My love is like a red, red
rose."
2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison
between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." For more
on metaphor, click here.
3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important
(and attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an
object closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to
stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the bench
for the judicial system).
 5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My
love is like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification
of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to associate the rose
with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become
a symbol.
6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a
series of abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in
the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal
Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution
through a fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.
7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate
objects as human, that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or
feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").
8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in
which actual intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite
meaning.

o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater
perspective than the characters
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
 Overstatement (hyperbole)
 Understatement (meiosis)
 Sarcasm

Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of

perception that assists the poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes,
and to see the often conflicting interpretations that come from our examination
of life.

FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary

form of resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or "as."
These comparisons are usually between dissimilar situations or objects
that have something in common, such as "My love is like a red, red
rose."
2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison
between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." For more
on metaphor, click here.
 3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important
(and attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an
object closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to
stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the bench
for the judicial system).
5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My
love is like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification
of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to associate the rose
with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become
a symbol.
6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a
series of abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in
the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal
Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution
through a fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.
7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate
objects as human, that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or
feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").
8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in
which actual intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite
meaning.

o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater
perspective than the characters
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
 Overstatement (hyperbole)
 Understatement (meiosis)
 Sarcasm

Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of

perception that assists the poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes,
and to see the often conflicting interpretations that come from our examination
of life.
FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary

form of resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or "as."
These comparisons are usually between dissimilar situations or objects
that have something in common, such as "My love is like a red, red
rose."
2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison
between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." For more
on metaphor, click here.
3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important
(and attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an
object closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to
stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the bench
for the judicial system).
5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My
love is like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification
of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to associate the rose
with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become
a symbol.
6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a
series of abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in
the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal
Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution
through a fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.
7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate
objects as human, that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or
feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").
8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in
which actual intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite
meaning.

o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater
perspective than the characters
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
 Overstatement (hyperbole)
 Understatement (meiosis)
 Sarcasm
Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of
perception that assists the poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes,
and to see the often conflicting interpretations that come from our examination
of life.

FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES

1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary

form of resemblances: most similes are introduced by "like" or "as."
These comparisons are usually between dissimilar situations or objects
that have something in common, such as "My love is like a red, red
rose."
2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison
between objects or situations. "All flesh is grass." For more
on metaphor, click here.
3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important
(and attached) part signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).
4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an
object closely associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to
stand for the thing itself (e.g. the crown or throne for a king or the bench
for the judicial system).
5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My
love is like a red, red rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification
of the rose with the beloved woman, we may come to associate the rose
with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose would become
a symbol.
6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a
series of abstract ideas and a series of images or pictures presented in
the form of a story or a narrative. For example, George Orwell's Animal
Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution
through a fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.
7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate
objects as human, that is, giving them human attributes, powers, or
feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered many truths to me").
8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in
which actual intent is expressed through words that carry the opposite
meaning.

o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter
 o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater
perspective than the characters
o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another
 Overstatement (hyperbole)
 Understatement (meiosis)
 Sarcasm

Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of

perception that assists the poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes,
and to see the often conflicting interpretations that come from our examination
of life.

5 Types of Imagery
Different types of imagery correspond to different senses.
Are you evoking all of them with these words?

When we hear the word imagery, we usually associate it with some form of visual representation in our
minds. We think about pictures and images. But, that's not all there is to imagery. Imagery is more
complex.

Essentially, there are five types of imagery, each corresponding to one of our senses: visual, auditory,
kinesthetic olfactory (smell), and gustatory(taste).

The key to good imagery is engaging all five senses.

Here are some examples of words specific to the five sensory systems:

Visual Auditory Kinesthetic Olfactory Gustatory

picture scream feel pungent sweet

flash shout warm fragrant sour
bright listen grasp sweet salty
sharp tone sharp dank bitter
clear whisper peaceful rich aroma fresh
see ring cold stinky juicy
light utter rugged musty bland
dark nasal joyful rotten burnt
large squeal fuzzy odor zesty
blue quiet hard essence tangy

The following examples will take you through all the senses and will guide you to evoke specific imagery
internally. For best results, close your eyes during visualization.
Visual

To evoke visual imagery, visualize the following:

A shape: circle, triangle, square
An oak tree
A rose
A sailing boat
A button
A computer

Auditory

To evoke auditory imagery, imagine the following:

The wind blowing through the trees
The ring on your telephone
The sound of your computer keyboard
Scales played on a guitar
Water lapping on a lake shore

Olfactory

To evoke olfactory imagery, conjure up the following smells:

Petrol fumes
Newly baked bread
Chlorine
New mown grass
Freshly brewed coffee

Gustatory (taste)

To evoke gustatory imagery, imagine the taste of:

Sugar
Bananas
Salt
Lemon
Toothpaste

Kinesthetic

Kinesthetic imagery can be further divided into: sense of touch, temperature, movement, and feelings.

Touch - imagine the feelings of:

Standing barefoot on a sandy beach
Running your fingertips on satin fabric
Holding a smooth pebble

Temperature:
Sunlight falling over your arm
Holding an ice cube
Stepping into a warm bath
Movement - feel yourself engaged in an activity:
Swimming
Running on grass
Throwing a ball

Feelings - what does it feel like in your body to be:

Peaceful
Angry
Sad
Calm
Happy

These are the main five types of imagery. Engage as many senses as you can when you are doing
visualization or guided imagery.