I.

Introduction

A. Topic; subtopic

ALCOHOLISM: Advantage and Disadvantage of Drinking Alcohol

B. Objectives

1. To determine the advantage and disadvantage of drinking alcohol.

2. To appreciate the advantages of drinking alcohol.
3. To analyze the disadvantage of drinking alcohol.

C. Hypothetical Statement

1. What are the advantage and disadvantage of drinking alcohol?

D. Significance of the study

The result of the study would significant to the following groups of people:

 The youth, this may serve as guiding principle of more healthy and
healthful efforts directed at reducing risk for disease, and to encourage
attitude toward alcohol use.
 For the community, this will present alcoholism as the major problems in
the society; for people to be more aware of the dangers alcoholism and of
the possibility of irreparable damage to health.
 The government officials may analyze what they have done to protect and
promote the right to health of the people and to instill health consciousness
among them all. They shall give priority to the enactment of measure the
act.
 Parents as primary agents in guiding their children a may serve as good
role models to them and keep their communication network going on so
that they can keep up with changing situations and problems. And to teach
the importance of morality to make youths become better individuals
should discuss with their students --- their effects, their hazards and the
treachery of the influences that encourage them to drink alcohol.
 Students may know the bad effects of drugs in their life and will be aided to know

what will happen to their future if they take drugs instead of concentrating on

their studies
  Alcoholic Drinkers, they may know what will happen if they continue
drinking.
 Researchers, this study may serve as a starting point for more
comprehensive and in depth study about alcoholism.

E. Word enhancement
1. Alcohol beverage - is a drink containing ethanol (commonly called alcohol). 
2. Drink - is a liquid which is specifically prepared for human consumption.
3. Chaser- A mixer that is consumed immediately after a straight shot of liquor to create a
different taste.
4. Virgin- A non-alcoholic drink.
5. Alcohol- A colorless, flammable liquid obtained by fermentation of sugars and
starches.
6. Cock-tail - A drink that combines one or more alcoholic beverages.
7. Libation- A beverage containing alcohol or the act of pouring a liquid in sacrifice.
8. rocks- The liquor is poured over ice.
9. Up- a method of serving alcohol with no ice
10. Beer - Beverage brewed from malted barley and other grains cultured with yeast
and flavored with hops.
11. Brandy -A liquor distilled from wine and other fermented fruit juice. Aged in oak
casks and bottled at 80 to 84 proof.
12. Coolers -A tall drink made with different types of liquor, flavoring, cracked ice,
carbonated beverages and fruit rinds.
13. Distillation -The process of seperating the components in a liquid by heating it to
the point of vaporization, then cooling so it condenses into a purified form.
14. Frappes -Several liqueurs combined and poured over shaved or crushed ice.
15. Gin- Distilled from grain. Juniper berries and other botanicals give it its flavor.
16. Jigger - Also called a shot, a jigger is a small drinking glass- shaped container used
to measure liquor.
17. Liqueur-A sweet alcoholic beverage made from an infusion of flavoring ingredients
and a spirit.
18. Rum- Made by distilling the fermented juice of sugar cane, cane syrup and
molasses.
19. Tequila-A distillate of the sap of the century plant.
20. Triple Sec-A cordial similar to Curacao but less sweet and colorless.
21. Vodka-A refined and filtered liquor distilled at 190 proof and bottled for sale at
80 to 110 proof.
22. Whiskey-Made from grains like corn, rye, barley, or wheat. It is distilled from a
fermented mash of the grain, then aged in oak barells.
23. Wine-Made from the fermented juice of grapes.
24. Vermouth-Herb flavored wine fortified with Brandy.
25. Smashes-Small juleps, served in old fashioned glasses.
 26. Snifter-A short-stemmed, pear-shpaed glass that is larger at the bottom than at
the top.
27. Simple Syrup-Simple syrup can be made in a saucepan, gradually stir one pound
granulated sugar into 13 oz. hot water to make 16 oz. simple/sugar syrup. Used as a
mixer/sweetener for drinks.
28. Sangarees-Made with whiskey, gin, rum or brandy, with port wine floated on top,
or with wine, ale, porter or stout, with a sprinkle of nutmeg.
29. Rickeys-Made with lime, cracked ice, soda or any carbonated beverage and
whiskey, gin, rum or brandy.
30. Neat-A term referring to liquor that is drunk undiluted by ice, water or mixers.

F. Delimitation of the study

G. Survey/review of related literature

II. Historical background

ANCIENT PERIOD

While no one knows when beverage alcohol was first used, it was presumably the
result of a fortuitous accident that occurred at least tens of thousands of years ago.
However, the discovery of late Stone Age beer jugs has established the fact that
intentionally fermented beverages existed at least as early as the Neolithic period (cir.
10,000 B.C.) (Patrick, 1952, pp. 12-13), and it has been suggested that beer may have
preceded bread as a staple (Braidwood et al, 1953; Katz and Voigt, 1987); wine
clearly appeared as a finished product in Egyptian pictographs around 4,000 B.C.
(Lucia, 1963a, p. 216).

The earliest alcoholic beverages may have been made from berries or honey (Blum et
al, 1969, p. 25; Rouech, 1960, p. 8; French, 1890, p. 3) and winemaking may have
originated in the wild grape regions of the Middle East. Oral tradition recorded in the
Old Testament (Genesis 9:20) asserts that Noah planted a vineyard on Mt. Ararat in
what is now eastern Turkey. In Sumer, beer and wine were used for medicinal
purposes as early as 2,000 B.C. (Babor, 1986, p. 1).

Brewing dates from the beginning of civilization in ancient Egypt (Cherrington, 1925,
v. 1, p. 404) and alcoholic beverages were very important in that country. Symbolic of
this is the fact that while many gods were local or familial, Osiris, the god of wine,
was worshiped throughout the entire country (Lucia, 1963b, p. 152). The Egyptians
believed that this important god also invented beer (King, 1947, p. 11), a beverage
that was considered a necessity of life; it was brewed in the home "on an everyday
basis" (Marciniak, 1992, p. 2).

Both beer and wine were deified and offered to gods. Cellars and winepresses even
had a god whose hieroglyph was a winepress (Ghaliounqui, 1979, p. 5). The ancient
Egyptians made at least seventeen varieties of beer and at least 24 varieties of wine
(Ghaliounqui, 1979, pp. 8 and 11). Alcoholic beverages were used for pleasure,
nutrition, medicine, ritual, remuneration (Cherrington, 1925, v, 1, p. 405) and
funerary purposes. The latter involved storing the beverages in tombs of the deceased
for their use in the after-life (King, 1947, p. 11; Darby, 1977, p.576).

Numerous accounts of the period stressed the importance of moderation, and these
norms were both secular and religious (Darby, 1977, p. 58). While Egyptians did not
generally appear to define inebriety as a problem, they warned against taverns (which
were often houses of prostitution) and excessive drinking (Lutz, 1922, pp. 97,105-
108). After reviewing extensive evidence regarding the widespread but generally
moderate use of alcoholic beverage, the historian Darby makes a most important
observation: all these accounts are warped by the fact that moderate users "were
overshadowed by their more boisterous counterparts who added 'color' to history"
(Darby, 1977, p. 590). Thus, the intemperate use of alcohol throughout history
receives a disproportionate amount of attention. Those who abuse alcohol cause
problems, draw attention to themselves, are highly visible and cause legislation to be
enacted. The vast majority of drinkers, who neither experience nor cause difficulties,
are not noteworthy. Consequently, observers and writers largely ignore moderation.

Beer was the major beverage among the Babylonians, and as early as 2,700 B.C. they
worshiped a wine goddess and other wine deities (Hyams, 1965, pp. 38-39).
Babylonians regularly used both beer and wine as offerings to their gods (Lutz, 1922,
pp. 125-126). Around 1,750 B.C., the famous Code of Hammurabi devoted attention
to alcohol. However, there were no penalties for drunkenness; in fact, it was not even
mentioned. The concern was fair commerce in alcohol (Popham, 1978, pp. 232-233).
Nevertheless, although it was not a crime, it would appear that the Babylonians were
critical of drunkenness (Lutz, 1922, pp. 115-116). 1

A variety of alcoholic beverages have been used in China since prehistoric times
(Granet, 1957, p. 144). Alcohol was considered a spiritual (mental) food rather than a
material (physical) food, and extensive documentary evidence attests to the important
role it played in the religious life (Hucker, 1975, p. 28; Fei-Peng, 1982, p. 13). "In
ancient times people always drank when holding a memorial ceremony, offering
sacrifices to gods or their ancestors, pledging resolution before going into battle,
celebrating victory, before feuding and official executions, for taking an oath of
allegiance, while attending the ceremonies of birth, marriage, reunions, departures,
death, and festival banquets" (Fei-Peng, 1982, p. 13).

A Chinese imperial edict of about 1,116 B.C. makes it clear that the use of alcohol in
moderation was believed to be prescribed by heaven. Whether or not it was prescribed
by heaven, it was clearly beneficial to the treasury. At the time of Marco Polo (12547-
1324?) it was drunk daily (Gernet, 1962, p. 139) and was one of the treasury's biggest
sources of income (Balazs, 1964, p. 97).

Alcoholic beverages were widely used in all segments of Chinese society, were used
as a source of inspiration, were important for hospitality, were an antidote for fatigue,
and were sometimes misused (Samuelson, 1878, pp. 19-20, 22, 26-27; Fei-Peng,
1982, p. 137; Simons, 1991, pp. 448-459). Laws against making wine were enacted
and repealed forty-one times between 1,100 B.C. and A.D. 1,400. (Alcoholism and
Drug Addiction Research Foundation of Ontario, 1961, p. 5). However, a
commentator writing around 650 B.C. asserted that people "will not do without beer.
To prohibit it and secure total abstinence from it is beyond the power even of sages.
Hence, therefore, we have warnings on the abuse of it" (quoted in Rouecbe, 1963, p.
179; similar translation quoted in Samuelson, 1878, p. 20).

While the art of wine making reached the Hellenic peninsula by about 2,000 B.C.
(Younger, 1966, p. 79), the first alcoholic beverage to obtain widespread popularity in
what is now Greece was mead, a fermented beverage made from honey and water.
However, by 1,700 B.C., wine making was commonplace, and during the next
thousand years wine drinking assumed the same function so commonly found around
the world: It was incorporated into religious rituals, it became important in hospitality,
it was used for medicinal purposes and it became an integral part of daily meals
(Babor, 1986, pp. 2-3). As a beverage, it was drunk in many ways: warm and chilled,
pure and mixed with water, plain and spiced (Raymond, 1927, p. 53).

Contemporary writers observed that the Greeks were among the most temperate of
ancient peoples. This appears to result from their rules stressing moderate drinking,
their praise of temperance, their practice of diluting wine with water, and their
avoidance of excess in general (Austin, 1985, p. 11). An exception to this ideal of
moderation was the cult of Dionysus, in which intoxication was believed to bring
people closer to their deity (Sournia, 1990, pp. 5-6; Raymond, 1927, p. 55).

While habitual drunkenness was rare, intoxication at banquets and festivals was not
unusual (Austin, 1985, p. 11). In fact, the symposium, a gathering of men for an
evening of conversation, entertainment and drinking typically ended in intoxication
(Babor, 1986, p. 4). However, while there are no references in ancient Greek literature
to mass drunkenness among the Greeks, there are references to it among foreign
peoples (Patrick, 1952, p. 18). By 425 B.C., warnings against intemperance,
especially at symposia, appear to become more frequent (Austin, 1985, pp. 21-22).

Xenophon (431-351 B.C.) and Plato (429-347 B.C.) both praised the moderate use of
wine as beneficial to health and happiness, but both were critical of drunkenness,
which appears to have become a problem. Hippocrates (cir. 460-370 B.C.) identified
numerous medicinal properties of wine, which had long been used for its therapeutic
value (Lucia, 1963a, pp. 36-40). Later, both Aristode (384-322 B.C.) and Zeno (cir.
336-264 B.C.) were very critical of drunkenness (Austin, 1985, pp. 23, 25, and 27).

Among Greeks, the Macedonians viewed intemperance as a sign of masculinity and

were well known for their drunkenness. Their king, Alexander the Great (336-323
B.C.), whose mother adhered to the Dionysian cult, developed a reputation for
inebriety (Souria, 1990, pp. 8-9; Babor, 1986, p. 5).

The Hebrews were reportedly introduced to wine during their captivity in Egypt.
When Moses led them to Canaan (Palestine) around 1,200 B.C., they are reported to
have regretted leaving behind the wines of Egypt (Numbers 20:5); however, they
found vineyards to be plentiful in their new land (Lutz, 1922, p. 25). Around 850
B.C., the use of wine was criticized by the Rechabites and Nazarites, 2 two
conservative nomadic groups who practiced abstinence from alcohol (Lutz, 1922, p.
133; Samuelson, 1878, pp. 62-63).

In 586 B.C., the Hebrews were conquered by the Babylonians and deported to
Babylon. However, in 539 B.C., the Persians captured the city and released the
Hebrews from their Exile (Daniel 5:1-4). Following the Exile, the Hebrews developed
Judaism as it is now known, and they can be said to have become Jews. During the
next 200 years, sobriety increased and pockets of antagonism to wine disappeared. It
became a common beverage for all classes and ages, including the very young; an
important source of nourishment; a prominent part in the festivities of the people; a
widely appreciated medicine; an essential provision for any fortress; and an important
commodity. In short, it came to be seen as a necessary element in the life of the
Hebrews (Raymond, 1927, p. 23).

While there was still opposition to excessive drinking, it was no longer assumed that
drinking inevitably led to drunkenness. Wine came to be seen as a blessing from God
and a symbol of joy (Psalms 104; Zachariah 10:7). These changes in beliefs and
behaviors appear to be related to a rejection of belief in pagan gods, a new emphasis
on individual morality, and the integration of secular drinking behaviors into religious
ceremonies and their subsequent modification (Austin, 1985, pp. 18-19; Patai, 1980,
pp. 61-73; Keller, 1970, pp. 290-294). Around 525 B.C., it was ruled that the Kiddush
(pronouncement of the Sabbath) should be recited over a blessed cup of wine. This
established the regular drinking of wine in Jewish ceremonies outside the Temple
(Austin, 1985, p. 19).

King Cyrus of Persia frequently praised the virtue of the moderate consumption of
alcohol (cir. 525 B.C.). However, ritual intoxication appears to have been used as an
adjunct to decision making and, at least after his death, drunkenness was not
uncommon (Austin, 1985, p. 19).

Between the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. until the third century B.C., there is
consensus among historians that the Romans practiced great moderation in drinking
(Austin, 1985, p. 17). After the Roman conquest of the Italian peninsula and the rest
of the Mediterranean basin (509 to 133 B.C.), the traditional Roman values of
temperance, frugality and simplicity were gradually replaced by heavy drinking,
ambition, degeneracy and corruption (Babor, 1986, p. 7; Wallbank & Taylor, 1954, p.
163). The Dionysian rites (Bacchanalia, in Latin) spread to Italy during this period
and were subsequently outlawed by the Senate (Lausanne, 1969, p. 4; Cherrington,
1925, v. 1, pp. 251-252).

Practices that encouraged excessive drinking included drinking before meals on an

empty stomach, inducing vomiting to permit the consumption of more food and wine,
and drinking games. The latter included, for example, rapidly consuming as many
cups as indicated by a throw of the dice (Babor, 1986, p. 10).

By the second and first centuries B.C., intoxication was no longer a rarity, and most
prominent men of affairs (for example, Cato the Elder and Julius Caesar) were praised
for their moderation in drinking. This would appear to be in response to growing
misuse of alcohol in society, because before that time temperance was not singled out
for praise as exemplary behavior. As the republic continued to decay, excessive
drinking spread and some, such as Marc Antony (d. 30 B.C.), even took pride in their
destructive drinking behavior (Austin, 1985, pp. 28 and 32-33).

EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD

With the dawn of Christianity and its gradual displacement of the previously
dominant religions, the drinking attitudes and behaviors of Europe began to be
influenced by the New Testament (Babor, 1986, p. 11). The earliest biblical writings
after the death of Jesus (cir. A.D. 30) contain few references to alcohol. This may
have reflected the fact that drunkenness was largely an upper-status vice with which
Jesus had little contact (Raymond, 1927, pp. 81-82). Austin (1985, p. 35) has pointed
out that Jesus used wine (Matthew 15:11; Luke 7:33-35) and approved of its moderate
consumption (Matthew 15:11). On the other hand, he severely attacked drunkenness
(Luke 21:34,12:42; Matthew 24:45-51). The later writings of St. Paul (d. 64?) deal
with alcohol in detail and are important to Christian doctrine on the subject. He
considered wine to be a creation of God and therefore inherently good (1 Timothy
4:4), recommended its use for medicinal purposes (1 Timothy 5:23), but consistently
condemned drunkenness (1 Corinthians 3:16-17,5:11,6:10; Galatians 5:19-21;
Romans 13:3) and recommended abstinence for those who could not control their
drinking. 3

However, late in the second century, several heretical sects rejected alcohol and called
for abstinence. By the late fourth and early fifth centuries, the Church responded by
asserting that wine was an inherently good gift of God to be used and enjoyed. While
individuals may choose not to drink, to despise wine was heresy. The Church
advocated its moderate use but rejected excessive or abusive use as a sin. Those
individuals who could not drink in moderation were urged to abstain (Austin, 1985,
pp. 44 and 47-48).

It is clear that both the Old and New Testaments are clear and consistent in their
condemnation of drunkenness. However, some Christians today argue that whenever
"wine" was used by Jesus or praised as a gift of God, it was really grape juice; only
when it caused drunkenness was it wine. Thus, they interpret the Bible as asserting
that grape juice is good and that drinking it is acceptable to God but that wine is bad
and that drinking it is unacceptable. This reasoning appears to be incorrect for at least
two reasons. First, neither the Hebrew nor Biblical Greek word for wine can be
translated or interpreted as referring to grape juice. Secondly, grape juice would
quickly ferment into wine in the warm climate of the Mediterranean region without
refrigeration or modern methods of preservation (Royce, 1986, pp. 55-56; Raymond,
1927, pp. 18-22; Hewitt, 1980, pp. 11-12).

The spread of Christianity and of viticulture in Western Europe occurred

simultaneously (Lausanne, 1969, p. 367; Sournia, 1990, p. 12). Interestingly, St.
Martin of Tours (316-397) was actively engaged in both spreading the Gospel and
planting vineyards (Patrick, 1952, pp. 26-27).

In an effort to maintain traditional Jewish culture against the rise of Christianity,

which was converting numerous Jews (Wallbank & Taylor, 1954, p. 227), detailed
rules concerning the use of wine were incorporated into the Talmud. Importantly,
wine was integrated into many religious ceremonies in limited quantity (Spiegel,
1979, pp. 20 -29; Raymond, 1927, 45-47). In the social and political upheavals that
rose as the fall of Rome approached in the fifth century, concern grew among rabbis
that Judaism and its culture were in increasing danger. 4 Consequently, more
Talmudic rules were laid down concerning the use of wine. These included the
amount of wine that could be drunk on the Sabbath, the way in which wine was to be
drunk, the legal status of wine in any way connected with idolatry, and the extent of
personal responsibility for behavior while intoxicated (Austin, 1985, pp. 36 and 50).

Roman abuse of alcohol appears to have peaked around mid-first century (Jellinek,
1976, pp. 1,736-1,739). Wine had become the most popular beverage, and as Rome
attracted a large influx of displaced persons, it was distributed free or at cost (Babor,
1986, pp. 7-8). This led to occasional excesses at festivals, victory triumphs and other
celebrations, as described by contemporaries. The four emperors who ruled from A.D.
37 to A.D. 69 were all known for their abusive drinking. However, the emperors who
followed were known for their temperance, and literary sources suggest that problem
drinking decreased substantially in the Empire. Although there continued to be some
criticisms of abusive drinking over the next several hundred years, most evidence
indicates a decline of such behavior (Austin, 1985 pp. 37-44, p. 46, pp. 48-50). The
fall of Rome and the Western Roman Empire occurred in 476 (Wallbank & Taylor,
1954, pp. 220-221).

Around A.D. 230, the Greek scholar Athenaeus wrote extensively on drinking and
advocated moderation. The extensive attention to drinking, famous drinks, and
drinking cups (of which he described 100) reflected the importance of wine to the
Greeks (Austin, 1985, pp. 45-46).

THE MIDDLE AGES

The Middle Ages, that period of approximately one thousand years between the fall of
Rome and the beginning of the High Renaissance (cir. 1500), saw numerous
developments in life in general and in drinking in particular. In the early Middle Ages,
mead, rustic beers, and wild fruit wines became increasingly popular, especially
among Celts, Anglo-Saxons, Germans, and Scandinavians. However, wines remained
the beverage of preference in the Romance countries (what is now Italy, Spain and
France) (Babor, 1986, p. 11).

With the collapse of the Roman Empire and decline of urban life, religious
institutions, particularly monasteries, became the repositories of the brewing and
winemaking techniques that had been earlier developed (Babor, 1986, p. 11). While
rustic beers continued to be produced in homes, the art of brewing essentially became
the province of monks, who carefully guarded their knowledge (Cherrington, 1925, v.
1, p. 405). Monks brewed virtually all beer of good quality until the twelfth century.
Around the thirteenth century, hops (which both flavors and preserves) became a
common ingredient in some beers, especially in northern Europe (Wilson, 1991, p.
375). 5 Ale, often a thick and nutritious soupy beverage, soured quickly and was
made for local consumption (Austin, 1985, p. 54, pp. 87-88).

Not surprisingly, the monasteries also maintained viticulture. Importantly, they had
the resources, security, and stability in that often-turbulent time to improve the quality
of their vines slowly over time (Seward, 1979, pp. 15 and 25-35). The monks also had
the education and time necessary to enhance their viticultural skills (Lichine, 1974, p.
3). Throughout the Middle Ages, the best vineyards were owned and tended by the
monasteries, and vinum theologium was considered superior to others (Patrick, 1952,
p. 27). In addition to making wine necessary to celebrate the mass, the monasteries
also produced large quantities to support the maintenance and expansion of the
monastic movement (Babor, 1986, p. 11). While most wine was made and consumed
locally, some wine trade did continue in spite of the deteriorating roads (Hyams,
1965, p. 151; Wilson, 1991, p. 371).

By the millennium, the most popular form of festivities in England were known as
"ales," and both ale and beer were at the top of lists of products to be given to lords
for rent. As towns were established in twelfth-century Germany, they were granted
the privilege of brewing and selling beer in their immediate localities. A flourishing
artisan brewing industry developed in many towns, about which there was strong
civic pride (Cherrington, 1925, v. 1, p. 405; Austin1985, pp. 68, 74, 82-83).

The most important development regarding alcohol throughout the Middle Ages was
probably that of distillation. Interestingly, considerable disagreement exists
concerning who discovered distillation and when the discovery was made. 6
However, it was Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) who first clearly described the process
which made possible the manufacture of distilled spirits (Patrick, 1952, p. 29).
Knowledge of the process began to spread slowly among monks, physicians and
alchemists, who were interested in distilled alcohol as a cure for ailments. At that time
it was called aqua vitae, "water of life," 7 but was later known as brandy. The latter
term was derived from the Dutch brandewijn, meaning burnt (or distilled) wine
(Seward, 1979, p. 151; Roueche, 1963, pp. 172-173).

The Black Death and subsequent plagues, which began in the mid-fourteenth century,
dramatically changed people's perception of their lives and place in the cosmos. With
no understanding or control of the plagues that reduced the population by as much as
82% in some villages, "processions of flagellants mobbed city and village streets,
hoping, by the pains they inflicted on themselves and each other, to take the edge off
the plagues they attributed to God's wrath over human folly" (Slavin, 1973, pp. 12-
16).

Some dramatically increased their consumption of alcohol in the belief that this might
protect them from the mysterious disease, while others thought that through
moderation in all things, including alcohol, they could be saved. It would appear that,
on balance, consumption of alcohol was high. For example, in Bavaria, beer
consumption was probably about 300 liters per capita a year (compared to 150 liters
today) and in Florence wine consumption was about ten barrels per capita a year.
Understandably, the consumption of distilled spirits, which was exclusively for
medicinal purposes, increased in popularity (Austin, 1985, pp. 104-105,107-108).

As the end of the Middle Ages approached, the popularity of beer spread to England,
France and Scotland (Austin, pp. 118-119). Beer brewers were recognized officially
as a guild in England (Monckton, 1966, pp. 69-70), and the adulteration of beer or
wine became punishable by death in Scotland (Cherrington, 1929, vol. 5, p. 2,383).
Importantly, the consumption of spirits as a beverage began to occur (Braudel, 1974,
p. 171).

EARLY MODERN PERIOD

The early modem period was generally characterized by increasing prosperity and
wealth. Towns and cities grew in size and number, foreign lands were discovered and
colonized, and trade expanded. Perhaps more importantly, there developed a new
view of the world. The medieval emphasis on other-worldliness - the belief that life in
this world is only a preparation for heaven - slowly gave way, especially among the
wealthy and well educated, to an interest in life in the here and now (Wallbank &
Taylor, 1954, p. 513).

The Protestant Reformation and rise of aggressive national states destroyed the ideal
of a universal Church overseeing a Holy Roman Empire. Rationality, individualism,
and science heavily impacted the prevalent emotional idealism, communalism, and
traditional religion (Wallbank & Taylor, 1954, pp. 513-518; Slavin, 1973, ch. 5-7).
However, the Protestant leaders such as Luther, Calvin, the leaders of the Anglican
Church and even the Puritans did not differ substantially from the teachings of the
Catholic Church: alcohol was a gift of God and created to be used in moderation for
pleasure, enjoyment and health; drunkenness was viewed as a sin (Austin, 1985, p.
194).

From this period through at least the beginning of the eighteenth century, attitudes
toward drinking were characterized by a continued recognition of the positive nature
of moderate consumption and an increased concern over the negative effects of
drunkenness. The latter, which was generally viewed as arising out of the increased
self-indulgence of the time, was seen as a threat to spiritual salvation and societal well
being. Intoxication was also inconsistent with the emerging emphasis on rational
mastery of self and world and on work and efficiency (Austin, 1985, pp. 129-130).

However, consumption of alcohol was often high. In the sixteenth century, alcohol
beverage consumption reached 100 liters per person per year in Valladolid, Spain, and
Polish peasants consumed up to three liters of beer per day (Braudel, 1974, pp. 236-
238). In Coventry, the average amount of beer and ale consumed was about 17 pints
per person per week, compared to about three pints today (Monckton, 1966, p. 95);
nationwide, consumption was about one pint per day per capita. Swedish beer
consumption may have been 40 times higher than in modem Sweden. English sailors
received a ration of a gallon of beer per day, while soldiers received two-thirds of a
gallon. In Denmark, the usual consumption of beer appears to have been a gallon per
day for adult laborers and sailors (Austin, 1985, pp. 170, 186, 192).

However, the production and distribution of spirits spread slowly. Spirit drinking was
still largely for medicinal purposes throughout most of the sixteenth century. It has
been said of distilled alcohol that "the sixteenth century created it; the seventeenth
century consolidated it; the eighteenth popularized it" (Braudel, 1967, p. 170).

A beverage that clearly made its debut during the seventeenth century was sparkling
champagne. The credit for that development goes primarily to Dom Perignon, the
wine-master in a French abbey. Around 1668, he used strong bottles, invented a more
efficient cork (and one that could contain the effervescence in those strong bottles),
and began developing the technique of blending the contents. However, another
century would pass before problems, especially bursting bottles, would be solved and
sparkling champagne would become popular (Younger, 1966, pp. 345-346; Doxat,
1971, p. 54; Seward, 1979, pp. 139-143).

The original grain spirit, whiskey, appears to have first been distilled in Ireland. While
its specific origins are unknown (Magee, 1980, p. 7; Wilson, 1973, p. 7) there is
evidence that by the sixteenth century it was widely consumed in some parts of
Scotland (Roueche, 1963, pp. 175-176). It was also during the seventeenth century
that Franciscus Sylvius (or Franz de la Boe), a professor of medicine at the University
of Leyden, distilled spirits from grain.

Distilled spirit was generally flavored with juniper berries. The resulting beverage
was known as junever, the Dutch word for "juniper." The French changed the name to
genievre, which the English changed to "geneva" and then modified to "gin" 8
(Roueche, 1963, pp. 173-174). Originally used for medicinal purposes, the use of gin
as a social drink did not grow rapidly at first (Doxat, 1972, p. 98; Watney, 1976, p.
10). However, in 1690, England passed "An Act for the Encouraging of the
Distillation of Brandy and Spirits from Corn" and within four years the annual
production of distilled spirits, most of which was gin, reached nearly one million
gallons (Roueche, 1963, p. 174).

The seventeenth century also saw the Virginia colonists continue the traditional belief
that alcoholic beverages are a natural food and are good when used in moderation. In
fact, beer arrived with the first colonists, who considered it essential to their well
being (Baron, 1962, pp. 3-8). The Puritan minister Increase Mather preached in favor
of alcohol but against its abuse: "Drink is in itself a good creature of God, and to be
received with thankfulness, but the abuse of drink is from Satan; the wine is from
God, but the Drunkard is from the Devil" (quoted in Rorabaugh, 1979, p. 30). During
that century the first distillery was established in the colonies on what is now Staten
Island (Roueche, 1963, p. 178), cultivation of hops began in Massachusetts, and both
brewing and distilling were legislatively encouraged in Maryland (Austin, 1985, pp.
230 and 249).

Rum is produced by distilling fermented molasses, which is the residue left after sugar
has been made from sugar cane. Although it was introduced to the world, and
presumably invented, by the first European settlers in the West Indies, no one knows
when it was first produced or by what individual. But by 1657, a rum distillery was
operating in Boston. It was highly successful and within a generation the manufacture
of rum would become colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry
(Roueche, 1963, p. 178).

The dawn of the eighteenth century saw Parliament pass legislation designed to
encourage the use of grain for distilling spirits. In 1685, consumption of gin had been
slightly over one-half million gallons (Souria, 1990, p. 20). By 1714, gin production
stood at two million gallons (Roueche, 1963, p. 174). In 1727, official (declared and
taxed) production reached five million gallons; six years later the London area alone
produced eleven million gallons of gin (French, 1890, p. 271; Samuelson, 1878, pp.
160-161; Watney, 1976, p. 16).

The English government actively promoted gin production to utilize surplus grain and
to raise revenue. Encouraged by public policy, very cheap spirits flooded the market
at a time when there was little stigma attached to drunkenness and when the growing
urban poor in London sought relief from the newfound insecurities and harsh realities
of urban life (Watney, 1976, p. 17; Austin, 1985, pp. xxi-xxii). Thus developed the
so-called Gin Epidemic.

While the negative effects of that phenomenon may have been exaggerated9 (Sournia,
1990, p. 21; Mathias, 1959, p. xxv), Parliament passed legislation in 1736 to
discourage consumption by prohibiting the sale of gin in quantities of less than two
gallons and raising the tax on it dramatically. 10 However, the peak in consumption
was reached seven years later, when the nation of six and one-half million people
drank over 18 million gallons of gin. And most was consumed by the small minority
of the population then living in London and other cities; people in the countryside
largely remained loyal to beer, ale and cider (Doxat, 1972, pp. 98-100; Watney, 1976,
p.17).

After its dramatic peak, gin consumption rapidly declined. From 18 million gallons in
1743, it dropped to just over seven million gallons in 1751 and to less than two
million by 1758, and generally declined to the end of the century (Ashton, 1955, p.
243). A number of factors appear to have converged to discourage consumption of
gin. These include the production of higher quality beer of lower price, rising corn
prices and taxes which eroded the price advantage of gin, a temporary ban on
distilling, a stigmatization of drinking gin, an increasing criticism of drunkenness, a
newer standard of behavior that criticized coarseness and excess, increased tea and
coffee consumption, an increase in piety and increasing industrialization with a
consequent emphasis on sobriety and labor efficiency (Sournia, 1990, p. 22; King,
1947, p. 117; Austin, 1985, pp. xxiii-xxiv, 324-325, 351; Younger, 1966, p. 341).

While drunkenness was still an accepted part of life in the eighteenth century (Austin,
1985, p. xxv), the nineteenth century would bring a change in attitudes as a result of
increasing industrialization and the need for a reliable and punctual work force
(Porter, 1990, p. xii). Self-discipline was needed in place of self-expression, and task
orientation had to replace relaxed conviviality. Drunkenness would come to be
defined as a threat to industrial efficiency and growth.

Problems commonly associated with industrialization and rapid urbanization were

also attributed to alcohol. Thus, problems such as urban crime, poverty and high
infant mortality rates were blamed on alcohol, although "it is likely that gross
overcrowding and unemployment had much to do with these problems" (Soumia,
1990, p. 21). Over time, more and more personal, social and religious/moral problems
would be blamed on alcohol. And not only would it be enough to prevent
drunkenness; any consumption of alcohol would come to be seen as unacceptable.
Groups that began by promoting temperance - the moderate use of alcohol - would
ultimately become abolitionist and press for the complete and total prohibition of the
production and distribution of beverage alcohol. Unfortunately, this would not
eliminate social problems but would compound the situation by creating additional
problems.