B.

Language Maintenance

-Language maintenance denotes the continuing use of a language in the face of competition from a

regionally and socially more powerful language.

-Language maintenance: refers to the situation where a speaker, a group of speakers, or a speech

community continues to use their language in same or all spheres of life despise competition with
the

dominant or majority language to become the main language in these spheres.

Language Shift

Language shift, also known as language transfer or language replacement or language assimilation, is

the process whereby a community of speakers of a language shifts to speak a different language,

usually over an extended period of time.

The causes language shift?

- Factors contributing to language shift are economic, social and political factors; demographic

factors; and attitudes and values.

- The economic factor: obtaining/getting work is the most obvious economic reason for learning

another

- Social factor when the community sees no reason to take active steps to maintain their ethnic

language. When a community of speakers moving to a region or country whose language is

different from theirs, there is a tendency to shift to the new language

- Cultural factor, When no more society/family relation or cohesion, but each has high emphasis on

individual achievement. No nationalistic aspiration.

- Linguistic factor: Home language has international status importance/no selling point any more, or
no

standard variety

- Political factor; has no more status or his/her political affiliation is not recognized any more in his

home land.

The difference between language change and language shift:

 By definition, it is not a structural change caused by the dynamics of the old language as a

system. ... Language shift results in the spread of the new language that is adopted, and may

result in the endangerment or loss of the old language, some or all of whose speakers are
changing their allegiance

The way to maintain language.

 Language is an important part of any society, because it enables people to communicate and

express themselves. When a language dies out, future generations lose a vital part of the culture

that is necessary to completely understand it.

 Language shift, also known as language transfer or language replacement or language

assimilation, is the process whereby a community of speakers of a language shifts to speaking a

different language, usually over an extended period of time.

The factors that affect language change

 Fads. Sometimes it becomes fashionable to imitate the speech of a prestigious person or group

as a sign of sympathy or solidarity. ...

 Invasions. Sometimes a more powerful or culturally advanced group imposes itself on another

group. ...

 Disease and catastrophes. During the 14th century more.

C. Linguistic Varieties

In sociolinguistics, language variety—also called dialect—is a general term for any distinctive form of
a

language or linguistic expression. Linguists commonly use language variety (or simply variety) as a

cover term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language, including dialect, register, jargon,

and idiolect.

1. Vernacular Language.

A vernacular language (non-standard dialect) is a native dialect or form of speech of specific people
or a

specific region. These languages are also known as ethnic languages, and they are more spoken than

formally written and are endemic in specific societies.

Synonyms for vernacular

 vulgar.

 common.

 local.

 natural.

 ordinary.

 dialectal.

 domesticated.

Examples of Vernacular in Literature

 Example #1: The Canterbury Tales (By Geoffrey Chaucer) “Whan that Aprille,

with hise shoures soote, ...

 Example #2: A Clockwork Orange (By Anthony Burgess) ...

 Example #3: Boxy an Star (By Daren King) ...

 Example #4: Trainspotting (By Irvine Welsh)

2. Standard Language

-Standard language is the way to use language in official and formal situation as in newspapers and

public speeches. The core idea of standard language is to codify a public, particularly written
language

so that it is accessible to every speaker of the language to be used in education, media and science.

-A standard language is a variety of language that is used by governments, in the media, in schools
and

for international communication. ... This book is a grammar of standard written and spoken British

English. It has examples of forms of English that are standard but that are more common in speaking

than in writing.

* The characteristics of standard English

Standard English has distinctive features of grammar, vocabulary and orthography (spelling &

punctuation) but not of pronunciation. This is because it can be spoken with any accent. It is the

most prestigious variety of English, associated with people of high social status.

Standard English is not entirely uniform around the globe: for example, American users of standard
English say the first floor and I've just gotten a letter and write center and color, while British
users say

ground floor and I've just got a letter and write centre and colour

* The five levels of language analysis?

As shown in the figure, the major levels of structure applicable here are Phonological ( relate

accent), Morphological ( word form, center and centre), Syntactic (sentence pattern), Semantic (

meaning football, first and ground floor) for British & American), and the Pragmatic (or

Discourse) level.

3. Lingua franca

lin·gua fran·ca ( noun)

/ˌliNGɡwə ˈfraNGkə/

noun: lingua franca; plural noun: lingua francas

-A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native

languages are different.

-A lingua franca also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language,

auxiliary language

4. Pidgin ( Language)

In linguistics, a pidgin (pronounced PIDG-in) is a simplified form of speech formed out of one or more

existing languages and used as a lingua franca by people who have no other language in common. ...
[It

is] sometimes regarded as a 'reduced' variety of a 'normal' language.

- Pidgins usually have smaller vocabularies, a simpler structure, and more limited

functions than natural languages. Some typical features include of pidgin languages are

as follows: Subject-Verb-Object word order. absence of grammatical markers for

gender, number, case, tense, aspect, mood Pidgins usually have smaller vocabularies, a
simpler structure, and more limited functions than natural languages. Some typical

features include of pidgin languages are as follows: Subject-Verb-Object word order.

absence of grammatical markers for gender, number, case, tense, aspect, mood.

 Where is pidgin English spoken?

It is widely spoken in Nigeria, Ghana, Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon. There are differences,

because English is mixed with different languages in each country but they are usually mutually

intelligible

Pidgin Phrases In Hawai you Should Know

 (Don't say #4 Wrong or You'll Probably end up in Jail) ...

 #2) This Buggah is Pau. ...

 #3) Malihini (mah-lee-hee-nee) ...

 #4) I'd like to sample some Pakalolo. ...

 #5) Eh Braddah, Howzit?! ...

 #6) Da Kine. ...

 #7) I gotta go shishi! ...

 #9) Shaka

 Useful phrases in Tok Pisin ( Pidgin In Papua Ne

English Tok Pisin

Welcome Welkam

Hello (General greeting) Gude Hi Hai

How are you? Yu stap gut? Yu olsem wanem?

Reply to 'How are you?' Mi stap gut

5. Creole (Language).

A creole language is a stable natural language developed from a mixture of different languages.
Unlike a

pidgin, a simplified form that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups,
a

creole language is a complete language, used in a community and acquired by children as their
native
language.

*Where is the Creole language spoken?

Haitian Creole (Kreyòl ayisyen, locally called Creole) is a language spoken primarily in Haiti:

the largest French-derived language in the world, with an estimated total of 12 million fluent

speakers.

What is Creole in linguistics?

-In linguistics, a creole is a type of natural language that developed historically from a pidgin

and came into existence at a fairly precise point in time. ... Decreolization is the process by

which a creole language gradually becomes more like the standard language of a region (or the

acrolect)

6. Multilingual Nations

1. Russia (24 official languages across all republics) National language: Russian

2. India (23 official languages) ... No National language,

3. Zimbabwe (16 official languages) ... No National L, Shona, English two Off lgs

4. South Africa (11 official languages) ...

5. Serbia (7 official languages) ...

6. Switzerland (4 national languages) ...

7. The Netherlands (4 official languages) ...

8. Moldova (4 official languages) .

D. National language

A national language is a language which has some connection—de facto or de jure—with a people
and

perhaps by extension the territory they occupy. The term is used variously. ... National language may

alternatively be a designation given to one or more languages spoken as first languages in the
territory

of a country.

Why do we need national language?

- National language is a driving force behind unity of the nation's people, and

makes them distinct from other nations – provided you give your language
respect. Giving respect to your national language means that it should be one's

primary language, as well as the preferred source of communication at every

level.

- We need a national language so that at least 90% of our citizens understand each

others` views and can easily work with each other if they want. If we cannot even

understand each other, can we function as a real democracy.

National language vs Official language

-An official language is a language that is used for official/formal purposes in a country. Government

documents, legal proceedings, police reports, business contracts, that sort of thing.

- A national language is a language that is symbolic of that country, usually for historical, cultural,
and

ethnic reasons

1. Language planning

- Language planning is the attempt to influence how a language is used. This is usually done to make
it

possible to use the language for more subjects. Goals, objectives and strategies are made to change
the

way a language is used. For many languages there are special organisations, that look after the

language.

- Language planning efforts typically include several stages. The first stage is a needs analysis,
involving

a sociopolitical analysis of communication patterns within the society. The next stages in the
language

planning process involve the selection of a language or language variety for planning purposes.

Four major types of language planning are status planning (about the social standing of a language),

corpus planning (the structure of a language), language-in-education planning (learning), and

planning (image). Language planning may occur at the macro-level (the state) or the micro-level (the

community).

1.1. What is the purpose of language planning?

Language planning is to reform and revitalize a language, to modernize and standardize a

and harmony.

2. Codification in language.

( Linguists role for Codification), it is the process of selecting, developing, and laying down

(prescribing) a model for standard language usage. Language codifying a language can vary from

case to case and depends on the stage of standardization that might have already occurred
naturally. So

this has to with making rules to be followed/adopted/used by the related users.

3.Multilingual nations.

Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or a community of speakers to communicate

effectively in three or more languages, and the followings are the countries that have multilingual

communities/speakers;

1. Russia (24 official languages across all republics)

2. India (23 official languages) ...

3. Zimbabwe (16 official languages) ...

4. South Africa (11 official languages) ...

5. Serbia (7 official languages) ...

6. Switzerland (4 national languages) ...

7. The Netherlands (4 official languages) ...

8. Moldova (4 official languages) .

E. Regional and social dialects.

- How many English dialects are there in England?. There are 37 dialects.

The British Isles is made up many, many different accents and dialects – more than 37 dialects

at the last count. A dialect is a variety of a language that differs from the standard language, in

this case RP. Dialects can vary regionally – depending on where in the country a person is from,

as well as socially

- How many English dialects are there in America?

The Map shows how Americans Speak 24 different English Dialects.

sayings that are nearly incomprehensible to people from different parts of the country, as

America has very many pluralistic people.

1 . Regional dialect

-Different dialects are generally distinguishable in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar and
regional

dialect are geographically based.

- A regional dialect, also known as a regiolect or topolect, is a distinct form of a language

spoken in a particular geographical area. If the form of speech transmitted from a parent to a

child is a distinct regional dialect, that dialect is said to be the child's vernacular.

Examples and Observations

"As opposed to a national dialect, a regional dialect is spoken in one particular area of a

country. In the USA, regional dialects include Appalachian, New Jersey and Southern English,

and in Britain, Cockney, Liverpool English and 'Geordie' (Newcastle English)

Examples of Dialect:

 A Northern American might say, “hello.”

 A Southern American might say, “howdy

example; How do you say hello in Liverpool?

I – 'Iya. (greeting) The only way to say hello to your friends.

-.What accent do New Yorkers have?

The Jewish, Irish, and Italian immigrants whose languages mixed to form the accent commonly

associated with New York City have long since adopted the more understated American

inflection that they heard on TV, or else moved deep into Jersey or out on the Island

2 . Social dialect.

2.1. What are social dialects?

- Social dialect is a variety of speech associated with a particular social class or occupational
group within a society. Also known as a sociolect, group idiolect, and class dialect, so this has to

do with some variety factors/determinants

- The determinants/factors of social stratification;

Our classes are largely based on socioeconomic status, or SES, which is a categorization formula

that considers a person's income, education, and occupation, this equates to three
stratification

factors: wealth ( very rich, rich, quite rich, average poor), power ( the position / status we

hold/have), and prestige ( whether we are very popular/well-known, popular, not popular/

nobody knows/recognizes us). All these would signal/show our language use or in other words,

social class affects language use.

Then, in can be shortened as follows;

The use of standard and non-standard dialects, often reflects speakers social class ( Upper

classes, Middle classes or Lower classes)

 Upper classes tend to speak standard dialects.

 Middle classes sometimes speak more standard dialects because they hope to move to a higher

class

 Lower classes tend to speak non-standard dialects.