Title Presentation Skills

Description
Keywords
Objectives
Author SSDS
Organisation University of Leicester
Version V1.0
Date 24 Jan 2010
Copyright

Poster presentations

Aims and Objectives

This guide presents a strategy for producing poster presentations that encourages
clarity as well as creativity, helping you to make the most of your poster design.

Introduction

Posters are often used to share information and are an important part of many
conferences, seminars and exhibitions. They may be used to present quite complex
material, and so it is important that the information on them is well laid out, legible and
attractively presented.

General points about posters

Poster presenters are usually offered a large area to display their material (typically
1m2 or 2m by 1m).

Posters are usually read at a viewing distance of more than one metre. You will need to
make sure that your poster is legible and easy to scan at this distance so that your
information is understood quickly.

The temptation to fill the space with as much material as possible should be avoided;
poster presentations should never be as dense as a printed page.

Many seminar or workshops organisers supply guidelines suggesting suitable typeface

styles and sizes, along with conventions for titles and subheadings. Use these to guide
your basic poster design.

When making posters it is essential that you give careful consideration to their visual
appearance as well as their content.

Methods of making posters

There are two popular approaches to making a poster.

Approach One - One-piece method

The presenter chooses to design the poster in one large piece (Figure 1). The design is
prepared using a versatile software application such as Microsoft Powerpoint It is
designed and produced in A3 or A4 size and is then enlarged at the printout stage.

(Figure 1:One-piece method)

(Note: producing one-piece posters can take a little while to get used to. Make sure you
start working on your first poster in plenty of time. Using a template could save you
some time)

Approach Two - Panel method

The allocated poster area is divided up into a number of separate panels (Figure 2).
These may consist of different elements such as text, pictures, tables or titles.

(Figure 2: Panel method)

Standard word-processor or presentation software, e.g. Microsoft Word or Powerpoint

is used to prepare the panels which are then mounted onto a background. Laminating
the individual elements can improve their appearance and robustness.
Choose the production method that is most appropriate to your needs, abilities and
resources. The panel method allows for greater flexibility and can be adapted to
changing layouts. The one-piece method can be very eye-catching, making your poster
stand out from the rest.

Stages in producing a poster

Step One – Choosing content

The first step is to clarify the task that you have been set and the type of information
that you will need to include on your poster. The following questions are useful
reminders of the range of factors that you might need to consider before you start
writing the text of your poster.

What is the purpose of your poster – to report findings, present an argument,

convince an audience or promote a product?
Who will be looking at your poster – a specialist audience, the general public,
other students?
What will your audience be looking for – detailed information or a brief
summary?
Where will your poster be displayed – in a busy conference hall or in your
department?
Are there any guidelines governing the content of your poster? These might
specify the nature and structure of the material to be displayed (as well as
practical issues such as the size of the poster and the size and amount of text to
be used).

The answers to these questions will influence the nature and amount of material that
you display. If you think that you are including too much information in your display,
think about what could be taken out; remember that ‘less’ is often ‘more’ in visual
displays.

Step Two – Making a plan

Once you have decided on the content of your poster, you need to consider the way the
information should be displayed. A useful starting point is to prepare an outline plan
that will help you make the most effective use of the space available to you.

Structure

Your overall structure should be clear and logical so that the viewer’s eye naturally
follows the flow of information in your display. To help establish a clear sequence of
information, think about planning your poster on a grid system as in the diagram on the
following page (Figure 3).
 (Figure 3: Grid systems)

As you can see, the grids help break down the large space into convenient sized areas.
Also, two main visual sequences become apparent: rows travelling across the page or
columns travelling down the page. These natural ‘pathways’ can be used to structure
your information in both panel and one-piece poster displays, guiding your reader’s eye
through your information in a logical and fluid way.

Using a grid system, try producing a rough sketch of your poster layout working in a
reduced scale to get a feel for how you might assemble your information in the final
display. Use a pencil and some scrap paper to help you think freely and experiment with
different designs.

Developing your poster design

Once you have established a basic layout for your poster, try printing out rough versions
of the text and use scissors and glue to move things around. This can be used to
experiment with different sequences and spacings and will help you gauge the amount
of information needed for an effective display.

Step Three - Preparing your final poster

When you have a fairly good idea of where you want things to go, you can start to
prepare your final poster. If you are aware of a few design principles as you prepare
your material, you are more likely to achieve good results. Sticking to the following
rules will help you produce an effective poster. Once you have more experience of
poster production you can become more adventurous.

Using text

Once you have written your text, you need to choose how to present it. There are five
main variables to consider.

Font - choose a font that is easy to read at a distance. Most of the standard fonts
are fine for this (e.g. Helvetica, Palatino, Times). Avoid mixing too many fonts as
this can look messy. Two is often ideal; one for the headings and one for the main
text.
Type size - remember that your poster will be read by someone standing at
about a metre away so the text will need to be legible at a distance. Use large
type sizes; the following examples are at 24 point and 36 point and can be clearly
read at a distance. Titles and headings will need to be larger than your main text.
Developing a hierarchy of type sizes can help to differentiate between your main
body text and the other text elements in your poster. Keep the number of type
sizes to a minimum to avoid over-cluttering your poster. Apply your hierarchy to
all aspects of your poster design to ensure consistency.
Line spacing or 'leading’ - using one and a half or double spacing between lines
of text greatly increases the legibility of your poster design.
Alignment - most word-processing packages give you the option of aligning your
text in different ways on the page; the main choices are left, right, centre and
justified. Avoid mixing alignments as this can look very awkward. Left aligned is
the easiest to read, particularly when using large type.
Case - text in UPPER CASE can be very difficult to read, even at close distances,
and is best avoided.

Colour palette

Colour can add an extra dimension to your poster design, making a poster more
attractive and giving you another method of highlighting particular aspects of your
information. Choose colours that work well together so that they don’t detract from the
information in your display. It is sensible to use a small range of colours so that your
poster doesn't look chaotic.

Diagrams

Displaying information on a poster gives you an opportunity to represent your data in

an interesting and eye-catching way. Think about how your display can be enhanced
through the use of illustrations, tables, charts or photographs. The inclusion of one
carefully chosen image can be a very powerful way of drawing people’s attention to
your poster.

Step Four - Showing your poster

Poster presentations can take many forms. Sometimes you will be asked to stand next to
your poster, talking to people as they browse and answering questions about your
work. At other times, your poster will simply need to ‘stand alone’ as part of a general
display. It might be useful to think about how you can help an interested reader take
information away from your poster: printing off A4 copies of one-piece posters or
producing bullet-point summaries of panel posters are very effective ways of sharing
your information.

Summary

Posters are a highly visual medium and can be a very effective way of communicating
information to a wide audience. The challenge is to produce a poster design that is both
pleasing to the eye and logical to the mind. Time taken to produce a coherent and
creative display can produce stunning results.

Delivering an effective presentation

Introduction

An effective presenter needs to be flexible, energetic and enthusiastic. This guide will
help you turn your written presentation into an imaginative public performance.

Presentation as performance

Making a presentation puts you on public display. An audience not only listens to your
ideas, it also responds to the way you use your voice and your body. You need more
than a well written presentation to make an impact. You will also need to deliver it in a
lively, flexible and interesting way. In this leaflet we suggest many ideas for invoking
energy in your presentation style.

To begin with, imagine that you are in the audience for your presentation. What might:

grab your attention?

stimulate your imagination?
inspire your confidence?
develop your understanding?

Now think about ways to encourage these things.

Now follow the six steps to becoming an effective presenter

1. Practise

The more familiar you are with your material the more you will be able to inspire your
audience’s trust and confidence. Do more than practise reading through your material
to yourself. If possible, stand up in a room and deliver your presentation to the walls.
Get used to hearing your own voice filling a room. Familiarise yourself with the words
and phrases in your presentation. Play around with different volumes and see how well
you can hear your own voice. Above all, familiarise yourself with the main thrust of your
argument and explore how the individual elements of your presentation piece together.
This will help you to keep to your chosen objectives and avoid distractions when it
comes to your actual delivery.

To read or to learn?

Should you read out your presentation from detailed notes or present it completely
from memory? Find a way to compromise between these two approaches. There are
dangers in each.

Reading
Reading tends to focus your thoughts on your notes, thus losing contact with your
audience. Reading can also reduce your voice to a monotone, removing energy and
enthusiasm from your delivery. Directly addressing your audience is much more
engaging.

Learning
Learning is fine until you lose your way; for example, a member of the audience asks a
question or your overhead projector bulb blows. Always have some form of notes to
keep you on the right track. Also, if you over learn your notes you might lose a sense of
energy and enthusiasm. Always work for a sense of confident spontaneity.

Find a way of making notes to support your presentation style. The most common form
of note making is to use index cards. These can be read at a glance. Use them as visual
prompts to guide you through your presentation. Use one card for each main idea,
including details of the supporting information for each point. Connect your cards
together with a tag or a piece of string so that they can't get out of order.

2. Assert yourself

An effective presenter needs to be assertive, not aggressive. There are two important Ps.

Posture

It is important to appear confident at all times. Different postures create different

moods. A very formal, upright and still posture will create a very different atmosphere
from a relaxed and active one. Remember to match your physical behaviour to the
objectives underpinning your presentation. If you want to be either formal or informal,
make deliberate choices about your physical style and stick to these.

Presence

Have the confidence to fill your space in front of an audience. Avoid apologising for your
presence by saying “sorry” (although you must be polite if circumstances so demand e.g.
the session is running over time, or the microphone has stopped working). Also, avoid
physical apologies by hiding behind a desk or lectern. You must be confident that the
audience wants to listen and that you have something interesting to tell them. Don’t be
afraid to wait for an audience to settle down before you start speaking or to ask for
quiet if this does not happen.

3. Make contact with your audience

One of the key challenges faced by the presenter is to establish links with her/his
audience (a poor presenter appears to be speaking to an empty room). Making contact
helps to maintain an audience's interest and encourages them to believe that you are
genuinely interested in talking to them. You can make contact with your audience in a
number of ways, including:

eye contact;
gestures;
spoken contact;
your use of language.

Eye contact

Eye contact is part of everyday communication and an audience can feel uncomfortable
if they are denied it. Making eye contact with individuals gives them a sense of
involvement in your presentation and helps to convey your objectives on a personal
level. Make sure that you share eye contact with all members of a small audience and all
areas of a large audience. Regularly shift your focus around the room, not so that you
look nervous, but to help involve as many people as possible in your talk.

A handy tip: if you can’t make eye contact in a large group, don’t look at the floor or
ceiling (this looks like boredom or rudeness). Try looking at people’s foreheads. The
people sat around them will read this as eye contact even if the individual won’t.

Gesture

People use their arms and hands in every day conversation to add emphasis or to help
describe events. Presenters will therefore look rather awkward if they keep their hands
in their pockets or rooted firmly at their sides. Use gestures to welcome your audience,
to add emphasis to your main points or to indicate an ending. Try to use open gestures
which move away from your body, extending them out to your audience. This helps to
break any audience/presenter divisions. Make sure that all gestures are controlled and
precise; too much movement will appear nervous and unfocussed. Always watch against
distracting your audience from the content of your presentation. You should continually
be trying to find ways to help them listen and understand.

Spoken contact

Acknowledge your audience by making verbal contact with them. At the beginning of
your talk ask if they can see and hear you, or check that lighting and sound levels on
audio-visual equipment are satisfactory. During your presentation, ask rhetorical
questions that you can then answer (e.g. “How do we know this was true?” or “So, what
does this prove?”). At the end of your talk give the audience an opportunity to ask
questions or to clarify detail - this encourages them to take ownership of your material.

The use of questions is an important tool. Questions involve your audience’s mind in a
more stimulating way than simply asking them to sit and listen to your talk. Draw an
audience in with clear, focused questions.

Language

Your use of language is particularly important in developing and sustaining a

relationship with your audience. Try using language that involves your audience. For
example, asking questions such as “What can we learn from this?” or “How did we arrive
at this conclusion?” involves your audience in an exploratory process or discussion.
When looking at visual aids, introduce them by saying “If we look at this slide we can see
that ...” or “This slide shows us that…”. Use language that is welcoming and involving
throughout your presentation.

4. Use your voice

Your voice is a very flexible and powerful tool. You can use it in many different ways by
varying the:

volume;
pace;
pitch.

Volume

Make sure that your voice is loud enough for your audience to hear clearly. Speaking too
loudly or too quietly can make it difficult for your audience to follow your presentation.
Listen to people speaking in normal conversation. They tend to raise or lower their
volume for emphasis. For example, they may speak loudly when giving an instruction
but softly when apologising. To add energy to your presentation, use these colourful
changes to your best advantage: a conspiratorial whisper can draw an audience in; a
loudly spoken exclamation can make them sit up and listen.

Pace

Make sure that the speed of your delivery is easy to follow. If you speak too quickly or
too slowly your audience will have difficulty following your talk. To add life to your
presentation, try changing the pace of your delivery. A slightly faster section might
convey enthusiasm. A slightly slower one might add emphasis or caution.

Pitch
The pitch of your voice also varies in day to day conversation and it is important to play
on this when making a presentation. For example, your pitch will rise when asking a
question; it will lower when you wish to sound severe.

Play around with the volume, pace and pitch of your voice when practising your
presentation. Find different ways of saying the same sentence. Explore different ways of
adding emphasis to your main points. Always try to convey enthusiasm and energy
through your use of your voice.

5. Breathe

Always remember to breathe steadily and deeply. If you are anxious about making a
presentation your breathing will become fast and shallow. This will affect the quality of
your voice and your ability to speak clearly for extended periods of time. Try to take a
few deep breaths before you make your presentation, making a conscious effort to slow
your breathing down and taking in more air with each breath. During your presentation,
use pauses after questions or at the end of sections to allow comfortable breathing
patterns. Don’t be afraid to slow down the pace of your presentation if your breathing
becomes uncomfortable.

6. Drink

It is a good idea to have some liquid to hand to quench your thirst if you are speaking
for a long time. However, be careful not to gulp ice-cold water before you go on as this
constricts your throat and affects the quality of your voice. Drink a warm (not hot) cup
of tea to relax your throat and ease your speaking voice.

And finally ... a note about humour

Only use humour if you know it will work. Humour needs to be relaxed and confident - if
used badly, it will only heighten senses of awkwardness and anxiety if these are already
present. Use humour if you know you can and if you feel it is appropriate to do so.

Conclusion

Continually explore your personal style using any or all of the above suggestions in
different combinations for different effects. Above all, remember two main points:

be yourself— even in the most formal of surroundings you will need to be

yourself. No one will be impressed if you try to perform like a classical actor or
act like a stand-up comedian;
avoid any behaviour that might be off-putting to your audience— always be
deliberate and clear in your use of your voice and physical actions.

Using visual images can also increase the impact of your presentation.

Planning an effective presentation

Aims and Objectives

This study guide offers you an insight into the process of planning an effective
presentation. It focuses on the importance of the presenter's relationship with the
audience and suggests key strategies for making an impact.

What is an effective presentation?

An effective presentation makes the best use of the relationship between the presenter
and the audience. It takes full consideration of the audience’s needs in order to capture
their interest, develop their understanding, inspire their confidence and achieve the
presenter’s objectives.

Careful planning is essential.

Now follow the seven stages in planning a presentation

1. Preparation

Many factors affect the design of your presentation. A powerful presenter will
acknowledge and address each of the following:

objectives;
audience;
venue;
remit.

Objectives

Why you are making your presentation? Bear in mind what you want to achieve and
what you want your audience to take away with them. Once you have decided upon
your objectives, you are in a much better position to make strategic decisions about the
design and tone of your presentation. For example, a presentation to a seminar group
might require a balanced argument, whereas a charity appeal might require a more
creative approach. Ask yourself:

what do you want your audience to have understood?

what action do you want your audience to take following your presentation?
how can you best design your presentation to meet your objectives?

Audience

Your audience will have a variety of different experiences, interests and levels of
knowledge. A powerful presenter will need to acknowledge these and prepare for and
respond to them accordingly. Ask yourself:
 how much will your audience already know about your topic?
how can you link new material to things they might already understand?
will you need to win them over to a particular point of view?

You may not be able to answer these questions for each member of your audience but
you should have enough information to ensure that you have targeted your material at
the right level for their needs. This might involve avoiding technical jargon or explaining
abstract concepts with clear practical examples. If you fail to consider your audience’s
needs, you will fail to appeal to their interest and imagination.

Venue

Where will you be making your presentation? What will the room be like? What
atmosphere will the physical conditions create? A large lecture theatre might create a
formal atmosphere. Similarly, a seminar room might create a less formal tone. Ask
yourself:

what kind of atmosphere do you wish to create?

how might the room arrangement affect your relationship with the audience?
can you do anything to change the arrangement of the room to suit your
objectives?
what audio-visual aids can you use?

Remit

You may well have been given a remit for your presentation; you will need to stick to
this. For example, you may have been asked to present a paper at a conference in a
certain style or meet certain assessment criteria on your course. Ask yourself:

how much time have you been allocated?

are you required to stick to a common format or style?
have any guidelines been set regarding the content of your presentation
(i.e. a predetermined title, or a fixed number of overhead transparencies)?

2. Choosing your main points

Once you have thought about the design of your presentation, you can define your main
points. Try presenting no more than three main points in a ten minute presentation.
Always allow time for an adequate introduction and conclusion. It is difficult for an
audience to follow a more complex argument without significant help from the
presenter. A powerful presentation delivers information in a logical, structured manner,
building on the previous point and avoiding large jumps in sequence. Ask yourself:

what are the main points you wish to make?

are these points structured in a logical, coherent way?
do these main points reflect your own objectives and take account of the
needs of your audience?
3. Choosing your supporting information

The supporting information helps your audience understand, believe in and agree with
your main points. This evidence might take the form of factual data, points of detail or
an explanation of process. It might be presented in imaginative ways using diagrams,
pictures or video segments. Think about:

what will add clarity to your argument (explaining complex terms, reminding
your audience of any supporting theories)?
what will add authority to your argument (making connections with other
people's work, quoting experts, offering evidence from your own research)?
what will add colour to your argument (showing a video clip or a slide, using
a
practical example or a vibrant analogy)?

4. Establishing linking statements

The next stage is to develop the linear flow of your presentation. This can be achieved
by using linking statements to show clearly how your main points fit together. Common
linking statements include:

“The next stage in our project was to …”;

“Another important issue of consideration was …”;
“By following this argument we can now see that …”.

Linking statements send signals to your audience, highlighting the next point in your
argument, linking to earlier ideas or clarifying the stage you have reached in your
argument overall. This may be of particular importance in a lengthy presentation where
even the most effective presenter has to work hard to keep an audience involved.

5. Developing an opening

The introduction to your presentation is crucial. It is your first point of contact with
your audience; you can either capture or lose your audience’s interest in a matter of
seconds. Use your introduction to lay a clear foundation for the presentation to follow.
Try using the following structure:

introduce yourself;
state what you will be talking about (a title or subject area);
state how you will be talking about it (e.g. by comparing test results or
reviewing the supporting literature);
state what you intend to be the outcome of your presentation (an informed
group, a lively discussion);
state what you expect your audience to do (listen, take notes, read a handout,
ask questions before/during/after).

Always give your audience a moment to absorb this information before moving into
your first main point.
6. Developing a conclusion

Your conclusion is another important stage in your presentation. You can use it to
remind your audience of your main points, draw these points to a stimulating
conclusion and leave your audience with a lasting impression of the quality of your
presentation. The following structure provides a powerful conclusion:

a review of your title or subject area

“In this presentation I wanted to explore the relationship between X and Y.”;
a summary of your main points
“We have discussed the following points…”;
a summary of the process you have been through
“By looking at X we have found that Y …”;
a conclusion clearly drawn from your main points (this must be supported by
the detail of your presentation)
“It is clear that there can be no substantive relationship between X and Y”;
a parting statement to stimulate your audience’s thoughts (this might be a
question or a bold comment).

7. Reviewing your presentation

Once you have written your presentation make sure that you review its content. Ask
yourself:

does the presentation meet your objectives?

is it logically structured?
have you targeted the material at the right level for your audience?
is the presentation too long or too short?

Structuring a presentation

Aims and Objectives

This guide discusses practical strategies for structuring a presentation, focusing on the
need to develop an argument or report through the clear, logical progression of ideas.

Presentation structure

Presentations need to be very straightforward and logical. It is important that you avoid
complex structures and focus on the need to explain and discuss your work clearly. An
ideal structure for a presentation includes:

a welcoming and informative introduction;

a coherent series of main points presented in a logical sequence;
a lucid and purposeful conclusion.
These elements are discussed below.

The introduction

The introduction is the point at which the presenter explains the content and purpose of
the presentation. This is a vitally important part of your talk as you will need to gain the
audience’s interest and confidence. Key elements of an effective introduction include:

a positive start: “Good afternoon, my name is Adam and …”;

a statement of what will be discussed: “I am going to explore …”;
a statement of the treatment to be applied to the topic (e.g. to compare, contrast,
evaluate, describe): “I will be comparing the four main principles of …”;
a statement of the outcomes of the presentation: “I hope this will provide us with
…”;
a statement of what the audience will need to do (e.g. when they can ask
questions or whether or not they will need to take notes): “I will pass round a
handout that summarises my presentation before taking questions at the end.”

You should aim to deliver your introduction confidently (wait until the audience is quiet
before you start speaking) and communicate energy and enthusiasm for your topic.

Main points

The main points are the backbone of your talk. They play an important role in helping
you prioritise, focus and sequence your information. When planning your presentation
you should put aside your research notes and produce a list or summary of the main
points that you would like to make, expressing each in a few words or a short sentence.
Ask yourself: “what am I really telling them? What should they be learning here?”. Your
answers to these questions will help you communicate clear and effective messages to
your audience.

After you have identified your main points, you should embellish them with supporting
information. For example, add clarity to your argument through the use of diagrams,
illustrate a link between theory and practice, or substantiate your claims with
appropriate data. Use the supporting information to add colour and interest to your
talk, but avoid detracting from the clarity of your main points by overburdening them
with too much detail.

Transitions

Transitions are the signposts that help the audience navigate their way through your
presentation. They can help divide information up into sub-sections, link different
aspects of your talk and show progression through your topic. Importantly, transitions
draw the audience’s attention to the process of the presentation as well as its content.
Examples include:

“I will begin by discussing …”;

“Now that we have explored the ... I would like to move on to …”;
 “In contrast to my earlier statements concerning …”;
“Moving away from a focus on .…”;

Transitions can also be made without speaking. Non-verbal transitions include pausing,
changing a slide or other visual aid, moving to a different area of the room before
resuming speaking, or making eye contact with a different group in the audience.

The Conclusion

The conclusion is an essential though frequently underdeveloped section of a

presentation. This is the stage at which you can summarise the content and purpose of
your talk, offer an overview of what has been achieved and make a lasting impact.
Important elements of a conclusion are:

a review of the topic and purpose of your presentation: “In this presentation I
wanted to explore …”;
a statement of the conclusions or recommendations to be drawn from your
work: “I hope to have been able to show that the effect of ....”;
an indication of the next stages (what might be done to take this work further?):
“This does of course highlight the need for further research in the area of …”;
an instruction as to what happens next (questions, discussion or group work?): “I
would now like to give you the opportunity to ask questions …”;
a thank you to the audience for their attention and participation: “That’s all I
have time for. Thank you very much for listening.”

As with your introduction, you should try to address the audience directly during your
conclusion, consolidating the impression of a confident and useful presentation.

Summary

A presentation needs a carefully defined structure to make the most impact. This should
centre on a series of identifiable main points that are supported by appropriate detail.
Use transitions to link and move between points, helping your audience to understand
the development or your argument. An introduction and conclusion are essential
elements of your presentation. They enable you to establish a clear purpose for your
talk at the start and summarise your main points before you finish speaking.

Keeping to time in presentations

This guide offers practical strategies for keeping your presentation within a given time
limit.

Introduction

A time restriction is a common feature of most student presentations as well as those in

the professional/work context. You will either be allotted a time for speaking and a time
for questions or an overall timeslot for both. Keeping to time shows respect for your
audience and ensures that you deliver a focused presentation that makes an impact.

What goes wrong?

Time limits are frequently exceeded for two main reasons:

the presenter has tried to incorporate too much information for the time
allowed;
the process of presenting (e.g. speaking, distributing handouts, using visual aids)
has simply taken more time than the presenter had planned for.

Managing the content

When planning your presentation, it is important to understand what can be achieved in

the allocated time. Remember that you cannot communicate the same amount of
information in a presentation that you can in a written report or essay.

Planning

It is important to prioritise your information at an early stage in the planning process.

When planning your presentation, put aside your notes and write a simple outline of
your talk. This outline should be based on a series of main points structured in a logical
order. Make sure that you can express each of the key points in a few words or a simple
sentence. If you cannot do this it is likely that you still haven’t found a precise focus for
your presentation. Remember that a clear focus enhances the impact of your talk.

When you have identified your main points, you can move on to illustrate your
argument with appropriate supporting information. Choose the supporting detail for
each main point carefully to find one or two examples that make a real impact and will
be remembered. A wealth of less illuminating detail will be much less effective.

Finally, plan to open and close your presentation with a strong introduction and
conclusion. Although these sections will demand time if they are to be effective, and
thus further limit the amount of information that you can include, they are essential
elements of effective presentations and should not be ignored.

Flexibility

If you have written your presentation as a complete script you will find it hard to adapt
and reduce the content as you deliver your material. However, if you have adopted the
planning structure outlined above, you will be better able to produce a flexible
presentation that can be shaped according to the time that you have available. If you
need to reduce the length of your presentation, for whatever reason, you should be able
to shorten the introduction, deliver the main points without some/all of the supporting
detail and deliver a truncated conclusion.

Managing the performance

Many presenters run out of time because they have not taken all aspects of their
performance into account when planning and rehearsing their presentation. When
planning your performance you will need to include time to:

get settled in front of your audience in order to prepare your visual aids, notes
etc. before you start talking;
distribute handouts at the start/during/end of your talk;
develop points in more detail if it appears that your audience hasn’t understood
an area of your talk;
accommodate any slight deviations from your script that you might make ‘off the
cuff’;
respond to questions whilst you’re speaking and after you’ve finished;
work with your visual aids (change slides, annotate images etc.);
accommodate any pauses whilst you review your notes / allow your audience
time to think between main points.

The delivery of your presentation will need to be controlled and well-paced to achieve
the best impact. If you have not allowed time for the different elements of your
performance, your presentation will appear rushed and congested.

Planning your use of time

It is important that when you have written the content of your presentation, you map
out how it will be delivered. This should include, for example, a clear plan of when you’ll
be giving out handouts, where you’ll be taking questions and the precise moment at
which you’ll be changing visual aids. This will help make these elements of your
presentation appear more purposeful as well as ensuring that you allocate time for such
non-spoken aspects of delivery. Many presenters mark such features on the script of
their presentation so that they are all included in the final performance (much as a play
script includes stage directions to remind the actors what to do and when to do it).

When practising your presentation, try to replicate the actual delivery as closely as
possible. Simply running through the words in your head is not enough to accommodate
all aspects of the performance. Ideally, try the presentation out in a seminar room or
lecture theatre where you can practise integrating all the elements of your talk, and
time the whole thing. If this is impossible, rehearse out loud, pausing where you would
need time for other activities.

Cutting time

Even though you may run to time in rehearsal it is still important to leave a few minutes
spare for the actual presentation. The impact of nerves and any interaction with your
audience will take up more time than you’d think. It is safer to plan to be a little under
time to make sure you can accommodate all aspects of your talk and avoid rushing.

If you have followed the above advice about structuring your presentation around main
points and supporting information, it should be fairly easy to reduce the length of your
presentation. To save a small amount of time, cut out some of the supporting detail. To
save larger amounts, review your main points and reduce these in number. Never try
speeding up the pace of delivery; this appears amateurish and seriously affects any
impact that you may be trying to make.

Managing the ‘mental clock’

Many presenters rely on their own mental awareness of time passing to keep
themselves to time. Unless you are a very experienced presenter, this rarely works in
practice (it is not unusual for a presenter to feel that they’ve only spoken for 5 minutes
when in fact they took closer to 15). Always refer to a clock at the back of the room to
keep a track of time. Alternatively, prop your wristwatch up on the desk in front of you
to avoid having to glance down at your wrist. Time your delivery in rehearsal and make
a note on your script where you should have reached in 5, 10, 15 minutes etc. If it looks
like you’re running out of time, pause for a moment to review what you can realistically
achieve in the last moments. Always remember to include a conclusion, no matter how
brief. This is where you make a lasting impression on your audience and is a vital part of
your success as a presenter.

Summary

Keeping to time requires that you carefully prioritise information for inclusion in your
presentation and plan each element of your delivery carefully (i.e. the script, your use of
visual aids, questions from the audience). Rehearse your presentation thoroughly so
that you have a clear idea of how the different elements fit together and can gauge how
much time you should allocate to each. When delivering your presentation, keep an eye
on the passage of time and be able to adjust your presentation accordingly. The more
experienced you become, the more skilled you will be at determining the amount of
information that can be included in a given time slot. However, even this isn’t fail-proof
and you should always rehearse carefully to ensure that you keep to time.

Presenting to large groups

Aims and Objectives

This guide addresses the key difficulties associated with speaking to large groups,
offering creative and practical solutions for making powerful presentations.

Introduction

Large groups can be a challenge to even the most experienced of presenters. Anxieties
can arise from:

the lack of contact with the audience;

an increased fear of making mistakes;
the difficulty in assessing whether or not the audience has understood and
valued the presentation.
Yet, despite these concerns, making presentations to large groups can be a very
rewarding experience, particularly if you approach the task with imagination and
enthusiasm. This Study Guide presents many practical suggestions for speaking to large
groups, encouraging you to develop strategies to overcome the problems and develop
an effective speaking style.

Strategy one: preparation

The presenter’s tools of eye contact, body language and voice work that succeed with
small groups can become less effective in large group settings. This is because the
presenter is trying to share them with the whole group rather than focusing on a few
individuals. As these tools are powerful ways of promoting learning and communicating
with clarity, this sharing limits the ability to communicate complex information. This is
because it becomes harder for the audience to pay attention and take everything in as
less of the talk is directed to them individually. However, research has shown that the
personal qualities of the presenter are the most important elements in effective
communication in both small and large groups. Careful preparation will therefore help
you overcome these problems.

Understand your material

To begin with, it is important that you have a full understanding of your material. This
will help you identify clear main points and construct a strong linear argument. Use
these points to select appropriate visual images, examples and analogies to help your
audience understand key concepts. Large group presentations benefit from carefully
chosen visual images to make bold and instantly accessible statements. Think about
using handouts to support your presentation. This will give your audience something
concrete to ‘take away’ and is a powerful way of communicating complex detail which
might be lost in the large group setting.

Map out your performance

Another important aspect of your preparation includes the need to have a clear
understanding of your performance as a whole, including the pace of delivery and how
you plan to use your visual aids. This can best be achieved by ‘mapping out’ your
presentation in advance to identify what you will need to do at each stage. Some
presenters make notes on their script to remind themselves to do certain things at
certain times; to pause, to change slide, even to smile! The following visual prompts can
help you create a map of your presentation so that you know what you need to do at
each stage of delivery.

(Figure One: Simple visual prompts for annotating a presenter’s notes)

Understanding the venue

Even a well-prepared presentation can fail if you are not in full control of your
environment. If at all possible, visit the venue beforehand to explore the physical layout
and the audio-visual equipment. Visualise yourself presenting there, ask such questions
as:

what problems might arise in this space (e.g. where do people come in and go
out)?
where’s the best place to stand so that everyone will be able to see and hear?
is all the equipment that you need in place?
where are the light switches and volume controls?
do the lights operate at different settings (i.e. will you be plunged into complete
darkness and unable to read your notes when trying to show slides)?
how might you make best use of the environment to create an impact?

If you can’t visit the venue, try to request a floor plan or ask for a list of technical
specifications to help you prepare.

Strategy two: reducing anonymity

A particular difficulty associated with presenting to large groups is that the presenter
feels distanced from the audience and vice versa. It is important to try to break down
this barrier from the very moment the audience comes in. The following strategies have
been found to work:

display a title slide which includes your name whilst the audience are drifting in.
This will help set the scene and prepare the audience for your talk;
avoid hiding at the front whilst the audience are coming in and settling down.
Instead, move amongst the audience, welcoming people that you know;
encourage the audience to start filling the venue up from the front; this puts you
more in charge of the event and encourages casual dialogue;
introduce yourself and your talk (don’t assume that everyone knows what’s
going to happen next);
check that everyone can see your visual aids and hear your voice. Show
consideration for your audience by addressing any problems.

Large venues often prevent audience members asking questions and may limit any
discussion that you try to generate. Clearly announce where you’ll be taking questions
so that the audience knows what will be expected of them. Try to be creative in your
approach to discussion, offering alternative ways of contacting you other than questions
during and after your talk. Displaying your email address or a ‘phone number can help
an audience ask questions after the event has finished, thus reducing some of this
pressure.

Strategy three: presentation style

In order to make the most of a large venue, you will need to pay attention to certain
aspects of your performance. Key issues here are to make sure that the audience is
following your presentation, that you avoid distractions, and that you keep things
moving at a lively pace.

Recommendations for presenting to large audiences include the following:

wait until everyone is settled before you start to speak (remember, you are in
control of the event, not the audience);
announce the start of your presentation and wait for quiet (don’t be afraid to
calmly and politely assert your control by asking for quiet if this isn’t
forthcoming);
try to avoid speaking for all of the time as this can become tiring for the
audience, and yourself. Use visual aids such as slides or video clips to punctuate
your presentation;
be careful to lead your audience through your presentation, making sure that
you use clear verbal and visual signposts to show progress and development (e.g.
“moving on from ...”, “in contrast to ...”, “now that we have ...”);
show enthusiasm for your work and the process of sharing your ideas with your
audience (remember, your interest will breed their interest).

The most important point to remember is to remain focused on your work throughout
your presentation. Although demanding, this is the best way to ensure that the audience
remains involved and interested.

Strategy four: stage craft

It is important to think about the impact of the sheer physical size of the lecture theatre
or seminar room that you’ll be presenting in. Problems here include:

sightlines - for you/your audience

audibility - for you/your audience
attention spans
audience behaviour.

Sightlines

Sightlines relate to the ease with which you can make eye contact with the audience.
Some venues are long and thin where it can be difficult to make contact with those in
the furthest corners of the room (Figure Two: Venue A). Other venues are shallow and
broad where it can be difficult to make contact with those to either side of you (Figure
Two: Venue B). The danger with the first (A) is that the back rows only ever see the top
of your head. The danger with the second (B) is that those to the left and right only ever
see your side or, at worst, your back. A simple way of addressing this issue is to draw a
mental plan of the venue (whatever its shape), dividing this into numbered sections.
You can then alternate your eye contact with each sector to make sure that each area of
the audience feels involved (Figure Two: Venue C).
 (Figure Two: Sightlines in different shaped venues (A-C))

Audibility

It is of course vital to make sure that you can be heard by everyone in the audience.
Check volume levels with your audience but always avoid shouting. This comes across
as aggressive and can be very difficult for the audience to listen to. If there is a
microphone, consider using it, but also be aware that it can restrict your movement and
produce variable sound levels (e.g. as your head turns away from the microphone).
Practise with the microphone to learn its strengths and limitations. Remember that
most microphones in lecture theatres are set to amplify your normal speaking voice
without the need for additional volume.

Attention spans

Try to vary your delivery to provide new and interesting stimuli for your audience’s
attention. This can involve the use of visual aids as well as different speaking styles (e.g.
factual, discursive, speculative). You can also grab attention by physically moving
around the ‘stage’ area. Try to do this purposefully (i.e. to make a particular point)
rather than simply wandering around; this latter can be distracting. Come forward,
make a point, then move again.

Audience behaviour

It is always difficult for your audience members to pay attention for 100% of the time,
and you should allow for this. Try not to become too sensitive to an audience’s
behaviour. Un-responsive faces and heads propped up by hands are more likely to be
indicative of audience fatigue than they are of deliberate rudeness. Of course, if the
behaviour of a few individuals begins to threaten other people’s ability to hear, you
must act immediately, even stopping your presentation and addressing the situation
directly.

Strategy five: using visual aids

Visual aids can be an important tool in improving the effectiveness of presentations to

large groups. They can be particularly useful during key stages of your presentation, for
example:

during the introduction

 display your name and the title of your presentation;
define particular technical terms or abbreviations;
indicate structure, either diagrammatically or in text;
display an image which encapsulates your theme;
highlight a question you intend to answer;

during your main points

highlight new points or topics with an appropriate image or question;

support technical detail with clearly displayed data;
indicate sequence by linking points together;
link theory and practice through the use of examples and illustrations;

during your conclusion

summarise your main points;

present your conclusions in a succinct phrase or diagram;
display your key references or web sites to promote further exploration;
display your email or ‘phone number to prompt questioning and discussion.

Try to make your images as visually appealing as possible. For example, a photograph of
a car will be more dramatic than the name of the car as a bullet point on a slide.

Conclusion

The key to speaking to audiences in large venues is to take control of the space and to
carefully plan your presentation to stimulate and maintain your audience’s attention. It
is important to be well prepared and to have a clear understanding of what you will be
doing and when this will happen. Although working with large audiences can be
challenging, attention to both detail and process can result in a powerful presentation
that interests and informs.

Using visual aids

Aims and Objectives

This guide will help you use visual aids in your oral presentations to achieve the best
impact. Your visual aids should be clear and concise, providing a stimulating addition to
your spoken word.

Introduction
Visual aids can be a very powerful tool to enhance the impact of your presentations.
Words and images presented in different formats can appeal directly to your audience’s
imagination, adding power to your spoken words.

Think of using visual aids for the following reasons:

if they will save words - don't describe your results - show them;
if their impact would be greater than the spoken word - don't describe an image -
show it.

Think about using a variety of different visual images. Try using photographs, tables,
diagrams, charts, drawings, key words, or video sequences. Be creative and deliberate in
your choice of images to achieve the most impact.

Think of your next presentation. How can you display your material visually? What
techniques might help you present your argument or results in a stimulating way? What
might add emphasis to your spoken words?

When to use visual aids

Words and images can be used throughout your presentation from the introduction to
the conclusion. However, remember to restrict their use to key moments in your
presentation; an over use of visual aids can be hard to follow.

Think about using visual aids at the following times:

Introduction

display the title of your presentation;

define particular technical terms or units;
indicate a structure to your presentation by listing your main points;
display an image which encapsulates your theme(s);
highlight a question you intend answering during the course of your
presentation;

Main points

highlight new points with an appropriate image or phrase;

support technical information with clearly displayed data;
indicate sequence by linking points together;
offer evidence from your research to support your argument;

Conclusion

summarise your main points on a slide;

present your conclusion in a succinct phrase or image;
display your key references to allow your audience to read more on your topic.
Different types of visual aids

There are many different types of visual aids. The following advice will help you make
the most of those most commonly used.

PowerPoint (or equivalent)

Microsoft PowerPoint is probably now the most commonly used form of visual aid. Used
well, it can really help you in your presentation; used badly, however, it can have the
opposite effect. The general principles are:

Do Don't
use a big enough font (minimum 20pt) make it so small you can't read it
keep the background simple use a fussy background image
but don't over-do the animation - it gets
use animations when appropriate
distracting
use endless slides of bulleted lists that all look the
make things visual
same

Overhead projector slides/transparencies

Overhead projector slides/transparencies are displayed on the overhead projector

(OHP) - a very useful tool found in most lecture and seminar rooms. The OHP projects
and enlarges your slides onto a screen or wall without requiring the lights to be
dimmed. You can produce your slides in three ways:

pre-prepared slides : these can be words or images either hand written/drawn

or produced on a computer;
spontaneously produced slides: these can be written as you speak to illustrate
your points or to record comments from the audience;
a mixture of each: try adding to pre-prepared slides when making your
presentation to show movement, highlight change or signal detailed
interrelationships.

Make sure that the text on your slides is large enough to be read from the back of the
room. A useful rule of thumb is to use 18 point text if you are producing slides with text
on a computer. This should also help reduce the amount of information on each slide.
Avoid giving your audience too much text or overly complicated diagrams to read as
this limits their ability to listen. Try to avoid lists of abstract words as these can be
misleading or uninformative.

White or black board

White or black boards can be very useful to help explain the sequence of ideas or
routines, particularly in the sciences. Use them to clarify your title or to record your key
points as you introduce your presentation (this will give you a fixed list to help you
recap as you go along). Rather than expecting the audience to follow your spoken
description of an experiment or process, write each stage on the board, including any
complex terminology or precise references to help your audience take accurate notes.
However, once you have written something on the board you will either have to leave it
there or rub it off - both can be distracting to your audience. Check to make sure your
audience has taken down a reference before rubbing it off - there is nothing more
frustrating than not being given enough time! Avoid leaving out of date material from an
earlier point of your presentation on the board as this might confuse your audience. If
you do need to write ‘live’, check that your audience can read your writing.

Paper handouts

Handouts are incredibly useful. Use a handout if your information is too detailed to fit
on a slide or if you want your audience to have a full record of your findings. Consider
the merits of passing round your handouts at the beginning, middle and end of a
presentation. Given too early and they may prove a distraction. Given too late and your
audience may have taken too many unnecessary notes. Given out in the middle and your
audience will inevitably read rather than listen. One powerful way of avoiding these
pitfalls is to give out incomplete handouts at key stages during your presentation. You
can then highlight the missing details vocally, encouraging your audience to fill in the
gaps.

Flip chart

A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand. It is a very useful and flexible way of
recording information during your presentation - you can even use pre-prepared sheets
for key points. Record information as you go along, keeping one main idea to each sheet.
Flip back through the pad to help you recap your main points. Use the turning of a page
to show progression from point to point. Remember to make your writing clear and
readable and your diagrams as simple as possible.

Video (DVD or VHS)

Video gives you a chance to show stimulating visual information. Use video to bring
movement, pictures and sound into your presentation. Always make sure that the clip is
directly relevant to your content. Tell your audience what to look for. Avoid showing
any more film than you need.

Artefacts or props

Sometimes it can be very useful to use artefacts or props when making a presentation
(think of the safety routine on an aeroplane when the steward shows you how to use the
safety equipment). If you bring an artefact with you, make sure that the object can be
seen and be prepared to pass it round a small group or move to different areas of a large
room to help your audience view it in detail. Remember that this will take time and that
when an audience is immersed in looking at an object, they will find it hard to listen to
your talk. Conceal large props until you need them; they might distract your audience’s
attention.

Designing visual aids

There are many different rules for designing visual aids, some of which will apply
directly to different kinds of equipment. In general, sticking to the following guidelines
will produce high quality visual images:

use one simple idea for each visual;

make the text and diagrams clear and readable;
avoid cluttering the image;
keep your images consistent (use the same font, titles, lay out etc. for each
image);
make sure your images are of a high quality (check for spelling and other errors).

Always remember that an audience should be able to understand a visual image in a

matter of seconds.

Room layout

Remember that your audience needs to be able to see you as well as your visual aids.
Try to involve every member of your audience by changing the layout of your room.
Below are some suggested layouts to help maximise contact between you, your
audience and your visual aids.

(Speaking to small audiences)

 (Speaking to larger audiences)

Try these arrangements in different settings. Use them to create different atmospheres;
for example, an intimate setting might suggest an informal tone, whilst placing yourself
at a distance might suggest a more formal relationship.

And finally ... practice

Always check your equipment to make sure that it:

works;
is equipment you are familiar with (How do you start the slide show? How do
you change the pad? Should you use permanent or waterproof pens?).

There is nothing worse than a presenter struggling with their visual aids. Be familiar
enough with your tools to ensure that you won’t be thrown if something goes wrong. A
confident use of visual aids will help marry them to your spoken presentation helping
them become part of an impressive performance.

Summary

Use visual aids to display complex information clearly and introduce variety into your
delivery technique. Make sure that you are familiar with the equipment required to
create and display visual aids, and deploy visual aids creatively in your presentations
mixing techniques and media to create an impact.

Using PowerPoint

Introduction
This guide introduces some general principles to help you make effective use of
PowerPoint to support your presentations. It does not cover the technical aspects of
using the software. If you have experience of using other Microsoft Office programs such
as Word, you may find PowerPoint easy to use.

What is PowerPoint?

PowerPoint is a computer program that allows you to create and show slides to support
a presentation. You can combine text, graphics and multi-media content to create
professional presentations. As a presentation tool PowerPoint can be used to:

organise and structure your presentation;

create a professional and consistent format;
provide an illustrative backdrop for the content of your presentation;
animate your slides to give them greater visual impact.

PowerPoint has become enormously popular and you are likely to have seen it used by
your lecturers and fellow students or in a presentation outside of the University.
Learning to present with PowerPoint will increase your employability as it is the
world’s most popular presentational software. Used well, PowerPoint can improve the
clarity of your presentations and help you to illustrate your message and engage your
audience. The strategies contained in this study guide will help you to use PowerPoint
effectively in any type of presentation.

Before you begin

Not all presentations require support from PowerPoint so you should consider whether
it is appropriate for your presentation. This decision will need to take into account the
venue of your presentation, the availability of equipment, the time available and the
expectations of the audience. Whether you choose to use PowerPoint or not, your
presentation will need to be carefully planned and structured in order to achieve your
objectives.

Step 1: Designing PowerPoint slides

There are a number of features to consider when designing effective PowerPoint slides.
The guidelines given below will ensure you create slides that will be easy for your
audience to read and understand.

Using colour

Be consistent. Ensure that all of your slides have the same or similar background
images and colour schemes. PowerPoint’s design templates can be used for this.
Prepare slides that use a bold colour contrast, e.g. black or deep blue text on a
cream background (black and white can be too glaring for the audience).
Avoid using red or green for text or highlighting as it can be difficult to read.

Using text
 Avoid using too much text. A useful guideline is the six-by-six rule (slides should
have no more than six bullet points and each bullet point should be no more than
six words long).
Create bullet points which are clear summaries of key points. It is not necessary
for bullet points to be complete sentences.
Don’t mix up your fonts and font sizes. Too many variations in font size and type
can be visually confusing.
Ensure that your text is at least 24pt otherwise it may be difficult to read on
screen.
Choose left align for all text to make it easier to read.
Avoid multiple columns of text on a single slide as they can be difficult to follow
on screen.
Use bold for a clear and simple form of emphasis and headings rather than
UPPER CASE, italics or underlining.
Set clear hierarchies for type size to help your audience distinguish between
headings, main text and other types of text.

Step 2: Making the most of graphics and animations

Using graphics

Many people find it easier to understand and remember concepts if images are used in
addition to text. PowerPoint allows you to easily include graphics in your presentations,
but think about the issues listed below.

Try not to use Clip Art (files of images that come free with software packages)
that you have seen in lots of other people’s presentations: familiar images have
less impact on an audience.
Choose an appropriate quality for scanned images. Scan at 150 dpi for images
where accurate colour reproduction is not important and at 300 dpi for higher
quality images.
Beware of images that you take from the internet. They are generally of a very
low quality and are likely to pixelate (lose their smoothness) when you project
them onto a large screen.
Make sure graphics are relevant to your text and not just decorative.
Consider using graphics to replace text where you think an image would be
easier to understand.
Ensure that the images that you use are simple and clear enough to be easily
read at a distance. A small, overly complex and poor quality image will only
frustrate your audience.

Warning: Many images are protected by copyright. If it is not explicitly stated that an
image is copyright free, or available for use in educational contexts, you should ask for
permission to use the image.

Using animations and transitions

Animating elements of slides and using Slide Transition are two of the most powerful
features that PowerPoint offers. However, it is very easy to overdo your use of these
features and create a presentation where the animation distracts your audience from
the content of your presentation.

Use animations to show progression. Animation is very effective at revealing a

process one stage at a time.
Be conservative. Make sure that any animation you use serves a clear purpose
(e.g. to introduce a new piece of information at an appropriate point). If you
cannot think of a reason to animate your slide – don’t do it!
Be consistent. Try to ensure that you use similar types of animation for similar
functions. For example, if your text always drives in from the left it will be
distracting if it suddenly appears from another direction or uses another
animation technique.

Step 3: Using PowerPoint to help structure your presentation

Once you have designed your slides you should review your planning and think about
whether you need to refine the structure of your presentation. PowerPoint offers a
number of features that can help you. All views can be selected from the ‘View’ menu.

Use the ‘Outline’ tab in Normal View to display the textual content of your
presentation. This can help you to focus on and review the structure of your
content rather than the visual impact of your presentation.
Use the ‘Notes’ pane in Normal View to create a script or prompts which you can
use when you are delivering the presentation.
Use the Slide Sorter View to gain an overview of the visual impact of your
presentation. This is also a useful view for rearranging the order of your slides or
deleting multiple slides.

Use these PowerPoint tools to give you an overview of your presentation so that you
can create a clear focus and a logical structure for your talk. Avoid using too many slides
in your presentation, as this will be distracting for your audience. In general you should
use about one slide every two minutes, so a ten-minute presentation should have
around five slides.

Step 4: Preparing to Present

Find out as much as you can about your audience and the environment in which you are
going to be presenting before you present. Ask yourself the following questions:

How large is the room that I am going to be presenting in? Will people be able to
see my slides from the back?
Do any of my audience have any special requirements (visually or hearing
impaired, dyslexic, etc.)? Is there anything that I can do to ensure that they can
access the presentation?
Have I rehearsed my presentation to check that all of my slides work in the way
they are supposed to?
 Does my presentation fit into the time that I have been allotted? Choosing
Rehearse Timings from the Slide Show menu can help you to judge how much
time you are spending on each aspect of your presentation (but choose ‘No’ when
asked ‘Do you want to keep the new slide timings to use when you view the slide
show?’).
Have I checked that the necessary equipment (laptop, data projector, speakers
for sound) has been booked for my presentation?
Do I have an alternative plan in case the technology fails? This may be a second
copy of the slides on acetates, a set of handouts or a second disk format (such as
USB drive).

Step 5: Presenting with PowerPoint

An effective presenter uses PowerPoint to illustrate and emphasise points that are
made in the presentation. An audience that is trying to copy down detailed information
from slides will not be able to give you their full attention. Consider using handouts for
your audience so they are free to concentrate on listening and understanding. Some
points to consider when presenting with slides are given below.

Treat each slide as a mini-presentation where you make a point to introduce the
idea, give the detail and then conclude that slide with an explanation of how the
point fits in with the rest of your presentation.
Direct your audience’s attention to the slides when they contain information that
is key to getting your message across.
Give your audience time to assimilate material on your slides. If, for example, a
slide contains a quotation or a diagram – introduce the slide, give them time to
read and understand it and then explain its relevance.
Don’t leave your screen saver on, as this will distract your audience.
Don’t move your pointer on the screen unless you are using it to demonstrate
something as this will distract your audience.
Don’t just read out the text on the slides, they should be a summary or a
supplement to the content of your spoken presentation.

Useful keyboard shortcuts

Keyboard shortcuts can be very useful when you are presenting and can help to ensure
that your presentation runs seamlessly. Many more shortcuts can be found using the F1
key while running the slide show.

Shortcut key Function

Space, N, right or down arrow, enter or page down Advance to the next slide
Backspace, P, left or up arrow, or page up Return to the previous slide
Number followed by Enter Go to that slide
B Blacks/Unblacks the screen
Esc End slide show
F5 Start slide show
Summary

PowerPoint is widely used across the world so it is worthwhile learning to use it. It can
be a powerful tool in creating clear, well structured presentations that have a strong
visual impact. However, over-use or misuse can detract from your presentation.
Following the guidelines in this study guide will ensure that you use PowerPoint
effectively to support your presentation and engage your audience.

Involving your audience

Aims and Objectives

This guide offers straightforward suggestions for getting and keeping your audience
involved in your presentation.

Introduction

Creating a rapport with your audience and helping them feel involved in the delivery of
your talk can optimise its success. The following sections of this guide explore simple
yet effective strategies for making the audience feel fully involved in your presentation.

Why involve your audience?

Listening to a presentation for any length of time can be a difficult process. If the talk
doesn’t engage their attention, the audience will start to feel distanced from the talk,
begin to lose track of the flow of information and eventually fail to absorb your ideas
and insights. To engage an audience fully, the presentation needs to be energetic,
purposeful and staged as if it is a direct conversation between two interested parties
(the presenter and the audience). The following four strategies are important elements
for getting the audience involved.

Strategy One - Planning your talk

When planning your presentation, there are several ways that you can think about
involving your audience.

Plan from the audience’s perspective

The first step is to think about your presentation from the audience’s perspective:

what will they be interested in?

what will they already know?
what might help them learn?
By asking these questions, and by being able to identify answers, you are starting to
think creatively about your audience’s interests and needs. Remember, the aim is to give
the impression that your presentation has been planned according to your audience’s
specific interests. You can reinforce this impression by referring to information that the
group already knows: “When we looked at Porsche last week we saw that ...” This helps
your audience assimilate new information much more effectively by building on their
existing knowledge.

Questions and answers

Asking rhetorical questions as you move through your presentation involves your
audience by stimulating their own thought processes. This technique also helps move
between sections of your presentation as it establishes a clear transition from one point
to another: “I think this proves that there is a strong relationship between A and B but
what are the implications for the working practices of C?”

When planning your presentation you should also identify opportunities for your
audience to ask questions. Some presenters prefer to be interrupted as they go along, to
pause for questions after each key stage or to reserve any questions until the end of the
presentation. All of these approaches have their advantages and disadvantages but it is
useful to tell your audience when you will be taking questions so that they know what is
expected of them.

Strategy Two - Delivering your talk

There are a number of strategies that you can adopt when delivering your material to
maximise the sense of audience involvement. Some of these are listed below.

Eye contact

Making eye contact is one of the most powerful techniques for involving your audience.
If used well, eye contact can serve to make your address much more personal and thus
more effective. If eye contact is avoided, the presenter can appear to be nervous and
unconvincing. If eye contact is held too long, audience members can feel awkward and
intimidated. It is important to share eye contact with all members of a small audience or
all sections of a large audience. Avoid making eye contact with just the people you know
or don’t know, taking particular care not to deliver your entire presentation to the
person who’s assessing your work. Remember that you will need to involve (and
therefore make eye contact with) the whole audience if you are to make an effective
presentation.

If you are nervous, eye contact can be very difficult to establish and then maintain.
Remember that some eye contact is better than none and that you should try to build
your confidence over the course of your presentation(s). To build your use of eye
contact focus on people’s foreheads so that you are at least looking in their direction.
This sounds silly but is much better than looking at the ceiling, floor or your notes.
Gradually start to feed in some direct eye contact as you become more confident.

Body language (position, posture and gesture)

An effective presenter pays close attention to the physical relationship with her/his
audience. If you stand hidden behind an overhead projector or stand too far away from
your audience, they will not develop a bond with you and this will limit the effectiveness
of your presentation. Similarly, standing over them or sitting too closely in amongst
them will not establish enough distance to secure your identity as the presenter or
leader of the session. Your posture will also dictate levels of audience involvement. If
you’re too relaxed and sit slumped in a chair to deliver your talk, the audience might
drift away. Find a comfortable but purposeful position in relation to your audience and
adopt an upright sitting or standing posture that allows for movement and gesture.

Your use of gesture is of course another way of involving your audience in your
presentation. Audiences respond well to the physical energy and enthusiasm being
conveyed by a presenter, and thus the use of clear and controlled gestures will greatly
enhance your presentation. Gestures that are open and reach out to your audience serve
to extend your presentation to them and thus help them feel more involved. If you stand
at the front with your hands in your pockets you will, quite literally, not be reaching out
to them and this will again impede the effectiveness of your talk.

Strategy Three - Using language effectively

Your use of language has a direct influence on the way that you engage your audience.
The most important point here is to make sure that you are talking ‘their’ language. In
other words, try to avoid using forms of language that are too formal or informal, too
technical or too simplistic depending upon the nature of your talk and the knowledge
base of your audience. Pitching your presentation at the right level can be a challenge
but it is very effective for making the audience feel involved.

Another method for involving your audience is to make sure that you are using a
conversational tone rather than a formal ‘academic’ tone. In other words, a natural
speech pattern will feel more familiar and easier to listen to than a formal and complex
language. Of course, the level of complexity should suit your audience, but it is possible
to communicate highly challenging ideas using simple clear sentences.

Strategy Four - Hard work

The final way of involving your audience is to work hard at communicating your
presentation to all areas of the room. This requires energy as you will need to make sure
that your voice and gestures are ‘big’ enough to communicate over a distance. A
presenter who stands and reads with his or her eyes buried in a script will only ever
communicate over a limited distance. However, a presenter who is working hard at
making eye contact, pays attention to the volume of his or her speaking voice, conveys
enthusiasm for ideas and uses facial and body gestures to welcome, reassure and
involve the audience will be transmitting energy over a much wider area.

Whilst a presenter should always appear natural and avoid using exaggerated
behaviour to get a message across, an effective presentation is hard work to deliver
because there are so many elements to control. The effort of creating and pushing out
enough energy to make an impact will be tiring, but worth the extra work.
Summary

Involving your audience is essential to making an impact. Your presentation should pull
them in, get their attention and stimulate their thoughts and understanding. This can be
done in a number of ways. The way that you plan your presentation will be critical in
terms of using language and ideas that your audience will understand. You must also
ensure that there is sufficient time for questions and discussion. The way that you
deliver your presentation should create a bond with your audience. Your use of eye
contact, gesture, spoken language and energy should communicate effectively and
enthusiastically with all areas of the room, thus ensuring that the audience receives
positive messages about you and your material.

Responding to questions effectively

Aims and Objectives

The aim of this guide is to give you some practical strategies for handling and
responding to questions during or at the end of an oral presentation.

Introduction

Many presenters fear the question and answer session at the end of their presentation
because they feel that they are losing control of their input (speaking seems so much
safer). However, it is important to remember that the questions are a vital part of the
presentation for the whole audience as they allow for clarification and consolidation of
learning. The presenter can enhance the effectiveness of the question and answer
session by treating it as a formal part of the presentation that requires as much careful
planning and control as the delivery of the core material.

Plan to take control

The background work that you undertook whilst planning your presentation is the key
to handling questions effectively. If you have defined a precise focus for your
presentation and have explored this thoroughly in your background research and
planning, you are more likely to be able to respond to questions with precise answers. If
you have been unfocused in your preparatory work, this will come across in the way
you answer questions.

When planning your presentation, you will need to:

identify when questions will be invited in your talk and plan to inform your
audience of this;
plan to leave plenty of time for questions so that the audience doesn’t feel rushed
(this might involve having to reduce the content of your talk);
 prepare prompts for questions that are open and straightforward: “That’s the
end of my presentation. I would now like to stop and take questions from the
audience”.

As a further part of your planning you may decide to:

define the topics for discussion: “Have you any questions on the four principles
that I’ve outlined?”;
avoid answering questions that fall outside of the remit of your talk: “I’m afraid
that really falls outside of my objectives for today’s presentation. Perhaps we can
resume discussion of that particular point later?”

Responding to questions

One of the main problems with question and answer sessions is that the presenter’s
nerves frequently force an inappropriate response. This could be because a question has
been misinterpreted or that only key words from the question have been heard rather
than the full content. The following steps will help you respond more effectively to
questions from your audience.

Step One - Listen

It is important to listen to all parts of a question before drawing premature conclusions

about your ‘best’ response. Frequently questions can change direction at the last
moment, particularly if the questioner is thinking on her/his feet. This can throw you if
you have already started to leaf through your material for the ‘appropriate’ response.
Remember that questioners will frequently try to make a point whilst asking their
question: “Surely a more meaningful interpretation of X is that it ....?” It is therefore
important to both hear the content of the question and try to decipher the questioner’s
intention.

Step Two - Understand

If you are worried that you haven’t understood a question, clarify the area of enquiry
before going any further. Check for direct confirmation by paraphrasing the question
back to the questioner “You want me to explain the process of …?” or check that your
reply will be heading in the right direction “Do you mean in relation to factor X or factor
Y ?”.

Step Three - Communicate and involve

It is important to remember that even though you are taking a question from one
member of the audience, as a presenter, you are still responsible for the interest and
engagement of the other audience members. This is particularly important in large
groups as the audience will become bored if the presentation descends into a series of
one-to-one discussions. To involve the rest of the audience (and avoid potentially
extended dialogue with the questioner) make sure the whole audience has heard and
understood the question by outlining the area of enquiry: “I’ve been asked to outline my
thinking behind …”
 Step Four - Respond

When you reply to a question, direct your answer to both the questioner and other
members of the audience. Try to keep your responses as focused as possible. This will
help keep them brief and preserve space for other questions. To avoid going into too
much detail, stop and check back with the questioner to see if you have answered
his/her query: “Does that explain why we chose to …?”.

Allow follow-up questions

A particularly effective technique encourages your audience to ask questions after the
event has finished through email discussion or telephone comments. This shows a
particularly high level of respect for your audience’s ideas and implies that the topic still
has much further scope for enquiry.

Things to avoid

When handling questions and answers, you will still need to be as polished and
professional as you have been for the main delivery of your presentation. There are
some common dangers that are useful to avoid.

Answering the question you wished you’d been asked

A common trick played by politicians, this strategy ignores the precise nature of the
question and uses a predetermined answer to the broad topic area. If handled ineptly,
this technique is very obvious to the audience and frustrating to the questioner.

Making a second ‘mini’ presentation

This is the process whereby you make a lengthy response, including all the information
you’d left out in planning the main presentation. Remember, you left that information
out for a reason! Your unplanned response will be unstructured and rambling, so keep
things focused and brief (check the time as you respond). You can always offer to
forward lengthy detail after the event.

Passing the blame

“That wasn’t my idea, my supervisor did the preliminary work, I’ve simply attempted to …”
Passing the blame to others comes across as weak and evasive. If an idea from the
audience is a good one, acknowledge its value. If it isn’t, make a polite rebuttal and move
on.

Defensive answers

Occasionally, questions can really put you on the spot, but it is important to remain calm
and in control. An aggressive or defensive reply will be seen as weakness on your part
and will spoil the effect of an otherwise successful presentation.

Handling difficult questions

It is important not to start responding to a difficult question before you have thought
about the answer. Repeating the question and asking for clarification will help create
some space for your thoughts.

Sometimes you will need to think about a question for a moment before responding.
You may be able to buy a little bit of thinking time to help focus your response. Useful
strategies include searching for an appropriate visual aid to help focus your response or
simply pausing for a moment or two to think. For even more time, suggest that you’ll
come back to the topic later (but don’t forget to do this).

Sometimes questions are too difficult to answer. Don’t worry about admitting that you
don’t know something or haven’t considered an alternative approach. An enthusiastic
“That’s an interesting idea, I’d not thought of that” is much more positive than a
mumbled “I don’t know”. Remember that a presentation is a two-way process and it is
important to show that you are learning from your audience as well.

Occasionally, questions will fall outside of the remit of your talk and it would be too
much of a diversion to tackle them in front of the whole audience. Respond positively to
any such questions and suggest that they best be tackled by a quick chat after the event.

Finally, you can come across a questioner who disagrees strongly with your argument.
Although this can feel very awkward, remember that you are still responsible for the
whole audience and that you cannot allocate all of your question time to one individual
(no matter how passionate her/his views). If you feel that you have answered the initial
question, announce that you will move on and suggest that you might continue
discussion after the presentation. If the questioner persists, use an assertiveness
technique called ‘broken record’ to assert your position calmly: “I’m afraid I need to
move on ... I do need to move on ... I would like to move on now.” Your final sanction is to
take another question or even close the presentation.

Summary

Question and answer sessions are important elements of any presentation. Plan for the
question session by determining when you will be inviting questions and specifying any
themes that you would like questioners to pursue. Clearly announce the start of your
question session and involve all audience members in the way that you repeat and
respond to questions. Make sure you respond to the question being asked and have
practiced methods for dealing with awkward questions. Avoid common pitfalls by
responding to questions positively and enthusiastically whilst keeping your answers
brief and focused. Above all, don’t be afraid to admit what you don’t know: it is better to
admit the limits of your knowledge than attempt an uninformed answer.
Before you give a presentation

Introduction

Before you go to give a presentation you might want to work your way through this
checklist.

Preparation

I have rehearsed my presentation.

I have rehearsed my presentation in front of a mirror.
I have given my presentation a trial run to a friend or colleague.
I have checked that my presentation runs to the time allotted.
I have taped/videoed myself and listened back to it.
I have prepared speaker notes or cue cards.
I have annotated my notes to help me get the emphasis right.
I have thought about where to breathe.
I have numbered my notes in case I drop them.
I have prepared any visual aids that I may need.
I have prepared any handouts that I wish to give out.
I have checked my facts.
I have done a grammar/spelling check.

Technical

I have confirmed that the audio-visual equipment I require will be in the room.
I have saved my PowerPoint presentation onto at least two formats
(disc/USB/hard drive/email).
I have practised using any unfamiliar technology that I am going to use.
I have sourced an alternative version of any audio or video material (DVD and
VHS)
I have seen the room that I am going to be presenting in or had it described to
me.
I have turned off my mobile phone.
I have checked the start time.

Audience and Other Speakers

I have thought about who is going to be in the audience.

I have brainstormed a list of likely questions that I may be asked.
I have found out who else will be speaking and what they will be speaking about.
I have thought about any special needs my audience may have.
I have thought about ways to engage the audience in my presentation.

Personal
 I have got enough sleep the night before.
I have considered how to combat my nervousness.
I have thought about my personal appearance.
I have looked after my health in the week preceding the presentation.
I have brought a bottle of water to drink if my throat gets dry.
I have thought about what else I am going to be doing that day.
I've eaten breakfast.

Stress management for presentations and interviews

Aims and Objectives

This guide aims to help you recognise and understand anxiety and nervousness which
may arise during presentations or interviews. This is sometimes referred to as
performance anxiety. The guide also offers strategies to help you minimise any
detrimental effects and provides details for a number of further sources of help and
advice.

What is performance anxiety?

Many people feel nervous when speaking publicly, either to a room of course peers,
conference delegates or an interview panel. This is sometimes referred to as
performance anxiety.

Performance anxiety, however, is not necessarily harmful; a slightly increased anxiety

level can motivate you to do the work needed so that you are effectively prepared for
the event: it can make you more alert and energised. However, should your anxiety
levels and nerves become too great, difficulties can occur, which may impair your ability
to prepare effectively for, and perform, during the event.

What causes it?

Performance anxiety and nerves can be caused by many factors which may include:

worrying about past performance during presentations or interviews;

how you will compare with your friends or other students;
any negative consequences if you don't do as well as you would like;
the reaction of others to your work.

Lack of preparation as indicated by:

hurriedly writing the presentation at the last minute;

not rehearsing and practising your speech;
not thinking in advance about the kinds of questions the interviewer might ask.
You may not be able to identify a particular cause, you may just be aware that you
typically experience nerves or anxiety at the prospect of a presentation or interview.

What happens when you are nervous?

When you experience nerves, anxiety or stress about an event, certain physical
reactions happen automatically. If you recall a time when you were interviewed or
made a presentation you may have noticed that you reacted in some of the following
ways:

your voice trembled;

you had sweaty palms;
you experienced shortness of breath;
your heartbeat accelerated;
you had butterflies or an upset stomach;
you experienced a generalised feeling of fear.

These reactions are driven by the production of hormones and equip us to fight or
escape from situations that are dangerous or threatening. This is known as the fight or
flight response; your body is alert, ready for action and is preparing itself to cope with
the situation. Once the threatening event is over, your body will gradually return to
normal. Although this process is designed to assist you during potentially threatening
situations, it can cause difficulties, particularly if your level of anxiety is too great
and/or it occurs for a long time period.

What are the signs of performance anxiety?

There is a range of signs which may indicate that you are experiencing performance
anxiety and these signs could begin just before your presentation or interview, hours or
days before it, or even at the moment you find out about it. Signs can even persist
throughout your presentation or interview.

The signs could include negative thoughts such as 'I'll never manage it'; 'It will be a
disaster'; 'I'm no good at this'. Having thoughts of this kind can distort your perception
of the event and create a cycle whereby the more negatively you think about it, the more
stressed and anxious you become, which in turn can increase your negative thoughts
about it and so on.

Holding negative thoughts can also have a big impact on your feelings; you may be
aware of feeling scared about the event or you may feel generally irritable but not be
sure why. You may also observe behavioural changes, such as putting off thinking about
and planning for the presentation or interview, or alternatively being unable to stop
thinking about and planning for it. You may also experience physical changes, such as
experiencing headaches, changes in your appetite or developing sleeping difficulties.

Strategies to help you deal with performance anxiety

The strategies outlined below offer some simple steps that you can take to try to control
your level of performance anxiety. However, for them to be effective you need to be
active in implementing them prior to and during the event.

1. Develop positive thinking and visualisation skills

As described previously, having negative thoughts is one indicator that you may be
experiencing performance anxiety. It is useful, therefore, to be aware of some of the
common negative thought patterns so that you can try to replace them with positive
thoughts.

Negative thought Positive replacement

'It will be a disaster.' 'I will aim to do the best I can.'
'Just because I had a problem with this is
'I never do any good at this kind of thing,
in the past does not mean that things are
it's bound to go horribly wrong.'
bound to go wrong.'
'They like what they have read on my
'They won't like me.' application form/CV otherwise they would
not be interviewing me.'
'They are giving me an opportunity to
'They are looking for ways of catching me
demonstrate my knowledge of something
out.'
that I have worked hard to understand.'
'If it had been a big problem they would
'They will ask me about an item on my
not have short listed me for interview.
application form that is a weakness of
How can I talk about it in the most positive
mine.'
way?'
'The marks for this presentation are only a
'I will fail my degree and never get the small percentage of my overall degree. If I
career of my choice if I don't do well in this don't do as well as I would like there will
presentation.' be other opportunities to improve my
marks.'

Try to become aware if you are having negative thoughts and, if so, think of a positive
replacement for them (you could consider asking your friends to help you with this).

It may also be useful to visualise yourself successfully completing the task. Imagine
yourself coming out of the interview or presentation and moving on to other things in
your life beyond the anxiety provoking experience. Plan a treat or social event
afterwards that is not dependent upon the outcome.

Using these processes will help you to keep a sense of perspective about the event and
stop things from spiralling out of control. Focus on the present and what you can do
now to deal with the situation, rather than dwelling on what you should have done or
how similar events went in the past.

2. Plan and practise your presentation carefully

Planning and practising for your presentation or interview carefully can have a number
of beneficial effects on your anxiety levels, including helping you to feel more confident
and in control prior to the event. The better prepared you are and the more you know
your material, the more likely you will be to recall it when you are feeling nervous or
stressed.

When you are rehearsing for your interview or presentation, picture yourself as if you
are in front of your audience/interview panel and rehearse out loud. If possible, do this
in front of some friends who could give you constructive feedback about your verbal
and non-verbal communication, and your time-keeping. If you do not want a friend to
watch you, consider making an audio or video tape of yourself. You can then listen or
watch the tape and provide your own feedback. Identify at least five positive things
about your skills, as well as areas for further development.

Preparing for questions at the end of a presentation or during an interview may also
help to lower your anxiety levels. Read over your presentation notes or application form
critically to identify areas of possible weakness and prepare positive answers. Friends
and staff in the University may be able to assist with this. During the event, give yourself
time to think of a response to the question by pausing, repeating the words of the
question or, if you need longer, asking for a few moments to consider your answer.

3. Map out your anxieties

You may find it helpful to identify the aspects of the situation which are causing you the
greatest levels of anxiety, in order to plan steps to prevent them from becoming a
reality. Imagine the presentation or interview and write down the aspects which cause
you to feel particularly anxious, and then identify something you could do in advance
which would help to prevent this from occurring. For instance, if you are worried about
using equipment, make sure that you practise using it before the event. Alternatively, if
you are worried that a weakness will be highlighted, plan a positive response to this in
advance.

4. Look after yourself

Taking care of yourself physically and emotionally will help to control your anxiety
levels by making you feel relaxed and using up some of the nervous energy that is
produced when you are under stress. The following strategies are recommended.

Eat a well balanced diet which limits alcohol, caffeine and sugary foods.
Aim to have between six to eight hours sleep per night.
Exercise regularly as this uses up nervous energy and relaxes muscles.
Make time for fun such as participating in a sport or hobby.
Practise taking control of your breathing. Concentrate on breathing out to a slow
count of four; the breathing in will take care of itself.

On the day of the event

1. Expect that you will feel some nerves or anxiety

On the day of the presentation or interview expect that you will have some nerves or
anxiety. This is your body's way of preparing itself to cope, so do not try to eliminate
your nerves totally, but aim to keep them manageable.

You can also expect to feel nervous particularly at the start of the interview or
presentation and it is likely that you may feel shaky or possibly your voice will tremble.
If this does happen, change to a slower pace, breathe more deeply and expect that the
tremble/shakiness will go away. People do expect to see some nerves at the outset.
Allow yourself time to settle into the presentation or interview and then you can
perform to the best of your ability as it continues.

Nerves can make you speed up or slow you down on the day. If you are using note cards
in a presentation, you may find it useful to put reminders to yourself to check the time
and to think about whether you need to slow down or speed up.

2. Think positively: don't jump to conclusions about people's reactions

Do not forget to use the positive thinking skills that you have been practising up to the
event on the day itself. Tell yourself you can do it and try not to jump to conclusions
about how people appear to be reacting to you. Some people may look stern or
uninterested, when they are actually just concentrating very hard on what you are
saying.

3. Try to relax yourself physically

Remember to use the breathing exercise that you have practised. You may also find it
useful to do a relaxation exercise to release muscular tension in places such as the neck
and shoulders. Take some deep breaths, aim to increase the distance between your
shoulders and your ears. This will help to lengthen your muscles and relieve tension.

4. Be careful about what you eat and drink

Avoid food or drink that is high in sugar, alcohol or caffeine as these can make you feel
more jittery. Immediately prior to the event it can be better to have a warm rather than
cold drink. Cold drinks tend to constrict the vocal chords and may increase the
likelihood of your voice trembling.

5. Prepare strategies in case you feel overwhelmed

Do something that will distract you from the frozen state. You could change your
posture or focus your gaze just above peoples' eyes for a few seconds which may help
you to collect your thoughts. If you are really stuck you may need to ask for a short
amount of time to concentrate because you have lost your train of thought through
nerves. People are generally supportive and will think more positively if they see you
trying to gain composure.

6. Reward yourself for a job done

Praise yourself afterwards for a job done no matter how well or badly you think it went,
and then do something which you enjoy as a special treat.

What can I do to support a friend with performance anxiety?

Friends are usually the first people we turn to when we are under stress. Often, very
simple things can help.

Help your friend to keep a sense of perspective about the event and to develop
positive thinking about the situation. Encourage them to do the best that they
can and to accept that they are not a failure if they do not do as well as they
would have liked.
Help them to rehearse and practise their presentation or interview techniques.
Provide them with constructive feedback which highlights some good aspects of
their techniques along with identifying areas that could be improved.
If you will be at the presentation, give your friend some positive encouragement
and feedback during the session. Smile, show interest, ask a question.
Be there to meet them after the presentation or interview and support them no
matter how well or badly they think they did.
Plan something enjoyable to do afterwards to celebrate a job done.
Encourage them to follow the strategies outlined in the guide and to seek further
support if these strategies are not helping.
Don't take them to the pub beforehand - it rarely has the desired effect!