Chapter 1

Science

latin word Scientia "knowledge"

-systematised body of knowledge

-knowing how the world works

-always questioned origins

-civilazations contributed to the development of science and technology

-Early civilizations were located near the rivers because people needed fresh water to survive.

In The World: Ancient Ages

MESOPOTAMIA 300 - 750 BC

Greek word Mesopotamia "between two rivers"

Present day: Iran, Iraq, Syria, Kuwait and Turkey

Civilizations: Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian

Sumerian civilization Babylonian Civilization

• Present day IRAQ
• Derived from bav-il or bav-ilim "Gates of Gods"

• "the black headed people" or "the land of the black headed people"
• Ruins lie in modern day IRAQ

• Served as the centre of Mesopotamian civilization for two millennia

• Known for building walled city states

• Around the time of Hammurabi in 2000 BC - 500 BC

• Invented cuneiform, earliest writing system around 3000 BC

• Mentioned first in Genesis 10 mentioning the genealogy of Noah's three sons.

- Wedge-shaped scripts pressed into clay tablets
Nimrod who became a great warrior built a kingdom that included the city of
- Adopted by other civilization
Babylon

- Needed for long distance communication with merchants from other • Tower of Babel a structure that they built "with its tops in the heaven"

• Babylon references in the bible prompted Robert Koldewey, a German

civilizations

archaeologist, to direct an excavation in 1899.

• Developed their own Sumerian Number System - Archaeologists unearthed Temple of Etemenanki, which is believed to
- The main base is 60, auxiliary base 10
have inspired the construction of Tower of Babel

• Built sailboats allowing them to travel by sea

- Another discovery found of what is believed to be the Hanging Gardens
- Early sailboats were made of planks of wood and sails made of cloth
of Babylon
Invented the wheel
• Devised a lunar calendar similar to that by Sumerians, dividing one year to 12
•
months and each month divided into an alternate of 29 and 30 days

- Initial purpose was for pottery in 3500 BC

• Sundials and water clocks to determine time

- Later for transportation in 3200 BC

• Developed irrigation. Construction of high leeves or flood banks

• Known for being the first astronomers.

- Observed the phases of the moon and movements of planet and stars

- Developed the Lunar calendar by referring to the phases of the moon.

Which becomes the basis for 12 lunar months in a year.
AFRICA
INDUS VALLEY

- Africans excel in various fields such as agriculture, metallurgy, Present day: Pakistan and Northwest India

engineering, textile production and medicine.

- Africans do not separate science from spirituality, religion, culture Indus Valley Civilisation
and everyday life
• Largest of the four urban civilizations: Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia
- Scientific advancements of Africans were compounded by racist and China

attitudes of 16th century

• Mohenjo-daro, the 4,600 year old city ruins

• A highly developed urban civilisation

Ancient Egypt • Introduced new techniques in Metallurgy (bronze, tin, copper and lead)
and handicraft (seal carving and carnelian products)

• One of Africas most famous civilisations, born along the Nile River
• Well-organised and baked brick houses

• Known as Kemet meaning “Black Land”, because of the rich dark soil • Complex drainage system and a sophisticated water storage system

along the river

• An established writing system consisting 250 - 500 characters

• Known for advanced agricultural practices

• Canal for irrigation and other agricultural needs.

- Also developed the shadoof an irrigation tool composed of pole

and a bucket used to life water
ANICENT CHINA

• Invented breath mints, myrrh, cinnamon pellets and discovering honey.

Derived from the Sanskrit Cina from the name of the Qin Dynasty
pronounced “Chin”

• Architectural feats such as Great Sphinx of Giza, a 20-meter high statue

Romans and Greeks called China Seres meaning “the land where the
made of limestone depicting a sphinx with a lions body and a human head

silk comes from”

• Pyramids served as tombs for kings and queens of Egypt

- Known to be one of the oldest and longest lasting civilizations

- They believed that after death the soul lives on as an immortal entity

- Practice of mummification-to preserve the body

Ancient China
- Djoser, pharaoh of third dynasty, built the first Step Pyramid • First to record astronomical phenomena such as solar eclipse

- The great pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Mankaure were also • Developed a counting device called abacus

- Used not only for counting but also for basic mathematical
built during his reign

operations

• Papyrus, made from pith of papyrus plant, was used as a writing surface

• Acupuncture is the practice of relieving pain, illnesses and improving

- was also used to make mats, baskets, rafts ropes and more
general well being by inserting several metal needles at precise points into
• Responsible for cosmetic inventions including wigs and makeup
skin and tissue

• Imhotep, physician, wrote texts describing more than 200 diseases • Invention of paper in 105 AD

• Followed by the first moveable printing press in 960 AD, the

production of printed works flourished in the world

• Porcelain is a type of ceramic clay pottery used to craft vases, cups, etc.

• Silk originated in china as early as the Chinese Neolithic period.

- Produced by silkworms that feed on mulberry leaves

- Sericulture, the cultivation and production of silk was refined and

mastered

- Silkroad a network of trade routes that connected different

countries

• Gunpowder, initally used for fireworks . A mixture of Sulphur, Charcoal,

and Potassium Nitrate.

- Used in the Mongol Wars of 10th century and followed by Europe

AEGAN CIVILIZATION 800 BC - 500 BC
ANCIENT ROME

Greece is a country in Southeastern Europe

Originally a small town near Tiber, which grew stronger and greater
Ellas or Ellada “Greece” in Greek
because of Trade

Aegan Civilization Ancient Rome

• Had great philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates. • Physician Galen was first to describe and diagnose symptoms of different
• Known for achievements in politics, art, philosophy and science diseases and corresponding treatments

• Greek Philosophy, greatest contribution of greeks to the west

- Surgical instruments such as rectal speculum, bone lever and
• Rational thought replaced unscientific common notions, which opened cupping vessels were used

minds to new possibilities

• Used concrete, due to durability of volcanic ash in the mixture

• Pythagoras, pioneered the Pythagorean theorem that is used to - For roads, buildings and aqueducts.

measure distance and space.

• Appius Claudius Caecus built the first Roman aqueduct
• Thales of Miletus, became popular for precise prediction of the solar • Construction of two architectural feats, the Colosseum (the largest
eclipse on May 28, 585 BC
amphitheater) and the Pantheon (former roman temple)

- Calculated the height of pyramids

• Powerful military presence and advanced machinery

- Description of the position of Ursa Minor

- Ballista, for long range artilleries

- Founded the Milesian School - Greek fire, combustible weapon capable of propelling bombs at the
• Hippocrates “father of western medicine” determined correlation of diet opponent

and lifestyle to disease

• The fall of ancient rome around 476 AD caused by split of empire into
- Formulated Hippocratic oath two, barbarian invasion or the spread of Christianity.
• Store energy from water through watermills
- Inspired by the creation of Perachora wheel

• Aqueducts, water management in Samos and Athens

• Ctesibius developed water clock or clepsydra

• The odometer is used to measure distance covered by a vehicle

MESOAMERICA

The historical region in North America that spans territories from

Mexico to Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador.

Civilizations: Maya, Aztec and Inca

- Earliest known civilization is Olmec Civilization around 1,200 BC

Maya Civilization Inca Civilization

• The Maya people were considered by many scholars as one of the most • Also known as Incan Empire, was the largest mesoamerican civilisation

scientifically advanced
Performed cranial surgeries and amputation for injured warriors

•
• System of writing called Maya hieroglyphics w/ 1,000 characters
• Flutes, drums, panpipes and horns

• Codices written on tree barks contain records of culture, rituals and • Inca’s official language is called Quechua
observations
Developed Quipu a set of strings used for recording information
•
• Spaniards called them pagan
• Ancient Maya hieroglyphs are still indecipherable

• 365-day solar year and 260-day sacred year — calendar round

Aztec Civilization
• Thrived in Tenochtitlan or present-day Mexico City

• Sun stone has the image of the Aztec sun god at the centre

• Used pictographs as system of writing called Nahuatl

• Characterised by massive stone temples

In The World:
Islamic Empire

MIDDLE AGES
-People were seen as tasteless, vulgar and old-fashioned

• Grew as one of the largest empires in history

- Estimated to have lasted from mid 7th to the mid 13th century

• Koran, the holy book of Muslims, encouraged development of science by

-Also known as Dark Ages due to invasion of Germanic tribes
allowing believers to seek knowledge

- Alaric I, king of Visgoths invaded Rome thrice

• Scientists put emphasis on observation and experimentation

•Appointed as Magister Militia meaning Master of Soldiers

• Different paper making technologies by using starch

- The middle ages is believed to have lasted from 6th century to 15th - Growing preference for pens rather than brushes

century

• The House of Wisdom in Baghdad was built, resulted to translations of

•Split into different periods: Early, High and Late middle ages

Greek and Syriac texts

- Owned by the Abbasid Caliphs, they housed intellectuals

Byzantine Empire - Ptolemy’s Al-magest described an Earth-centered universe

• after the collapse of Roman Empire only the eastern part remained, the - The house of Baghdad was ruined after the siege in 1258

capital Byzantium • The Golden Age of Islamic Science began in the 8th century to 13th
- Renamed as constatinople
century

- Ibn Al-Haytham or Alhazen laid the foundation for modern optics

• The peak of the empire was witnessed during the rule of Justinian

- Devised the Laws of Refraction

• Handheld Trebuchet also called cheiromangana, an alteration of the - Book of Optics had a great influence on Western Science

counterweight trebuchet.
- “Father of Modern Optics”

- The trebuchet is a type of catapult that uses a siege engine in its - Abu Ali al-Hussein Ibn Sina or Avicenna, physician & philosopher

mechanism to throw a projectile

- Wrote al-Qanun fi al-Tibb or The canon of Medicine, this
encyclopedia described the anatomy of the human eye

• Tidal mill, uses running water to grind grains

- Abu Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas Al Zahrawi or Al Zahrawi
- “Father of Surgery”, greatest surgeon of Middle Ages

- Wrote the book Al Tasreef Liman ‘Ajaz ‘Aan Al-Taleef or The

Clearance of Medical Science for those who cannot compile it
- Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi developed Algebra
- Al-Biruni devised a method of determining the radius of the earth

- Also proposed the theory of earth revolving on its own axis

- Jabir Ibn Hayyan, known as “Father of Chemistry”

• The decline of the golden age happened because of the attacks of

European crusaders
 Medieval Europe • Astrology establishes the connection between position of heavenly
bodies to human life and natural world (like tarot cards, horoscopes. To be
• Around 8th century, Charles the great or Charlemagne assisted by made clear, different with astronomy)
English monk Alcuin of York founded the Carolingian Empire
• The 14th century ushered the Late Middle Ages, characterized by
• The Viking Age (793-1006 AD) were responsible for changing geopolitical intellectual progress
• Oxford University founded in 1906

landscape in Europe

• Mathematician Nicholas Oresme established the mean speed theorem

- The Vikings known as cruel warriors, pillages and navigators
or theorem on uniform acceleration.

- Axe was the most commonly used weapon

- Which states that a body travelling at constant velocity will cover the
- The Dane Axe was used for battle, held by both hands
same distance in the same time as an accelerated body if its velocity
- The vikings developed a magnetic compass used the sun to is half the final speed of the accelerated body.

• Another mathematician, John Buridan, developed a theorem through the

navigate the seas

body’s intrinsic and natural quality which he called impetus

• Crusades were a series of religious sacred wars sanctioned by the Latin • Scientific and Technological innovations:
Church to curb the spread of Islamic faith in Europe
- Spectacles a precursor to modern eyeglasses

- Pope Urban II emphasised the importance of reclaiming the - Windmills

territories of Palestine and Jerusalem from muslims

- Magnets lead to the development of the worlds first compasses

- By 1096 the first crusade against muslims was launched

- Spinning wheels

- Astrolabes and Clocks

- The crossbow was an essential weapon in these wars

• The three field system is the division of a single piece of land into three
smaller plots for different crops

• The most known translators of Aristotle’s works were Averroes

(1126-1198) and William of Moerbeke (1215-1286)

- Claudius Ptolemy’s Geography was also translated

- Euclid and Archimedes’ works were also rediscovered

• Studium General or medieval universities emerged during the High

medieval ages

- Christian scholasticism - a method of critical thought that

integrated religious theology with scientific truth

- Lead by the Franciscans by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209

- And by the Dominicans by St. Dominic in 1215

- Friar-scholar Roger Bacon developed scientific method by the

following steps: 

(a) observation

(b) formulation of hypothesis 

(c) experimentation

• Alchemy is an ancient branch of natural philosophy that seeks to convert

base metals into noble metals such as gold
In The World: • Significant advancements in navigation and expedition

- Christopher Columbus Italian explorer and navigator

MODERN AGES
- Henry VIII’s Great Harry

- Construction of Canals for inland transport also occurred

- Masts, sails and sternpost rudders for maritime transport

- Mariner’s compass, quadrant & forestaff, instruments for voyages

Renaissance 14th century to 17th century • Wheel barrow and wooden tracks for mining led to the development of
railway transportation
Renaissance
• Marks the transition from middle ages to modernity

Industrial Revolution began around 18th century

• Renaissance a French word that means “rebirth”, representing the rebirth
of Greek and Roman interests
Industrial revolution
• Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press around 1440 initiated
• Machineries and factories rose in order to give way for mass production

mass media production

• Arnold Toynbee popularised the term “Industrial Revolution”

• Literary and artistic achievements pioneered by notable artists

- According to him the revolution is “the substitution of competition
- Dante a.k.a. “Father of Italian Poetry” for his work The Divine Comedy
for the medieval regulations that previously controlled the production
- Francesco Petrarca or Petrarch hailed as “Father of Humanism”
and distribution of wealth” (1884)

- Leonardo da Vinci an artist known for works Mona Lisa, Vitruvian Man • England is considered to be the first country to be industrialised
influenced by: the large working class and abundant natural resources

and The Last Supper • Factory system was implemented to increase production level of yields
- Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
- Raphael painted The school of Athens and The Sistine Madonna Iron and Steel Industry
• Scientific Revolution events marked the rise of modern science

• Tobern Bergman discovered the important role of carbon in steel in 1750

- Nicolaus Copernicus proponent of heliocentric theory - Henry Bessemer and William Kelly improved the methods of
- Belief that the Earth was the centre of the universe
manufacturing steel from iron

- Galileo Galilei proved Copernicus’ theory to be correct

- Kelly experimented on manufacture of steel using charcoal

- Sir Isaac Newton provided evidence using mathematical - Bessemer patented the same invention, producing stronger
steel than cast iron

description of the motion of earth surrounding the sun

- Robert Mushet discovered an alloy of iron that combined carbon
• Demand for fuel rose in this era for mass production
and manganese with formed iron
• Coal used in 13th century for household fuel

• Blast furnace a type of metallurgical furnace produced industrial metals

Textile Industry
• The glass industry was also thriving because glass was seen as essential
• John Kay invented the flying shuttle to increase the output for yarn

raw material in crafting valuable items

• Spinning Jenny also called Saxon Wheel
• Textile industry was also evident
- developed by James Hargreaves in 1764

• Agricultural techniques were developed to accumulate more income with - A machine that is able to spin more than one spindle at a time

less capital and manpower

• Richard Arkwright patented a textile machine that is powered by water
and not by hand called water frame, spinner multiple threads
- Sheep farming required less human effort provided larger yields

• Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule combined the features of

- Scythe cuts both crops and grass the spinning Jenny and water frame
• Edmund Cartwright in 1787 created the power loom for spinning and • In 1803, John Dalton proposed the Atomic Theory
weaving. increased the production of cotton from plantations
- States that all matter is composed of particles called atoms
• Eli Whitney invented a machine called the cotton gin and multiplied the • Hans Christian Oersted saw that elec. current produce magnetic fields
amount of cotton to be cleaned
- The discovery later helped Michael Faraday construct the first
• Thomas Saint patented a sewing machine in 1790

• Barthelemy Thimonnier invented the chain stitch machine in 1829 crude electric motor in 1821

• James Clerk Maxwell formulated a theory on electromagnetic radiation

Transportation Industry -In 1865 his work, A Dynamical theory of Electromagnetic Field explained
that electric and magnetic fields travel through space at the speed of light

• Englishman Thomas Newcomen developed the steam engine

- Together with John Calley developed an engine based on the piston -In 1873, he published, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, a two-
that was more efficient but used lots of energy volume discourse on electromagnetism

• Denis Papin inventor of the pressure cooker • In 1874, George Johnstone Stoney, proposed a theory that electrons
• James Watt perfected and patented the steam engine that produced the have fundamental qualities of electricity

needed power without consuming too much fuel

- Partnered with Matthew Boulton who was interested in the engine

• In 1879, William Crookes discovered cathode rays when he utilised the
• The invention of steam improved overall transportation
vacuum created by Heinrich Geissler
- Richard Trevithick developed the first locomotive (a railtransport • Years later, Eugene Goldstein discovered the positive particles proton
vehicle)
• X-rays were accidental discovery by William Roentgen
- Named New Castle
• In 1897, J.J. Thompson discovered electrons when he placed Crooke’s
- Unsuccessful because the rails collapsed due to its weight

- George Stephenson “Father of Railways” designed an effective tube within a magnetic field

locomotive called the Blucher that was used tow coal he also invented:
• Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity
- Locomotive no. 1 manage to go at 12 miles per hour
- Later expounded by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie
- Rocket a locomotive what could go 30 miles per hour
- Discovery of elements: Uranium, Thorium, Radium & Polonium

• Robert Fulton developed the North River Steamboat which was later
• Telegraph and wireless communication became widespread

called Clermont

- Alexander Graham patented the telephone

• The advancements of this time affected socioeconomic and political
consciousness of many nations
- Other inventor also improved and upgraded the telegraph system
• However the working class was exploited by the capitalists in pursuit of including Elisha Gray, Philip Reis and Thomas Edison
profit. Behind the development many people suffered because of the bad • Carolus Linnaeus made binomial nomenclature in naming organisms

working conditions
• James Hutton, a geologist, said that there are mechanisms explain the
variability of fossils
Science and technology in the 18th and 19th century • Georges Cuvier, a Paleontologist (studies fossils) proposed the Theory
of Catastrophism, which hypothesised that extinctions must have been
The 18th-19th century common in Earth’s history

• Charles-Augustin de Coulumb pioneered the field of physical science • Charles Lyell proposed Uniformitarianism stating the same geological
- Studies on electrodynamics which culminated to Coulomb’s Law processes are operating today as in the past

• Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen gas by collecting gas from heated • Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck proposed the Theory of Inheritance of
mercury in 1774

Acquired Characteristics
• Antoine Lavoiser named the colourless gas oxygen
- “Father of Modern Chemistry”
• Charles Darwin published his work The origin of Species by Means of
- Published his research Law of Conservation of Mass Natural Selection claims that creatures evolve over a course of time
- Alfred Wallace produced a similar research entitled On Tendency of
Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type
Science and technology in the 20th century Computer and the Age of Information
20th century Age of information
• Scientific innovations made life more convenient and comfortable
• Charles Babbage’s invention of computer from early systems of
• In 1900, Max Planck discovered Quantum Theory calculations influenced the world of technology in 1812

• 1905, Albert Einstein discovered the Theory of Relativity • Claude E. Shannon formulated his ideas on digital communication

- Also proposed the photoelectric effect where electrons are - Published A Mathematical Theory of Communication
released from materials when hit by light
- Information media can be encoded as a series of 1s and 0s
• In 1926, Erwin Schrodenger proposed quantum mechanics that - “Father of Information Theory”
enabled scientists to develop semicunductors and atomic power
- Worked with Warren Weaver and formulated the Shannon-Weaver
• In the same year, Robbert Goddard launched the first succesful rocket Model of Communication also called “mother of all models”

• James Chadwick discovered the neutron in the nucleus of an atom

- Revolved at the idea of pulse-code modulation (PCM) a
• In 1944, Oswald Avery discovered that genes and chromosomes are binary and digital way of transmitting analog-type data.

carried by DNA cells - Alec H. Reeves used PCM for voice communication

• In 1953, Francis Crick & James Watson proposed the helix model of the • Transactional model involves both sender & receiver as communicators
deoxyribonucleic acid who exchange messages rather than only a one way transaction

• In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicilin, drug against bacterial • Interactive model similar to the transactional but often used in the study
infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci
of new media such as internet

• In 1945, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain developed the first antibiotic • Bell laboratories developed SIGSALY a secure speech system in WW2

• In 1955, Niels Jerne expounded the anti-body formation process that - Used a highly secure one-time pad (OTP) encryption

states that the body has its own antibodies that could fight antigens.
• Alan Turing introduced universal Turing machine (UTM)

• The same year, Jonas Salk developed the first polio vaccine - Known as the first computing machine

- Albert Sabin improved Salk’s work, producing oral polio vaccine - Earned him the title “Father of Modern Computer”

• In 1983, Luc Montagnier and Robert Gallo discovered the human • Konrad Zuse developed the world’s first programmable computer

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which led to the awareness of acquired - Created the Z3 the first Turing-complete digital computer and
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) became operational in 1941

• Dolly the sheep was the first successful cloned animal

• In 1939, John V. Atanasoff and student Clifford Berry created the first
• The first aircraft flight was launched by Orville and Wilbur Wright in 1903
electronic digital computer called Atansoff-Berry Computer (ABC)
• In 1908, the first production of automobile was launched by Henry Ford - Able to solve for variables at one at a time ’til all equations are done

• In 1957, the soviet union launched the first artificial satellite Sputnik - The method of storing data known as dynamic random-access
- In 1961, instigated the first manned space flight
memory (DRAM or RAM) is still the main memory systems of
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spearheaded computers today

space programs Mercury and Apollo. • In 1942, Perry Crawford described that a magnetic drum could be used
- In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon. to store all electronic digital information

• Engineering Research Associates (ERA) used parts of captured

German Magnetophones to build magnetic drums and disks under the
alias Project Goldberg
• US Navy used magnetic drum memory system to decipher encryptions.
• The ARPANET was replaced by a new system called internet
• In 1943, Tommy Harold Flowers invented the world’s first programmable - The internet is a collection and interconnection between and among
electronic computer called the Colossus (named due to its massive size) numerous networks from around the globe

- Had roughly 1,700 vacuum tubes

- To access information the World Wide Web was cerated in 1989 by
• Howard Aiken devised a general-purpose computer Harvard Mark 1 Tim Berners-Lee
- Built by IBM in 1944, able to compute & print mathematical tables
- HyperText Markup Language (HTML) the standard language used
• Frederick “Freddie” Calland Williams and Tom Kiburn created the to create websites and applications

Small-scale Experimental Machine (SSEM) or the Manchester Baby - Uniform Resource Identifier/Uniform ResourceLocator (URI/
Computer URL) the resource or the address of a webpage
• William Shockley and his team of engineers were the first to - HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) defines how the information
commercially mass-produce transistors
formatted and distributed on servers and browsers

- The members of his team were later called “traitorous eight” and - 1990, Berners-Lee wrote the first webpage editor called
founded their own company Fairchild Semiconductors WorldWideWeb.app
- Engineers eventually left and start their own companies namely - In 1991 it became open to the public

Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Intel Corporation, laying the - Internet Protocol (IP) adresses were used

foundation of that is now called Silicon Valley - centre of digital and - The address is label of any and every device connected to a
technological research and development
computer network that reveals the location and hosr.
• The International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) built the 604
Electronic Calculating Punch
- A computer capable of performing mathematical operations

- In 1957, IBM created the 608 model

• Jack Kilby is the first to create and patent the integrated circuit (IC) chip

- In 1959 the chip was patented under the title of miniaturised

electronic circuit
- Served as “brain” of computers
• 1961, IBM released the 7030 Data Processing Systems known as the IBM
Stretch computer
• By 1977, floppy disks gained popularity with Apple II
• The floppy disk was upgraded to a compact disk (CD)
- Inspired by the invention James Russell of a system that can
record digital information on an optical transparent foil lit by lamp

- His invention was patented in 1970 then licensed by Sony and

Philips in the 80’s

- The CD is a device that could record and replay sounds without

physical contact between parts

• Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPANET) in 1969 was a packet

switching network that grouped data into packets and sent to others.