1

Developing a Transnational Electricity

Infrastructure Offshore: Interdependence
between Technical and Regulatory Solutions
Ralph L Hendriks, Graduate Student Member, IEEE, Madeleine Gibescu, Member, IEEE,
Martha M. Roggenkamp, and Wil. L. Kling, Member, IEEE

assigned the responsibility of connecting offshore wind power

Abstract--This paper aims at identifying the options for to their national transmission system operators (TSO),
designing an offshore electricity grid and the legal instruments to whereas others leave the responsibility of connecting to the
create such a grid. It will make a first attempt at presenting the onshore network to the project developer.
technical and legal considerations which coastal states, EU and
For future expansion of the European transmission
national legislators and policy makers should take into account in
the coming years when planning and weighing their grid design network, it is likely that a transnational offshore infrastructure
options. By contrast to the onshore system where the current grid will be developed, which facilitates the grid connection of
is the result of many decades of local, regional, national and large-scale offshore wind power, as well as cross-border trade,
international developments, the situation offshore is different in as well as other offshore applications (other offshore
the sense that currently there is more or less no grid. Moreover, renewable energy sources, offshore consumers such as oil and
the legal basis for developing such a grid is different offshore
gas platforms).
than onshore.
Therefore designing a system which looks beyond national
In this paper it will be argued that interdependence exists
interests and concepts represents a major challenge. We will between technical and regulatory aspects when extending the
discuss whether such a new development as the construction of transmission system offshore. The development of technical-
an offshore electricity grid should be a matter of national policy economically optimal solutions may be hindered by the
or should a multilateral or international approach be preferred. different national legal and regulatory frameworks in place.
The paper will identify barriers in the creation of such
Index Terms--offshore networks, long-term planning, legal offshore infrastructures.
aspects, wind integration

II. RELATED WORK

I. INTRODUCTION
Greenpeace estimates the offshore wind energy potential of
A N increasing interest can be observed in Europe towards
the establishment of transnational electricity networks.
This is driven by two developments. First, for reaching the
the North Sea region at 68.4 GW [1], which, assuming an
average 41.2% capacity factor gives 240 TWh/year and would
be sufficient to supply about 13% of the annual electricity
European Union’s targets on renewable energy generation,
demand recorded in 2006 for the seven neighboring coastal
large-scale offshore wind power is a key generation
states. Recent estimates by the European Environmental
technology. Second, due to the deregulation of the energy
Agency [2] are even more optimistic, assigning the
sector in Europe, there exists an increasing demand for cross-
economically competitive potential of offshore wind energy
border exchange capacity. Until now the development of
production in Europe by 2020 at 2600 TWh/year. This
offshore power transmission infrastructure has mainly been
translates to a 60–70% share in the 2020 electricity demand,
governed on a local or national level. As such, major
out of which about a quarter belongs to North Sea areas. The
differences can be observed among the coastal states in how
development of offshore wind energy therefore will not only
offshore power transmission infrastructure is treated in their
meet the greenhouse gas and energy security objectives but
policies, laws, and regulations. For instance, some states have
also improve EU competitiveness in an international context.
In order to meet these objectives and to fully exploit the
R. L. Hendriks and M. Gibescu are with the Electrical Sustainable Energy
Department, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer offshore energy potential, several technical, policy and legal
Science, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 4, 2628 CD, Delft, barriers must be overcome first. These barriers do not only
Netherlands (e-mail: R.L.Hendriks@tudelft.nl, M.Gibescu@tudelft.nl). involve the construction of offshore wind power plants but
W. L. Kling is with the Electrical Sustainable Energy Department, Delft
University of Technology and with the Electrical Engineering Department, also the infrastructure necessary to transport electricity to
Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612 AZ, Eindhoven, shore, i.e. the construction of submarine cables. By contrast to
the Netherlands (e-mail: w.l.kling@tudelft.nl, w.l.kling@tue.nl). the onshore system where the current grid is the result of
M. M. Roggenkamp is with the Groningen Centre of Energy Law,
University of Groningen, Oude Kijk in ’t Jatstraat 26, 9712 EK, Groningen, many decades of local, regional, national and international
Netherlands (e-mail: M.M.Roggenkamp@rug.nl). developments, the situation offshore is different in the sense

978-1-4244-6551-4/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE

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 2

that currently there is hardly any grid (except for some focusing on the onshore transmission system but is now
individual wind power plant to shore connections and a few examining the creation of North Sea electricity hubs, which
two-terminal HVdc interconnectors). Moreover, the legal should be gradually developed by expanding existing bilateral
basis for developing such a grid is different offshore than HVdc connections. Similarly, the Norwegian TSO Statnett has
onshore. Therefore, designing such a system which looks introduced the North Sea “Power Wheel” concept [10], where
beyond national interests and concepts presents a major a coordinated offhsore grid design among the North Sea states
challenge. In this respect, an important role could be played will complement existing HVdc interconnectors, resulting in
by the recently formed North Sea and Baltic Sea Regional the creation of a meshed grid, with several offshore hubs to be
Working Groups, functioning under the umbrella of ENTSO- used as connection points for wind power. This design will
E, the European Network of Transmission System Operators enable the hydro power plants in Norway to act as a buffer for
for Electricity. the variability in offshore wind. Recently, the OffshoreGrid
One of the earliest proposals for a transnational grid is the project, funded under the framework of Intelligent Energy
“Supergrid” concept [3], subsequently trademarked by Irish Europe has begun investigating the interactions between
project developer Airtricity. This was imagined to connect coordinated offshore trans-national networks and market
offshore wind power plants to onshore transmission systems design [11]. This project will deliver technical-economical
from the North and Baltic Sea regions to as far as the Atlantic analyses for various offshore grid blueprints, while taking into
coast and the Mediteranean sea, using what is widely accepted account possible market designs. It also aims at making
as the only technology of choice for such an enterprise, multi- recommendations for changes to the regulatory framework
terminal HVdc based on voltage-sourced converters (VSC- for cost recovery and operation of the grid. However, a legal
HVdc). As a first element of the Supergrid, Airtricity component is not planned to be specifically included in this
proposed the “10 GW Foundation Project,” a conglomerate of study.
wind power plants to be situated in the North Sea and The special report issued by European Coordinator
simultaneously connected with the UK, Germany and the Adamowitsch [7] investigates the possibilities for practical
Netherlands power systems. It is argued that due to synergies realization of a transnational offshore grid and is intended as
with international electricity markets, the offshore cables used advice to EU policy makers on subsidy programs for this
in this project will experience an utilization factor of over advanced type of energy infrastructure. The North Sea and the
70%, compared to the typically low 40% for dedicated wind Baltic Sea are identified as promising areas, with the Kriegers
power plant connections. Flak area in the Baltic Sea recommended as a pilot location
Given the well-established fact that correlation among for large-scale wind power plants (totaling 1600 MW) and a
wind speeds decays exponentially with the distance between three-way interconnector to Germany, Denmark and Sweden.
locations (see e.g. [4]), various initiatives funded by Most of these works, however, mainly focus on the
environmental agencies [1], TSOs (the European Wind technical and economical aspects related to transnational
Integration Study, EWIS [5]) and the European Commission offshore electricity grids. They do not sufficiently address the
[6]–[7], have stressed the importance of well-functioning equally important legal and regulatory aspects that are
international electricity markets and of an adequate pan- relevant to the development of such grids. It is the aim of this
European transmission system. The existence of these two contribution to provide an overview of both fields of study
ingredients enables trading away imbalances (unscheduled and to demonstrate how they relate to each other.
surpluses or deficits of wind energy) and smoothing out the
variability in wind power production when aggregated over III. TECHNICAL-ECONOMICAL ASPECTS
large areas. More wind power can be integrated into the
system without violating technical constraints since capacity A. Reliability and Redundancy
credit for wind goes up [6] and minimum load problems are All offshore wind power plants that have been realized up till
alleviated [8] as wind is traded over larger geographical areas. now employ a dedicated cable connection to the shore. Very
The Greenpeace study [1] starts by quantifying the variability little redundancy has been applied in the design of this type of
in the aggregated wind power production envisaged for the connection infrastructure. The reliability of the connection
North Sea region by 2020–2030, and goes on to discuss critically relies on some of its main components, most
possibilities for connecting clusters of offshore wind farms via importantly the export cable circuit connecting the whole
dedicated multi-terminal HVdc links or via existing HVdc power plant to the onshore grid. When failed, these
interconnectors among countries. Both the EWIS and components will take the complete installation out of service.
TradeWind studies use a combination of market and power In most of present projects, the grid connection is part of the
flow models to determine congested corridors in the European wind power plant project itself and the limit of jurisdiction is
high-voltage transmission system under various the onshore grid connection point. As the total share of
offshore/onshore wind energy development scenarios. offshore wind power capacity in the national electricity supply
However, for simplicity reasons the offshore wind in the systems is still very low and its impact on the operation of
TradeWind study is assumed to be directly connected to the electricity networks is in most places rather negligible,
nearest onshore grid point [9]. The EWIS study also started by transmission system operators do not require wind power

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 3

plant operators to meet defined availability figures. This is, of operate on an equal basis. Taking the idea of standardization
course, further complicated by the variable nature of the wind one step further, one could think of an offshore grid consisting
itself. As a result, for most of present designs, redundancy in of many equally dimensioned subunits. The TSO transpower
the grid connection has been considered only in the light of that is responsible for the network development in the German
technical-economical optimizations in the design phase. Put part of the North Sea has launched plans in this direction [13].
otherwise, redundancy in the grid connection will be They envisage a network of multiple identical clusters of
considered only if the additional investments are at least offshore wind power plants centered around offshore
covered by the revenues from the energy-not-supplied that it substations connected to the mainland, which could in turn be
would prevent [12]. Looking at present designs, this has never interconnected. Not only does modularization ease the process
been the case. of planning an offshore network, but also leads to easier
With the expected increase of the share of offshore wind maintenance during the operation phase (due to e.g. better
power capacity in the future, this situation is likely to change. availability of spare parts). As far as standardization and
TSOs may start putting requirements on the availability of the modularization have impact on the intrinsic structure and
connection. Only then, the loss of production due to an functioning of the grid, they will probably be enforced
offshore transmission outage will become a manageable risk. through technical regulation such as grid codes (see below).
In some North Sea states (notably in Germany) the national Therefore, again, an interdependence between technical and
TSO is now already made responsible for the grid connection regulatory aspects exists.
of offshore wind power plants and the further development of
C. Controllability of Power Flows
the offshore grid. It will depend on the extent to which the
electricity legislation is applicable to offshore, whether As an offshore transnational grid is likely to be based to a
requirements such as N−1 safe connections also hold for the large extent on HVdc technology, it will have higher
interconnection of wind power. controllability of power flows than onshore ac grids. In the
Transnational offshore electricity networks are expected to latter the distribution of power flows mainly results from the
improve reliability. As they will have at least several dispatch of generators and the impedance of the transmission
connection points to the onshore power systems, there will be lines, and can therefore only be influenced indirectly e.g. via
always an alternative path along which (part of) the power can additional equipment such as phase-shifting transformers.
be evacuated. However, a timely coordination among the HVdc inherently enables forcing a predefined power flow
participating states will be crucial in this respect. If there are along a certain line. This will for certain have impact on the
large differences in the requirements for infrastructure rules for congestion management for this offshore grid. Most
reliability between the coastal states, this might well make the notably, at present there exist different rules among the
investment in transnational infrastructures less attractive. European electricity markets for the priority dispatch of
renewables, including on- and offshore wind. Some markets,
B. Flexibility, Standardization, and Modularity such as in Germany, always give precedence to generation
As the development of offshore wind power and offshore from renewable sources, whereas others, such as in the
electricity transmission will probably span decades, it will be Netherlands, give renewables an equal status to any other
hardly possible to determine a detailed blueprint of such generation source. The creation of a transnational offshore
infrastructure in the present. As with onshore networks in the grid would create an (implicit or explicit) coupling of these
past, the evolution of offshore infrastructure is a gradual markets and, hence, a harmonization of market and operation
process that constantly needs to adapt to new developments in rules will be necessary. This results of such a harmonization
the industry and society as a whole. However, since the nodes process needs to be embedded in a proper regulatory
in this offshore network, i.e. high-voltage substations located framework.
on offshore platforms, are almost impossible to modify or
extend once installed, it is essential for the success of such a IV. REGULATORY ASPECTS
network to consider future network expansion plans right
from the beginning. For optimal results, such offshore grid A. Offshore Jurisdiction
expansion plans should be the result of coordinated efforts According to international law, coastal states have sovereignty
among the responsible authorities in the various North Sea over their territory, including the territorial sea. Most coastal
countries. states have extended their territorial sea to 12 nautical miles
Two aspects are of specific relevance in this respect: (22.2 km) from the coastline. Outside this 12-nautical-miles
standardization and modularity. Looking at the development zone, coastal states have a limited or functional jurisdiction.
of onshore transmission systems, a lesson can be learned with On the basis of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
regard to the selection of key technical parameters. An early (UNCLOS, 1982), all coastal states have a continental shelf,
agreement on voltage levels, frequency, short-circuit levels, defined as the stretch of seabed adjacent to the territorial sea.
etc., prevents the development of systems based on multiple Each coastal state automatically has a continental shelf. In
standards. Proper standardization ensures interoperability right contrast, coastal states could opt to explicitly establish an
from the beginning and allows all involved stakeholders to exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which stretches from the
seaward edge of the territorial sea to at maximum 200 nautical

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miles from the coast. According to UNCLOS, coastal states Coastal states can begin to agree beforehand on the type of
have territorial jurisdiction on land and on the territorial sea, cooperation necessary to operate the cable, such as an operator
and functional jurisdiction outside. On the continental shelf on each side of the border or a joint operator, the requirements
this functional jurisdiction is limited to the exploration and for connection to the grid, safety and environmental
exploitation of natural resources. In the EEZ, however, coastal provisions, etc. Such agreements could also include the extent
states have more powers and the functional jurisdiction also to which the national feed-in regimes apply to offshore wind
governs “the production of energy from water, currents, and projects. Consequently, such an agreement would enable the
winds,” and “the establishment and use of artificial islands, feed-in of electricity into offshore interconnectors and the
installations, and structures.” [14] supply of electricity into the system of another (member) state.
All North Sea coastal states have ratified and are party to Bilateral or multilateral agreements can be promoted by a
UNCLOS, and have established an EEZ or similar (e.g. variety of organizations such as the North Sea Minister
Renewable Energy Zone, REZ, in the UK). Thus, these Conference, or the national regulators promoting the
coastal states have the exclusive right to produce wind energy development of regional electricity markets [15].
within the territorial sea and the EEZ. Whereas all territorial Although the EC supports the development of offshore
laws apply to the territorial sea, an explicit decision is required wind power, as expressed in the Egmond Declaration of 2004
as to the laws applying to the EEZ. Coastal states have several and the Berlin Declaration of 2007, until now this has not
options here: existing national laws may (partly) be extended resulted in any major initiatives. Recently, the EC has
to the EEZ, or specific legislation may be established. included the development of offshore wind energy in its
However, the regime regulating the EEZ has to consider the policy on Trans-European Energy Networks [16]. The impact
principles of the high seas at all times, including freedom of of this policy remains to be seen as in practice the Trans-
navigation, fishing, flight transit, and the laying of submarine European Networks policy has only resulted in some degree
pipelines or cables. of funding of specific projects and not in any harmonization
Concerning the laying of cables that are necessary for of legislation. At the end of 2008, the EC published a further
offshore wind energy installations, a coastal state has several recommendation on offshore wind energy [17]. However, as
alternatives as well. It may treat the wind turbines and the this is a recommendation, it does not present any concrete
cables as a single installation for the production of electrical legal obligations for the promotion of offshore wind energy
energy, or it may consider the wind power plant and the and the development of an offshore grid facilitating the
export circuit connecting the plant to the onshore network as transport of offshore generated electricity. Several other
two separate installations, for which separate regulations initiatives have been listed in the introduction of this paper,
apply. For example, a coastal state may opt to (partly) extend most importantly the work of European Coordinator
its electricity legislation to offshore, or to establish a new Adamowitsch [7]. However, it will still take considerable time
regulation specifically governing offshore cables and before the conclusions of these activities will find their way
installations, e.g. in the form some sort of building act. These into binding obligations. Coastal states therefore still need to
choices will to a great extent influence how the offshore rely on the above mentioned legal instruments if they wish to
electricity infrastructure in these coastal states will further establish a legal basis for building and operating transnational
develop. For instance, based on the legislation different electricity grids.
stakeholders may be made responsible for the development of
C. Technical Regulations and Grid Codes
offshore grids (for example the TSO versus the project
developer). In this respect it must be stressed here that other A specific part of national electricity regulation deals with
stakeholders other than the TSO could also participate in the technical requirements for connected equipment. Such
development of (parts of) the offshore grid. requirements are often detailed in grid codes, which are
As a result, regulation for offshore electricity infrastructure secondary regulations that are referenced in the Electricity
is likely to continue developing mainly on a national level, Act. As with the onshore transmission networks, these grid
unless the EU Commission (EC) decides to play a more active codes have gradually developed over the years and are in
role. many aspects specific to a national power system. Wind
turbine manufacturers have recently faced the challenge of
B. Bilateral versus Multilateral Regulation making their product compliant to a wide range of grid code
For the development of offshore electricity infrastructure, requirements. However, the many different grid codes in place
possibly a lesson can be learned from the oil and gas industry. may form a major barrier towards the development of
All offshore cross-border oil and gas pipelines in the North transnational offshore electricity grids.
Sea have been developed and operated on the basis of a Many surveys, including more recently [18], have shown
bilateral agreement between the coastal states involved. In the need for a unified regulatory framework of
such bilateral agreements the involved authorities involved national/regional grid codes, comprising technical
agree on the general principles that should apply to the requirements for grid connection of wind power plants and
pipeline. This same principle of bilateral agreements could also grid connection charging methods. Such grid code
also be applied for the case of submarine electricity cables. harmonization will support the development of a true pan-

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 5

European transmission system. Typical technical grid code currently being undertaken at a European level, it may take
requirements for wind power plants include low-voltage ride- considerable time until the results find their way into practical
through, voltage and reactive power support, and active power regulation. It is argued that until that time, coastal states
and frequency control. This fragmentation issue has already wishing to engage in the development of such an offshore grid
been recognized by major wind industry stakeholders. As a should focus on the possibilities offered by bilateral or
result, the EWEA Working Group on Grid Code multilateral agreements, as are common for oil and gas
Requirements has proposed a two step harmonization pipelines. It has furthermore been shown that especially with
approach [19]: a structural harmonization providing a grid regard to technical-economical aspects that relate to the design
code template [20], and a technical harmonization exercise and operation of transnational offshore grids (such as the need
that has to adapt the existing grid code parameters of each for redundancy and standardization), an interaction with the
country to the new grid code template. This harmonization regulatory framework should be taken into account.
will benefit not only wind turbine manufacturers, but also
project developers and system operators alike. Such a grid VI. REFERENCES
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[10] K. Hauglum, "Modular design for the development of the
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regulatory aspects right from the beginning. The paper K. Michalowska-Knap, J. Tambke, and G. Rodrigues, "IEE project
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[15] M. M. Roggenkamp, "Submarine electricity and gas interconnectors: a His research interests include power system stability and control, grid
treaty perspective, " in European Energy Law Report IV, Series Energy integration of large-scale renewable energy sources and modeling of power
and Law, M. M. Roggenkamp, and U. Hammer (Eds.), Intersentia, 2007, electronics.
pp. 241–265.
[16] "Priority interconnection plan," COM(2006) 846 final, 10 January 2007. Madeleine Gibescu (M’2005) received the Dipl.Eng. in Power Engineering
Communication from the EU Commission to the Council and the from the University Politehnica, Bucharest, Romania in 1993 and her MSEE
European Parliament. Brussels, Belgium. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Washington, Seattle, WA, U.S. in
[17] "Offshore wind energy: Action needed to deliver on the energy policy 1995 and 2003, respectively.
objectives for 2020 and beyond," COM(2008) 768 final, 13 November She has worked as a Research Engineer for ClearSight Systems and as a
2008. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, Power Systems Engineer for the AREVA T&D Corporation. She is currently
the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the an Assistant Professor with the Electrical Power Systems group, Department
Committee of the Regions. Brussels, Belgium. of Electrical Sustainable Energy,at the Delft University of Technology, the
[18] A. R. Ciupuliga, M. Gibescu, G. Fulli, A. L’Abbate, and W. L. Kling, Netherlands.
"Grid Connection of Large Wind Power Plants: a European Overview,"
in Proc. 8th Intl. Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of Wind Power
into Power Systems as well as on Transmission Networks for Offshore Martha M. Roggenkamp studied Scandinavian Language and Literature and
Wind Farms, Bremen, Germany, Oct. 2009. Dutch Law at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. She received her
[19] "Harmonising Europe’s grid codes for the connection of wind power Ph.D. degree from the University of Leiden, Netherlands, in 1999.
plants to the electricity network," European Wind Energy Association, She is professor of Energy Law at the Faculty of Law of the University of
Brussels, Belgium, Tech. Rep., Dec. 2009. [Online]. Available: Groningen, the Netherlands, joint director of the Groningen Centre of Energy
http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/ Law, and Of Counsel attorney at Brinkhof Advocaten in Amsterdam, the
publications/position_papers/091210_EWEA_Harmonising_Europes_ Netherlands. She is also the founder and chair of the Dutch Society for Energy
GCs_for_the_Connection_of_Wind_Power_Plants.pdf Law. Before her appointment in Groningen in 2005, she worked in Leiden as
[20] "Generic Grid Code Format for Wind Power Plants," European Wind an energy law researcher.
Energy Association, Brussels, Belgium, Tech. Rep., Nov. 2009. Prof. Roggenkamp’s research fields include the legislation and regulations
[Online]. Available: http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/ governing the liberalization of the Dutch and European energy markets.
documents/publications/091127_GGCF_Final_Draft.pdf
Wil L. Kling (M’1995) received his M.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering
from the Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands, in
VII. BIOGRAPHIES 1978.
Since 1993, he has been a part-time Professor with the Delft University of
Ralph L. Hendriks (GSM'2005) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Technology, the Netherlands in the field of Electrical Power Systems. Up till
Electrical Engineering from Delft University of Technology in 2003 and 2005, the end of 2008 he was also with TenneT, the Dutch Transmission System
respectively. Operator, as senior engineer for network planning and strategy. Since Dec.
Since 2005 he is a Ph.D. researcher at the Electrical Sustainable Energy 2008, he has been appointed Chair of the Electrical Energy Systems group,
Department at Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands. His main Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands. He is leading research
research topic is grid integration of offshore wind power plants through high- programs on distributed generation, integration of wind power, network
voltage direct-current transmission, with a special focus on synergies with concepts and reliability issues.
interconnectors. From 2007 he is also a consultant with Siemens AG, Energy Prof. Kling is involved in scientific organizations such as CIGRE and the
Sector, Erlangen, Germany. IEEE. As Netherlands' representative, he is a member of CIGRE Study
Committee C6 on Distribution Systems and Dispersed Generation, and the
Administrative Council of CIGRE.

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