Introduction to Instructional Design

Compiled to fulfill one of Instructional Design Course Assignment

Lecturer: Mr. Dr. Dian Kardijan, M.Pd.

By :

1. Lia Siti Sayidah (172122014)

2. Listia Melawati Dewi (172122122)
3. Shofiah Nur Azizah (172122009)
4. Tahtania Regita D.N.A (172122012)

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHER TRAINING

SILIWANGI UNIVERSITY

2019
 PREFACE
Praise to be God Almighty for the blessings for his grace. Greeting
hopefully regular most outpouring to our adoration Prophet Muhammad S.A.W
there with best friends and his family already lead people of ways pitch-dark mark
toward ablaze road gets to radiate faith Islam and charity, and that we were given
the opportunity to be able to complete a working paper in Instructional Design
subject assignment entitled, “Introduction to Instructional Design” is properly and
correctly and on time.

This paper is structured so that the readers can know what is instructional
system, the system approach to the design of instruction, basic processes in
learning and instruction, some learning principles, the condition of learning and
the rationale for instructional design.

The reader who read this paper will find any ideas about instructional
design to apply in her/his learning teaching to arrange external events that support
internal learning process. It is possible to follow up the ideas derived from any
researchers on human learning with further exploration.

The compilers also thanked to Mr. Dr. Dian Kardijan, M.Pd as the lecturer
in Instructional Design subject, who have gave many e-books to complete this
paper. Hopefully this paper can give a broader insight to the reader. Aamiin ...

Tasikmalaya, 8th August 2019

Authors
 TABLE OF CONTENT
PREFACE ......................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENT .................................................................................... ii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1

A. BACKGROUND ..................................................................................

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION ............................................................................

A. Basic Assumptions ................................................................................

B. Some Learning Principles .....................................................................
C. The Condition of Learning ....................................................................
D. The Rationale for Instructional Design .................................................

CHAPTER III.Conclusion ..................................................................................

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................
 Introduction to Instructional Design

I. Introduction

Basic Assumptions about Instructional Design

1. Adopt the assumption that instructional design must be aimed at aiding the
process of learning rather than the process of teaching.
2. Recognize that learning is a complex process affected by many variables.
3. Instructional design models can be applied at many levels.
4. Design is an iterative process
5. Instructional design itself is a process consisting of a number of
identifiable and related sub processes
6. Different types of learning outcomes call for different types of instruction.

We have to eventually find ourselves on the path toward a theory of

instructional design (Gustafson & Tillman, 2000). Instructional design (ID) whether
able to expand its intellectual basis in the not-too-distant future.

 Didactics and Instructional Design

The history of educational science and, in particular, of didactics (The

science of teaching and learning), we can see several movements over the
centuries, and especially in the 20th century. In addition at the beginning of the
20th century, two broad educational movements emerged: the reform pedagogy
and the approach of experimental education and didactics. The field of didactics
as follows: In a literal sense, didactics means teaching and instructing, but also
learning and being taught. Consequently, both the concepts of “didactics as a
theory of teaching and learning” (in the sense of Dolch, 1965) and of “didactics as
a theory of the contents of Bildung” correspond best with the mission of this
volume. This leads immediately to the question of the status of ID.

 Foundation of ID

The development of a theoretical basis for the design of instruction has

three major sources. The idea that the results of research on learning are useful for
the design of instruction came first (Dijkstra & van Merriënboer, 1997). This idea
has been with us for at least two millennia and has received attention from
scholars and researchers in the domains of education and psychology for at least
the two previous centuries. The increasing demands for training and efficient
instruction during and after World War II led, in the 1950s, to an “engineering”
approach to education. For this development, the labels educational technology
and instructional systems design (ISD) came into use.
  The early years of ID

Glaser introduced the technical term instructional system, consisting of

five components: (a) the “system objectives” or instructional goals, (b) the
“system input” or entering behavior, (c) the “system operator” or instructional
procedures, (d) the “output monitor” or the performance assessment, and (e) the
research and development logistics.
Glaser’s technical description of the students’ “terminal behavior” and the
“procedures of instructional technology” met the theory of learning and the
experimental findings of the psychology of learning that were known in those
years, thus making clear that learning and instruction are two sides of the same
coin. The education should benefit from it in two ways: The developments could
free the teacher from routine work, and the students would learn better.

 The Current status of ID

The defining characteristic of ID is that it makes explicit the substantive

assumptions an instructional designer or a teacher uses to develop instructional
materials and learning tasks. These assumptions describe the knowledge structures
and cognitive processes a learner in a particular instructional setting would use,
how they develop in dependence on learning, and how more competent learners
differ from less competent learners. These substantive assumptions are embodied
in psychological theories of human learning and thinking. a strong demand for a
change of the theoretical foundations of ID resulted as a consequence of a
paradigm shift in psychology in the 1960s—the “cognitive revolution” (Bruner,
1990).

 Major trends in the development of instructional design

ID as both a discipline and a technology in the past two decades. We can

observe a substantial uncertainty in the field of ID with regard to its
epistemological, psychological, and technological foundations. In this time period
ID has continued to evolve, assimilating and advancing theories from psychology,
systems theory, and communication technologies.

Taking the long-term developments of ID into consideration, we can state

several main lines of argumentation in the 1990s that are concerned with the
missions and visions of ID:

1. There was a continuation of the search for a comprehensive theory

of ID in order to make ID viable again.

2. There was, especially in the United States, a heated debate about

the meta-theoretical status of knowledge and its development and the
supposedly “false” foundation of ID, culminating in the “objectivism–
constructivism controversy” of the early 1990s.
 3. We can find in the literature of the 1990s a strong association of ID
with artistic activities
 The History of this volume

50 years ago, ID was initially an American affair, whereas in Europe (and

especially in Germany) approaches of a “general didactics” with roots in
hermeneutics were predominant. Today, ID is an international affair and
accordingly instructional researchers and educational psychologists and
technologists concern themselves with ID and ISD worldwide. Especially in the
1990s, several books and special issues of journals were published that
demonstrate the internationality of ID as a discipline.

 The content of this volume

This volume is divided into three parts that represent the field of tension of
instructional design from approaches situated in the research of learning to ID
defined as an engineering discipline. The various chapters of Part I of this volume
are concerned with new theoretical foundations of ID as well as with novel
approaches that evolved in the 1990s as the result of new theoretical and meta-
theoretical considerations based on the constructivist and constructionist paradigm
of learning in instructional settings. These approaches correspond with Mayer’s
(2003) approach of looking for (a) research-based principles for the design of
learning environments and (b) the extent to which these principles can be applied
to different realizations of learning environments.

II. The Aims

 Goals as Training Outcomes
What is the difference between education and training? Often it is the
purpose or specificity of the desired outcomes. Whereas education
develops potential capabilities and dispositions, effective training depends
upon acceptable performance of the task being taught. However, training
organizations that focus primarily on skill development also have broader
goals within their organizational context. A goal for training in the military
might be to reduce the risk of battlefield injury, or to produce effective and
efficient infantry. These goals must also be broken down into individual
capabilities and attitudes, such as the soldier will be able to assemble a
weapon by feel, in the dark, in five minutes or less. A related attitude is
soldiers choose to observe safety rules when handling a weapon.
 Five categories of learning outcomes
 Five categories of learning outcomes, each of which will be defined and
discussed briefly in the paragraphs below. These outcomes are made
possible by the acquisition of learned capabilities, which are viewed as
changes in the learner’s stored memory. The instructional conditions that
facilitate these changes and a fuller description of each type of learning.
Intellectual Skills, Cognitive Strategies, Verbal Information, Motor Skills
and Attitudes.
Objectives, knowledge, skills and attitudes have been the key factors in
curriculum design for several decades, competencies, and competence
standards are now becoming the main factors.
The importance of these items was to increase the understanding students,
even though some agreed that they had not used them in the design of the
lessons to the extent that it was important. Also, it was interesting to note
the consistent ratings of the items in both the level of importance and I
design them. Instructional goals and instructional objectives were not only
considered important, but instructors also agreed that they are the two
items included in their lessons most of the time. This research has
implications for the design and development of all types of instructional
material (print based, computer based). The important elements of the
design process have been pointed out, and the importance of alignment
between these instructional elements has to be kept in mind in the design
of instructional material. Using the matrix model in the instruction design
process saves much time ensuring the quality of educational experience
continues to increase in importance.
Instruction is a purposeful activity, that is, it is a means to an end. The
ends are often described as the goals or objectives of instruction. These
terms have different meanings in different contexts, but goals are generally
understood to be broad statements of desirable outcomes, and objectives
are more specific. The instructional outcomes introduced and defined here
in terms of five broad categories run design of instruction is built. The
basic reason for designing instruction is to make possible the attainment of
a set of educational or training goals. The society in which we live has
 certain functions to perform in serving the needs of its people.
Accordingly, one of the functions of a society is to ensure that such
learning takes place. Every society, in one way or another, makes
provision for the education and training of people in order that the variety
of functions necessary for its survival can be carried out. Education and
training goals are those human activities that contribute to the functioning
of a society, including the functioning of an individual in the society, and
that can be acquired through learning.

III.Discussion
1. Basic Assumption

There are as many models as there are designers and design situations.
Each designer brings to the process his or her understanding of the
principles and events that affect learning, and how to best structure
instruction. There are, however, basic common assumptions that we bring
to the process of design.

First, we adopt the assumption that instructional design must be aimed at

aiding the process of learning rather than process of teaching. Instructional
design is also aimed at “intentional” learning as opposed to “incidental”
learning. This implies that the target goals and desired learning outcomes
guide the design and selection of learning activities.

Second, we recognize that learning is a complex process affected by many

variables. John Carroll (1963) in his Model of school learning defined at
least five major variables that affect the degree of learning attained by a
student : (1) learner perseverance, (2) time allowed, (3) quality of
instruction, (4) aptitude, and (5) student’s ability to learn. These variables
are not unrelated, however, and an effective model instructional design
cannot focus on just one of these variables.

Third, instructional design models can be applied at many levels.

Principles of instructional design can be of immediate value to a teacher
or trainer who is planning a lesson for a day’s activity, a trainer preparing
a three day workshop, or a curriculum developer designing a course of
study.

Fourth, assumption is that design is an interactive process. Given our

current understanding of how people learn, we can’t design instruction
without involving learners in the process. Design and development may be
carefully planned ahead of time, or they may evolve as continuous process,
as in rapid prototyping (the process of rapidly developing an instructional
treatment with the idea that use will inform changes).

Fifth, assumption is that instructional design itself is a process consisting

of a number of identifiable and related sub processes. At the simplest level,
instructional design is aligning desired outcomes, instructional methods,
and student assessments.

Sixth, and final point, to be expanded in Part 2 and throughout the book, is
the different types of learning outcomes call for different types of
instruction. There is no best way to teach everything, and the conditions
for learning that are appropriate to the type of outcomes we desire will
affect our thinking about the design of learning activities and materials.

Instructional designers have been charged with “translating principles of

learning and instruction into specifications dor instructional materials and
activities” (Smith & Ragan, 1993, p.12). To achieve this goal, two sets of
skill and knowledge are needed and here there are three theory of basic
assumption.

1. Behaviorism
Many of basic assumption and characteristics of behaviorism are
embedded in current instructional design practice. Behaviorism was used
as the basis for designing many of the early audio-visual materials and
gave rise to many related teaching strategies, such as Skinner’s teaching
machines and programmed texts. For example an emphasis on producing
observable and measurable outcomes in students, pre-assessment of
students to determine where instruction should begin, emphasis on
mastering early steps before progressing to more complex levels of
performance.
2. Cognitivism
Many of the Instructional design strategies advocated and utilized by
cognitivists are also emphasized by behaviorists, yet usually for different
reason. A behaviorists uses feedback (reinforcement) to modify behavior
in the desired direction, while cognitivists make use of feedback
(knowledge of result) to guide and support accurate mental connections
(Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992). Specific assumptions or
principles that have direct relevance to instructional design include the
following emphasis on the active, emphasis on structuring, creation of
learning environment.
3. Constructivism
The philosophical assumptions underlying both behavioral and cognitive
theories are primarily objectivistic, that is the world is real, external to the
learner. The constructivists designer specifies instructional methods and
strategies that will assist learners in actively exploring complex topic or
environment and that will move them into thinking in given a content area
as an expert user of that domain might think.. The following are several
specific assumptions or principles from constructivist position that have
direct relevance for the Instructional designer an emphasis on the
identification of the context, an emphasis on learner control and the
capability on the learner, the need information to be presented in a variety
of different ways, supporting the use of problem solving skills that allow
learners to go “beyond the information given” and the last assessment
focused on transfer of knowledge and skills.

2. Learning Principles

Learning as defined by Robert Gagne (1985), is a process that leads to a

change in a learner’s disposition and capabilities that can be reflected in
behavior. As human beings we perceive and process information every
waking minute. A learning situation has two parts, one external to the
learner and the other internal. As scientists, learning investigator are
basically interested in explaining how learning takes places. In other
words, the want to relate both the external and internal parts of a learning
situation to the process of behavior change called learning. The aspect of
learning theory that are important for instruction are those relate to
controlled events and conditions. If we are concerned with designing
instruction so that learning will occur efficiently, we must look for those
elements of learning theory that pertain to the events about which an
instructor can do something. There are some examples of Learning
Principles:

- Contiguity. The principle of contiguity states that the stimulus

situation must be presented simultaneously with the desired response.
- Repetition. The principle of repetition states that the stimulus situation
and its response need to be repeated, or practiced, for learning to be
improved and for retention to be more assured.
- Reinforcement. The principle of reinforcement has been stated as
follows: learning if a new act is strengthened when the occurrence of
that act is followed by a satisfying state of affairs (Thorndike, 1913).
Such a review of reinforcement is still a lively theoretical issue, and
there is a good deal of evidence for it.
- Social-Cultural Principles of Learning. Most early educational
psychologists studied how individuals learned from instruction
 without consideration of the student’s social-cultural environment.
Variables like the rate of instruction, the use of illustrations, and the
mode of presentation, among others, were isolated in attempts to
determine the variance they contributed to differences in learning
situation. A few examples of principles that might be derived from
social-cultural models include the following.
1). Negotiated meaning. Learning is a social process of constructing
meaning.
2) Situated cognition. Learned capabilities are acquired in a particular
context, and the perceived utility of that context has implications
for later retrieval and use. A related concept is “inert knowledge”
(Whitehead, 1929). We see the inclusion of social-cultural
principles in instructional design as a perfectly logical step in
development of a design model that attends to the
multidimensional nature of learning, and definitely in line nature
than those for specific kinds of learning. These principles, then,
might inform practice for a large number of learning situation.

- Activity Theory. Principle of activity theory includes the notion that

learning occurs as a result Of activity. All activity is purposeful, and
by participating in activities, learning occurs.
Instructional design, therefore, they point out, must be such that
learners develop conceptually rich and organized representations of
knowledge the resists forgetting, can be retrieved automatically and
can be applied flexibly across task and situations.
In the other resources also, there are some basic principles of effective
Instructional Design.
1. Instructional Design should proceed at an efficient pace.
Since students need many hours of practice in a skill to achieve
expertise, an instructional program should teach material efficiently,
encouraging students to practice every chance they get. Efficiency, is
the best way to achieve that goal, that are consider student’s
backgrounds as you design material, include supplementary material,
add remedial material for struggling student, use a clear, organized
format, provide structure, and use small units to speed up learning.
2. Instructional design should contextualize information.
When students can relate new information and theories with that
wich they already know, they can learn faster. Not only that, but they
can also apply it better in real life through more situations and tasks,
such as use multiple example, used varied formats, use variety of
meaning context, vary the types of practical applications you offer,
 link theoretical concepts to practical experiences, and build new
knowledge on the foundations of existing knowledge.
3. Design your course to be learner community-based. We can do some
ways to create the best design that are do peer feedback is a huge
part of learning, most real life positions require teamwork, and
provide space for student-student connections.
4. Include opportunities for students to produce original content.
A course that only requires students to remember information to spit
back in a tightly controlled environment, such as multiple-choice test
or fill in the black, does its students a disservice. Reaction papers or
oral presentations help students organize and understand issue,
encourage students to put their newfound knowledge or skills to
work outside of class, incorporate critical thinking exercise in course
material, teach students to look at a problem from multiple points of
view, create courses that teach students to become lifelong learners.
5. Create fair, well-though-out evaluation tools administered at the
proper time.
The old model of cramming a lot of material into each lesson results
in students who cram for tests. Instead, provide students with
material presented and tested at a pace at which they can internalize
the knowledge for a lifetime. Space put new material and
evaluations, test your test, provide helpful feedback, provide
immediate feedback.

3. The Conditions of Learning

Learning process is an important thing for absorbing the
knowledge, in it process there are two factors in a whole of learning
instruction: internal and external factors. Robert M, Wager, Goals and
Keller (2005) described the two factors in a whole of learning:
External factors, like the learning environment, the resources in
that environment, and the management of learning activities
interact with internal conditions, such as states of mind that the
learner brings to the learning task, previously learned capabilities,
and personal goals of the individual learner. (p.7)

According to Gagne (1985) in Principles of Instructional Design, five

editions emphasized that, the instruction have to account a whole set of
two factors both external an internal to the learner collectively and it is
called by the condition of learning (p.7). “Different internal and
external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For
example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance
to practice developing new solutions to problem; to learn attitudes, the
learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive
arguments”(Gagne, para.1)

The Processes of Learning

“Learning events are actions that some intelligent agent performs and
that involve a sequence of mental events”(Naeve, Lytras, and Alcala,
2008, para.1). But in the learning that we have to make a align both
external and internal factor in learning conditions we have to begin
from the small aspect such as model, how is the processes will be held
or what is the processes involved in act needed. Many models for the
learning process but one of the model that accepted by modem
investigator. “Theory model developed originally by Atkinson and
Shiffrin (1968), conceives of learning as information processing that
consists of a number of stages between perception and memory.”
(Robert M, Wager, Goals and Keller, 2005, p.7). In their assumption
that the sensory receptors transmit information from the environment to
the central nervous system, and attains a brief registration in one of the
sensory registers and transformed into recognizable patterns that enter
short-term memory. It is called selective perception The visually
presented the letter, when they are stored in short-term memory. The
particular angles, comers and horizontal and vertical lines becomes a
rectangle. (as cited in Robert M, et al, 2005, p,.7).

Short-term memory is relatively happen in no more than twenty

second, it is limited capacity to held in mind. In long-term memory,
when retrieved when retrieved; passes to a response generator and is
transformed into action. The message activates the effectors (muscles),
producing a performance that can be observed to occur in the learner's
environment. This action is what enables an external observer to tell
that the initial stimulation has had its expected effect. The information
has been "processed "in all of these ways, and the learner has, indeed
learned. (as cited in Robert M, et al, 2005, p,9).

Here is the figure 1-1:

In Principles of Instructional Design e-book,

there are other models of information processing, such as the

parallel-distributed processing model, and connectionists models
(McClelland & Rumelhart, 1986), they are basically extensions of
rather than replacements for the stage model. Brain research, such
as that being done by LeDoux (1996) and others might provide
insight in the future about how emotions affect cognition. (Robert
M, et al 2005, p.7)

Control Processes. Two important aspects in the figure 1-1 in the

process. They are executive control and expectancies. These are
processes that activate and modulate the flow of information during
learning. For example : Student’s expectation to comprehend the
material, they try to comprehend the material and think what they have
to do after learning, it may affect how an external situation is perceived,
how it is encoded in memory and how is transformed into act. The
executive controls the function of cognitive strategy for what is
encoded and how is will be act. Robert M, et al(2005) describe the
events that occur in an act of learning in principle of instructional
design:
 In summary, the internal processes are as follows:
1. Reception of stimuli by receptors
2. Registration of information by sensory registers
3. Selective perception for storage in short-term memory (STM)
4. Rehearsal to maintain in formation in STM
5. Semantic encoding or storage in long-term memory (LTM)
6. Retrieval from LTM to working memory (STM)
7. Response generation to effectors
8. Performance in the learner's environment
9. Control of processes through executive strategies. (p.9)

Instruction and Learning Processes. The instruction will be facilitator

in the learning processes when it is supports the internal event. The
external events or instruction should align with the internal event to
support the different stages in the process. The purpose from
instruction, internal and external relation is to create an efficient
learning process. Robert M, et al (2005) describe,

Kinds of activities in roughly this order and are related to the

learning processes previously listed:
1. Stimulation to gain attention to ensure the reception of stimuli
2. Informing learners of the learning goals to establish appropriate
expectancies
3. Reminding learners of previously learned content for retrieval
from LTM
4. Clear and distinctive presentation of material to ensure selective
perception
5. Guidance of learning by suitable semantic encoding
6. Eliciting performance, involving response generation
7. Providing feedback about performance
8. Assessing the performances involving additional response
feedback occasions
9. Arranging variety of practice to aid future retrieval and transfer.
(p.10).

The Contributions of Memory. Another condition of learning beside

the external event is include the presence in working memory. Robert
M, et al (2005) emphasized, “as previously noted, these are retrieved
 from long-term memory during the learning episode. Instruction can aid
this recall by reminding (or asking the learner to recall) the contents
learned on previous occasions”(p.10).

Kinds of learning.
In principle of instructional design, there are five kinds of learned
capabilities:
1. Intellectual skills: Which permit the learner to carry out
symbolically controlled procedures using discriminations,
concepts, rules, and problem- solving skills
2. Cognitive strategies: The means by which learners exercise
control over their own learning processes
3. Verbal information: The fact sand organized "knowledge of the
world” stored in the learner's memory.
4. Attitudes: The internal states that influence the personal action
choices a learner makes
5. Motor skills: The movements of skeletal muscles organized to
accomplish purpose actions. (Robert M, et al, 2005).

Intellectual Skills As Building Blocks For Instruction. Intellectual

skill is one of the important foundations in learning as building blocks
for most curricula. It is included by the concepts learning, principles,
rules, and processes. Having an intellectual is a big chance for educator
and learner because it is high skill and not only in memorizing but it
should by practicing concept. If educator and learner get an intellectual
skill the instructor will guide it easier and can be mastering the
instruction or the concept well. “The choice of intellectual skills as a
primary point of reference in the design of instruction, then, is based
mainly upon practical considerations”(Robert M, 2005, p.11).

4. The Rationale of Instructional Design.

In the learning processes there are internal and external factor,
which are have to align with the concept of instructional learning.
According to Robert M, et al (2005), “We propose the design of
instruction with suitable attention to the conditions under which
learning occurs, conditions which are both external and internal to the
learner. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what type of
learning outcome is desired” (p.12).
The technical knowledge for designing learning system at each
stage is termed by system approach. There are the various form of
information, data, and theoretical principles as input at each planning
 stage. The systematic planning of instruction to achieve learning is
characterized by a process of stating goals, selecting or developing
instructional interventions, and using feedback from learners to
improve the instruction.(Robert M, et al,2005,p. 12).
For designing instruction, we can develop a model for instructional
design. According to Robert M, et al (2005) in principle of
instructional design, “Models serve a purpose within the context they
are going to be used”(p.13). Here is the model of the teaching learning
process by Huitt (2003) :
If the desired objectives have already been specified, and curriculum

materials developed, the teacher might haveonly to (1) manage the

students’ use of the materials, (2) guide their activities, and (3) assess
learning and provide corrective feedback.(Robert M, et al, 2005,p.13).
Instructional design will be a simple facilitator in learning with any
intellectual skill and it is how to the educator or a learner apply it. Robert
M, et all describe the rational steps of a thorough model briefly as
follows :
1. Determine the purposes for the instruction. The needs for
instruction are investigated as a first step. These are then carefully
considered bay responsible group to arrive at consensus on the
goals of instruction. The resources available to meet these goals
must also be carefully weighed, along. with those circumstances
that impose constraints on instructional planning. An example of
a constraint is time allowed for instruction.
2. Goals of instruction may be translated into a framework for a
curriculum and for the individual courses contained in it. Likewise
the goals of individual courses reflect the instructional purposes
determined in step 1. The outcomes of this step are the course
goals and course description.
3. The course objectives are then analyzed and major units of
instruction are identified. The unit goals are derived from the
course goals, with attention to how they support the types of
outcomes represented at the course level.
4. The determination of types of capabilities to be learned, and the
inference of necessary learning conditions for them, makes it
possible to plan the sequences of lessons. These sequences
facilitate cumulative learning.
5. Lessons are further broken down into events and/or learning
activities. Attention centers on the arrangement of external
conditions that will be most effective in bringing about the
desired outcomes. Consideration must also be given to the
characteristics of the learners, because these will determine many
of the internal conditions involved in the teaming. Planning the
conditions for instruction also involves integrating technology in a
meaningful way.
6. The additional element required for completion of instructional
design is a set of procedures for assessment of what students have
learned. In conception, this component follows naturally from the
instructional objectives. The objectives describe domains from
which items are selected. Assessment procedures and instruments
are designed to provide criterion-referenced measurement of
learning outcomes (Popham, 1981).
7. The design of lessons and courses, with their accompanying
techniques of assessing learning outcomes, makes possible the
planning of entire systems. Instructional systems aim to achieve
comprehensive goals in schools and educational programs at all
levels. A means must be found to fit the various components
together in a management system, sometimes called an
instructional delivery system. Naturally, teachers or instructors
play key roles in the operation of such a system. A particular class
of instructional systems is concerned with learning in settings
apart from the school or classroom, as in distance orelearning.
However, the conditions of learning for these audiences must also
be taken into consideration.
8. Finally, attention must be paid to evaluation of the instructional
effort. Procedures for evaluation are first applied to the design
 effort itself. Evidence is sought for revisions that would improve
and refine the instruction (formative evaluation). At a later stage,
summative evaluation is undertaken to seek evidence of the
learning effectiveness of what has been designed.(p.13-14).

IV. Conclusion
V. References
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