24

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Women Entrepreneurism is an emerging concept. Since Women

Entrepreneurism is an untapped resource of the nation that can be utilised

effectively and due to the raising importance of women entrepreneurism, a

number of studies have been made in this field. An attempt has been made to

discuss the number of studies made previously in entrepreneurship in general

and women entrepreneurship in particular.

2.2 Studies based on Entrepreneurship

Everett H.E. Hagen (1962)1 attempted to study the origin of

entrepreneurs in many countries. He noted that the entrepreneurs have emerged

mainly from a particular socio-economic class. Further, in the Indian context,

the leading business communities like Parsis, Marvaris and Sindhees have been

found to have a deep desire in engaging in industrial activities.

Berna (1966)2 in her study entitled “Industrial Entrepreneurship in

Chennai State” found that the entrepreneurs hailed from diverse castes,

occupations and classes, as only small – scale operations they came up to their

present positions and diversified their production. This is attributed to their

youth, education and technical training.

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 25

Kameshwar Jha (1970)3 in his study of the growth of

entrepreneurship in Bihar State, in 1970, has observed that favourable

economic conditions have a good effect on the change in entrepreneurship and

the change in social structure which is due to education . He added that profit

motive has no influence on such changes.

Gloria V. Javilionar and Georage R. Peters (1973)4 in a study on the

social and psychological aspects of Indian entrepreneurship, noted that the

entrepreneurship of the nation was a family phenomenon rather than an

individual phenomenon. The family system had helped the entry of individuals

into the arena of entrepreneurship.

Nandy (1973)5, in her study reported that “education has been a crucial

factor for developing entrepreneurship and it has accelerated the

entrepreneurial spirit.

The Small Industries Extension training institute (SIET) Hyderbad,

(1974)6 carried out a survey in 1974 among 61 entrepreneurs. The study

disseminated details like young age, formal education, urban background,

earlier industrial experience, strong aspirations risk taking spirit, adoption –

propensity and desire for economic gains were some of the aspects found

among these entrepreneurs.

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 26

Ramkrishnan (1975)7, in his survey of small scale units in Delhi,

presented statistical details regarding the units and the social, educational,

occupational background of the entrepreneurs, their motivation, expectation

from and reactions to Government schemes.

The Gandhigram (1975)8 rural institute of higher education- undertook

a diagnostic study of entrepreneurship in small scale industrial units in Madurai

city in 1975. This study identified the characteristics of Madurai city

entrepreneurs as follows; pre–planning on the basis of credit facilities so as to

achieve the determined goals, dependency, initiative, innovativeness, a

moderate degree of traditionalism and occasional risk –taking.

Selvaraj, “Entrepreneurship the Need of the Day” (1998)9 emphasized

the need for the development of entrepreneurship in rural areas, as it will

bridge the required disparities between the rural and less developed regions.

Migration has become a major problem in our country. If the potential migrates

are engaged in entrepreneurial activity, this can be minimized and the problem

of urbanization can be eliminated.

Suresh Reddy, (2004)10 in his “Entrepreneurship-Concept and

Development” (2004) clearly pointed out that the concept of entrepreneur is

that a person through his composite skill can exploit possibilities in a given

situation to the extent, with the available resources. Entrepreneurship

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 27

development is to develop and strengthen entrepreneurial ability in those who

really wants to make bold steps.

2.3. Studies based on Women Entrepreneurship.

In 1959, D.R. Gadgil11 studied the historical aspects of the growth of

entrepreneur in the 18th century. He gave details of social communities linked

with trade and handicraft industry in various areas in India.

Rani (1986)12, in her study’ Potential Women Entrepreneurs’ found that

the desire to do something independently was the prime motivating factor to

start business activity amongst the sample respondents. The women in her

sample reiterated their capability to take independent decisions and told that

the thought of entering into entrepreneurial areas was their own and were not

influenced by others.

Brush and Hisrich(1988)13 in their work pertaining to the impact of the

strategic origin of women on the growth of their enterprises reveal that a

woman entrepreneur who has previous experience in the field stands a better

chance of successfully establishing her venture than the woman who does not

possess such experience. Financial skills are of key importance to business

survival.

Anna (1990)14 in his work pertaining to women entrepreneurs of Kerala,

found that industrial entrepreneurship among the women of Kerala has

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 28

emerged from varied socio-economic, educational and cultural backgrounds.

The occupational background of father/husband provides an environment

favourable to the growth of entrepreneurship among women. The study

indicates that rural-agricultural women are not fully prepared to accept the

changes taking place in the urban and semi-urban areas. The author further

finds that highly qualified women were motivated to enter industry in their

prime. However, low level of education did not inhibit a few entrepreneurs

from entering industry. Government agencies installed entrepreneurial spirit

among women, especially among educated ones.

Chandra (1991)15In her study on “Development of Women

Entrepreneurship in India: A Study of Public Policies and Programmes” has

mainly described the institutional services available for the women

entrepreneur and the role of such organizations in the development of

entrepreneurship. The study also presents a socio- economic profile of women

entrepreneurs, the nature of their enterprises, motivation, factors crucial for

success and the assistance from Government and Non-Governmental agencies.

Shah (1991)16 in her study on ‘Fostering Women Entrepreneurship –A

study of Distinctive features’ conducted on three target groups (sample 100

each) of women entrepreneurs of middle and upper middle income groups

having Science and Technology (S&T) background and coming from middle

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 29

and lower middle income groups, and of low income groups coming from low

strata of the society found out that the motive to become entrepreneurs was

summarized into five major responses, i.e. economic needs or pressures

utilization of own experience and education, husband’s (family’s)interest and

support availability of free time and finance and desire to become independent

and personal ego satisfaction(of doing something on ones’ own)

Herper (1992)17 in her work on women of poor communities in

Orissa with a view to developing hypotheses about the social and academic

determinants that motivate women to cross the borderlines from generating no

income to generating small income through self-employment and business. She

found that one major barrier for women to start or expand business is the lack

of exposure. Women become more enterprising after interventions from

outsiders. Two other findings seem to contradict general accepted assumptions,

lack of time is not a main constraint and poverty alone is not a pushing factor:

awareness has to be created; change has to be perceived as something possible.

Singh (1993)18, in her work ‘Women Entrepreneurs; Their Profile and

Motivation’, concluded that factors impinging on the entrepreneurial

manifestation of women are not different from those affecting men

entrepreneurs.

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 30

The researcher finds that several women are now willing to become

entrepreneurs due to various factors. These factors can be broadly classified

under two categories, namely, ‘pull factors’ and ‘push factors’. Under the first

category, the women entrepreneurs choose a profession as a challenge and

adventure with an urge to do something new and to have an independent

occupation. The other category of factors forces women to take up business

enterprises to get over financial difficulties due to family circumstances.

However, the latter category forms a negligible percentage of total women in

her sample, can be regarded as an extension of kitchen activities-the three Ps,

namely Pickles, Powder (spices) and Papad, with which women

entrepreneurship is popularly identified.

A study on women entrepreneurs was carried out by Sarayadhi and

Begam (1995)19. It was a survey conducted on 415 women entrepreneurs in

Kerala, who were engaged in a variety of business enterprises. The survey

presents the socio-economic profile, nature of enterprise and information about

the Government and Non-Governmental institutional support.

Klein (1995)20 in her paper ‘Returning to Work: Challenge for Women’,

states that problems of compatibility between professional and private life are

usually resolved to the detriment of women. With few exceptions, it is women

who interrupt their career, when family obligations require such a choice. Their

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 31

reintegration into active life poses problems but it is necessary not only as a

basic human right but also for economic efficiency.

Zapalska (1997)21, in her survey of women entrepreneurs in three

biggest urban centres in Poland found that the type of ventures established by

the women entrepreneurs varied widely, with some in traditionally male-

dominated fields and others in the traditional female dominated areas. On

balance the majority of women entrepreneurs were involved in business related

to personal, computers, consulting, sales and advertising. Almost all the

businesses were based on product innovation or product modification.

Jeyanthi.K. (1999)22 in the study “Women Entrepreneurs and Micro

Credit” emphasized that to make women improve their economic status and to

reduce the burden of dependence from male heads, micro credit programmers

should be given more priority towards women empowerment. Moreover,

proper and systematic training to explore the attitude, knowledge and skill

development helps in making successful entrepreneurs. In order to improve

women entrepreneurs and help them intensive training and a good credit

system should be evolved.

Neetima et al., (2000)23 in their work, “Training Women for

Entrepreneurship” emphasized that good training programme keeps the trainees

involved and motivated. Women should be trained in all aspects to get success.

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 32

Rural women are generally not confident and are very much bound by customs

and traditions; therefore, the trainer should be a friend, philosopher and guide

to help them come out of their shackles of life. Empowerment training is most

important of all trainings, which helps for the entire development of rural

women for self-employment.

Colette Dumas (2001)24in the study, “Micro Enterprises Training for

Low-Income Women; the Case of the Community Entrepreneurs Programmes

”found that community entrepreneurs programmed provided to low – income

women have helped the participants to launch business and succeed through

micro- enterprise job creation. The study also emphasized that the success story

of the programmed could serve as an example for other training programmers

that strive to help unemployed women to achieve self –sufficiency through

entrepreneurship

Sangita Kamdar, (2002)25 in the study “Women and Economic

Development” highlighted that women’s development is blocked by the gender

rotted segregation in occupations. This segregation has not usually decreased

and it remains a central issue to women’s economic development though

education has helped to bridge the gap to certain extent. The only way to

reduce gender inequality is by making her more independent in various fields

through education and skill formation,

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 33

Sivaloganathan (2002)26 in his paper, “Women Entrepreneurs:

Problems and Prospects” highlights the major problems faced by women

entrepreneurs which are gender rooted and some of the prospects they enjoy.

The paper emphasized that large number of women are now seeking gainful

employment in various fields, which were once dominated by male. Yet they

have to go a long way to be on par with male partners. Indian women enjoy a

disadvantaged status in the society and face certain problems such as

inequality, low wages, exploitation by middleman, lack of finance, education

and also socio-economic constrains which are mainly gender-rooted. Though

the government has introduced several measures, still it has to play a great role

in encouraging women entrepreneurship in different activities by imparting

education with skills and traits required for successful management.

Rakesh Dashura et al., (2003)27 in their study, “Tribal Women

Entrepreneurs” found that tribal women have come a long way, breaking the

shackles of tribal community and are engaged themselves in occupations other

than agriculture. They have accepted entrepreneurship as bliss. Tribal women

are now improved in their economic condition through entrepreneurship. More

tribal women have inclined towards entrepreneurship and gained greater

business aptitude. If their problems, which are peculiar to them, are removed,

they make success.

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 34

Sakthi Dasgupta (2003)28 in her study “Women organizing for Socio

Economic Security” found that organized women workers of SEWA are better

off than their non-organised counter parts in areas of access to credit, training

as well as access to loan for housing and health insurance, whereas women in

formal economy is characterized by poor working condition, credit problems,

lack of legal protection and concluded that organized women workers could

have beneficial impact on their work and life.

Natarajan et al., (2003)29, in their study “Competencies of the women

Entrepreneurs” emphasized the competencies of women entrepreneurs in

carrying out their business activities. The study has made an attempt to

examine the competencies of women entrepreneurs in Erode district. The study

highlights that personal variables such as age, education, experience, location

status and nature of operation do not have any influence on the competency

level of women entrepreneurs. The authors suggested that there is an urgent

need for improvement in the competency levels of women entrepreneurs

through proper training and entrepreneurship development programmes.

Dhulasi Birundha Varadharajan et al., (2003)30, in their paper

“Achieving Women Empowerment through Women Entrepreneurship” found

that women empowerment through attitude empowerment helped to improve

women status in society and strengthen their economic status. Women

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 35

entrepreneurship is to improve the welfare of women and therefore

development and empowerment of women.

Kalian et al., in their paper, (2004)31 “Association Between Social

Economic Demographic Profile and Involvement of Women Entrepreneurs in

their enterprise management” reveal that various socio-economic factors such

as education family type, marital status, economic status and demographic

(sex) variables have significant impact on involvement of women

entrepreneurs in their enterprise management. The study concluded that an

adoption of integrated and multi disciplinary developmental approach along

with a plan of action could help women entrepreneurs impair of their

constraints in the form of socio- economic demographic variables such as age,

education and economic status.

Dr.M.Sumathy and Mr.K.Nagendran (2007)32 have expressed in their

article that, the women of today certainly play a vital role in the development

of the society. By sharing time, appreciation, knowledge and ideas, friendship,

kindness and experience women manages the busy world today. Their success

is mainly because of their ability to relax optimistically, listen deeply, feel

empathetically, respond carefully, synchronize co-operatively, act authentically

and acknowledge generously. After all that is the essence of women

empowerment.

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 36

Ms.S.Ranjani (2007)33 has stated that the sound policy decisions about

the strategy of improving quality of life require detailed survey and analysis of

the different variables contained in them.

To be meaningful and immediately relevant, such a survey should be

conducted at the micro level by all the concerned socio-economic research

institutions. The objective is to study the economic status of urban female

domestic helpers in a Town.

Dr.Valasamma Antony (2007)34 in the research paper stated that, the

male domination and other psychological taboos attached to women are yet to

be challenged. Educating them in the nuances of business and managerial

skills is essential. Liberal institutional finance and other support systems

should be provided. Success stories of other women entrepreneurs also would

help. Anyway, it is high time women are brought out of their reverie, into the

mainstream towards the overall economic and social development of our

nation.

Dr.M.Rajiakodi (2007)35 in the research paper stated that, the

introduction of the New Panchayat Raj is a great watershed in the annals of

India’s Rural Development Planning. Panchayat Raj System is both a rural

decentralized democratic institution as well as a mechanism to implement the

development programmes in the villages. With this thrust a study was

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 37

undertaken to examine the relationship between Panchayat Raj and Rural

Employment Generation Programme.

Monika Tushir, Sumita and Pankaj (2007),36 have stated in an articles

that, the micro credit is emerging as a powerful instrument for poverty

alleviation in the new economy. It is a powerful instrument and has improved

access of rural poor specially women. the SHG – Bank linkage program had

offered greater opportunities for closer interaction between bank and group

members. There is significant improvement in the recent years and the concept

has picked up with the constant support of the state Government and NGO’s.

Dr. Madhur Bala and Dr.O.P. Monga have (2007)37 associated and

opined that the women employment supplements the family income and

enhances their economic status and places them in higher income group.

Among employed women, their better education, employment and improved

family income, all the three raises their socio-economic status and place them

in upper or upper – middle class from lower or upper – lower class.

One of the major works done in the areas of women and development is

the Book on “Women and Social Policy” by Safilos Rothechild in the year

1974. The author has presented the theoretical background of social policy

related to social women and also o liberate women.

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 38

Md.Omar Ali and M.Abul Kashem (1996)38 points out those rural

women might face various kinds of problems in using the technologies. An

understanding of the problem confrontation of the rural women working in

groups may be helpful for planning and execution of extension programme

aimed at helping the rural women adopting improved practical.

Agarawal yash (1998)39 studied about the empowerment status of

women. The term empowerment status is used first as an access to resources

such as education, gainful employment and health services and second; the

position that a woman has in various situation.

Sukumar Basu (2000)40 found that, women at present contribute to the

promotion of economic development of country in various capacities as they

perform not only non-market activities through which they produce goods

savings greater “use-values”, but also various market activities to fields,

factories, offices and elsewhere outside home. So, dual role of women, one as a

contributor to production in a country and the other as a reproducer of human

race has been emphasized in our literature.

Rasheeda Bhagat,(2004)41 in her work “India Interior” has expressed

that there has been a sea change in the attitude of men towards women’s groups

and micro finance. She also stated that in the last 10 years, the banker’s attitude

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 39

has changed substantially and there is a remarkable difference in the way they

look at these women’s groups. That is the major success of this programme.

Dr.M.Sumathy and Mr.K.Nagendran (2007)42 have expressed in their

article that, the women of today certainly play a vital role in the development

of the society. By sharing time, appreciation, knowledge and ideas, friendship,

kindness and experience women manages the busy world today. Their success

is mainly because of their ability to relax optimistically, listen deeply, feel

empathetically, respond carefully, synchronize co-operatively, act authentically

and acknowledge generously. After all that is the essence of women

empowerment.

Ms.S.Ranjani (2007)43 has stated that the sound policy decisions about

the strategy of improving quality of life require detailed survey and analysis of

the different variables contained in them.

To be meaningful and immediately relevant, such a survey should be

conducted at the micro level by all the concerned socio-economic research

institutions. The objective is to study the economic status of urban female

domestic helpers in a Town.

Dr.Valasamma Antony (2007)44 in the research paper stated that, the

male domination and other psychological taboos attached to women are yet to

be challenged. Educating them in the nuances of business and managerial

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 40

skills is essential. Liberal institutional finance and other support systems

should be provided. Success stories of other women entrepreneurs also would

help. Anyway, it is high time women are brought out of their reverie, into the

mainstream towards the overall economic and social development of our

nation.

Dr.M.Rajiakodi (2007)45 in the research paper stated that, the

introduction of the New Panchayat Raj is a great watershed in the annals of

India’s Rural Development Planning. Panchayat Raj System is both a rural

decentralized democratic institution as well as a mechanism to implement the

development programmes in the villages. With this thrust a study was

undertaken to examine the relationship between Panchayat Raj and Rural

Employment Generation Programme.

Monika Tushir, Sumita and Pankaj (2007),46 have stated in an articles

that, the micro credit is emerging as a powerful instrument for poverty

alleviation in the new economy. It is a powerful instrument and has improved

access of rural poor specially women. the SHG – Bank linkage program had

offered greater opportunities for closer interaction between bank and group

members. There is significant improvement in the recent years and the concept

has picked up with the constant support of the state Government and NGO’s.

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 41

Dr. Madhur Bala and Dr.O.P. Monga have (2007)47 associated and

opined that the women employment supplements the family income and

enhances their economic status and places them in higher income group.

Among employed women, their better education, employment and improved

family income, all the three raises their socio-economic status and place them

in upper or upper – middle class from lower or upper – lower class.

Promila Kapur (1974)48 in her work on “The Changing Status of

Working Women in India” opines those women belonging to middle and upper

classes are now conscious of their legal and political rights. They are desirous

of acquiring knowledge and skills and they have an economically independent

status. Further, the author has explained the problems and difficulties faced by

these women in their new roles.

P. Babu (1978)49 the study was an attempt to find out the sociological

factors that contribute to the development of small entrepreneurs. The study

showed that community and family background contributed to the success of

prospective entrepreneurs, formal education has not been a positive factor in

entrepreneurs, formal education has not been a positive factor in

entrepreneurship development, providing infrastructure facilities alone will not

promote entrepreneurship development and the Association of Small Scale

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 42

Industries has to play an important role in identification and development

entrepreneurs.

M.V. Despande (1982)50 observed the political system was responsible

for dormancy of entrepreneurship. Financial help from family and father’s

occupational status were significantly related to entry. Industrial

entrepreneurship was a result of collective ambitions and aspirations of the

family.

Lalita Devi (1982)51 has tried to show the employment per cent against

age duration, family type and place of residence, which play a crucial role in

raising the status of women. Employed women have more power and

influence in the family and outside rather than unemployed women.

A.P. Upadhya, (1983)52 stated that success of entrepreneur was due to

incentives offered by development agencies, family upbringing from particular

caste and craft providing attention to financial function and former education.

Usha Roa (1983)53 has tried to take stock of the existing positions of

women in different regions and brought out their role in social, economic,

legal, educational moral and political spheres of Indian women. Roa has

particular interest in women belonging to the weaker sections. It is believed

that her study would be useful to both governmental and non-governmental

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 43

organizations engaged in programmes and plans for the development of the

country.

Surti and Sarupriya (1983)54 investigated the psychological factors

affecting women entrepreneurs. The results indicated that unmarried women

experienced less stress and fewer dependents than married women. The

women from joint families tended to experience less role stress than subjects

from nuclear families, probably because hey share their problems with other

family members.

Sharma, Kumus (1984)55 felt the need for inter linked strategies at

different levels of Government and the society as the process of changing

status of women require both structural and attitudinal transformation to deal

with both social and economical inequalities.

Alphonsa M.J. (1984)56 has undertaken a study to examine the

dimensions of educated unemployment in Kerala. The study finds that the

employment opportunity did not increase commensurate with the increase in

the supply of educated manpower. The problem is more acute among younger

age group and among women.

Subbi Reddi and Sobha Reddi (1985)57 in their study stated that the

reasons for high success were, the age of 50 years of more, having technical

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 44

education, having investment more than Rs. 10 lakhs, having previous

experience in service and in limited company type of ownership.

Sharma R.A. (1985)58 notices two mainstreams in entrepreneurial

development of India. The entrepreneurs were more evolved from certain well-

known group with some industrial and merchantile backgrounds. The other

stream consists of some well known caste and communities. According to him,

strong desire to do something independent in life, technical knowledge and/or

manufacturing experience, financial assistance from institutional sources,

business experience in the same or related line, accommodation in industrial

estates and heavy demand for a particular product or service are the major

factors induced the emergence of new entrepreneurial class.

S.G. Bhanushali (1987) in his study, “Entrepreneurship Development”,

observed that it was a characteristic feature of entrepreneurs of Kolhapur that

as in the process of establishing their workshops they received help from

earlier generation of entrepreneurs. So, they in their own turn, helped their

relatives, acquaintances and promising workers to set up independent

workshops.

Meera Bal (1998)60 she observed that the community initiatives have

been taking the issues of women in business. She underlined that female

entrepreneurs need psychological support designed to reinforce entrepreneurial

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 45

spirit among women technical assistance in the development phase would

improve the entrepreneurial base in the region.

V. Balu (1998)61 in his article stated that by providing suitable education

training and making them more self confident the women entrepreneurship can

be developed.

Singla and Syal (1998)62 have classified the problems being faced by

women entrepreneurs at different stages of their entrepreneurial career into

three major categories. i.e.

Problems related to projected formulation.

Problems related to projected implementation

Problems related to project operation.

In order to overcome this problem the authors strongly advocate Group

Women Entrepreneurship (GWE).

Anitha and A.S. Kaxmisha (1999)63 have stated in their study that

entrepreneurs are motivated by both pull and push factors and evidenced that

entrepreneurs are no longer born but they can be made. They suggested that in

order to make the women entrepreneurship movement to be a success

government and non Governmental organizations have to play a vital role.

Women entrepreneurs in backward areas need special assistance and tiely

marketing of goods. They advocated for EDP training.

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 46

N. Manimekalai and G. Rajeswari (2000)64 observed that women

entrepreneurs are found in risk taking industrial activities requiring modern

techniques of production. The major problems faced by the women

entrepreneurs are the shortage of capital, lack of seed capital and the

dependence of informal sources of credit and lack of initiative to expand their

scale of operations due to financial constraints.

K. Sundar, J. Gopu, Syfil Ali (2001)65 suggested that women have the

potential and will to establish and manager enterprise of their own. What they

need is encouragement and support from the Family members, Government,

Society and Male counter part.

G. Chelladurai (2002)66 suggests that when proper education and

environment are given the social taboo can be broken up and women force can

be used as a good human resource potential for the entrepreneurial programme.

C. Natarajan and M. Kavitha (2003)67 suggested that the financial

institution assisting women entrepreneurs shall provide necessary guidelines to

the women entrepreneurs for getting financial assistance at the right time.

Arunthati Chaltopadhya (2005)68 emphasized that economic

empowerment is elevating the status of women in our society. One possible

towards achieving this end could be through entrepreneurship development.

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 47

Kamalakannan (2005)69 investigated the development of

entrepreneurship. Development of entrepreneurship among has become an

important aspect of the overall economic development. This article gives a

detailed analysis of financial institutions commercial banks and NGOs engaged

in financing and promoting entrepreneurship among women.

K. Lavanya Latha (2006)70 suggested that the hard work, self

confidence, self determination,personality traits and availability of timely

financial support were the important factors for success of women

entrepreneurs.

Conclusion

Although there are a number of studies on various aspects of

entrepreneurship and women entrepreneurship in India, no systematic effort

has been undertaken to study the growth of women entrepreneurs at the micro

level. Hence an attempt has been made to study the “A Study on the

Development of Women Entrepreneurs in Dindigul District.

Now–a–days a woman shines in every field like medicine, engineering,

software, airlines, shipping, railways etc. In several sectors they have occupied

higher posts. Many women show their individuality by showing their

excellence by starting their own ventures. They build enterprises from small

level to large level.

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 48

REFERENCES

1 Hagen, Everett, E., On the Theory of Social Change’ Doresen press,

Homewood, 1962

2 Berna (1966) Industrial Entrepreneurs Madras State, Bombay Asia, publishing

house 1966.

3 Kameshwar Jha ‘Growth of Entrepreneurship in an Under Developed Region-

with special reference to Bihar State. an unpublished Ph.D. Thesis 1970.

4 Gloria V. Javillonar and George R. Peters, Sociological and Social

Psychological Aspects of Indian Entrepreneurship. ‘The British Journal of

sociology’ Vol.24, No3. pp. 314-328.

5 Nandy, A, 1973, Modernity and Entrepreneurrial Competence. The Journal of

Social Psychology. 91:127-136.

6 SIET Socio-Psychological Factors Influencing the Adoption of the Innovation

of Starting a Small Industrial Unit’ SIET Institute, (Mimeographed),

Hyderabad, 1974.

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