Advisory Circular AC61-3 Revision 26

Appendix II—Private Pilot Licence Written Examination Syllabus

Subject No. 2 Flight Radiotelephony
Each subject has been given a subject number and each topic within that subject a topic number.
These reference numbers will be used on knowledge deficiency reports and will provide valuable
feedback to the examination candidate.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

2.2 Basic Radio Wave Propagation

2.2.2 Describe the basic characteristics of High Frequency (HF) and Very High
Frequency (VHF) in terms of:

(a) range;

(b) surface interference;

(c) clarity of reception.

Radio Equipment

2.4 Transceivers

2.4.2 Describe the purpose, correct manipulation and adjustment of the controls of
commonly used aeronautical transceivers.

2.4.4 Describe the correct operation of:

(a) the headset/boom microphone combination; and

(b) the handheld microphone.

2.6 SSR Transponders

2.6.2 Describe the manipulation and adjustment of the controls of commonly used
transponders.

2.6.4 Describe the function of the following terms, and explain the procedures to
transmit:

(a) Mode A information; and

(b) Mode C information.

2.6.6 State the emergency codes and explain when they should be used.

2.6.8 Demonstrate proficiency in transponder terminology and describe the actions and
responses expected from a pilot, following ATC transponder instructions.

2.6.10 List the documents that identify transponder mandatory airspace.

2.6.12 Describe the procedures for operations in transponder mandatory airspace when
the aircraft transponder is inoperative.

2.8 Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT, aka ELBA or ELB).

2.8.2 State the frequency(ies) on which the ELT transmits.

26 June 2018 1 CAA of NZ

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

2.8.4 State the requirements for the carriage of an ELT.

2.8.6 Explain how an ELT can be activated:

(a) automatically in the event of an impact; and

(b) manually.

2.8.8 Describe the management of the ELT following a forced landing.

2.8.10 Describe the requirements associated with ELT testing.

2.8.12 Explain the procedures to follow in the case of inadvertent ELT activation.

2.10 Practices and Rules

2.10.2 Demonstrate proficiency in transmitting and receiving spoken messages

competently and in accordance with prescribed procedures, including

(a) language to be used;

(b) word spelling;

(c) transmission of numerals;

(d) procedure words and phrases;

(e) time system;

(f) establishment of communications;

(g) frequencies to be used;

(h) identification of service;

(i) radiotelephony aircraft callsigns;

(j) procedures for exchange of messages;

(k) corrections and repetition tests;

(l) listening out;

(m) readability scale.

2.10.4 Demonstrate a good working knowledge of the following Civil Aviation Rules:

(a) Part 91.217 (5);

(b) Part 91.243;

(c) Part 91.245 (b), (c) and (d);

(d) Part 91.247;

(e) Part 91.249 (a) and (b);

(f) Part 91.513;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(g) Part 91.515;

(h) Part 91.529.

2.10.6 AIPNZ Volume 1, describe the radio procedures, requirements, and functions
associated with:

(a) UNICOM;

(b) ATIS;

(c) AFRU;

(d) AWIB.

2.10.8 AIPNZ demonstrate a good working knowledge of the phraseology used for, and
by, VFR aircraft.

2.10.10 Demonstrate a good working knowledge of the AIPNZ and AC172-1 with regard
to:

(a) communication services;

(b) communication aspects in the Search and Rescue section.

2.12 Phraseology and Procedures

2.12.2 Demonstrate proficiency in standard radiotelephony phraseologies and procedures

for:

(a) all VFR operations in controlled and uncontrolled airspace;

(b) taxi, take-off, approach and landing at controlled aerodromes, Flight Service
aerodromes, aerodromes served by UNICOM, and uncontrolled aerodromes; and

(c) read-back instructions.

2.12.4 State the limitations on pilots with regard to:

(a) unauthorised transmissions;

(b) secrecy of communications.

2.14 Distress and Urgency Communications

2.14.2 Describe the degrees of emergency that warrant:

(a) a distress call (MAYDAY); and

(b) an urgency call (PAN PAN).

2.14.4 Explain the procedures and phraseology involved in transmitting a MAYDAY and
PAN call with emphasis on:

(a) radio frequencies;

(b) station(s) to call;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(c) contents of the call;

(d) enforcing radio silence.

2.14.6 Describe the actions by stations not involved in the emergency with regard to:

(a) radio silence; and

(b) provision of assistance.

2.14.8 Describe the procedure involved in terminating emergency communications.

2.16 Loss of Communications - Aircraft Equipment

2.16.2 Describe the checks that should be followed when becoming aware of an aircraft
communication system failure, including a check of:

(a) radio power source;

(b) function settings (frequency, squelch and similar);

(c) microphone or headset.

2.16.4 Detail the actions to be taken when experiencing loss of communications in:

(a) controlled airspace;

(b) uncontrolled airspace;

(c) special use airspace.

2.16.6 Describe corrective actions that could be taken, including:

(a) change of frequency or station;

(b) transmitting blind;

(c) increase in altitude.

2.16.8 Detail the speechless technique using unmodulated transmissions.

2.16.10 State the meaning of light signals used by ATC.

2.18 Loss of Communications - ATS Equipment Failure

2.18.2 State the occasions when TIBA (traffic information broadcasts by aircraft) might
be introduced.

2.18.4 Detail the TIBA procedures with respect to:

(a) VHF frequencies to be used;

(b) listening watch;

(c) times of broadcasts.
 Subject No. 4 PPL Air Law (Aeroplane and Helicopter)
Each subject has been given a subject number and each topic within that subject a topic number.
These reference numbers will be used on knowledge deficiency reports and will provide valuable
feedback to the examination candidate. These topic reference numbers may be common across the
subject levels and therefore may not be consecutive within a specific syllabus.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

General

4.2 Aviation Legislation

4.2.2 Describe the requirements to hold an aviation document, as laid down in CA Act 1990
S7.

4.2.4 Describe the criteria for the fit and proper person test, as laid down in CA Act 1990
S10.

4.2.6 Describe the duties of the pilot-in-command, as laid down in CA Act 1990 S13 and
13A.

4.2.8 Describe the responsibilities of a licence holder with respect to changes in their
medical condition, as laid down in CA Act 1990 S27.

4.2.10 Describe the responsibilities of a licence holder with respect to the surrender of a
medical certificate as laid down in CA Act 1990 S27.

4.2.12 Describe the responsibilities of a licence holder with respect to safety offences, as laid
down in CA Act 1990 S43 and 44.

4.4 Definitions

CAR Part 1 (unless otherwise noted)

State the definition of:

(a) accident;

(b) Act;

(c) aerobatic flight;

(d) aerodrome; (AIP GEN)

(e) aerodrome elevation; (AIP GEN)

(f) aerodrome operational area;

(g) aerodrome traffic circuit;

(h) aeronautical information circular;

(i) aeronautical information publication (AIP);

(j) AIP supplement;

(k) air traffic control (ATC) service;

(l) airworthiness certificate;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(m) airworthy condition;

(n) alerting service;

(o) altitude;

(p) apron; (AIP GEN)

(q) ATC clearance;

(r) ATC instruction;

(s) aviation event;

(t) AWIB service;

(u) basic weather report;

(v) ceiling;

(w) controlled flight;

(x) cost sharing flight;

(y) cross-country flight;

(z) dangerous goods;

(aa) day;

(bb) dual flight time;

(cc) emergency locator transmitter;

(dd) final reserve fuel;

(ee) fit and proper person;

(ff) flight information service;

(gg) flight manual;

(hh) flight plan;

(ii) flight time;

(jj) height;

(kk) hover taxi (Helicopter candidates only); (AIP GEN)

(ll) incident;

(mm) landing area; (AIP GEN)

(nn) night;
(oo) NOTAM;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(pp) passenger;

(qq) personal locator beacon;

(rr) pilot-in-command;

(ss) rating;

(tt) SARTIME;

(uu) simultaneous operations; (AIP GEN)

(vv) takeoff weight;

(ww) threshold; (CAR 121.3)

(xx) Technical Instructions;

(yy) type;

(zz) UNICOM service;

(aaa) VFR flight;

(bbb) vicinity of an aerodrome; (AIP GEN)

(ccc) visibility;

(ddd) visual meteorological conditions;

(eee) visual reference. (AIP GEN)

4.6 Abbreviations

CAR Part 1 (unless otherwise noted)

State the meaning of the following abbreviations:

(a) ABN; (AIP GEN)

(b) AGL;

(c) AFIS; (AIP GEN)

(d) AFRU;

(e) AMSL;

(f) ATIS;

(g) AWIB;

(h) AWS; (AIP GEN)

(i) BWR; (AIP GEN)

(j) CAR;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(k) DTHR; (AIP GEN)

(l) ECT; (AIP GEN)

(m) ELT;

(n) FATO (Helicopter candidates only); (AIP GEN)

(o) ME1;

(p) ME2;

(q) MCT; (AIP GEN)

(r) POB; (AIP GEN)

(s) QNH;

(t) TALO (Helicopter candidates only); (AIP GEN)

(u) TLOF (Helicopter candidates only); (AIP GEN)

(v) VFR;

(w) VPC; (AIP GEN).

Personnel Licensing

4.10 Requirements for Licences and Ratings

4.10.2 State the requirements for holding a pilot’s licence. CAR 61

4.10.4 State the requirements for a pilot-in-command to hold a type rating on the type of
aircraft being flown. CAR 61

4.10.6 State the general requirements for entering flight details into a pilot’s logbook. CAR 61

4.12 Eligibility, Privileges and Limitations

4.12.2 Describe the allowance for a person who does not hold a current pilot licence to fly
dual with a flying instructor. CAR 61

4.12.4 State the solo flight requirements on a person who does not hold a current pilot licence.
CAR 61

4.12.6 State the limitations on a person who does not hold a current pilot licence. CAR 61

4.12.8 State the eligibility requirements for the issue of a private pilot licence. CAR 61

4.12.10 State the privileges of holding a private pilot licence. CAR 61

4.12.12 State the limitations on the holder of a private pilot licence. CAR 61

4.12.14 State the requirements and limitations of a PPL holder sharing the cost of a flight.
CAR 1
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

4.14 Competency, Currency and Recency

4.14.2 State the recent experience requirements of a pilot-in-command, by day and by night,
who is the holder of a private pilot licence. CAR 61

4.14.4 State the requirements for the completion of a biennial flight review. CAR 61

4.16 Medical Requirements

4.16.2 State the requirements for holding a medical certificate. CAR 61

4.16.4 State the requirements on a person applying for a medical certificate. CAR 67

4.16.6 State the requirements for maintaining medical fitness following the issue of a medical
certificate. CA Act 1990 S27C

4.16.8 State the normal currency period of the Class 2 medical certificate for a PPL holder
who is under the age of 40. CAR 67

4.16.10 State the normal currency period of the Class 2 medical certificate for a PPL holder
who is 40 years of age or more on the date that the certificate is issued. CAR 67

Airworthiness of Aircraft and Aircraft Equipment

4.20 Documentation

4.20.2 State the documents which must be carried in aircraft operated in New Zealand. CAR
91

4.22 Aircraft Maintenance

4.22.2 Describe the maintenance requirements of an aircraft operator. CAR 91

4.22.4 State the requirement for annual and 100 hour inspections. CAR 91

4.22.6 State the requirement for a review of airworthiness. CAR 91

4.22.8 State the requirements for maintenance records. CAR 91

4.22.10 State the requirements for and contents of a technical log. CAR 91

4.22.12 State the requirements for entering defects into a technical log. CAR 91

4.22.14 State the requirements for clearing defects from a technical log. CAR 91

4.22.16 State the limitations and requirements on a person undertaking ‘pilot maintenance’.
CAR 43

4.22.18 State the requirements for conducting an operational flight check on an aircraft. CAR
91

4.22.20 State the inspection period for radios. CAR 91

4.22.22 State the inspection period for altimeters. CAR 91

4.22.24 State the inspection period for transponders. CAR 91

4.22.26 State the normal inspection period for the ELT. CAR 91
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

4.24 Instruments and Avionics

4.24.2 State the minimum instrument requirements for a day VFR flight. CAR 91

4.24.4 State the minimum instrument requirements for a night VFR flight. CAR 91

4.24.6 State the radio equipment requirements for a VFR flight. CAR 91

4.24.8 State the communications and navigation equipment requirements for a VFR over
water flight. CAR 91

4.26 Equipment

4.26.2 State the equipment requirements for a night VFR flight. CAR 91

4.26.4 State the equipment requirements for flight over water. CAR 91

4.26.6 State the requirements for indicating the time in flight. CAR 91

4.26.8 State the requirements for emergency equipment in aircraft with seating capacity for
less than 10 passengers. CAR 91

4.26.10 State the requirements for an ELT. CAR 91

General Operating and Flight Rules

4.30 General Operating Requirements

4.30.2 Describe the requirements of passengers to comply with instructions and commands.
CAR 91

4.30.4 State the requirements for operating an aircraft in simulated instrument flight. CAR 91

4.30.6 State the requirements of a pilot-in-command with respect to the safe operation of an
aircraft. CAR 91

4.30.8 Describe the authority of the pilot-in-command. CAR 91

4.30.10 State the requirements for crew occupation of seats and wearing safety belts. CAR 91

4.30.12 State the requirements for the occupation of seats and wearing of restraints. CAR 91

4.30.14 State the requirements for the use of oxygen equipment. CAR 91

4.30.16 State the requirements for briefing passengers prior to flight. CAR 91

4.30.18 State the requirements for familiarity with operating limitations and emergency
equipment. CAR 91

4.30.20 State the requirements for carrying appropriate aeronautical publications and charts in
flight. CAR 91

4.30.22 State the requirements for operating on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome. CAR 91

4.30.24 Describe the standard overhead joining procedure, and state when it should be used.
AIP AD
4.30.26 State and describe the application of the right of way rules. CAR 91
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

4.30.28 Explain the requirement for aircraft lighting. CAR 91

4.30.30 State the requirements for wearing/holding identity documentation in certain areas.
CAR 19

4.32 General Operating Restrictions

4.32.2 State the restrictions on smoking in an aircraft. CA Act 1990 S65N

4.32.4 State the restrictions associated with the abuse of drugs and alcohol. CAR 91 and CAR
19

4.32.6 State the restrictions on the use of portable electronic devices in flight. CAR 91

4.32.8 State the restrictions on the carriage and discharge of firearms on aircraft. CAR 91

4.32.10 Explain the restrictions on stowage of carry-on baggage. CAR 91

4.32.12 Explain the restrictions on the carriage of cargo. CAR 91

4.32.14 State the restrictions applicable to aircraft flying near other aircraft. CAR 91

4.32.16 State the restrictions on the dropping of objects from an aircraft in flight. CAR 91

4.32.18 State the speed limitation on aircraft operating under VFR. CAR 91

4.32.20 State the minimum heights for VFR flights (A) or (H) under CAR Part 91. CAR 91

4.32.22 State the restrictions when operating VFR in icing conditions. CAR 91

4.32.24 State the restrictions applicable to operating an aircraft in aerobatic flight. CAR 91

4.32.26 State the restrictions applicable to parachute-drop operations. CAR 91

4.32.28 State the restrictions applicable to aircraft towing gliders. CAR 91

4.32.30 State the restrictions applicable to aircraft towing objects other than gliders. CAR 91

4.34 General Meteorological Requirements and Restrictions

4.34.2 State the met minima for VFR flight (A) or (H) in various airspace. CAR 91

4.34.4 State the restrictions and met minima for Special VFR flight (A) or (H). CAR 91

4.36 Carriage of Dangerous Goods

4.36.2 State the restriction for the carriage of dangerous goods in an aircraft. CAR 92

4.36.4 State the requirements for the carriage of non-dangerous goods in an aircraft. CAR 92

Flight Planning and Preparation

4.50 Flight Preparation

4.50.2 Explain the requirements for obtaining and considering relevant information prior to
flight. CAR 91
4.50.4 Describe the publications and their content that provide operational route and
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

aerodrome information.

4.50.6 Derive operational information from charts and publications that provide route and
aerodrome information.

4.54 Fuel Requirements

4.54.2 State the minimum fuel reserve (A) or (H) required for a day VFR flight. CAR 91

4.54.4 State the minimum fuel reserve (A) or (H) required for a night VFR flight. CAR 91

4.56 Flight Plans

4.56.2 State the requirements for the filing of a flight plan for flight under VFR. CAR 91

4.56.4 State the requirements for notification of changes to the filed flight plan. CAR 91

4.56.6 State the requirements for the terminating a flight plan. CAR 91

4.56.8 Describe the difference between ETA and SARTIME. CAR 91

4.56.10 State the time search and rescue action would be initiated if a flight plan is not
terminated before SARTIME. AIP ENR

Air Traffic Services

4.60 Communications

4.60.2 Derive from operational publications, the required radio frequency for communicating
with specified ATC units.

4.60.4 State the requirements for making position reports to an ATS unit. CAR 91 & AIP
ENR

4.60.6 State the content of a VFR position report. AIP ENR

4.60.8 State the purpose of Universal Communications Services (UNICOM). AIP GEN

4.60.10 State the purpose of an Aerodrome Frequency Response Unit (AFRU). AIP GEN

4.60.12 State the purpose of Aerodrome and Weather Information Broadcasts (AWIB). AIP
GEN

4.60.14 State the meaning of the various light signals from a control tower. CAR 91 & AIP AD

4.60.16 State the communications requirements when TIBA procedures are in force. AIP ENR

4.62 Clearances

4.62.2 State the requirements for complying with ATC clearances and instructions. CAR 91 &
AIP ENR

4.62.4 State the requirements for coordinating with an aerodrome flight information service.
CAR 91

4.62.6 State the requirements for receiving an ATC clearance prior to entering various types
of airspace, and ground manoeuvring area. CAR 91 & AIP ENR
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

4.62.8 State the requirements for receiving an ATC clearance prior to re-entering controlled
airspace. CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.63 Separation

4.63.2 Describe the method of passing traffic information using the clock code.

4.63.4 Describe the situations where Air Traffic Control is responsible for the provision of
separation between VFR, SVFR and IFR traffic. AIP ENR

4.63.6 Describe the situations where the pilot-in-command is responsible for maintaining
separation from other traffic. AIP ENR

4.63.8 Describe the normal separation standards applied by ATC. AIP ENR

4.63.10 Describe the situations where the normal separation may be reduced. AIP ENR

4.63.12 State the wake turbulence separation requirements for light aircraft in non-radar
environment. AIP AD

4.66 Radar Services

4.66.2 Describe the radar services available to VFR flights. AIP ENR

Airspace, Aerodromes and Heliports

4.70 Altimetry

4.70.2 Explain the altimeter setting requirements for flight under VFR. CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.70.4 State the procedure to use to obtain an altimeter setting when QNH is not available
prior to takeoff and the requirement to obtain a QNH once in flight. AIP ENR

4.70.6 Describe QNH zones and state when zone QNH should be used. AIP ENR

4.72 Cruising Levels

4.72.2 State the altitude requirements when cruising VFR within the New Zealand FIR. CAR
91 & AIP ENR

4.72.4 Describe situations where ATC may assign cruising altitudes not in accordance with
the VFR table of cruising altitudes. AIP ENR

4.74 Transponders

4.74.2 State the requirements for the operation of transponders within the New Zealand FIR.
CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.74.4 Describe the procedures required of pilots operating transponders. AIP ENR

4.74.6 State the requirements and limitations on an aircraft operating under VFR in
transponder mandatory airspace without an operating transponder. CAR 91 & AIP
ENR

4.75 Airspace
4.75.2 State the rules pertaining to operating VFR in the various classes of airspace. CAR 91
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

& AIP ENR

4.75.4 Describe the vertical limits and purpose of control zones (CTR). CAR 71

4.75.6 Describe the vertical limits and purpose of control areas (CTA). CAR 71

4.75.8 State the status and conditions relating to flight in VFR transit lanes. AIP ENR

4.75.10 Describe the status and purpose of a general aviation area (GAA). CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.75.12 Describe visual reporting points.

4.75.14 Describe the status of controlled airspace when ATC go off duty. AIP GEN

4.75.16 State the restrictions on operating an aircraft in a restricted area. CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.75.18 State the restrictions on operating an aircraft in a military operating area (MOA). CAR
91 & AIP ENR

4.75.20 State the restrictions and operating considerations relating to operating an aircraft in a
mandatory broadcast zone (MBZ). CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.75.22 State the restrictions and operating considerations relating to operating an aircraft in a
volcanic hazard zone (VHZ). CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.75.24 State the restrictions and operating considerations relating to operating an aircraft in a
danger area. CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.75.26 State the restrictions and operating considerations relating to operating an aircraft in a
designated low flying zone (LFZ). CAR 91 & AIP ENR

4.75.28 State the operating considerations relating to operating an aircraft in a common

frequency zone (CFZ). AIP ENR

4.75.30 State the operating considerations relating to operating an aircraft over or close to
temporary hazards/airspace. AIP ENR

4.75.32 Interpret airspace information on aeronautical charts used for VFR flights.

4.76 Aerodromes and Heliports

4.76.2 Describe the limitations on the use of a place as an aerodrome or heliport. CAR 91

4.76.4 Describe the method of runway designation. AIP AD

4.76.6 Describe the movement area of an aerodrome. CAR 1

4.76.8 Describe the meaning of the various aerodrome ground signals.

4.76.10 Interpret information on aerodrome/heliport charts. AIP GEN & AIP Volume 4

4.76.12 Interpret runway and taxiway signs and markings. CAR 139

4.78 Aerodromes Lighting

4.78.4 Describe the following lighting systems:

(a) Runway edge lighting (REDL);
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(b) Runway landing threshold lighting (RTHL);

(c) Runway end lighting (RENL);

(d) Runway centreline lighting system (RCLL);

(e) Runway end identifier lighting (REIL);

(f) Circling guidance lighting (CGL);

(g) Runway lead in lighting (RLLS); and,

(h) Pilot activated lighting (PAL).

4.78.6 Describe aerodrome beacons.

Emergencies; Incidents; and Accidents

4.80 Responsibilities of Pilots

4.80.2 State the requirement for the notification of accidents. CAR 12

4.80.4 State the requirement for the notification of incidents. CAR 12

4.80.6 State the extent to which a pilot may deviate from the CA Act or rules in an emergency
situation. CA Act 1990 S13A

4.80.8 State the pilot action required following deviation from the CA Act or rules in an
emergency situation. CA Act 1990 S13A

4.82 Communications and Equipment

4.82.2 State the transponder code a pilot should set to indicate an emergency condition. AIP
ENR

4.82.4 State the transponder code a pilot should set to indicate a loss of communications. AIP
ENR

4.82.6 State the transponder code a pilot should set to indicate that the aircraft is being
subjected to unlawful interference. AIP ENR

4.82.8 Describe the means by which ATC will verify the transmission of an emergency SSR
transponder code. AIP ENR

4.82.10 Describe the use of the speechless technique using unmodulated transmissions. AIP
ENR

4.82.12 Describe and interpret ground-air visual signal codes. AIP GEN

4.82.14 Describe the procedures for directing a surface craft to a distress incident. AIP GEN

4.82.16 State the procedures for the emergency activation of an ELT. AIP GEN

4.82.18 State the pilot action required following the inadvertent transmission of an ELT. AIP
GEN
4.82.20 State the requirements for the operational testing of an ELT. AIP GEN
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
4.82.22 State the procedures to be followed on receiving an ELT signal. AIP GEN
 Subject No. 6 Air Navigation And Flight Planning
Note: This syllabus is principally based on VFR navigation as applicable to a single piston-engine
General Aviation type aeroplane or helicopter.

Each subject has been given a subject number and each topic within that subject a topic number.
These reference numbers will be used on knowledge deficiency reports and will provide valuable
feedback to the examination candidate. These reference numbers are common across the subject
levels and therefore may not be consecutive.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

Fundamentals of Air Navigation

6.2 Form of the Earth

6.2.2 Describe the general shape of the earth.

6.2.4 Define and identify, on a diagram of the earth:

(a) axis and direction of rotation;

(b) geographic and magnetic poles;

(c) the equator;

(d) parallels of latitude;

(e) meridians of longitude;

(f) Greenwich (Prime) Meridian;

(g) latitude/longitude.

6.4 Direction on the Earth

6.4.2 Describe the 360º method of indicating direction.

6.4.4 Describe the earth’s magnetic field.

6.4.6 Define:

(a) true north;

(b) magnetic north;

(c) compass north;

(d) the cardinal directions of the earth;

(e) the inter-cardinal directions of the earth;

(f) true direction;

(g) magnetic direction;

(h) compass direction;

(i) magnetic variation;

(j) magnetic dip;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(k) an isogonal;

(l) compass deviation;

(m) true bearing;

(n) magnetic bearing;

(o) compass bearing;

(p) relative bearing;

(q) relative bearing using the clock method.

6.4.8 Convert between true, magnetic and compass directions.

6.4.10 Convert between relative, true, magnetic and compass bearings.

6.4.12 Explain the processes, cautions and limitations when deriving track distances and
bearings from a chart.

6.6 Distance on the Earth

6.6.2 Define:

(a) statute mile;

(b) nautical mile;

(c) kilometre;

(d) metre;

(e) foot.

6.6.4 Calculate the conversion between a statute mile, a nautical mile and a kilometre.

6.6.6 Measure distances up to 300nm (± 1%) on an appropriate chart.

6.8 Speed and Velocity

6.8.2 Define:

(a) a knot (kt);

(b) ground speed (GS);

(c) indicated airspeed (IAS);

(d) calibrated airspeed (CAS);

(e) true airspeed (TAS).

6.8.4 Explain the difference between speed and velocity.

6.10 Position Referencing

6.10.2 Define:
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(a) ground position;

(b) DR position;

(c) fix;

(d) position line.

6.10.4 Describe and apply the following position reference methods:

(a) place name;

(b) place/bearing/distance;

(c) latitude and longitude;

(d) position of another aircraft or point using relative bearing and the clock face
method.

6.12 Altimetry

6.12.2 Define:

(a) height;

(b) altitude;

(c) mean sea level (MSL);

(d) AMSL;

(e) ground level;

(f) AGL;

(g) elevation;

(h) pressure altitude (PA);

(i) QNH.

6.12.4 Explain the effect of a change in mean sea level air pressure on the altimeter
reading of a transiting aircraft.

6.12.6 Explain the effect of a change in temperature on the altimeter reading of a

transiting aircraft.

6.12.8 State and apply the altimeter setting rules in New Zealand.

6.12.10 Explain and apply the table of cruising levels.

6.14 Principles and Terminology

6.14.2 Define:

(a) true and magnetic track required;

(b) wind velocity (W/V);
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(c) head/tail wind;

(d) cross wind;

(e) true heading;

(f) magnetic heading;

(g) compass heading;

(h) drift (planned & actual);

(i) track made good;

(j) port;

(k) starboard;

(l) wind correction angle;

(m) deduced (dead) reckoning;

(n) track error (TE);

(o) closing angle (CA);

(p) estimated time of departure (ETD);

(q) actual time of departure (ATD);

(r) estimated elapsed time (EET);

(s) estimated time of arrival (ETA);

(t) actual time of arrival (ATA).

6.14.4 Explain and apply the 1:60 rule.

6.16 Time

6.16.2 Describe the six figure systems of indicating date/time groups.

6.16.4 Define:

(a) Coordinated Universal Time (UTC);

(b) Standard Time (NZST);

(c) Daylight Time (NZDT).

6.16.6 Calculate ETD and ETA in UTC given planned flight time details and reference
time in NZST and\or NZDT.

6.18 Twilight

6.18.2 Define:
(a) sunrise;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(b) sunset;

(c) daylight;

(d) twilight;

(e) morning civil twilight (MCT);

(f) evening civil twilight (ECT).

6.18.4 Describe the factors that affect the times of sunrise and sunset (daylight).

6.18.6 Describe the factors that affect the duration of twilight.

6.18.8 Describe the factors that affect daylight conditions.

6.18.10 Derive or calculate the MCT and ECT at a given location (UTC, NZST and
NZDT)

Aeronautical Charts

6.22 Properties and Principles

6.22.2 Define scale and the relationship between chart and earth distances.

6.22.4 Describe the appropriate use of:

(a) NZ Aeronautical Charts;

(b) Aerodrome Chart.

6.26 Chart Reading

6.26.2 Interpret the features and symbols of a NZ Aeronautical Chart.

6.26.4 Describe the method of indicating relief on a NZ Aeronautical Chart.

6.26.6 Interpret information from Aerodrome Charts and Operational Data pages in the
AIPNZ Volume 4.

Circular Slide Rule

6.28 Computations

6.28.2 Compute TAS, given CAS, pressure altitude and air temperature in degrees
Celsius.

6.28.4 Solve mathematical equations:

(a) multiplication (± 2%);

(b) division (± 2%);

(c) proportion (± 2%).

6.28.6 Derive time, speed, or distance, given two factors.

6.28.8 Compute time and distance to climb/descend, given groundspeed, rate of
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

climb/descend and height to climb/descend.

6.28.10 Compute rate of descent required to achieve a given height loss over time.

6.28.12 Compute fuel consumption, given the burn rate and time.

6.28.14 Compute fuel burn rate, given the consumption and time.

6.28.16 Compute fuel endurance, given the fuel quantity and burn rate.

6.28.18 Convert between:

(a) degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius (± 2%);

(b) nautical miles, statute miles and kilometres (± 2%);

(c) metres and feet (± 2%);

(d) pounds and kilograms (± 2%);

(e) litres, imperial and US gallons (± 2%);

(f) a volume of fuel (in litres, imperial or US gallons) and a mass of fuel (in
pounds or kilograms) (± 2%).

6.32 Wind Components

6.32.2 Calculate the headwind/tailwind component, given runway alignment and wind
velocity.

6.32.4 Calculate the crosswind component, given runway alignment and wind velocity.

6.34 Triangle of Velocities

6.34.2 Identify and label the three vectors of the triangle of velocities.

6.34.4 Using a navigation computer, solve triangle of velocity problems (given four of
the six variables):

(a) heading and track (± 2°);

(b) TAS and GS (± 2kts);

(c) wind velocity (± 3°/± 3kts);

(d) drift (± 1°);

6.36 The 1 in 60 rule

6.36.2 1:60 rule computations.

Deduced Reckoning

6.38 In-flight Revisions

6.38.2 Estimate:
(a) a heading change, using the 1:60 rule (± 2º);
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(b) a heading change, using drift lines (± 2º);

(c) a heading to make good a reciprocal track;

(d) a ground speed change;

(e) an ETA change, using proportional method.

6.38.4 Describe:

(a) the effect of variations in heading speed and altitude;

(b) the limitations affecting navigation in conditions of reduced visibility.

Flight Planning

6.40 Route Selection

6.40.2 List the factors to be considered when selecting a VFR cross-country navigation
route.

6.40.4 List the factors to be considered when selecting altitudes at which to fly in the
cruise.

6.40.6 List the factors to be considered when selecting alternate routes and destination
alternates.

6.42 Chart Preparation

6.42.2 Mark the following on a map:

(a) departure aerodrome, turning points, and destination aerodrome;

(b) tracks;

(c) heading change markings, either 1:60 or drift lines;

(d) ETA amendment markings.

6.42.4 Fold a map in a manner appropriate for a VFR cross-country flight.

6.44 Plan Preparation

6.44.2 Complete a navigation log / flight plan for a VFR cross-country, including
calculating the following values:

(a) TAS;

(b) tracks;

(c) estimated wind velocities;

(d) headings;

(e) groundspeeds;
(f) distances;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(g) EET;

(h) ETA;

(i) SARTIME.

6.44.4 Calculate the latest time of departure for a given VFR cross-country flight or a
given leg.

6.46 Fuel Planning

6.46.2 Derive, from an Aircraft Flight Manual, the fuel consumption rate for a given leg.

6.46.4 Calculate the expected fuel burn on a given leg.

6.46.6 Calculate the minimum fuel required on a given VFR cross-country flight.

6.46.8 State the legal minimum fuel reserves required on a VFR cross-country flight.

6.46.10 Calculate the maximum fuel endurance.

Navigation Procedures - VFR

6.48 VFR Flight Navigation

6.48.2 Describe the techniques and procedures for:

(a) setting heading;

(b) cruise routine / activity cycle;

(c) maintaining a flight log;

(d) turning points;

(e) approaching / rejoining at a destination aerodrome.

6.48.4 Describe the techniques for map reading in flight.

6.48.6 Describe and apply techniques for:

(a) position fixing;

(b) changing heading to make good the desired track;

(c) changing heading to make good next turning point or destination;

(d) amending ETA.

6.48.8 Calculate a heading to make good a reciprocal track.

6.48.10 Calculate an aircraft’s position given bearing and distance from an identified
ground position.

6.50 Special Procedures

6.50.2 Describe the techniques and procedures for:
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(a) re-establishing position if lost or unsure of position;

(b) diverting from the pre-planned route or destination;

(c) navigating at low level when forced to do so by bad weather.

(d) navigating in mountainous terrain.

Flight Management

6.60 Flight Management

6.60.2 Describe the requirements and procedures to manage SARTIME.

6.62 Fuel Management

6.62.2 Describe the procedures and techniques to safely manage the fuel for a given
flight.

GNSS

6.70 GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System

6.70.2 Explain the limitations of using GPS/GNSS to supplement normal visual

navigation.

6.70.4 Explain the precautions to be taken when:

(a) inserting data with the keypad.

(b) operating/reading the unit while maintaining a proper lookout.

(c) operating/reading the unit in marginal weather conditions.

6.70.6 State the factors influencing GPS/GNSS reliability.

Radar

6.72 Radar Procedures

6.72.2 State the two types of radar currently used in New Zealand.

6.72.4 Describe the method of operation of each type of radar.

6.72.6 Explain what is meant by transponder Mode A and Mode C.

6.72.8 List and explain radar services that may be available to VFR flights.
 Subject No. 8 PPL Meteorology
Notes: This syllabus is principally based on the meteorology as applicable to flying a single piston-
engine general aviation type aeroplane or helicopter, within New Zealand at altitudes at or below
13,000 feet.

Detailed acronyms and service provider titles (e.g. SKC, MetService) are indicative of the area of
knowledge required and do not limit this syllabus to those specifically listed.

Each subject has been given a subject number and each topic within that subject a topic number.
These reference numbers will be used on knowledge deficiency reports and will provide valuable
feedback to the examination candidate. These reference numbers are common across the subject
levels and therefore may not be consecutive.

8.2 Decode Domestic Meteorological Reports and Forecasts

8.2.2 Demonstrate how to access aviation meteorological information for New Zealand through
the MetFlight internet web-site.

8.2.4 In plain language, decode the information contained in the following forecasts and reports:

(a) GRAFOR;

(b) TAF;

(c) TREND;

(d) METAR;

(e) SPECI;

(f) METAR AUTO;

(g) SIGMET;

(h) ATIS;

(i) AWIB;

(j) BWR;

(k) Pilot Reports;

(l) AAW;

(m) GSM;

(n) GNZSIGWX.

8.4 Weather Maps

8.4.2 Identify the following features found on surface weather maps:

(a) isobars;

(b) anticyclone (“high”);

(c) depression (“low” or “cyclone”);

(d) ridge of high pressure;

(e) trough of low pressure;

 (f) col;

(g) fronts (cold, warm (warm sectors), occluded and stationary);

(h) tropical cyclones.

8.4.4 Explain the most common weather characteristics of each feature.

8.4.6 Define pressure gradient.

8.4.8 Identify areas of light, moderate and strong winds on a weather map.

8.6 The Atmosphere

8.6.2 Describe the structure of the troposphere and lower stratosphere.

8.6.4 Outline the characteristics of the troposphere in terms of:

(a) horizontal and vertical motions;

(b) vertical variation of density;

(c) vertical variation of temperature;

(d) depth.

8.6.6 List the percentages of the following gases in the troposphere:

(a) nitrogen;

(b) oxygen;

(c) all other trace gases combined.

8.6.8 Describe the presence and importance of the following in the atmosphere:

(a) water vapour;

(b) aerosols.

8.8 Temperature and Heat Exchange Processes

8.8.2 Outline the measurement of surface air temperature in New Zealand (as reported in
aviation observations), and relate that to actual temperatures experienced above a sealed or
grass runway.

8.8.4 Define solar and terrestrial radiation.

8.8.6 Outline the balance of incoming solar radiation versus outgoing terrestrial radiation.

8.8.8 Explain the effect of solar and terrestrial radiation on the daily temperature range.

8.8.10 Describe the effect of the following on daily air temperature:

(a) latitude;

(b) season;

(c) strong winds;

(d) wind direction;
 (e) cloud cover;

(f) coastal or inland location;

(g) surface type.

8.8.12 Describe the transfer of heat in the atmosphere with reference to the processes of:

(a) conduction;

(b) convection;

(c) advection.

8.10 Atmospheric Pressure and Density

8.10.2 Define ‘atmospheric pressure’.

8.10.4 State the pressure units used in New Zealand aviation.

8.10.6 State the significance of air pressure to aviation.

8.10.8 Define ‘pressure lapse rate’.

8.10.10 State the approximate pressure lapse rate in the atmosphere below 10,000ft.

8.10.12 Explain how surface pressure rises when air is added to the vertical column above the
ground, and vice versa.

8.10.14 Define the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).

8.10.16 Describe how New Zealand conditions differ from ISA.

8.10.18 Explain how deviation from ISA values influences performance of aircraft and aircraft
engines.

8.10.20 Define:

(a) QNH and altitude;

(b) QFE and height.

8.10.22 Explain the effects of changes in MSL pressure on aircraft in flight, and why a pressure
altimeter requires a subscale adjustment.

8.10.24 Explain the importance of correct subscale setting.

8.12 Wind

8.12.2 Define the measurement of the standard surface wind in aviation meteorological reports
and forecasts.

8.12.4 State the units used to describe wind speed.

8.12.6 State the units used to describe wind direction with reference to:

(a) forecasts and observations issued by MetService;

(b) spot winds relayed to pilots by Air Traffic Control.

8.12.8 List the three forces acting to generate wind at low-levels.

8.12.10 Outline the cause of Coriolis force.

8.12.12 List the three properties of Coriolis force.

8.12.14 Define the ‘geostrophic wind’.

8.12.16 Explain how friction affects the surface wind velocity.

8.12.18 Explain what is meant by the ‘friction layer’.

8.12.20 Describe the elements that influence the depth of the ‘friction layer’.

8.12.22 Define the following terms:

(a) gust;

(b) squall;

(c) veering;

(d) backing.

8.12.24 Describe the diurnal variation of the surface wind over the:

(a) land;

(b) sea.

8.12.26 Describe the changes in wind velocity when climbing out of, or descending through, the
friction layer.

8.12.28 Describe the limitations of windsocks in New Zealand.

8.12.30 Describe how an approximate wind direction can be determined from:

(a) ripples on water;

(b) wind lanes on water;

(c) wind shadow on bodies of water;

(d) cloud shadows.

8.12.32 State Buys Ballot’s Law.

8.12.34 Explain how applying Buys Ballot’s Law can:

(a) determine the location of high and low pressure areas;

(b) be used as a basic forecasting tool.

8.14 Local Winds

8.14.2 Describe the development of sea breezes with reference to:

(a) horizontal and vertical limits around New Zealand;

(b) timing of the occurrence;

(c) average strength of the sea breeze;

 (d) associated cloud and precipitation;

(e) associated turbulence.

8.14.4 Describe the development of katabatic winds with reference to:

(a) timing of the occurrence;

(b) average strength of katabatic winds over New Zealand.

8.14.6 Describe the effect of local obstructions on wind flow.

8.14.8 Describe terrain channelling in New Zealand.

8.14.10 Explain how atmospheric stability enhances terrain channelling.

8.16 Water Vapour

8.16.2 Explain how the temperature of air influences its capacity to hold water vapour.

8.16.4 Define the term ‘relative humidity’.

8.16.6 Define the term ‘dew point’.

8.16.8 Explain the effect of moisture content of air on the dew point.

8.16.10 Explain why ‘dew point’ is a better measure than ‘relative humidity’ for aviation purposes.

8.16.12 Describe each of the following processes with regard to the changes of state of water:

(a) condensation;

(b) evaporation;

(c) deposition;

(d) sublimation;

(e) melting;

(f) freezing.

8.16.14 Explain how water vapour enters the atmosphere by the process of:

(a) evaporation;

(b) transpiration.

8.16.16 State the effect of the following on the rate of evaporation:

(a) air and water temperature;

(b) moisture content of air;

(c) wind speed.

8.16.18 Define ‘latent heat’.

8.16.20 State the significance of the release of latent heat into the atmosphere during the cloud
formation process.
8.18 Atmospheric Stability

8.18.2 Define:

(a) stable air;

(b) unstable air;

(c) conditionally unstable air.

8.18.4 Describe how the stability of a rising (or sinking) parcel of air is determined by its
temperature compared with the temperature of the surrounding environment.

8.18.6 Describe what is meant by ‘environment lapse rate’ (ELR).

8.18.8 Explain how the environmental temperature and dew point lapse rates are found.

8.18.10 Outline the term ‘adiabatic process’.

8.18.12 State the value of the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) at low-levels in mid latitudes.

8.18.14 State the approximate value of the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) at low levels in
mid-latitudes.

8.18.16 State the conditions needed for conditionally unstable air to be forced to become unstable.

8.18.18 Define:

(a) inversion;

(b) isothermal layer.

8.18.20 Explain why inversions and isothermal layers are atmospherically stable.

8.18.22 Determine atmospheric stability by applying basic lifting scenarios with given ELRs.

8.20 Inversions

8.20.2 Explain the factors involved in the development of a:

(a) radiation inversion;

(b) turbulence inversion;

(c) subsidence inversion;

(d) frontal inversion.

8.20.4 Explain the effect of inversions on:

(a) formation of cloud;

(b) visibility;

(c) turbulence;

(d) dew point;

(e) the increased risk of carburettor icing;

(f) the presence of wind shear;

 (g) aircraft performance.

8.22 Clouds

8.22.2 Describe the cloud formation process.

8.22.4 Describe the operational characteristics of the cloud sensor used in Automatic Weather
Stations (AWS), and reported in METAR AUTO reports.

8.22.6 State the approximate altitude limits (in New Zealand latitudes) of:

(a) high cloud;

(b) middle cloud;

(c) low cloud.

8.22.8 Describe the meaning of the following cloud terms:

(a) cumulus or cumulo (prefix);

(b) stratus or strato (prefix);

(c) alto (prefix);

(d) nimbo (prefix) or nimbus (suffix);

(e) cirrus or cirro (prefix).

8.22.10 Describe the following lifting mechanisms found in the atmosphere:

(a) orographic;

(b) convection (including ‘thermals’);

(c) turbulence;

(d) widespread ascent (including fronts).

8.22.12 List the cloud types associated with each lifting mechanism.

8.22.14 Describe the following cloud types including likely associated turbulence and precipitation:

(a) stratocumulus;

(b) stratus;

(c) cumulus;

(d) cumulonimbus/towering cumulus;

(e) lenticular.

8.22.16 Visually identify the following cloud types:

(a) towering cumulus;

(b) cumulonimbus.

8.22.18 Explain how, in well-mixed conditions, changes in surface temperature and/or dew point
relate to the cloud base.
8.22.20 Describe the processes that lead to cloud dissipation.

8.24 Precipitation

8.24.2 Define:

(a) precipitation;

(b) virga.

8.24.4 Describe the following types of precipitation:

(a) rain;

(b) drizzle;

(c) snow;

(d) sleet;

(e) hail.

8.24.6 State the difference between large drizzle and small rain droplets.

8.24.8 Describe the following terms in relation to precipitation:

(a) continuous rain;

(b) intermittent rain;

(c) showers.

8.24.10 Define the following precipitation rates:

(a) light;

(b) moderate;

(c) heavy.

8.26 Visibility and Fog

8.26.2 Define prevailing visibility.

8.26.4 Explain why illumination from the sun or moon has no effect on prevailing visibility.

8.26.6 Describe the operational characteristics of the visibility sensor used in Automatic Weather
Stations (AWS), and reported in METAR AUTO reports.

8.26.8 Describe the effect on visibility, of the following:

(a) precipitation;

(b) fog and mist;

(c) haze and smoke;

(d) sea spray;

(e) blowing snow;

 (f) sun glare.

8.26.10 Explain the factors involved in slant range.

8.26.12 List the types of fog, classified by their method of formation.

8.26.14 Describe the meteorological conditions required for the formation and dispersal of:

(a) radiation fog;

(b) advection fog.

8.26.16 Explain how katabatic winds may enhance or inhibit radiation fog depending on their
strength.

8.26.18 Describe the operational problems associated with fog.

8.28 Aircraft Icing

8.28.2 List the hazards of airframe icing to aircraft in flight.

8.28.4 Explain the processes involved in the formation of hoar frost on an aircraft on the ground
and in flight.

8.28.6 State the dangers of hoar frost and the actions required to alleviate these dangers on the
ground and in flight.

8.28.8 Explain why flight in cloud above the freezing-level can be very hazardous.

8.28.10 Explain how to avoid or alleviate all forms of airframe icing other than hoar frost.

8.28.12 State the hazards for light aircraft from:

(a) snow;

(b) sleet;

(c) hail.

8.28.14 Explain the environmental factors involved in carburettor icing, including;

(a) moisture content;

(b) temperature;

(c) temperature gradient (inversions).

8.28.16 State the temperature range that carburettor ice typically forms in.

8.28.18 Explain how the accretion rate of carburettor ice is influenced by the throttle setting.

8.28.20 Explain the conditions that can cause carburettor icing while on the ground.

8.30 Thunderstorms

8.30.2 State the three conditions required for the development of thunderstorms.

8.30.4 Describe the three stages in the life-cycle of a thunderstorm.

8.30.6 List the hazards associated with thunderstorms.

8.30.8 Explain why light aircraft should always avoid flight in the vicinity of thunderstorms.

8.32 Mountain Weather

8.32.2 Define the Föhn wind.

8.32.4 In Föhn wind conditions, describe the typical weather:

(a) to windward of the mountain range;

(b) above the mountain range;

(c) on the lee side of the mountain range.

8.32.6 Describe the mountain lee-wave (standing wave) development process.

8.32.8 Describe the formation of rotor zones.

8.32.10 Explain the associated dangers of rotor zones to aircraft operations.

8.32.12 With regard to VFR flight in a light aircraft in mountainous terrain, describe the
meteorological factors that should be considered during the flight planning phase and en-
route, including:

(a) cloud base;

(b) turbulence;

(c) adverse and favourable winds;

(d) visibility;

(e) track selection;

(f) the anticipated timing of any expected weather change.

8.36 Air-masses and Fronts

8.36.2 Define an ‘air-mass’.

8.36.4 State the two air-masses that routinely affect the New Zealand region.

8.36.6 Define a ‘front’.

8.36.8 Describe the formation processes of the following frontal types:

(a) cold;

(b) warm;

(c) occluded;

(d) stationary.

8.36.10 Describe the range of weather conditions typically associated with fronts in the New
Zealand region.

8.36.12 State the similarities and differences between cold and warm fronts, with reference to
changes in:

(a) temperature;
 (b) air pressure;

(c) wind;

(d) cloud;

(e) precipitation.

8.36.14 Describe the typical associated factors for a southerly flow onto New Zealand:

(a) stability;

(b) cloud types;

(c) likely precipitation;

(d) visibility reductions;

(e) turbulence.

8.36.16 Describe the typical associated factors for a northerly flow onto New Zealand.

(a) stability;

(b) cloud types;

(c) likely precipitation;

(d) visibility reductions;

(e) turbulence.

8.40 Turbulence

8.40.2 Define the term ‘wind shear’.

8.40.4 Describe the effects of low-level wind-shear on aircraft operations in the:

(a) take-off; and

(b) approach and landing phases of flight.

8.40.6 Describe the cause(s), factors involved and dangers associated with:

(a) convective (thermal) turbulence;

(b) mechanical turbulence – small scale and large scale;

(c) wake turbulence.

8.40.8 Describe the techniques commonly used to avoid or minimise:

(a) convective (thermal) turbulence;

(b) mechanical turbulence;

(c) wake turbulence.

8.44 New Zealand Weather

8.44.2 Describe how the following factors determine the general weather features found around
New Zealand:

(a) latitude;

(b) oceanic surroundings;

(c) topography.

8.44.4 Identify ‘westerly situations’ and ‘easterly situations’ on a weather map.

8.44.6 Describe the impact of ‘westerly situations’ and ‘easterly situations’ on flying weather
around New Zealand.

8.44.8 For any area or location in New Zealand, determine:

(a) the wind direction(s) which expose that location to very poor flying conditions;

(b) the wind direction(s) which result in sheltering.

8.50 Assess satellite and radar Imagery, and non-aviation-specific weather information.

8.50.2 With respect to NZ VFR operations, using satellite imagery available in MetFlight, identify
the following:

(a) areas of stable and unstable air;

(b) frontal cloud bands;

(c) positions of lows and anticyclones.

8.50.4 With respect to NZ VFR operations, interpret radar imagery available in MetFlight in terms
of:

(a) likely cloud types;

(b) precipitation types and intensity;

(c) speed of movement and timing and the expected impact at given locations.

8.50.6 Describe the limitations of non-aviation-specific weather information.

8.52 Interpret Domestic Meteorological Services, Reports and Forecasts

8.52.2 Using information from domestic meteorological services, reports and forecasts decide
which should be considered for an indicated flight between given locations.

8.52.4 Use information from domestic meteorological services, reports and forecasts to
demonstrate sound planning and decision making.

8.52.6 State the significance of forecast or observed low-level moisture to flight.

Subject No. 10 Human Factors
Note: This syllabus is based on Private and Recreational operations.

Each subject has been given a subject number and each topic within that subject a topic number.
These reference numbers will be used on knowledge deficiency reports and will provide valuable
feedback to the examination candidate.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

Human Factors - General
10.2 Airmanship and Responsibility
10.2.2 Describe key features of good and safe airmanship.
10.4 Human Factors Models and Programmes
10.4.2 Define human factors as used in an aviation context.
10.4.4 Explain the role of human factors programmes in promoting aviation
safety.
Physiology and the Effects of Flight
10.6 The Atmosphere
10.6.2 State the gases that make up the atmosphere.
10.6.4 Describe the variation of pressure as altitude increases.
10.8 Circulation and Respiratory Systems
10.8.2 Describe the basic anatomy of the respiratory system.
10.8.4 Describe the physiology of the respiratory system.
10.8.6 Describe the basic anatomy of the circulatory system.
10.8.8 Describe the physiology of the circulatory system.
10.8.10 Describe the role of the lungs in oxygen and carbon dioxide transfer.
10.10 Hypoxia
10.10.2 Define hypoxia.
10.10.4 State the partial pressure of oxygen both inside and outside the lungs at sea
level.
10.10.6 Explain the mechanical effect of the partial pressure of oxygen on oxygen
transfer in the lungs.
10.10.8 Explain the causes of hypoxia.
10.10.10 Describe the common symptoms of hypoxia.
10.10.12 Explain the reasons hypoxia symptoms are difficult to detect.
10.10.14 Explain the relationship between hypoxic onset and both vision and
cognitive performance.
10.10.16 Describe how hypoxia can be prevented.
10.10.18 State the factors that affect the likelihood of suffering from hypoxia.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
10.10.20 Describe how hypoxia can be treated.
10.12 Hyperventilation
10.12.2 Define hyperventilation.
10.12.4 Explain the causes of hyperventilation.
10.12.6 Describe the symptoms of hyperventilation.
10.12.8 Describe how hyperventilation can be treated.
10.12.10 Describe the differences between hyperventilation and hypoxia.
10.14 Entrapped Gasses
10.14.2 Define barotrauma.
10.14.4 Explain the causes of barotrauma.
10.14.6 Describe the symptoms of barotrauma.
10.14.8 Describe the effects of barotrauma on the various parts of the body.
10.16 Decompression Sickness
10.16.2 Define decompression sickness.
10.16.4 Explain the causes of decompression sickness.
10.16.6 Describe the symptoms of decompression sickness.
10.16.8 Explain how decompression sickness can be prevented.
10.16.10 Describe how decompression sickness can be treated.
10.16.12 Explain the dangers of flying after diving.
10.18 Vision and Visual Perception
10.18.2 Identify the following eye structure components:
(a) lens
(b) cornea
(c) retina
(d) fovea
(e) optic nerve disc
(f) cone cells
(g) rod cells.
10.18.4 Distinguish between rod and cone cell functions and distribution in the
retina.
10.18.6 Describe the limitations of the eye in terms of:
(a) the ability to discern objects at night
(b) the ability to discern objects in daylight, including wires and other
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
aircraft
(c) poor lighting
(d) glare
(e) lack of contrast
(f) the blind spot
(g) colour perception.
10.18.8 Explain the process of dark adaptation.
10.18.10 State the normal time for full night vision adaptation.
10.18.12 Identify precautionary actions to protect night vision adaptation.
10.18.14 Describe the factors associated with the selection of suitable sunglasses for
flying.
10.18.16 Describe the visual system resting state focus and its effects on object
detection.
10.18.18 Explain effective visual search techniques.
10.18.20 Explain the see and avoid method of avoiding mid-air collisions.
10.18.22 Explain the use of visual cues during landing.
10.18.24 Explain the following visual illusions:
(a) autokinesis
(b) stroboscopic illumination illusion/flicker vertigo
(c) the break-off phenomenon
(d) the black hole phenomenon.
10.18.26 Describe methods of avoiding and/or coping with:
(a) autokinesis
(b) stroboscopic illumination illusion/flicker vertigo
(c) the break-off phenomenon
(d) the black hole phenomenon.
10.18.28 Describe conditions which can lead to the creation of a false horizon.
10.18.30 Explain the effect of a false horizon on visual perception.
10.18.32 Explain relative motion.
10.18.34 Explain the effect of fog, haze, and/or dust on visual perception.
10.18.36 Describe the optical characteristics of the windshield.
10.18.38 Explain the effect of sloping terrain on visual perception.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
10.18.40 Explain the effect of the following factors on visual perception during the
following approach situations:
(a) steep/shallow approach angles
(b) length, width and texture of the runway
(c) the intensity of the approach lights.

10.20 Hearing and Balance

10.20.2 Describe the basic anatomy of the ear.
10.20.4 Describe the physiology of the ear.
10.20.6 Describe the effect of prolonged noise exposure on hearing.
10.20.8 Describe methods of protecting hearing.
10.20.10 Explain the effects of age induced hearing loss (presbycusis).
10.20.12 Explain the effects of pressure changes on the middle ear and eustachian
tubes.
10.20.14 Explain the effects of colds; hay fever; and/or allergies on the sinuses and
eustachian tubes.
10.22 Spatial Orientation
10.22.2 Define spatial orientation.
10.22.4 Define disorientation.
10.22.6 Outline the basic anatomy of the motion, orientation and gravitational
sensory organs, including:
(a) the semi-circular canals
(b) vestibular sac/tubes.
10.22.8 Outline the physiology of the motion, orientation and gravitational sensory
organs, including:
(a) the semi-circular canals
(b) vestibular sac/tubes.
10.22.10 Explain the interconnection between the visual and kinasthetic senses in
maintaining accurate spatial orientation.
10.22.12 Explain the body’s limitations in maintaining spatial orientation when
vision is adversely affected.
10.22.14 Explain the effects of the following spatial illusions:
(a) the leans and sub-threshold stimulation
(b) somatogravic illusion
(c) somatogyral illusion
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
(d) cross coupled turning (Coriolis effect)
(e) pressure vertigo.
10.22.16 Explain how disorientation can be prevented.
10.24 Gravitational Forces
10.24.2 Explain the effects of positive and negative accelerations on:
(a) the circulatory system
(b) vision
(c) consciousness.
10.24.4 Explain the causes and symptoms of black-out.
10.24.6 Explain the causes and symptoms of red-out.
10.26 Motion Sickness
10.26.2 Explain the causes of motion sickness.
10.26.4 Describe how motion sickness can be prevented.
10.26.6 Describe how motion sickness can be treated.
10.28 Flight Anxiety
10.28.2 Explain the causes of flight anxiety.
10.28.4 Recognise the signs of flight anxiety in passengers.
10.28.6 Describe how flight anxiety can be prevented.
Flying and Health
10.30 Fitness to Fly
10.30.2 Describe the term fitness to fly.
10.30.4 Explain the responsibilities of pilots towards medical fitness for flight.
10.30.6 Identify symptoms and circumstances that would lead you to consult your
aviation medical examiner prior to further flight.
10.30.8 Describe the IMSAFE method of assessing fitness for flight.
10.30.10 Describe the problems associated with pregnancy and flying.
10.30.12 With regard to the following factors, describe their effects on pilot
performance and methods by which they may be minimised/managed:
(a) arterial disease
(b) blood pressure
(c) diet
(d) exercise
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
(e) obesity
(f) smoking
(g) respiratory tract infection/allergies (including colds, sinus, hay
fever, influenza, asthma)
(h) food poisoning and gastroenteritis
(i) neurological factors (including fits/epilepsy, brain injury, fainting,
headaches, migraines)
(j) emotional factors (including depression and anxiety)
(k) dehydration

10.32 Alcohol and Drugs

10.32.2 Explain the effects of alcohol on pilot performance.
10.32.4 Explain the restriction associated with the consumption of alcohol and
flying.
10.32.6 Explain the effects of drugs on pilot performance.
10.32.8 Describe considerations associated with the taking of over the counter
medication and flying.
10.32.10 Explain why illegal/recreational drugs are unacceptable for pilots.
10.34 Blood Donation
10.34.2 Describe the effect on the body of donating blood.
10.34.4 State the recommended time period between the donation of blood and
flying.
10.36 Environmental Hazards
10.36.2 Describe the symptoms, effects and immediate treatments for the following
hazards present in the aviation environment:
(a) carbon monoxide
(b) fuel
(c) lubricating oils
(d) hydraulic fluids.
10.36.4 State the source of carbon monoxide poisoning in general aviation aircraft.
10.36.6 Describe reliable methods for the detection of carbon monoxide.
10.36.8 Describe methods of eliminating carbon monoxide from the cockpit.
10.38 Stress Management
10.38.2 Define stress.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
10.38.4 Describe a simple model of stress.
10.38.6 Define arousal.
10.38.8 Explain the relationship between stress and arousal.
10.38.10 Describe how the following environmental stressors affect pilot
performance:
(a) heat
(b) cold
(c) noise
(d) vibration
(e) humidity.
10.38.12 Explain methods of identifying stress.
10.38.14 Explain the difference between acute and chronic stress.
10.38.16 Describe the physiological effects of stress.
10.38.18 Describe the psychological effects of stress.
10.38.20 Describe the factors that improve personal stress tolerance.
10.38.22 Describe the relationship between stress and fatigue.
10.38.24 Explain methods of managing stress.
10.40 Sleep and Fatigue (Alertness Management)
10.40.2 Explain how individuals differ in their requirement for sleep.
10.40.4 Explain the effects of the following alertness management techniques:
(a) napping
(b) caffeine consumption
(c) taking sedatives
(d) taking stimulants other than caffeine.
10.40.6 Describe sleep disorders and their effects on pilot performance.
10.40.8 Define fatigue.
10.40.10 Explain the causes of fatigue and its effect on pilot performance.
10.40.12 Describe the symptoms of fatigue.
10.40.14 Explain the difference between acute and chronic fatigue.
10.42 Ageing
10.42.2 Describe the effects of the normal process of human ageing on:
(a) the sensitivity and acuity of the sensory system
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
(b) muscular strength
(c) resilience and reaction times
(d) sleep/wakefulness patterns
(e) cognitive or mental functioning
(f) the acquisition of new information
(g) the retention and retrieval of stored information in memory
(h) the rate of information processing
(i) insight and self-awareness of your individual capabilities.

Aviation Psychology
10.44 Information Processing
10.44.2 Identify the human sensors pilots depend on for information acquisition.
10.44.4 Describe a basic model of information processing.
10.44.6 Describe the following types of memory:
(a) short term/working memory
(b) long term memory.
10.44.8 Describe the limitations of memory.
10.44.10 Explain the following methods of retaining and retrieving information from
memory:
(a) mnemonics
(b) checklists.
10.44.12 Define perception.
10.44.14 Describe the effect of the following on perception:
(a) expectation
(b) experience.

10.46 Situational Awareness

10.46.2 Define situational awareness.
10.46.4 Describe strategies to maintain and enhance situational awareness.
10.48 Judgement and Decision Making
10.48.2 Describe hazardous attitudes.
10.48.4 Describe methods of countering hazardous attitudes.
10.48.6 Describe the error/poor judgement chain.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
10.48.8 Explain clues or red flags that can assist in identifying the error/poor
judgement chain.
10.48.10 Outline the general concepts behind decision making.
10.48.12 Describe methods of enhancing decision making skills.
10.48.14 Explain the application of the following decision-making models used in
aviation:
(a) DECIDE
(b) SADIE
(c) FDODAR.
10.48.16 Identify specific factors that influence the decision making process.
10.48.18 Explain the setting of personal limitations and decision points.
10.48.20 Outline the dangers of get-home-itis.
10.50 Social Psychology and Flight Deck Management
10.50.2 Explain how outside resources, such as ATC, engineers and other pilots can
contribute to a pilot’s management of a flight.
10.52 Threat and Error Management
10.52.2 Explain the role of human error in aviation accidents.
10.52.4 Explain the degree to which human error can be eliminated.
10.52.6 Describe the main types of threats which could potentially affect a safe
flight.
10.52.8 Explain the basic elements and features of the Reason Model.
10.52.10 Describe threat management, including means of:
(a) recognising threats
(b) avoiding threats
(c) mitigating the effects of threats.

10.54 Culture
10.54.2 Identify the elements in a safety culture.
10.54.4 List the key reasons for safety reporting in aviation.
10.54.6 Explain the rationale for mandatory reporting of incidents as required by
Part 12.
10.54.8 Distinguish between normal error, at risk behaviour and high culpability
behaviour.
10.54.10 Distinguish between negligent and reckless behaviour.
10.54.12 Describe the role of punitive sanction.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item
Ergonomics
10.60 Instrumentation, Displays and Alerts
10.60.2 Explain the importance of the following in the design of instrumentation,
displays and alerts:
(a) position
(b) layout
(c) use of colour
(d) illumination.
10.60.4 Describe parallax error.
10.60.6 Describe potential errors in the interpretation of three pointer altimeters.
10.60.8 Describe the basic requirements of alerts.
10.60.10 Describe how colour coding conventions are used in aviation on
instruments and displays.
10.62 Documents and Procedures
10.62.2 Explain the rationale behind consistent and thorough checklist use as
opposed to reliance on memory.
10.62.4 Distinguish between normal and emergency checklists.
10.62.6 Identify the phases of flight where a checklist plays an important role.
10.62.8 Describe the reasons for checklist complacency.
10.62.10 Describe the possible ramifications of checklist complacency.
First Aid and Survival
10.64 First Aid
10.64.2 Describe the basic principles of first aid.
10.64.4 Describe the basic principles of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation.
10.66 Survival
10.66.2 State the components of a pre-flight passenger briefing by a pilot with
respect to aircraft safety features and equipment.
10.66.4 Explain the basic steps in post-crash survivor management.
10.66.6 List the priorities of survival in order of importance.
10.66.8 Explain survival items that could be carried on a cross-country flight over bush
clad and mountainous terrain in order to manage survival threats.
10.66.10 Explain the process of hypothermia.
 Subject No. 12 Aircraft Technical Knowledge (Aeroplane)
Note: This syllabus is primarily based on a single piston-engine GA-type aeroplane.

Each subject has been given a subject number and each topic within that subject a topic number.
These reference numbers will be used on knowledge deficiency reports and will provide valuable
feedback to the examination candidate. These reference numbers are common across the subject
levels and therefore may not be consecutive.

Section 1 is common to both Subject 12 (Aeroplane) and Subject 14 (Helicopter)

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

Section 1 General Technical Knowledge

12.2 Definitions, Terminology, Units and Abbreviations

12.2.2 State the International System (SI) and ICAO units used to express:
(a) distance;
(b) time;
(c) velocity;
(d) mass;
(e) volume;
(f) temperature;
(g) altitude.

12.2.4 Define and where appropriate show the relevant relationships between:
(a) mass, weight and gravitational force (g);
(b) inertia;
(c) momentum;
(d) equilibrium;
(e) force vectors, couples and components;
(f) Newton’s Third Law;
(g) distance, time, acceleration and velocity;
(h) kinetic and potential energy;
(i) force, work and power;
(j) forces involved in the motion of an object travelling in a circular path.

12.4 The Atmosphere

12.4.2 Name the principal gases which constitute the atmosphere.

12.4.4 Define air density.

12.4.6 Explain how air density varies with altitude within the atmosphere.

12.4.8 State the relationship between pressure/temperature and the density of an air mass.

12.4.10 Describe how pressure, temperature and density normally vary within the
atmosphere.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.4.12 Explain the basis for the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).

12.4.14 State the ISA sea level pressure and temperature conditions.

12.4.16 State the approximate temperature lapse rate up to the tropopause.

12.6 Basic Aerodynamic Theory

12.6.2 Describe what an aerofoil is and distinguish between different aerofoil designs.

12.6.4 Define:
(a) leading edge;
(b) trailing edge;
(c) chord;
(d) chord line;
(e) thickness;
(f) camber.

12.6.6 Define relative airflow and angle of attack.

12.6.8 Explain Bernoulli’s Theorem in simple terms.

12.6.10 Describe streamline airflow around an aerofoil.

12.6.12 Explain the changes which occur to dynamic and static pressure wherever the
speed of the airflow is:
(a) increased;
(b) decreased.

12.6.14 With the aid of diagrams, explain:

(a) venturi effect;
(b) the pressure distribution around an aerofoil which is producing lift.

12.6.16 Define the terms:

(a) total reaction (TR);
(b) centre of pressure (CP).

12.6.18 Describe how TR and CP change with increasing angle of attack for a lifting
aerofoil.

12.6.20 Show how movement of the CP varies between symmetrical and non-symmetrical
aerofoils.

12.6.22 Define the Lift and Drag components of Total Reaction.

12.6.24 With respect to lift:

(a) State the lift formula;
(b) summarise the factors affecting lift. (i.e. angle of attack, aerofoil shape,
IAS)
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.6.26 Identify the primary factors determining the coefficient of lift (CL) for an aerofoil.

12.6.28 Describe a typical CL versus angle of attack curve (graph).

12.6.30 On a typical CL versus angle of attack curve, identify the critical stalling angle.

12.6.32 State the precaution against flying with ice, frost, snow or other contamination of
the aerofoil surfaces.

12.6.34 Distinguish between induced drag, parasite and profile drag.

12.6.36 List the elements of profile drag.

12.6.38 State the factors affecting parasite drag, and profile (form and skin friction) drag.

12.6.40 Explain how induced drag varies depending on:

(a) angle of attack of the aerofoil;
(b) aspect ratio.

12.6.42 Identify curves of parasite, profile, induced and total drag versus aerofoil airspeed.

12.6.44 Describe a typical curve of lift/drag (L/D) ratio versus angle of attack for a
symmetrical aerofoil.

12.6.46 Identify the approximate angle for best L/D ratio.

Power Plant and Systems

12.10 Engines – General Piston Engines

12.10.2 Identify typical cylinder configurations used for aircraft piston engines.

12.10.4 Explain the function of the main components of a four-stroke cycle piston engine
including:
(a) cylinders;
(b) cylinder heads;
(c) pistons;
(d) connecting rods;
(e) crankshaft;
(f) valves;
(g) valve operating mechanism;
(h) camshaft;
(i) spark plugs;
(j) injectors.

12.10.6 Explain the basic principle of operation of a four stroke internal combustion
engine.

12.10.8 Describe the correlation between engine rpm and power output.

12.10.10 Explain the need for valve timing (i.e. valve lead, lag and overlap).
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.10.12 Explain the basic differences between compression ignition (diesel) engines and
conventional ignition engines.

12.12 Carburation

12.12.2 Explain the principle of carburation.

12.12.4 Explain the basic principle of operation of a simple float-type carburettor.

12.12.6 State the function and/or purpose of the following within the carburettor:
(a) atomisation and diffusion;
(b) idling circuit;
(c) acceleration enrichment;
(d) enrichment at high power settings;
(e) mixture control;
(f) idle cut-off.

12.12.8 Explain the function of a manual mixture control and idle cut-off.

12.12.10 Explain the correct operational use of a manual mixture control and idle cut-off.

12.12.12 Explain the consequences of operating with:

(a) over-rich mixture settings;
(b) over-lean mixture settings.

12.12.14 Describe the abnormal combustion conditions of detonation and pre-ignition, and
distinguish between them.

12.12.16 Explain the causes and likely effects of detonation and pre-ignition and the
measures which can be taken to avoid them.

12.12.18 Explain the formation of refrigeration, throttle and impact ice in a carburettor and
intake system.

12.12.20 Describe the:

(a) atmospheric and throttle setting conditions conducive to the formation of
carburettor ice;
(b) symptoms of carburettor ice formation;
(c) correct use of carburettor heat for de-icing, and as an anti-icing measure
(i.e. normal operation) including interpretation and use of a carburettor air
temperature gauge.

12.12.22 Describe the function of the inlet manifold.

12.14 Fuel Injection

12.14.2 State the advantages/disadvantages of fuel injection versus carburetor systems.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.14.4 Explain the:

(a) function and principles of a fuel injection system;
(b) difference between direct and indirect injection.

12.14.6 Explain the operating principle of a simple fuel injection system.

12.14.8 State the purpose of the following components in a basic fuel injection system:
(a) fuel delivery pump system;
(b) fuel distribution system;
(c) fuel injectors.

12.16 Fuel

12.16.2 State the common types of fuels and their colour identification.

12.16.4 Distinguish between the different characteristics of AVGAS, MOGAS and

AVTUR (Jet A1).
12.16.6 State the precautions regarding the use of MOGAS in aero-engines.

12.16.8 State the common fuel contaminants and the precautions which can be taken to
avoid them.

12.18 Exhaust System

12.18.2 Describe the function of the exhaust manifold.

12.18.4 Explain the importance of proper sealing of the exhaust manifold.

12.18.6 Describe the possible sources, indications and associated danger of carbon
monoxide gas.

12.20 Ignition Systems – Magneto Ignition

12.20.2 Describe the principal features of a typical magneto ignition system (dual,
independent, engine-driven magneto systems with two spark plugs per cylinder).
12.20.4 State the purpose and principle of an impulse coupling.

12.20.6 Describe the operation and correct handling of typical ignition/starter switches
(including the starter warning light).
12.20.8 Explain the purpose and the typical procedure for conducting magneto checks.

12.20.10 Describe the procedures and the precautions to be taken when hand-swinging a
propeller to start an engine.

12.22 Ignition systems – Solid State

12.22.2 Describe the principal features and components of a typical solid state ignition
system.

12.22.4 Explain the advantages/disadvantages of solid state ignition systems.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.22.6 Explain the purpose and a typical procedure for conducting ignition integrity
checks.

12.22.8 Describe the operation and correct handling of ignition/starter switch systems.

12.24 Engine Management - Piston

12.24.2 State the safety precautions to be taken before starting the engine.

12.24.4 In general terms, explain the procedures for:

(a) staring the engine in cold temperatures;
(b) starting an over-primed engine;
(c) staring a hot engine;
(d) controlling an engine fire on start-up;
(e) checking oil pressure after start;
(f) stopping the engine.

12.24.6 Explain the reasons for avoidance of rapid power changes.

12.24.8 Explain the need for monitoring and cross-checking engine instrument indications.

12.24.10 State the possible causes for rough running or excessive engine vibration.

12.24.12 State the actions that the pilot may take to identify and rectify rough running or
excessive engine vibration.

12.24.14 State the possible causes of a sudden engine failure in flight, and the remedies
which may be available to a pilot during subsequent trouble checks.

Ancillary Systems

12.26 Electrical System - DC

12.26.2 Describe the types of systems which are typically electrically operated in a light
aircraft.

12.26.4 Explain the function of the following components in a typical light aircraft
electrical system:
(a) battery;
(b) alternator and generator;
(c) bus bar;
(d) voltage regulator, voltmeter, or over voltage light;
(e) ammeter;
(f) master switch and battery/alternator switches;
(g) fuses and circuit breakers.

12.26.6 Explain the precautions to take during normal operation of the electrical system,
including:
(a) avoiding continuous operation of high-power systems on the ground
before start;
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(b) starting with radios and other unnecessary equipment switched off;
(c) avoiding prolonged operation of the starter motor;
(d) releasing the starter once the engine is running;
(e) checking satisfactory operation of the system after start, and monitoring
during flight;
(f) switching off ancillary equipment before shut-down;
(g) switching the battery master switch off before leaving the aircraft.

12.26.8 Identify the cockpit indications of the following electrical system malfunctions:
(a) excessive alternator/generator charge rate;
(b) lack of alternator/generator charge;
(c) blown fuse or popped circuit breaker.

12.26.10 State the actions available to the pilot to deal with:

(a) excessive alternator/generator charge rate;
(b) lack of alternator/generator charge;
(c) blown fuse or popped circuit breaker.

12.28 Fuel System Components

12.28.2 Describe the function of the following components of a simple fuel system:
(a) fuel selector valve, supply line, strainer and strainer drain;
(b) fuel primer, engine-driven pump, auxiliary (boost) pumps.

12.28.4 Describe the correct management of the fuel system, including fuel selection and
handling of priming and auxiliary pumps.

12.30 Fuel Tanks

12.30.2 Describe the function of the following components of a simple fuel system:
(a) fuel tank, sump, drain point, supply line standpipe, vents, overflow
drain;
(b) fuel quantity indicators;
(c) fuel tank construction and associated limitations.

12.30.4 Describe the procedure to be used for a fuel drain check.

12.30.6 State the general rules for fuelling of aircraft, including the special precautions for
the use of drum stock, and plastic containers.

12.30.8 Explain the importance of aircraft earthing during refuelling.

12.32 Lubrication Systems - Engines

12.32.2 State the functions of an engine lubrication system.

12.32.4 Explain the term viscosity.

12.32.6 Explain the effect of temperature on the lubricating qualities of oil.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.32.8 Briefly describe the function of the following components of an oil system:
(a) wet sump;
(b) dry sump, scavenge pump, tank;
(c) engine-driven pump, pressure relief valve;
(d) oil lines, passages and galleries;
(e) oil cooler, bypass valves and filters;
(f) oil pressure and temperature gauges.

12.32.10 Explain the importance of:

(a) using the correct type and grade of oil for a particular aircraft;
(b) checking the correct oil quantity before flight.

12.32.12 Identify the possible oil system malfunctions indicated by:

(a) low/zero oil pressure;
(b) high oil pressure;
(c) fluctuating oil pressure;
(d) low oil temperature;
(e) high oil temperature.

12.32.14 State the actions (if any) that the pilot can take to rectify:
(a) low/zero oil pressure;
(b) high oil pressure;
(c) fluctuating oil pressure;
(d) low oil temperature;
(e) high oil temperature.

12.32.16 Describe the correct oil replenishment procedure for a typical aircraft.

Instruments

12.34 Engine Instruments

12.34.2 Describe the function and principle of operation of the following instruments:
(a) tachometers (rpm) gauges (centrifugal and drag cup);
(b) manifold pressure and boost gauges;
(c) direct reading oil pressure gauges;
(d) vacuum gauges;
(e) outside air temperature gauges;
(f) fuel quantity gauges.

12.36 Pressure Instruments

12.36.2 Identify the three basic instruments which rely on air pressure for their operation.

12.36.4 Describe static pressure and dynamic pressure, and the main factors which affect
them.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.36.6 Explain the operation of a pitot-static system, including:

(a) static vent(s);
(b) pitot tube;
(c) combined pitot-static head;
(d) drain holes, heating, and pitot cover;
(e) alternate pressure source.

12.36.8 With respect to the airspeed indicator, describe the:

(a) basic principle of operation and serviceability checks;
(b) colour coding, and the meaning of VSO, VS1, VFE, VNO and VNE;
(c) IAS/TAS/groundspeed relationship;
(d) errors affecting the ASI, and how position error correction is applied.

12.36.10 With respect to the altimeter, describe the:

(a) basic principle of operation and serviceability checks;
(b) subscale settings and the meaning of QNH and QFE;
(c) errors affecting the altimeter, including subscale setting error.

12.36.12 With respect to the vertical speed indicator, describe the:

(a) basic principle of operation;
(b) errors affecting the VSI.

12.36.14 Indicate the normal checks for serviceability of the pitot-static system, both pre-
flight and during operation.

12.36.16 Identify the cockpit indications of the following pitot-static system malfunctions,
and state the actions available to the pilot to deal with the problem:
(a) blockage of the pitot tube;
(b) blockage of the static source.

12.38 Magnetic Instruments

12.38.2 Given a sample deviation card, show how to apply corrections.

12.38.4 Briefly:
(a) describe the construction of a present-day direct-reading compass;
(b) define lubber line;
(c) the functions of the fluid in the compass bowl.

12.38.6 With respect to magnetic dip:

(a) describe what it is;
(b) state how it is compensated for;
(c) define residual dip.

12.38.8 State the effects of:

(a) acceleration error;
(b) turning error.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.38.10 State the compass pre-flight serviceability checks, and the precautions when
carrying magnetic items in an aircraft.

12.40 Gyroscopic Instruments

12.40.2 Outline the basic principle of operation of the vacuum system.

12.40.4 State the likely effects of reduced or nil suction in the vacuum system.

12.40.6 Describe the gyroscopic properties of:

(a) rigidity;
(b) precession.

12.40.8 With respect to the turn indicator/coordinator:

(a) explain the basic principle of a rate gyroscope;
(b) differentiate between the different indications of the turn indicator and
turn coordinator;
(c) state the function, indication and correct use of the coordination
(balance) ball.

12.40.10 With respect to the attitude indicator (or artificial horizon) explain:
(a) the basic principle of operation (earth gyroscope);
(b) how pitch attitude and bank angle are displayed;
(c) the pilot checks for serviceability.

12.40.12 With respect to the heading indicator (or DGI), explain the:
(a) advantages of a gyroscopic heading indicator (versus a compass);
(b) need for, and method of synchronising the HI with the compass;
(c) pilot checks for serviceability.

12.40.14 Briefly explain the errors likely to occur if:

(a) the gyro rotor rpm is low;
(b) there is an indication of a power failure on an electrically-driven gyro.

12.40.16 Describe the indications of toppling.

12.42 GNSS Instruments

12.42.2 Describe the basic principles and operation of a GNSS (Global Navigation
Satellite System).

12.42.4 Describe the limitations and failure indications of a GNSS system.

12.44 TCAS

12.44.2 Briefly describe the basic function and operation of TCAS.

Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.46 TAWS Systems

12.46.2 Briefly describe the basic function and operation of TAWS (Terrain Awareness
and Warning System).

12.48 EFIS Instrument Displays

12.48.2 Describe the function and operation of a typical EFIS cockpit display system.

12.48.4 Describe the function of the:

(a) air data computer;
(b) signal generator;
(c) input data sources to a typical basic EFIS flight display system.

12.48.6 Describe the function and operation of a typical basic AHRS (Attitude Heading
Reference System).

12.50 ELT Systems

12.50.2 Describe the function and operation of an aircraft ELT.

Section 2 Aeroplane Technical Knowledge

Ancillary Systems

12.52 Cooling Systems

12.52.2 Describe the principle components of aircraft engine air and liquid cooling
systems.

12.52.4 Explain the precautions to be taken in flight to prevent engine:

(a) overheating;
(b) overcooling.

12.52.6 Explain the correct handling of engine cowl flaps when fitted.

Undercarriage

12.54 Landing Gear - Fixed

12.54.2 Describe the two common types of undercarriage system (tricycle/tail wheel).

12.54.4 Explain typical steering and braking systems.

12.54.6 Explain the precautions for the use of each type.

Aerodynamics

12.56 Aeroplane Aerodynamic Theory

12.56.2 Show how CL varies with use of flaps and control surfaces.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.58 Basic Flying Controls

12.58.2 Define the aircraft axes of rotation, pitch, roll and yaw.

12.58.4 Name the flying controls used to affect movement about each axis.

12.58.6 Explain how each flying control operates to achieve control of the:
(a) pitch attitude;
(b) bank angle;
(c) yaw.

12.58.8 Explain the cross-coupling (further) effects of control in roll and yaw.

12.58.10 Explain the effects of airspeed and power settings on control effectiveness and
aircraft attitude.

12.58.12 Explain the function of a basic trim control.

12.58.14 Explain the requirement for the balancing of controls.

12.58.16 Explain the correct method for the use of trim controls.

12.58.18 State the methods used to obtain aerodynamic balance.

12.58.20 Explain the requirement for using anti-balance tabs on an all-moving tailplane.

12.58.22 Describe the principle of operation of anti-balance tabs.

12.58.24 Explain the purpose of wing flaps.

12.58.26 Describe the principle of operation of wing flaps.

12.60 Straight and Level Flight

12.60.2 Define the four main forces acting in flight.

12.60.4 For level flight describe how the four main forces change as IAS is varied.

12.60.6 Describe the pitching moments in flight, and how longitudinal stability is
achieved.

12.60.8 Given a basic graph of power available (PA) and power required (PR) versus TAS
in level flight, show the derivation of:
(a) maximum and minimum level flight speed;
(b) maximum-range speed;
(c) maximum endurance speed.

12.60.10 Explain the basic operational considerations which apply to flying an aeroplane
for range, or endurance.

12.62 Climbing Flight

12.62.2 Using a diagram, show and name the forces acting in a steady climb.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.62.4 Distinguish between:

(a) maximum angle of climb;
(b) maximum rate of climb;
(c) cruise climb

12.62.6 Define the meaning of Vx (max angle) and Vy (max rate).

12.62.8 Using a PA/PR (power available/power required) graph, show the derivation of
maximum rate of climb speed.

12.62.10 Briefly explain the factors which affect climb performance.

12.64 Descending Flight

12.64.2 Identify and name the forces acting in a glide.

12.64.4 Explain how the forces in a glide become modified in a constant speed power on
descent.

12.64.6 Explain how the lift/drag ratio determines a constant speed glide angle.

12.64.8 Briefly explain the effects of weight, IAS, wind, and flap extension on the glide
angle.

12.66 Turning Flight

12.66.2 Define centripetal force.

12.66.4 Explain the components of lift which provide the:

(a) turning force;
(b) force required opposing weight.

12.66.6 Define load factor “g”.

12.66.8 In a level turn, state the relationship between bank angle and lift, drag, and load
factor.

12.66.10 State the relationship between the turn radius and rate of turn at a given;
(a) airspeed;
(b) bank angle.

12.66.12 Describe a rate 1 turn, and a rule-of-thumb method of calculating the bank angle
required.

12.66.14 Explain the effect of bank on rate of climb in a climbing turn, and the tendency to
“overbank”.

12.66.16 Explain the effect of bank on rate of descent in a descending turn, and the
tendency to “underbank”.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.68 Stalling and Spinning

12.68.2 Describe the stalling angle of attack, with reference to:

(a) disruption of streamline flow over the upper surface of the aerofoil;
(b) reduction of lift and increase of drag.

12.68.4 Describe the symptoms of a developing stall.

12.68.6 Explain how:

(a) the stall is associated with a particular angle of attack and not a
particular airspeed;
(b) a reduction in angle of attack is critical to recovery.

12.68.8 Explain how the stalling IAS is affected by:

(a) load factor;
(b) aircraft weight;
(c) altitude;
(d) power;
(e) flap extension;
(f) damage, ice, frost, or other contamination of the wings.

12.68.10 Describe the possible consequences of using ailerons near, during and in the
recovery from a stall.
12.68.12 Define the term autorotation and the conditions leading to it.

12.68.14 Define a spin, with reference to:

(a) stalled condition of flight;
(b) simultaneous motion about three axes (rolling, pitching, yawing);
(c) high rate of descent at low airspeed;
(d) the difference between a spin and a spiral dive.

12.68.16 State what actions can be taken to avoid a spin.

12.68.18 Explain the ‘standard’ recovery action from a developed spin.

Structure and Systems

12.70 Airframe Structure

12.70.2 Identify and explain the basic function of the major components of a conventional
airframe.

12.70.4 Explain the components and distribution of the load on a wing:

(a) on the ground;
(b) in the air, and state the function of spars and struts in opposing these
loads.

12.70.6 Describe the precautions required to preserve the structural integrity of the
following airframes:
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

(a) aluminium;
(b) composite;
(c) fabric covered.

12.70.8 Describe the indications of damage or failure of airframes constructed of;

(a) aluminium;
(b) composite;
(c) fabric covering.

12.70.10 Describe the procedure to tie down (or picket) a light aircraft.

12.72 Propellers

12.72.2 With respect to propeller terminology, define the meaning of the following:
(a) blade section;
(b) blade angle;
(c) helix (or pitch) angle;
(d) angle of attack.

12.72.4 Explain the reason for blade (or helical) twist.

12.72.6 With the aid of a diagram, identify and define the following for a rotating blade
section:
(a) direction of rotation;
(b) relative airflow;
(c) total reaction, with its components;
(d) thrust and propeller torque.

12.72.8 For a fixed-pitch propeller at a constant throttle setting, explain the relationship
between airspeed, angle of attack and rpm.
12.72.10 Briefly explain the factors which affect the ability of a fixed-pitch propeller to
convert engine power into useful thrust.

12.72.12 Explain the basic principle of operation for a constant-speed propeller, and the
normal procedure for changing power settings with the manifold pressure and
pitch controls.

12.72.14 State the principal advantage of a constant-speed versus a fixed-pitch propeller.

12.72.16 Describe the function and operation of a typical reduction gearbox.

12.76 Control Systems

12.76.2 Explain the common methods of the mechanical operation of the:

(a) primary flight controls;
(b) trim tab;
(c) flap systems.

12.76.4 Describe the function of control locks and precautions for removal before flight.
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

12.76.6 Describe the normal operational use of flaps, including limitations.

Performance

12.100 Performance Factors

12.100.2 Describe the general effects of altitude on aircraft performance.

12.100.4 Define pressure altitude.

12.100.6 Calculate aerodrome pressure altitude, given aerodrome elevation and prevailing
QNH.

12.100.8 Explain how to determine pressure altitude by using an altimeter.

12.100.10 Explain the general effect of temperature on performance.

12.100.12 Define density altitude.

12.100.14 Given a pressure altitude and ambient temperature, calculate the:

(a) ISA deviation;
(b) density altitude.

12.100.16 Explain the effect of the following factors on TODR (Take Off Distance
Required) and LDR (Landing Distance Required):
(a) aircraft weight;
(b) temperature and pressure (i.e. density altitude);
(c) humidity;
(d) runway slope;
(e) runway surface condition;
(f) headwind/tailwind component;
(g) use/misuse of flaps;
(h) power available;
(i) frost or other contaminants/damage of lifting surfaces.

12.100.18 Describe the hazards of windshear in the initial climb-out path, and on the
approach path.

12.102 Take-off Performance

12.102.2 Given typical performance data, demonstrate the ability to determine TODR

12.102.4 Explain the difference between take-off distance required (TODR) and take-off
distance available (TODA).
12.104 Landing Performance

12.104.2 Given typical performance data, demonstrate the ability to determine LDR.

12.104.4 Explain the difference between landing distance required (LDR) and landing
distance available (LDA).
Sub Topic Syllabus Item

Weight and Balance

12.106 Definitions, Terminology and Abbreviations

12.106.2 Define the following terms:

(a) arm (moment arm);
(b) datum;
(c) moment (including units used);
(d) centre of gravity (C of G);
(e) longitudinal C of G range and associated limits;
(f) station;
(g) basic aircraft empty weight (standard empty weight);
(h) zero fuel weight (ZFW);
(i) gross weight (AUW);
(j) maximum certified take-off weight (MCTOW).

12.108 Weight and Loading

12.108.2 Given a basic aircraft load sheet/data, demonstrate the ability to:
(a) calculate the C of G position;
(b) use a typical loading graph to determine C of G position;
(c) use index units.

12.110 Centre of Gravity (C of G)

12.110.2 State the reasons for operating an aircraft within the C of G limits.

12.110.4 State the effect on the stability and control of an aircraft if flown with the C of G
at the:
(a) forward limit;
(b) aft limit.