Copyright © 2010 by the author(s). Published here under license by the Resilience Alliance.

Mugerauer, R. 2010. Toward a theory of integrated urban ecology: complementing Pickett et al. Ecology
and Society 15(4): 31. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

Insight
Toward a Theory of Integrated Urban Ecology: Complementing Pickett
et al.

Robert Mugerauer 1

ABSTRACT. The analyses substantially delineating “integrative studies of large urban areas as bio-
physical-social complexes” and the suggestions by Pickett et al. in “Beyond Urban Legends” (Bioscience
2008 58 139-150) provide an initial framework for a theory of urban ecology. This article intends to
contribute to the project by: 1) improving the philosophical rigor of critical concepts and epistemologies;
2) making explicit the complementary theoretical and empirical work in urban ecology already being done
that can be better integrated, for example, studies from outside the U.S. and uses of actor network theory;
3) bringing forward more disciplines and theories which successfully deploy modes of thinking, research
procedures, and practices more adequate to the phenomena at all scales and levels of particularity, i.e.,
micro, phenomenal, macro, to fill in some of the empirical gaps in the middle, specifically those having to
do with human values and the richness of the everyday lifeworld. In addition to what is available within
complexity theory itself, chief among the approaches to be utilized are phenomenology, ethnographic thick
description, and actor network theory.

Key Words: biophysical-social systems; concepts; epistemology; theory; urban ecosystems

INTRODUCTION commend theories that do complete the change and

by the few scholars who succeed themselves.
Developing an adequate theory for urban ecology
is occurring by transition through three stages. From My essay appreciates the importance of continuing
the first era, in which the apparent dichotomy of the work done in the first two phases dealing with
humans and nature was reflected in the separation greater heterogeneity, scalar differences, and finer
of the social and natural sciences (Marzluff et al. grain in abiotic, biotic, and human research and
2008:67-158), the move to the second phase now is adding political reflection to planning and resource
underway as recent interdisciplinary work adopts management. However, my main intention is to
frameworks linking social and ecological systems continue to develop the necessary new theory of
(Berkes and Folke 1998, Holling and Gunderson knowledge and practices. Insofar as ecological
2002, Berkes et al. 2003, Marzluff et al. 2008, systems result from continuous dynamic processes
Pickett et al. 2008). However, though such now- involving positive feedback loops then adequate
ascendant approaches embrace complexity theory, scientific description and explanation require
seeing urban ecology in terms of open, hierarchical, nondualistic concepts to serve as the codes we use
dynamic interactions with emergent effects, most to operationalize research that develops new
have not managed to pass out of the ontological, knowledge. Similarly, critical practices are required
epistemological, or practical limitations of the old for better decision making and adaptive
paradigm to fully accomplish the transformation. comanagement.
The literature of the current second phase is strongly
marked by this tension between the explicit Note that although my focused response is to Pickett
statements of holistic principles and the still- et al. (2008), because their article develops the
dominant use of dualistic concepts and operational results of the Baltimore Ecosystem Study conducted
procedures, a gap underscored by the small but as part of the Long Term Ecological Research
growing number who actively attend to and Network, an opportunity presents itself to compare

1
University of Washington
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

the parallel work by teams in Phoenix and Seattle consensus that the newly operative big theory is
(Grimm et al. 2000, Pickett et al. 2001, Pickett and complex systems theory, which began with
Cadenasso 2002, Alberti et al. 2003, Alberti 2008) dissipative studies in physics and chemistry, then
and beyond to notable work done in England developed in biology, developmental and
(Hinchliffe and Whatmore 2006), Finland (Yli- evolutionary studies, and cognitive science. There
Pelkonen and Niemelä 2005), Germany (Wessolek are many kinds of subtheories: the frameworks of
2008), and Sweden (Bodin et al. 2006, Colding et formal modeling, ecological landscape models, i.e.,
al. 2006, Ernstson et al. 2008), the last of which also spatial stochastic, process-based, and patch
engages Pickett et al. (2008). Hence, I proceed by dynamics, and alternative classifications, i.e.,
incorporating my own contribution into a gradient analysis, network theory, hierarchy theory.
consideration of the international work already There are subtheories of ecological community,
underway to articulate a fuller urban ecological niche and dispersal, and others branching out into
theory. Finally, though I respect differences related disciplines, such as economics’ agglomeration
between urban and nonurban ecology (Berkes et al. theories (Hubble 2001, Alberti 2008). A third sort
2003, Alberti 2005, Folke et al. 2005, Ernstson of theory contests whether an integrated urban
2008a, Pickett et al. 2008), much of what is ecology would be a distinctive urban ecology theory
proposed here applies broadly to social-ecology and (Trepl 1995), an extended general ecological theory
engages the concerns of nonurban scholars. (Niemalä 1999), or a hybrid theory (Alberti 2008).
The contribution I hope to make here toward a
theory of urban ecology lies not in unifying the
GREATER PHILOSOPHICAL RIGOR dimensions of the big theory, but in suggesting ways
we can include more subtheories, integrating them
Greater philosophical rigor is required in using with each other and with the big theory. I do this in
empirical studies of structural and functional the following sections by first clarifying the relevant
ecological relationships, specific methodologies, concepts, secondly sorting out the epistemological
and the emerging integration of coupled biophysical tangle in which confusing old dimensions
and social features to achieve an adequate theory of unnecessarily hide the appropriate new theories
urban ecology (Pickett et al. 2008). Two already employed in ecology, then finally
refinements can be made following from the describing 12 proven qualitative approaches that
opening their article provides: developing critical can be merged with quantitative methods to more
concepts and examining the assumptions that fully operationalize complexity theory thus
implicitly contain aspects of older epistemologies cogenerating more comprehensive knowledge of
at odds with the requisite, newly emergent ecological systems.
epistemology.

As a strategy, we need to speak plainly while CRITICAL CONCEPTS

remaining rigorous and consistent. Thus, Picket et
al. (2008:139) reasonably begin their article by It not only is difficult to arrive at concepts adequate
noting that “urban ecology is emerging as integrated for a nonreductive, nonfragmented theory, but to
science (Grimm et al. 2000)” that “aims to use them consistently and without causing further
understand extensive urban areas that include not confusions (Colyvan et. al 2009). The pathways of
only biological and physical features but also built past thinking are hard to change because doing so
and social components (Cadenasso et al. 2006).” A requires imagining otherwise than according to the
principle task, then, is to talk sensibly about cities orientation already internalized. It is no harsh
and lawns, earthworms and streams, yet also operate objection, then, to point out that we continually need
with precision by means of the concepts required to improve what we think and say. How else to
for good science and theory. proceed? Though agreeing with Pickett et al. that
an integration of the concepts and phenomena of
Precision in regard to theory however is elusive, in “human” and “natural” is needed, this essay argues
part because of the term’s variable meanings. Two that the most promising findings and implications
major connotations are 1) big theory that articulates remain held back by those elements that do not pass
conceptual foundations and basic methodology and over to the new sciences of complexity. As a result,
2) subtheories that develop particularized their article arrives at but does not fully accomplish
conceptions and models. There is emerging the necessary theory of urban ecology, toward
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

which end their stimulating essay would need to be evidential quotations from the more than two dozen
revised at several points. such studies cited in this essay. The contradiction is
obvious: what is not separated neither can, nor needs
Although the authors properly oppose outdated to be integrated, linked, or merely added together.
modes of analysis by both ecologists and social Thus, much of what is said in this literature and what
scientists that “considered humans external follows from it needs to be reset in more critically
‘disturbers’ of natural systems,” they nonetheless adequate terms.
continue to develop their findings in terms that
separate “urban social systems and urban Ecological scholarship has to explore the dynamic
environments” (McDonnell and Pickett 1993, as organism-environment relationships at and among
cited in Pickett et al. 2008:146-147). They write every level of the continuous “arc of life” (R.
about “integrated social-ecological systems” Mugerauer, unpublished manuscript) that ranges
(p.140), “findings of relationships between from the energy flows of physical-chemical
biophysical and social patterns and processes” processes to cells, organs, whole organisms in
(p.145), “lags [that] result from social and Umwelts, other-than-human and human communities,
ecological change occurring at different rates” and ecosystems, and bio-cultural regions (Margulis and
“biogeochemical and social value” (pp.145-146). Sagan 1986, Morowitz 1992). With this “arc of life”
The result could be, at best, a theory that recognizes as the integrating image, when we move from
the dynamic inter-relationships between the two speaking about communities of other-than-human
spheres, but that ultimately will fail by continuing organisms to emphasizing human societies, we
to employ the untenable dualism. Surely we would already operate within a comprehensive view of the
agree by now that humans are within the physical- world (Merleau-Ponty 1963, Mol 1999, Hinchliffe
biological domains, that organisms at many scales and Whatmore 2006, Mugerauer 2009a).
form communities, and that local ecologies have
been generated by the codetermination and What all our colleagues in phase two say is clear
coevolution of human and nonhuman organisms. enough: for example, when Pickett et al. say “social”
Thus, the exclusionary categories “ecological” and they intend the “human” realm as distinct from
“social” perpetuate fundamental conceptual “ecology”, where the latter is understood as the
barriers to an integrative theory; they need not only sphere of nonhuman organisms and the
to be corrected, but replaced as we develop another biogeophysical milieu, or are focusing on the
way of thinking that affirms that the ecological “human dominated” (2008:146). We don’t need to
includes the human and other-than human, that is, be fanatical to the point of constantly correcting
all biota in their interconnected communities within each other instead of listening. However, clearly, it
geo-physical-chemical and climatic contexts is dangerous to continue to follow old habits of
(Latour 2004, Mugerauer 2010). thinking that include not just unacceptable dualisms
but also fundamentally flawed category mistakes
In fact, the authors have what is needed when they that continue to mislead our research and
say, at the end of their essay, that their and others’ interpretations. Indeed, many of the problematic
results lead to a theory that “suggests that urban concepts are inseparable from problematic
ecosystems are complex, dynamic, biological- epistemologies.
physical-social entities, in which spatial heterogeneity
and spatially localized feedbacks play a large role”
(Cadenasso et al. 2006, as cited in Pickett et al. NEW EPISTEMOLOGIES
2008:148). However, even when these properly
critical terms are given, in the same breath the Explicitly comparing the older and newer
authors describe their successful step forward as epistemologies is another step toward a theory of
connecting the “social processes and environmental integrated urban ecology. Because there is a
structure and processes” (p.148). Other important continued dependence on and use of the older
contributions to the field remain in the same additive epistemologies at the same time as the newer ones
mindset: while affirming the inter-relational differ significantly, indeed, are opposite in many
character of ecological phenomena, Berkes and respects, we need to determine where they might be
Folke (1998) and Berkes et al. (2003) aim at “linking compatible (agreeing perhaps on best available
social and ecological systems,” as do many who science, scenarios and modeling, the importance of
contribute along the same lines, though I cannot give heterogeneities and particularities) and where they
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

are not. Basically, there are two dimensions of new metaphysics (Heidegger 1977), epistemology and
epistemology that bear on the issues at hand: methodologies (Rosenau 1992), and cognitivism
“complexity” and “postpositivist,” or “postreprese- (Varela et al. 1997). The new epistemologies stress
ntational”. that perception and cognition are not representations
but performative constitutions (Pickering 1995,
As to the first, the basis for much ecosystem and Zammito 2004, Latour 2004). This new direction
urban ecology investigation is found in the need not lead to relativism, but instead to an
constellation of theories that include dissipative appreciation of what we do in generating new
studies (Nicolis and Prigogine 1977), nonlinear meaning and of the importance of contextualized
mathematics (Ueda et al. 1993), self-organization understanding (Longino 2002). Fruitful epistemological
(Kauffman 1993), autopoiesis (Maturana and changes in urban ecology are beginning to appear:
Varela 1980), developmental systems theory actor network theory is used to explicate how
(Oyama et al. 2001), dialectical biology (Levins and researchers, volunteers, water voles, and badgers
Lowentin 2007), and neurophenomenology (Varela unfold unexpected ecological relationships in
et al. 1997). Because these dimensions of complex Birmingham’s postindustrial brownfields (Hinchliffe
systems theory are not all the same, I speak of them et al. 2005, Latour 2005, Hinchliffe and Whatmore
as a constellation, though for simplicity’s sake I 2006); analysis shows how new knowledge and
often use the covering term “complexity theory.” values are generated in the course of the emerging
Much current ecological work operates within this comanagement of Stockholm’s National Urban
sphere, deploying a network of concepts that include Park by officials together with user and interest
complexity, emergence, dynamic, and open systems groups (Barthel et al. 2005).
far from equilibrium, nonlinearity, nonpredictability,
bifurcations, positive feedback, heterogeneity, Even without the formal arguments against a
contingencies, and resilience, as we see with large representational view, we can see that Pickett and
portions of Pickett et al. (2008), Berkes et al. (2003), colleagues’ practices using “representation” are a
Heynen (2003), Borgstrom et al. (2006), though, as symptom showing that they continue to operate, in
noted, problematically many of these accomplishments part, with traditional conceptualizations while also
also partially continue to move in the older tradition. using incompatible new concepts and operators
such as “resilience.” For example, when helpfully
The second set of emerging postpositivist, post- describing how ordinary “land-use and land-cover
poststructuralist epistemologies includes the classifications...are inadequate to capture coupled
fundamentally continental cluster of phenomenology human-natural heterogeneity” Pickett et al.
(Merleau-Ponty 1963, Heidegger 1977), enactivist (2008:144) fail to capitalize on their own advance.
theory (Varela et al. 1997), hermeneutics (Gadamer While refining these classifications they do not
1975), contextualism (Longino 2002), ethnography acknowledge that this very reconceptualization is
(de Certeau et al. 1998, Fischer 2003), and actor crucial in order to articulate phenomena in the first
network theory (Stengers 1997, Latour 2004, 2005). place. Instead, they fall into the inadequate
These all challenge and would replace the up-to- formulation that “land-use maps do not represent
now dominant epistemology and concepts of the ecological heterogeneity effectively” (Pickett et al.
modern scientific-technological epoch (Polkinghorne 2008:144). Rather than emphasizing the importance
1983, Pickering 1995). of their study for newly framing the issue, they speak
only of “expos[ing] the finer scale heterogeneity in
Pickett et al. (2008) and others provide a focal point urban landscapes through increased categorical and
of discussion here because although they would pass spatial resolution,” as if the same old idea of truth
over to an integrated theory, they continue to as unproblematic correspondence, simply refined in
uncritically use concepts such as “representation,” magnitude to appear more correct, was what they
“prediction,” and “cause.” This practice seems have to contribute: “preliminary results suggest that
doubly anomalous: it ignores the last thirty years’ this more accurate representation of landscape
debate and contravenes the authors’ own apparent heterogeneity better explains relationships with
intention because what can be said by way of these water quality than previously available land-use
concepts neither fits within the new science nor classifications (Cadenasso et al. 2007)” (Pickett et
allows their specific findings to fully unfold. al. 2008:144). However, with the traditional concept
“Representation,” for example, is loaded with the of “representation” (and correlate visual “representation”
problematic assumptions of an increasingly rejected of abstracted data) and its discredited foundational
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

theory, their empirical achievement and advocacy go on to conclude the essay by saying just that: their
for changing classifications falls far short of its theory “suggests that urban ecosystems are
potential, both in terms of a call to action and as complex, dynamic biological-physical-social entities,
theorized. So does that of many other teams. As in which spatial heterogeneity and spatially
Hinchliffe and Whatmore argue, more of the old localized feedbacks play a large role (Cadenasso et
kinds of information from increasingly detailed al. 2006)” (Pickett et al. 2008:48). Further internal
field surveys and case studies to fill in the gaps will damage to their project’s consistency and power
never accomplish the transition to performative resulting from this tension, if not contradiction,
epistemology (2006). This unnecessarily holding between the old, displaced epistemology and the
back while moving forward haunts the work on new one of complexity broadly speaking, appears,
biotopes (Colding 2007), scale (Heynen, 2003), for instance, when we consider their finding that
vernacular ecology, and local knowledge (Barthel challenges the initial assumption “that the
et al. 2005). ecological structure of particular neighborhoods
reflects the existing social structure of those
The deeper problem appears when Pickett et al. go neighborhoods (Pickett et al. 2001)” (Pickett et al.
on to the actually desired arena: the new sciences 2008:145). Clearly the authors have interesting
of complexity and the dynamic of urban ecology. insights about the temporal differences in rate of
They clearly intend to operate in the new field, as change between trees and population demographics,
is seen in their central use of the term “coupling,” yet make nothing of the open, coconstitutive
which in autopoietic theory is opposite dynamics among vegetation, nonhuman organisms,
“representing.” To represent requires that we would and human activity. This is quite a missed
re-present in perception or cognition meanings that opportunity.
are assumed to be there prior to and independent of
any interpreter, and that subsequently can be A parallel critique applies to the arguments of the
connected by us. Taken in this old way “coupling” new epistemologies that counter the still-dominant
would mean little more than adding components concept(s) of “causality” (Longino 2002, Zammito
together, quite the contrary to what we attempt to 2004). “Predict” and “explain,” the central
think in the new epistemology with “emergence” in correlates to “causality,” (Pickett et al. 2008:140)
which a hierarchy of new systems and meanings is provide a case in point. Following from the
generated in an unpredictable way from the base sensitivity of phenomena to initial conditions and
components. The latter is what is explicated in core the contingency of most of what happens given
complexity theory (Stengers 1997) and as the random intersections within the universe,
dynamic of humans, nonhuman animals, and complexity theory insists that we can not predict
instruments in actor network theory (Callon 1986, future events as once was supposed by classical
Latour 2005); in the selection and cocreation of a physics and operationalized with linear mathematics
niche by an organism (Oyama et al. 2001, Odling- (Juarrero 1999, Alberti 2008). Of course, the
Smee et al. 2003); or in enactive constitution by nonlinear mathematics that generates attractors is
embodied consciousness (Varela et al. 1997). the “replacement” in that it delineates patterns,
Hence, as a technical term introduced early on by allowing us to model phenomena and consider
Maturana and Varela, structural “coupling” future scenarios (Longino 2002). However,
connotes the recurring positive feedbacks that continuing the historical trajectory from the natural
generate autocatalytic codevelopment in which the sciences’ abandonment of absolute certainty to its
new emerges, rather than either representation or replacement by statistical probability and “best
addition of what already exists (Maturana and available explanations,” both “explain” and
Varela 1980:75). “predict” bring us to the question of whether these
concepts are to be taken in the sense still used within
Obviously when Picket et al. conclude that the current version of positive science or replaced
“couplings between social processes and with concepts that articulate the postpositivist
environmental structure and processes have been (Polkinghorn 1983)? In the latter case, the task is to
demonstrated to shape the urban ecosystem” they engage the fundamental questions as to how
intend the new science of enactive and nonlinear and reciprocal causality and multiple
codetermining processes and thus emerging possible coherent states can be understood and
phenomena (Pickett et al. 2008:148). Indeed, they properly translated into science-technology and
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

what “predict” would mean in urban ecology EMPIRICAL DESCRIPTION AND

(Juarrero 1999, Schneider and Sagan 2005, Levins ANALYSIS AT THE PHENOMENAL SCALE
and Lewontin 2007). OF THE LIFEWORLD

Again, Pickett et al. (2008) operate right on the In order to explicitly contribute to integrating
fracture line, intending to cross over to the new view, subtheories with each other and with the big theory
but remaining in the old, so that much of what they this section 1) specifies 12 approaches
explicitly say is at odds with the implications of their demonstrably correlate with the natural and social
findings. As a result, the promise is not fulfilled. As science work being done and 2) for the most telling
noted, they believe that their “preliminary results examples either cites fusions already underway or
suggest that this more accurate representation of suggests how they might easily operate together to
landscape heterogeneity better explains relationships better deploy complexity theory in ecological
with water quality than previously available land- research and management. Obviously ecological
use classifications (Cadenasso et al. 2007)” (Pickett study ranges from the microrealm of biochemical
et al. 2008:144). What would “explain” mean here reactions, through the phenomenal domain of
if not something like account for in terms of ordinary human perception, to the macrorealms of
traditional uni-directional causality? This reading is the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.
supported by the other passage that advocates However, as the psychiatrist Erwin Straus points
“better understanding of urban ecosystems,” but out, to be empirical, “we should turn our attention
then relapses into the traditional formulation by back to the observable phenomena. The wellspring
adding “and for improvement of the theory to is everyday life experience.” To be clear: the
explain and predict their dynamics” (Pickett et al. phenomenal realm is that which is directly given to
2008:140). There is no indication that “explain and us in our ordinary routines. This “frame of reference
predict” have other than the old meanings, no from which we start and to which we return is the
engagement with what prediction means in the new structure of the everyday lifeworld—the reality
sciences. familiar and common to all” made up of plants,
animals, people, things, and events is an integrated,
Adequate theory needs to shift from the older communally-constituted sphere of meaningful
conceptualizations of the universal and predictable activity (1966:257). It is where we encounter, as
to a postpositivist stress on probability and Holling puts it, “the bewildering, entrancing,
generalizations, where plural epistemologies are unpredictable nature of nature and people, the
used to deal with empirical particularity. This can richness, diversity, and changeability of life” (2003:
be done while avoiding the excesses of xv). The relation of the lifeworld to the sciences is
poststructuralism, in which some contended that that of the primary to the secondary: it is from the
recognizing that humans historically constitute lifeworld that we abstract and formalize the
meaning entails the relativistic conclusion that any concepts and subject matter of scientific knowledge
meaning is as good as any other or that scientific and beyond which we project ourselves with
writing is “merely fiction,” oblivious to the fact that microscopes, telescopes, other imaginative
plural meaning still has “nonsense” and “falsity” as instrumentation, and inferences. Because the
its contraries and that processes, materials, and lifeworld is the sphere that we take for granted, its
organisms, however plastic, have limits, as is clear implicit structures need to be made explicit by
from “law” connoting “constraint” (Mugerauer reflection; though it emerges from atomic events
1991, Longino 2002, Latour 2005). Thus the and cosmic forces which thus are part of its
exceptional power of the new epistemology: that explanation, the lifeworld must not be reduced to
there might be sciences of the singular and its constitutive dimensions, as complexity theory
contextualized knowledge that do not give up well demonstrates.
legitimate scientific generalizations and that can be
modeled and tested, conceding only the unhelpful In fact, the phenomenological term “lifeworld”
fantasy of certainty which, in principle and fact, is originated as a way to avoid dualisms such as nature
impossible for science to realize (Fischer 2003, and culture and to prevent abstracting so far from
Levins and Lewontin 2007, Colyvan et al. 2009). the particulars that we cannot reintegrate our
mathematical, graphic, or other symbolic
understanding with the common human experience
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

(Straus 1966:257). If we lose what motivates and urban ecological research and to generate a
grounds the science and practices of urban ecology, framework for comprehensive investigation. A
we also lose the basis for social life and political- spectrum of phenomena and methods is covered by
environmental decision making (Flyvbjerg 2001), the results from the Baltimore Ecosystem Study in
for example, the fact that: a way that allows developing integrated scientific
practices and theory. As throughout, proceeding
In the global city of our civilization, girded from their essay is not to argue against what they
by ... our powerlines, we have abolished the present, but to complement it. Rather than abstractly
night. ... We stand in danger of losing inventing an a priori theoretical construct, then
something crucial ... We tend to lose sight, applying it to “account” for scientific activity and
literally as well as metaphorically, of the findings, the actual cycles of investigation and
rhythm of the day and the night, of the interpretation present the phenomena in a way that
phases of the moon and the change of the their meanings, assumptions, and implications
seasons, of the life of the cosmos and of our suggest fruitful directions toward articulating a
place therein. (Kohák 1984:x) legitimizing integrated theory (Pickering 1995).

The reflective task is to bring forth the character of Though their essay covers a diverse set of specific
our experiential realms, including our way of life or studies the emphasis is on two domains within
ethos, in a manner that does not lose the qualitative scientific inquiry: the chemical and social
aspects. This is accomplished by providing thick perception-class relationships. Clearly, the attempt
narrative or graphic description (Geertz 1973), then to make progress in knowledge about complex
identifying and analyzing the structures of physical-bio-cultural phenomena does not require
experience that organize the phenomena’s an impossible simultaneous comprehension of the
occurring as it does, the results of which open to whole. Both dualisms and reductivisms can be
further investigation by empirical and imaginative avoided while investigating features discerned as
variation, and finally, as in all science, to debating distinct though not actually separated. The play
whether a given provisional understanding is the between figure and ground is unavoidable and
best available interpretation (Gallagher and Zahavi unproblematic given the hermeneutic circle of
2008). understanding in which we move back and forth
from part to emerging whole, from empirical detail
Appropriate qualitative empirical descriptions and to legitimate generalization (Gadamer 1975).
analysis of ecosystems and the structure of Already within such a process, the empirical
lifeworlds can both fill in the gap between the micro- investigations of Pickett et al., teams from the other
and macrospheres and supplement quantitative sites in the Long Term Ecological Research
analysis of abstractions such as ecosystem services Network, and European contributors to the
or class. I propose that the following cluster of Millennium Ecosystem Assessment provide
proven approaches that provide such holistic documentation and analysis at a finer scale, the case
interpretation should be developed together with studies of Stockholm add allotment gardens, parks,
methods already employed, as is beginning to and golf courses as biotopes and gardeners, urban
happen with actor network theory. Urban ecologists planners, and cemetery administrators as managers-
have long advocated the use of historical research users (Barthel et al. 2005, Alberti 2008, Ernstson
(Sörlin 1998, Berkes et al. 2003:6-7, Barthel et al. and Sörlin 2009). However, as discussed above,
2005), qualitative empirical analysis of written though refined detail about local sites is important
documents and open-ended interviews (Borgström and welcome, insofar as the results are from surveys
et al. 2006), participant observation (Callon 1986, that provide data that is still only additive and
Ernstson and Sörlin 2009), qualitative ecosystem representationally understood the information falls
indicators (Stefanovic 2000), and attention to sense short of what could be achieved. In contrast, an
of place (Andersson et al. 2007) and to the values advance occurs when findings are interpreted
of diverse groups (Yli-Pelkonen and Niemelä enactively (Varela et al. 1997): exemplary studies
2005). explicitly trace how an expanded actor network
generates more effective democratic decision
In regard to methods, one of the most valuable making and resource management (Hinchliffe et al.
contributions of the Pickett et al. (2008) essay is the 2005, 2006, Ernstson 2008a, Ernstson and Sörlin
use of empirical studies to provide substance to 2009), or emphasize actors and active management
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

to supplement the more dominant focus on land use In any case, generalizations proper to data-oriented
(Ernstson et al. 2010). social science unavoidably conceal part of what is
newly appreciated at the heart of complexity theory
In applying complexity theory Pickett et al. (2008) and postpositive epistemologies: the heterogeneity
present useful findings in regard to stream nitrate of phenomena, variously couched in terms of the
loading, carbon sequestration, and the biogeochemistry local or patch dynamics and cross-scale sensitivity
of lawns. Particularity is especially important for (Berkes et al. 2003, Fischer 2003, Pickett et al.
the group’s emphasis on patch dynamics, spatial- 2008:140) and experienced in the lifeworld in terms
process heterogeneity, and gradients between of qualitative differences (Erikson 1976). Since data
assumptions and actual findings (2008:140,148). and concepts can tell only part of the story, the
The research successfully moves from the chemical abstracting social and natural sciences can be
toward the realm of life itself, opening to soil, complemented by narrative and visualization that,
vegetation, avifauna, and human health, at which especially when informed by literature and the arts,
point it should be supplemented by the detailed can evoke otherwise absent rich detail. Vivid
empirical contributions available through developmental narratives can bring forth the phenomenality of our
systems theory (Oyama et al. 2001), constructionist experience, with its multiplicity, ambiguity, and
development (Levins and Lewontin 2007), and nuance, so that the lifeworld can emerge both in the
enactivism (Varela et al. 1997), though I cannot “singularity of its own local context” and in regard
detail that here. As a positive example of treating to what it “contributes to our generalized
the midscale phenomenal realm as well as the micro- understanding” as the phenomenological sociologist
and macrospheres in their complexity, Wessolek Kai Erikson puts it (1976:246-247).
(2008) combines traditional verbal and visual data,
detailed description of the interactions among biotic Weaving the two dimensions together, Erikson
and abiotic elements, and easily-readable, story-like writes about a disaster in West Virginia, describing
illustrations. how a crude composite impoundment of silt and
sludge, mining slag, metal and timber refuse
With an eye to practical land use management, collapsed, so the 132 million gallons of water “black
Pickett et al. consider findings regarding with coal dust and thick with solids” that it
relationships between “social status and awareness precariously held back broke through, crashing to
of environmental problems, and between race and the valley below as a “writhing mass” that “scraped
environmental hazard” and “social-biophysical up thousands of tons of other materials [rocks, trees,
feedbacks” (2008:139,144). In addition to further houses, trucks], the whole being fused into a liquid
data, a full phenomenology is required because the substance that one engineer simply called a ‘mud
disparate biogeophysical processes are coconstituted wave’, ... a churning maelstrom of liquid and mud
with human inhabitants, thus involving historical and debris, curling around its own center and
patterns of development, aesthetics, domestic grinding its way relentlessly into Buffalo Creek,” a
values, ideals of citizenship, social status, and even minute or two later landing on the town of Saunders,
the “myth” of controlling nature (Schroeder 1993, carrying it away entirely (Erikson 1976:25-31)
Jenkins 1994, Heynen et al. 2006, Robbins and
Sharp 2008). Thus, in the lawn we find writ small Because the task is not just to depict data in figures
the larger problem: urban ecology, for all its success that are “correct” illustrations, graphics can be used
within the second phase of linking the social and to let the qualities of the lifeworld emerge: this may
ecological, fails to achieve a consistent happen through diagramming the dynamic
transformation to integrated complexity in the relationships of actors “producing narratives that
ontological, epistemological, and practical political are able to explain...why just a certain set of values
spheres. Traditional data-oriented studies do not are allowed to resonate through protective stories”
present the lifeworld phenomena; urban ecology (Ernstson and Sörlin 2009:107) or by incorporating
studies dealing with inequalities of ecosystem drawings into the ethnoecology of New Jersey’s
services distribution may be innocent of landscape Pinelands where:
ideology (Ernstson, 2008b); urban political
ecologies that detail the socially uneven benefits of The landscapes of corduroy roads, charcoal
tree cover across scales may leave us without an pits, curly grass ferns, and pine barrens tree
understanding of the actual ecosystem dynamics frogs are intimately intertwined. Woodsmen
(Heynen 2003, Latour 2004, Walker 2005). who removed sphagnum and turf from the
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

swampy areas unintentionally produced the so that specificity and generalizations are found
habitats favorable to today’s rare and together (2007:97-98). Politically, we can
celebrated flora and fauna. Because the turf understand “concrete particularizing situations,” in
was used for insulating charcoal pits and a manner that enables “a practical science of the
for building cranberry bogs, turfing is no singular” (de Certeau et al. 1998:256). This can be
longer a common practice. (Hufford 1986:70) enacted through the empirical phenomenology of
the lifeworld that describes and analyzes diverse
Such stories identify and describe ways of life, perceptions and responses to local ecologies. It can
realms where both human and other-than-human happen through actor network theory that studies
organisms in interactive relationships with their what human and nonhuman actors do in producing
environments generate spheres of meaning, fields and managing urban ecosystems (Latour 2004,
of action, as the ethologist von Uexküll (1909) Hinchliffe et al. 2005, 2006, Ernstson 2008a). It can
brilliantly explained, using the term Umwelt, i.e., occur as responsible environmental action
“surround world,” which for all practical purposes increasingly shifts from preservation and
also can be translated as “lifeworld.” In the strictest conservation to restoration, and most recently to
sense there is an Umwelt only when an organism- resilience (Walker and Salt 2006); or, as
environment coupling occurs, which means that increasingly comprehensive mathematical models,
ecosystems consist of their many organisms’ visualizations, and narrative scenarios allow us to
qualitatively distinct realms of experience, publicly debate the plausibility of alternative
sometimes overlapping, often not. Just as these courses of action (Alberti 2008, Mugerauer 2009b).
qualitatively distinct lifeworlds can not be fully Such promising openings toward more effective
understood without comprehending the physical- knowledge and action should motivate us to
chemical-biological dimensions or communal continue collaborations toward a theory of
relationships of human and nonhuman organisms, integrated urban ecology.
neither can they be comprehended without an
adequate identification, description, and analysis of
the constitutive structures of experience. The point Responses to this article can be read online at:
is not which of the many empirical approaches are http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/
responses/
used but that the particularity of the lifeworld
experience has to be brought forth for urban ecology
as the middle-scale complement to the micro- and
macrospheres. We need the lifeworld in the flesh, Acknowledgments:
as it were, to engage the phenomena of greatest
concern, “large urban areas as bio-physical-social I am grateful to Pickett and colleagues (in their
complexes,” that is, “urban ecological systems” various combinations) for their earlier works and
(Pickett et al. 2008:139), in a mode that helps us specifically for the way “Beyond Urban Legends”
recognize, acknowledge, and understand problems opens to others contributing to developing a theory
that need to be dealt with: poisoned ground water, of integrated urban ecology. As something of an
flooding, or unequal access to resources. outsider who shares an interest in the same subject
matter even if with a different approach and
vocabulary, I want to make clear that this essay is
CONCLUSION intended to compliment their and others’ good work
as well as to complement it in the sense of making
In the ascendant second and emerging third phase a positive addition toward the new framework. I also
of ecological theory, the new sciences of complexity want to thank the reviewers and editors of Ecology
are providing for the integrated understanding of and Society for their exceptionally constructive
dynamic processes, while a variety of congruent criticism, conveyed in a spirit of inclusion and
approaches inform policy decisions and practices. collaboration.
Epistemologically, as the population statistician and
scientist Levins argues, though ecology does not
seek universal rules because of the differences
among places it nonetheless can discern patterns in
the dynamic processes generating those differences
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

LITERATURE CITED Law, editor. Power, action and belief. Routledge &
Kegan Paul, London, UK.
Alberti, M. J. 2005. The effects of urban patterns
on ecosystem function. International Regional Cadenasso, M. L., S. T. A. Pickett, and J. M.
Science Review. 28(2):168-192. Grove. 2006. Dimensions of ecosystem complexity:
heterogeneity, connectivity, and history. Ecological
Alberti, M. J. 2008. Advances in urban ecology: Complexity 3:1-12.
integrating humans and ecological processes in
urban ecosystems. Springer, New York, New York, Cadenasso, M. L., S. T. A. Pickett, and K.
USA. Schwarz. 2007. Spatial heterogeneity in urban
ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a
Alberti, M. J., J. Marzluff, E. Shulenberger, G. framework for classification. Frontiers in Ecology
Bradley, C. Ryan, and C. Zumbrunnen. 2003. and Evolution 5:80-88.
Integrating humans into ecology: opportunities and
challenges for studying urban ecosystems. Colding, J. 2007. ‘Ecological land-use complementation’
BioScience 53(12):1169-1179. for building resilience in urban ecosystems.
Landscape and Urban Planning 81:46-55.
Andersson, E., S. Barthel, and K. Ahrné. 2007.
Measuring social-ecological dynamics behind the Colding, J., J. Lundberg, and C. Folke. 2006.
generation of ecosystem services. Ecological Incorporating green-area user groups in urban
Applications 17(5):1267-1278. ecosystem management. Ambio 35(5):237-244.

Barthel, S., J. Colding, T. Elmqvist, and C. Folke. Colyvan, M., S. Lindquist, W. Grey, P. Griffiths,
2005. History and local management of a J. Odenbaugh, and H. P. Possimgham. 2009.
biodiversity-rich, urban cultural landscape. Ecology Philosophical issues in ecology: recent trends and
and Society 10(2): 10. [online] URL: http://www.e future directions. Ecology and Society 14(2): 22.
cologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss2/art10/. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/
iss2/art22/.
Berkes, F., and C. Folke, editors. 1998. Linking
social and ecological systems: management de Certeau, M., L. Giard, and P. Mayol. 1998.
practices and social mechanisms for building The practice of everyday life. Volume 2: living and
resilience. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, cooking. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,
UK. Minnesota, USA.

Berkes, F., J. Colding, and C. Folke, editors. Erikson, K. T. 1976. Everything in its path:
2003. Navigating social-ecological systems: destruction of community in the Buffalo Creek
building resilience for complexity and change. Flood. Simon and Schuster, New York, New York,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. USA.

Bodin, Ö., B. Crona, and H. Ernstson. 2006. Ernstson, H. 2008a. In Rhizomia: actors, networks
Social networks in natural resource management: and resilience in urban landscapes. Dissertation.
what is there to learn from a structural perspective? Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
Ecology and Society 11(2): r2. [online] URL: http:/
/www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/resp2/. Ernstson, H. 2008b. The social production of
ecosystem services: lessons from urban resilience
Borgström, S., T. Elmqvist, P. Angelstam, and C. research. In H. Ernstson. In Rhizomia: actors,
Alfsen-Norodom. 2006. Scale mismatches in networks and resilience in urban landscapes.
management of urban landscapes. Ecology and Dissertation. Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Society 11(2): 16. [online] URL: http://www.ecolog Sweden.
yandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art16/.
Ernstson, H., S. Barthel, E. Andersson, and S. T.
Callon, M. 1986. Some elements of a sociology of Borgström. 2010. Scale-crossing brokers and
translation: domestication of the scallops and the network governance of urban ecosystem services:
fishermen of St. Brieuc Bay. Pages 196-233 in J. the case of Stockholm, Sweden. Ecology and
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

Society 15(4): 28. [online] URL: http://www.ecolog

yandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art28/. Hinchliffe, S., M. Kearnes, M. Degen, and S.
Whatmore. 2005. Urban wild things: a
Ernstson, H., and S. Sörlin. 2009. Weaving cosmopolitical experiment. Environment and
protective stories: connective practices to articulate Planning D: Society and Space 23:643-658.
holistic values in the Stockholm National Urban
Park. Environment and Planning A 41:1460-1479. Hinchliffe, S., and S. Whatmore. 2006. Living
cities: towards a politics of conviviality. Science as
Ernstson, H., S. Sörlin, and T. Elmqvist. 2008. Culture 15(2):123-138.
Social movements and ecosystem services-the role
of social network structure in protecting and Holling, C. S. 2003. Forward. Pages xv-xx in F.
managing urban green areas in Stockholm. Ecology Berkes, J. Colding, and C. Folke, editors.
and Society 13(2): 39. [online] URL: http://www.e Navigating social-ecological systems: building
cologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art39/. resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Fischer, M. J. 2003. Emergent forms of life and the
anthropological voice. Duke University Press, Holling, C. S., and L. H. Gunderson. 2002.
Durham, North Carolina, USA. Panarchy: understanding transformations in
human and natural systems. Island Press,
Flyvbjerg, B. 2001. Making social science matter. Washington, D.C., USA.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Hubble, S. P. 2001. The unified neutral theory of
Folke, C., T. Hahn, P. Olsson, and J. Norberg. biodiversity and biogeography. Princeton University
2005. Adaptive governance of social-ecological Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
systems. Annual Review of Environmental
Resources 30:441-473. Hufford, M. 1986. One space, many places: folklife
and land use in New Jersey’s Pinelands National
Gadamer, H.-G. 1975. Truth and Method. Seabury Reserve. American Folklife Center, Library of
Press, New York, New York, USA. Congress, Washington, D.C., USA.

Gallagher, S., and D. Zahavi. 2008. The Jenkins, V. S. 1994. The lawn: a history of an
phenomenological mind: an introduction to American obsession. Smithsonian Institution Press,
philosophy of mind and cognitive science. Washington, D.C. USA.
Routledge, New York, New York, USA.
Juarrero, A. 1999. Dynamics in action: intentional
Geertz, C. 1973. The interpretation of cultures. behavior as a complex system. MIT Press,
Basic Books, New York, New York, USA. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.

Grimm, N. B., J. M. Grove, S. T. A. Pickett, and Kauffman, S. A. 1993. The origins of order: self-
C. L. Redman. 2000. Integrated approaches to organization and selection in evolution. Oxford
long-term studies of urban ecological systems. University Press, New York, New York, USA.
BioScience 50:571-584.
Kohák, E. 1984. The embers and the stars. Chicago
Heidegger, M. 1977. The question concerning University Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
technology. Harper and Row, New York, New
York, USA. Latour, B. 2004. Politics of nature: how to bring
the sciences into democracy. Harvard University
Heynen, N. C. 2003. The scalar production of Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
injustice within the urban forest. Antipode35:980-998.
Latour, B. 2005. Reassembling the social: an
Heynen, N. C., M. Kaika, and E. Swyngedouw, introduction to actor-network-theory. Oxford
editors. 2006. In the nature of cities: urban political University Press, New York, New York, USA.
ecology and the politics of urban metabolism.
Routledge, Oxford, UK.
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

Levins, R. 2007. Ten propositions on science and

antiscience. Pages 87-99 in R. Levins and R. Mugerauer, R. 2009b. Scenarios for ecological
Lewontin. Biology under the influence. Monthly design. Environmental and Architectural
Review Press, New York, New York, USA. Phenomenology 20(2):8-9.

Levins, R., and R. Lewontin. 2007. Biology under Mugerauer, R. 2010. The city: a legacy of
the influence. Monthly Review Press, New York, organism-environment interaction at every scale. In
New York, USA. I. L. Stefanovic and S. Scharper, editors. The natural
city: revisioning the built environment. University
Longino, H. 2002. The fate of knowledge, science of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in
as social knowledge: values and objectivity in press.
scientific inquiry. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Nicolis, G., and I. Prigogine. 1977. Self-
organization in non-equilibrium systems. John
Margulis, L., and D. Sagan. 1986. Microcosmos: Wiley & Sons, New York, New York, USA.
four billion years of evolution from our microbial
ancestors. University of California Press, Berkeley, Niemelä, J. 1999. Is there a need for a theory of
California, USA. urban ecology? Urban Ecosystems 3:57-65.

Marsluff, J. M., E. Shulenberger, W. Endlicher, Odling-Smee, F. J., K. N. Laland, and M. W.

M. Alberti, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, C. Feldman. 2003. Niche construction: the neglected
ZumBrunnen, and U. Simon, editors. 2008. process in evolution. Princeton University Press,
Urban ecology: an international perspective on the Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
interaction between humans and nature. Springer,
New York, New York, USA. Oyama, S., P. E. Griffiths, and R. D. Gray,
editors. 2001. Cycles of contingency: developmental
Maturana, H. R., and F. J. Varela. 1980. systems and evolution. MIT Press, Cambridge,
Autopoiesis and cognition: the realization of the Massachusetts, USA.
living. Reidel Publishing, Boston, Massachusetts,
USA. Pickering, A. 1995. The mangle of practice: time,
agency, and science. University of Chicago Press,
Merleau-Ponty, M. 1963. Structure of human Chicago, Illinois, USA.
behavior. Duquesne University Press, Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, USA. Pickett, S. T. A., and M. L. Cadenasso. 2002. The
ecosystem as a multidimensional concept: meaning,
Mol, A. 1999. Ontological politics: a word and some model, and metaphor. Ecosystems 5:1-10
questions. Pages 74-89 in J. Law and J. Hassard,
editors. Actor network theory and after. Blackwell, Pickett, S. T. A., M. L. Cadenasso, J. M. Grove,
Oxford, UK. P. M. Groffman, L. E. Band, C. G. Boone, W. R.
Burch, S. B. Grimmond, J. Hom, J. C. Jenkins,
Morowitz, H. J. 1992. Beginnings of cellular life: N. L. Law, C. H. Nilon, R. V. Pouyat, K. Szlavecz,
metabolism recapitulates biogenesis. Yale University P. S. Warren, and M. Wilson. 2008. Beyond urban
Press, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. legends: an emerging framework of urban ecology,
as illustrated by the Baltimore ecosystem study.
Mugerauer, R. 1991. Post-structuralist planning Bioscience 58:139-150.
theory. The University of Texas Community and
Regional Planning Program Working Paper Series, Pickett, S. T. A., M. L. Cadenasso, J. M. Grove,
Austin, Texas, USA. C. H. Nikon, E. V. Pouyat, W. C. Zipperer, and
B. Constanza. 2001. Urban ecological systems.
Linking terrestrial ecological, physical, and
Mugerauer, R. 2009a. The double-gift: place and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas.
identity. Pages 68-92 in I. Aravat, editor. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
Experience, memory, thought. Technion University 32:127-157.
Press, Haifa, Israel.
 Ecology and Society 15(4): 31
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art31/

Polkinghorne, D. 1983. Methodology for the Varela, F., E. Thompson, and E. Rosch. 1997. The
human sciences: systems of inquiry. SUNY Press, embodied mind: cognitive science and human
Albany, New York, USA. experience. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
USA.
Robbins, P. and J. T. Sharp. 2008. Producing and
consuming chemicals: the moral economy of the von Uexküll, J., 1909. Umwelt und Innerwelt der
American lawn. Pages 181-205 in J. M. Marsluff, Tiere. Springer, Berlin, Germany.
E. Shulenberger, W. Endlicher, M. Alberti, G.
Bradley, C. Ryan, C. ZumBrunnen, and U. Simon, Walker, B., and D. Salt. 2006. Resilience thinking:
editors. Urban ecology: an international perspective sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing
on the interaction between humans and nature. world. Island Press, Washington D.C., USA.
Springer, New York, New York, USA.
Walker, P. A. 2005. Political ecology: where is the
Rosenau, P. M. 1992. Post-modernism and the ecology? Progress in Human Geography 29
social sciences. Princeton University Press, (1):73-82.
Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
Wessolek, G. 2008. Sealing of soils. Pages 161-179
Schneider, E. D., and D. Sagan. 2005. Into the in J. M. Marsluff, E. Shulenberger, W. Endlicher,
cool: energy flow, thermodynamics, and life. M. Alberti, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, C. ZumBrunnen,
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, and U. Simon, editors. Urban ecology: an
USA. international perspective on the interaction
between humans and nature. Springer, New York,
Schroeder, F. 1993. Front yard America: the New York, USA.
evolution and meanings of a vernacular domestic
landscape. Bowling Green State University Popular Yli-Pelkonen, V., and J. Niemelä. 2005. Linking
Press, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA. ecological and social systems in cities: urban
planning in Finland as a case. Biodiversity and
Sörlin, S. 1998. Monument and memory: landscape Conservation 14:1947-1967.
imagery and the articulation of territory.
Worldviews: Environment, Culture, Religion. Zammito, J. 2004. A nice derangement of
2:269-279. epistemes: post-positivism in the study of science
from Quine to Latour. University of Chicago Press,
Stefanovic, I. L. 2000. Phenomenological Chicago, Illinois, USA.
reflections on ecosystem health. Ethics and
Environment 5(2):253-269.

Stengers, I. 1997. Power and invention: situating

science. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, USA.

Straus, E. 1966. Phenomenological psychology.

Basic Books, New York, New York, USA.

Trepl, L. 1995. Towards a theory of urban

biocoenoses. Pages 3-21 in H. Sukopp, M. Numata,
and A. Huber, editors. Urban ecology as the basis
for urban planning. SPB Academic, The Hague,
The Netherlands.

Ueda, Y., J. S. Thomsen, J. Rasmussen, and E.

Mosekilde. 1993. Behavior of the solution to
Duffing’s equation for large forcing amplitudes.
Mathematical Research 72:149-166.