Administration under the Sultanate:

The machinery of administration as it evolved under the Delhi sultanate was derived from the Abbasid
and following it, the Ghaznavid and the Seljukid systems of administration.

It was also influenced by the Iranian system of administration and the situation in India and Indian
traditions.

The Turks were also able to evolve a number of new institutions and concepts which provided a basis
for centralization of power and authority of a type which had not existed in India earlier. In theory, the
Muslim state was a theocracy, i.e. the head of state was also the religious head and derived his position
and authority from God. Thus, the Caliph was the Supreme head of the whole Muslim world.

With the exception of Alauddin Khilji and Mubarak Khilji, all other sultans styled themselves as
deputies of the Caliph with title such as Nasir-i-Amir-ul-Mommin or Yamin-ul-Khalifa. Although the
Sultans of Delhi professed formal allegiance to the Caliphate, the Sultanate was always an independent
state for all practical purposes.

Central Government:
The Sultan:
He dominated the central government. He was the legal head of the state and acted as the chief
executive and the highest court of appeal. The Sultan generally discussed all important matters of state
in a council, Majlis-i-Khalwat or Majlis-i-Am in which the most trusted and the highest officers were
allowed to sit.

He was the chief of the armed forces and made appointments to all the higher civil and military posts.
The Sultan administered all the departments and every branch of state. Malik Naib-or deputy sultan
was appointed only when a ruler was weak or minor.

The sultan ruled through ministers and a group of officials. The main pillars of the Central Government
were the ministers or the imperial diwans. The four pillars of the state were Diwani-i-Wizarat, Diwan-
i-Arz, Diwan-i-lnsha and Diwan-i-Risalat.

(a) Diwan-i-Wizarat:
It was the finance department headed by the wazir (Prime-minister). Naib wazir acted as deputy to
wazir. The wazir was assisted by the mushrif-i-mamalik, (accountant) who maintained a record of the
accounts and the mustauf-i-mamalik (auditor) who audited this account. Under Firuz Tughluq, wazirs
became hereditary.

(b) Diwan-i-Arz:
Headed by the Ariz-i-mamalik, it was the ministry of defence. He was responsible for organization and
maintenance of the royal army. The review of the army and branding of the horses was done by Ariz-i-
mamalik.
(c) Diwan-i-lnsha:
The department of correspondence and records of the royal court was held under the charge of a
central minister known as dabir-i-mamalik, dabir-i-khas or amir- munshi. The dabir-i-mamalik acted
as private secretary of the Sultan and drafted firmans. He was assisted by dabirs (clerks).

(d) Diwan-i-Risalat:
Under the period of the slave dynasty, the head of the public charities and ecclesiastical department
was the sadr-us-sudur. In his capacity as rasul of the Sultan, he received appeals and complaints from
public and redressed their grievances.

During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, this department was renamed or replaced by the department called
Diwan-i-riyasat whose primary function was to implement the economic regulations issued by the
Sultan and control the markets and prices. After Alauddin’s death this department lost its importance
and the office of Sadr-us-sudur assumed a premier role.

Diwan-i-qaza the judicial department was headed by Qazi-ul-quzat and usually the posts of the chief
sadr and the chief qazi were combined in a single person. Qazis were appointed in various parts of the
empire who dispensed civil laws based on Muslim personal law (sharia).

An officer known as the amir-i-dad presided over the secular court (Mazalim) in the Sultan’s absence
He was also responsible for implementing the qazi’s decision. Muhammad bin Tughluq founded the
Diwan-i-Siyasatto estalish his system of justice on a broader basis. Apart from the above central
ministers, Imperial officers were appointed by the Sultan. Following are some of them:

Barid-i-mamalik was the head of the information and intelligence department, Vakil-i-dar was
incharge of royal household, Amir-i-barbak was the superintendent of the royal court, Amir-i-hajib
kept an eye on all visitors to the court and presented them before the sovereign according to court
etiquette, Amir-i-majlis organised the meetings of royal assembly and special celebrations, sar-i-jandar
was the officer of personal body-gaurds (jandars) to the Sultan. The naqib-ul-nuqaba was the chief
usher and his assistants, naqibs, announced the Sultan’s orders to the soldiers and also proclaimed the
Sultan’s presence in the royal cavalcade.

Diwan-i-bandagan (department of slaves) and Diwan-i-Khairat (charity department) was created by

Firuz shah Tughluq. Diwan-i-mustakharaj (to realise arrears) was created by Alauddin Khiiji. Diwan- i-
kohi (department of agriculture) was created by Muhammad bin Tughluq.

Provincial Government:
Provincial government of the Sultanate was not so well developed. The territories of the Sultanate were
divided into two parts. 1. Khalisa or the direct administered land and 2. Jagirs which were the land
under autonomous control of tributaries.

Iqtas were rent free land held by the nobilities in lieu of service. In the provinces, known as Wilayat or
iqlim, the provincial governors were called walis or muqtis (in the North-west region) and were under
firm control of the imperial government. The governors of Deccan and Gujarat enjoyed sufficient
autonomy.

In some provinces, Sahib-i-diwan were appointed to control provincial revenues and exercised a sort of
check on the governor. Below the provincial governor there was a provincial wazir, a provincial ariz
and a provincial qazi.

Local Government:
The provinces were divided into shiqs or district under a shiqdar. Each shiq comprised of a few
parganas or kasba. Government officials of a pargana, after shiqdar were amil, who collected revenues.
The mushrif kept accounts at the pargana level and the khazandar was incharge of the treasury.

The village remained the basic unit of administration and continued to enjoy a large measure of self-
government. The most important official in the village was the headman known as muqaddam or
Chaudhari.

Organs of the Government:

Diwan-i-Wizarat:
Department of revenue and finance headed by the Wazir

Diwan-i-Arz:
Department of Military headed by Ariz-i-Mamalik

Diwan-i- Insha:
Department of royal correspondence headed by Dabir-i-lnsha

Diwan-i-Risalat:
Department of religious affairs headed by the chief Qazi

Diwan-i-Qaza:
Department of justice headed by qazi-ul-quzzat or chief Qazi

Diwan-i-Bandagan:
Department of slaves started by Firuz Tughlaq

Diwan-i-Amir Kohi:
Department of agriculture started by Muhammed Tughlaq

Diwan-i-Mustkharaj:
Department to look after and realize land revenue. Alauddin Khilji created

it was to realize arrears from collectors.

Diwan-i-Khairat:
Department of charity started by Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Bar-i-Khas:
Sultan received all his courtiers such as Khans and Maliks

Bar-i-Am:
The Sultan tried cases and received complaints from the people

Administrative officers of the Sultanate period:

Wazir:
The prime minister heading the Diwan-i- Wizarat

Mustaufi-i-Mamalik:
He was the auditor general responsible for state expenditure

Mushrif-i- Mamalik:
He was the incharge of accounts and receipts

Majumdar:
Preserved the record of loans advanced by the government

Amir-i-Behr:
Controller of boats

Muhtasib:
An officer of municipal police

Bakshi -i-Fauj:
Paymaster of forces

Naib-i-wazir:
Deputy wazir

Qazi-ul-Qazat:
Lord Chief Justice

Barids:
Spies

Waqia Navis:
News reporters

AmiI:
Incharge of district administration
Sher Shah’s Administrative Reforms
Imperial Government:
Sher Shah Suri established a highly centralised machinery. His administrative works were roughly
divided into various departments called Diwans, each headed by a separate minister. The important
departments were:

1. Diwan-i-wizarat was headed by a wazir who looked after finance and revenue.

2. Diwan-i-Ariz—headed by Ariz-i-Mammalik (military department)

3. Diwan-i-Rasalat—whose officer-in-charge dealt with foreign affairs and diplomatic correspondence.

4. Diwan-i-lnsha—The officer drafted royal proclamation and maintained government records. Apart
from these, the Diwan-i-quaza (justice) headed by chief Qazi, Diwan-i-Barid (intelligence) were the
other departments.

Provincial and Local Administration:

Empire was divided into provinces known as Iqtas headed by Hakim/faujdar/Momin, which were
divided into Sarkars (districts) manned by 2 officials, Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (for law and order) and
Munsif-i-Munsifan (for revenue collection).

Sarkars were divided into 2 or 3 Parganas, each having a munsif or amin for measurement of land and
collection of land revenue, one Shiqdar (military officer), one fotdar (treasurer) and 2 Karkuns (one
Hindi & one Persian writer).

Villages were governed by their own panchayats. Patwari (record keeper), Chaukidar, Muqqadams
(headmen) and Qanungo were the village officials.

Justice:
Civil cases of Pargana were tried by amin and criminal cases by a Qazi or Mir-i-Adil, in Sarkar the
Munsif-i-Munsifan tried the civil cases. The chief Qazi or the Imperial Sadr was the chief judicial
officer of the capital. Sher Shah introduced the principle of local responsibility for local crimes.

Land revenue system:

Land was measured using the Sikandari gaz, and a jarib of rope was the standard unit of measurement.
One-third of the average produce per bigha of land was the state revenue (average of good, bad, and
middling lands produce).

The peasants was given a patta (title deed) and a qabuliyat(deed of agreement) which fixed the peasant
rights and taxes. Jaribana (surveyor’s fee) 2.5% of the land revenue and Muhasilana (Tax collector’s
fee) at the rate of 5% of the land revenue were paid by the peasants. This land revenue system is called
the Ryotwari system as he eliminated the intermediaries and the taxes were directly collected.
Customs:
Sher Shah abolished many internal customs and duties. During his reign only 2 duties were levied on
the goods: (a) custom duty—2.5% of the goods price at the entry point, Sikrigali in Bengal and at the
Indus on the frontiers, (b) Sales tax—at their first sale in the market.

Public works:
Sher Shah built a new city near Delhi of which the sole survivor is the old Fort (Purana Qila). He built 4
roads (1) Grand Trunk from Sonargaon (Bengal) to Attock (2) Agra to Mandu (3) Agra to Jodhpur and
Chittor. (4) Lahore to Multan. Sarais (rest houses) were built on these roads at a distance of every 2 kos
which also served the purpose of dak chaukis.

Currency:
He introduced a radical reform in the currency system. He introduced a new copper dam, silver rupiya
(equal to 64 copper dam) and gold coin-ashrafi.

Mughal Administration:
Administrative Measures:
Babur brought with him the Timurid traditions that the ruler had the divine right to rule, which was
also followed by Humayun. Akbar’s concept of suzerainty have been put forward by his biographer,
Abul Fazl. According to him “Royalty is a light emanating from god, and a ray from the sun called Farr-
i-izidi (the divine light).

Thus, royalty was a divine gift, and the ruler endowed with Farr-i-izidi had a paternal love towards the
subject. After Akbar had taken the reins of government in his own hand, he took a number of liberal
measures. In 1562, he passed a decree that the Hindu prisoners of wars were not to be made slaves or
converted to Islam. In 1563, the pilgrim tax was abolished. In 1564, he abolished jizyah which the non-
Muslims were required to pay in a Muslim state.

Akbar, next turned his attention to the task of reorganisation of government. He reorganised the
central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power between various
departments, and of checks and balances.

His important contribution was the development of a provincial administration patterned on the
central system of government. Dastur-ul-Amals or Rule books containing detailed rules and
regulations for controlling both the provincial and district administration were devised.

Central Administration:
The form of Mughal government was despotic monarchy. The king was the head of the state and its
chief executive. He was the supreme commander of the imperial forces and the fountain head of
justice. Each minister was individually answerable to the monarch.
Vakil:
Bairam Khan was the Vakil of Akbar. As a Vakil, he controlled both revenue and military affairs. After
Bairam Khan’s fall the Vakil was stripped of all powers and became largely decorative. The imperial
Diwan rose to prominence under Jahangir and in Shahjahan’s reign the Vakil’s office was abolished.

Diwan or Wazir:
The all-important department of revenue taken away from the Vakil was placed in the charge of Diwan.
Akbar generally used the title of Diwan or Diwan-i-Ala in preference to Wazir.

Mir-Bakshi:
He was the head of the military and intelligence department. He was not the Commander-in-Chief but
was the paymaster-general. All intelligence officers {bands) and news-reporters (Waqia-navis)
reported to him.

Mir-Saman:
He was in charge of the imperial household including the supply of all the provisions and articles for
the use of the inmates of the harem.

Sadr or Sadr-us-Sadur was the head of the ulama and was considered to be the chief advisor of the king
regarding religious matters. He awarded subsistence allowances (maddad-i-maash) to deserving
scholars, divines and weaker sections. He was also the Qazi-ul-Quzzat, or head of the judiciary.
However, the king himself was the final court of appeal.

Besides the above mentioned ministers who constituted the main pillars of the Imperial government, a
number of other high officials were appointed at the Centre.

i. Muhtasib-Censor of public morals. Under Akbar, his function was secularised.

ii. Mir-i-Atish—Head of ordinance department.

iii. Mir-i-Barr—Imperial officer in charge of forests.

iv. Mir-i-Bahr—Supervised state boats and fleets.

v. Daroga-i-Dak Chauki— Incharge of information and intelligence department (worked independ-

ently)

vi. Mir-i-mal—Officer in charge of Privy Purse

vii. Mir-i-munshi— Incharge of imperial correspondence.

vii. Mir-i-tuzuk—Master of ceremonies.

Provincial and Local Administration:
In 1580, the Mughal Empire was divided into 12 Subah or provinces. Later, after the expansion of the
empire into the Deccan, three more Subahs—Khandesh, Berar and Ahmadnagar were formed. During
Jahangir’s reigh, the number of Subahs rose to 17, under Shahjahan it rose to 22 and under Aurangzeb
to 21.

The head of the administration in the Subah was called Sipahsalar, Subahdar or Nazim who was
directly appointed by the Emperor. He was responsible for the general law and order problem in the
Subah. He was the commander of the provincial army and assisted the Diwan in collecting the land
revenue and extending cultivation. He was assisted by a diwan, a bakshi, a sadr-cum-qazi, a mir-adl for
justice, a kotwal, a mir-bahr and a waqia-navis.

These officers were subordinate to the Governor, appointed directly by the Emperor and were
answerable to him and to the head of their ministry at the centre. Thus, the principle of checks and
balances were carried to the provincial government.

The provincial diwan was an independent officer who was the head of the revenue department in the
Suba. He supervised the revenue collection in the Suba and maintained accounts of all expenditure
incurred in the form of salaries of the officials and subordinates in the suba.

The diwan was also to take steps to increase the area under cultivation. In many cases advance loans
(taqavi) were given to the peasants through his office. The Bakshi performed exactly the same military
functions as were performed by his counterpart at the centre.

Often his office was combined with waqianjgar. In this capacity his duty was to inform the centre the
happenings in his province. At every Suba headquarters, daroga-i-dak was appointed. His duty was to
pass on letters through the postal runners (mewras) to the court.

At the provincial level, waqia-navis and waqia nigars were appointed to supply the reports directly to
the emperor. Besides, there were also sawanih nigar to provide confidential reports to the emperor.
Akbar introduced the office of the provincial Sadr, particularly with the object of weakening the
authority and influence of the imperial Sadr. The three Deccan provinces were held by a Viceroy.
Prince Daniyal was the first Mughal Viceroy of the Deccan. Thus the provincial administration of the
Mughals was an exact miniature of the imperial capital.

District and Local Government:

Akbar inherited an excellent system of local administration from Sher Shah. For purpose of ad-
ministration, the Provinces were divided into Sarkars which were divided into Parganas (tehsil).
During Shah Jahan’s reign, another administrative unit Chakla came into existence. It was a cluster of
a number of Parganas.

Each Sarkar was headed by a Fauzdar or Shiqdar-i-Shiqadaran responsible for law and order.
Amalguzar was responsible for the assessment and collection of land revenue. The Bitikchi or writer
was the record keeper of the land revenue establishment and worked under the supervision of
Amalguzar. The Khazandar was the treasury officer of the district under the Amalguzar.

Each Pargana had a Shiqdar for general administration, an Amil for assessment and collection of land
revenue, a Qanungo who kept local revenue records and clerks or Karkuns. The Fotedar was officer in
charge of the tehsil treasury.

The Tehsil constituted within its jurisdiction a number of villages. The village was the lowest
administrative unit. Each village had panchayats of elders headed by Lambardar. Patwari and
Chaukidars were two semi-official members of village administration. The patwari took care of the
village revenue records.

Town, Fort and Port Administration:

To administer the cities and ports the Mughals maintained separate administrative machinery.

Kotwal:
The Kotwal was primarily a police chief who combined in his office the functions of a municipal
commissioner. Posted in provincial capitals and some other big towns his primary duty was to
safeguard the life and property of townsmen. The kotwal was also to maintain a register for keeping
records of people coming and going out of the town. He also regulated the market and acted as
superintendent of weights and measures.

Qiladar:
The Mughal Empire had a large number of qilas (Forts) situated in various parts of the country. Each
fort was placed under an officer called qiladar who was incharge of the general administration of the
fort and the areas assigned in jagir to the qiladar.

Port administration:
It was independent of the provincial authority. The governor of the ports was called mutasaddi who
was directly appointed by the emperor. The mutasaddi collected taxes on merchandise and maintained
a custom – house. The Shahbandarvjas his subordinate who was mainly concerned with the custom
house.

Land Revenue Administration:

Till the 10th year of Akbar’s reign (1566), no change was made in Sher Shah’s crop rate (ray) which was
converted into a cash rate, called dastur-ul-amal or dastur, by using a single price-list. Akbar reverted
afterward to a system of annual assessment.

In the nineteenth year (1574) officials called amil, but popularly known as karoris were placed in
charge of lands which could yield a crore of tankas.

The karori assisted by a treasurer, a surveyor and others was to measure the land of a village and to
assess the area under cultivation. In the same year, a new jarib or measuring rod consisting of bamboos
joined by iron rings was introduced for the measurement of land. This karori experiment was
introduced in the settled provinces, from Lahore to Allahabad.

In 1580, Akbar instituted a new system called the Dahsala or the Bandobast Arazi or the Zabti system.
Under this, the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last
ten years were calculated. One-third of the average produce was the state share, which was however
stated in cash.

The credit for developing this system, i.e. Ain-i-Dahsala, goes to Raja Todarmal. This system did not
mean a ten-year settlement but was based on average of the produce and prices during the last ten
years. For the measurement of land, bigha was adopted as standard unit of area which was 60 X 60
yards. A new gaz or yard, gaz-i-llahi was introduced 41 digits (anguls) or 33 inches in length (Sher
Shah’s I gaz 32 digit was discarded).

For purpose of fixing the land revenue, both continuity and productivity of cultivation were taken into
account. Land which were continually under cultivation were called polaj. Lands which were fallow
(parauti) for a year, paid full (polaj) rates when they were brought under cultivation.

Chachar was land which had been fallow for 3-4 years. It paid a progressive rate, the full-rate being
charged in the third year. Banjar was cultivable waste land. To encourage its cultivation, it paid full
rates only in the 5th year.
The lands were further divided into good, bad and middling. One third of the average produce was the
state share. After the assessment of land revenue in kind, it was converted into cash with the help of
price schedules (dastw-ul-amal) prepared at regional level or dastur level in respect of various food
crops. For this purpose, the empire was divided into a large number of regions called dastur at pargana
level having the same type of productivity.

The government supplied dastur-ul-amal at tehsil level which explainer the mode of land revenue
payment. Each cultivator received a patta or title deed (land holding deed) and qubuliyat (deed of
aggreement according to which he had to pay state demand).

A number of other systems of assessment were also followed under Akbar. The most common was
called batai or ghallabakshi (crop-sharing). This, again, was of three types: First was bhaoli where the
crops were reaped and stacked, and divided in the presence of the parties. Second type was khet batai
where the fields were divided after sowing.

Third type was lang batai where the grain heaps were divided. In Kashmir, the produce was computed
on the basis of ass loads (Kharwar), and then divided. Under batai, the peasants were given the choice
of paying in cash or kind, but in the case of cash crops the state demand was invariably in cash.

Kankut—In Kankut or appraisement, the whole land was measured, either by using the jarib or pacing
it, and the standing crops estimated by inspection.
Nasaq—This system of assessment was widely used in Akbar’s time. It meant a rough calculation of the
amount payable by the peasant on the basis of past experience.

The peasant was given remission in the land revenue if crops failed on account of drought, floods, etc.
The amil was to advance money by way of loans (taccavi) to the peasants for seeds, implements,
animals, etc. in times of need.

Law and justice:

Judiciary was the weakest part of the Mughal administration. Akbar had struck down the Islamic
theory of state in its application to the Mughal empire. Below the Imperial court (Emperor) there was
the court of the qazi-ul-quzat or the chief justice of the empire appointed by the Emperor, who in turn
appointed the provincial qazis.

Local courts of justice was manned by three types of judicial officers. Qazi cross-examined the parties,
Mufti interpreted the law and Mir-i-adl delivered the judgement. Amils and other officials decided the
revenue disputes. Village panchayats enjoyed the sanction of the state to administer justice according
to the local tradition, customs and personal law of the populace.

The Army:
The Mughal army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery, elephants and camels. There was no navy in
the modern sense except small fleets of boats along the sea-coast or on the river banks which was
under an amir-ul-bahr.

The organisation of the best cavalry force in Asia was greatest achievement of Akbar and it was the
backbone of the Mughal Empire. The cavalry was considered the “Flower of the army”. (Horsemen
mounted and equipped by the state were called Bargirs).

The emperor was the head of the army and its commander-in-chief. Akbar revived the practice of
chehra (descriptive image of each soldier maintained) and dagh (branding of horses).

The troops were divided into different categories:

(a) forces supplied by the vassal chieftains,

(b) The mansabdari contingent

(c) dakhilis—state directly employed these soldiers and paid from the imperial treasury

(d) ahadi or gentlemen-troopers—these were individuals who brought their own horses and weapons of
war and owed allegiance to the emperor.

They had a separate paymaster and were placed under the command of an amir. The ahadis thus
formed a special class of prospective mansabdars. The matchlock-men called banduqchis, ahsams (first
rate warriors), Shehbandis—a sort of militia who maintained law and order and apprehended dacoits,
Baraq-Andaz— skilled musketeers, etc., formed the army. Akbar was specially interested in guns. He
devised detachable guns which could be carried on an elephant or a camel.

Mansab system:
To organise the nobility as well as his army Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in 1577. Prior to
Akbar’s reign, this was in use in Central Asia implying rank. During Babur’s time, the term mansabdar
was not used; instead, another term Wajhdarwas employed.

The latter differed in some ways from the Mansab system that evolved under the Mughals after Babur.
In its broadest aspect, the mansab or rank awarded to an individual fixed both his status in the official
hierarchy as well as his salary. The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5,000 for the nobles.
Mansab above 5,000 was reserved for princes of royal blood.

The holder could be given any administrative or military appointment or kept in attendance at the
court. Thus mansabdari was a single service combining both civil and military responsibilities. Mirza
Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh, were honoured with the rank of 7,000 each. Highest rank of 10,000
was given exclusively to Salim by Akbar, later it was raised to 12,000. However, during the period the
ranks granted to the princes rose to 40,000 zat.

The Mansabdars were classified into 66 grades from the mansab of 10 to 10,000, although in practice
only 33 grades were constituted. Those holding ranks upto 500 were called mansabdars, those from
500- 2,500 were called amirs and those from 2500 and above amir-i-umda, or amir-i-azam. Later, all
those holding ranks below 1,000 began to be called Mansabdars. The Mansabdars who received pay in
cash were known as naqdi and those paid through assignment of jagirs were called jagirdars.

The mansabdari system had made military service as the basic consideration for the classification of all
the imperial service. Accordingly from the beginning, mansabdars of each category were subdivided
further into three grades on the basis of the actual number of soldiers commanded by them. An officer
whose contingents were equal to their mansab number was placed in the first category.

The second category comprised those who maintained half or more than that and the third those whose
sawars were less than half of their mansab. It was found impossible for the central government to
ascertain at any time, the exact number of soldiers controlled by all imperial mansabdars.

This difficulty was solved by Akbar when he introduced the dual rank, the Zat and the Sawar in the
40th regnal year (1595-96). In the dual Zat and Sawar system, Zat indicated the personal pay and status
of a noble, and the Sawar ranK the actual number of horseman he was expected to entertain (The
mansab was not hereditary but based on merit).
There was a possibility of the existence of a Zat rank without a Sawar rank, but never a Sawar rank
without a Zat rank. The use of conditional rank (mashrut) meant an increase of Sawar rank without
altering the Zat rank. For a temporary period. This was an emergency measure adopted in the time of
crisis, that is, the permission to recruit more horsemen at the expense of the state.
Another feature of this system was the law of escheat (Zabti) according to which after the death of a
mansabdar all his property was confiscated. This measure was to curb the exploitation of the people by
the mansabdars. The important defects of this system was that it did not give birth to a national army
due to non-regimentation of the army.

The reign of Jahangir saw an important addition to the mansabdari system. He introduced the du-
aspah-sihaspa (2-3 horses) rank, literally meaning troopers having 2 or 3 horses, and hence related to
the sawar rank. Given to selected nobles, it doubled the ordinary sawar rank and hence doubled the
obligation and privileges that went with it to the mansabdars. Mahabat Khan was the first to get it in
the 10th year of Jahangir’s reign.

Shah Jahan introduced the rule of one-third, one-fourth which scaled down the obligations of the
mansabdars. A mansabdar serving in a province where his jagir was, should have contingent equal to at
least 1/3rd of his sawar rank, if elsewhere then only 1/4 th. He also introduced the monthly scale.
By 1595, the number of mansabdars during the reign of Akbar was 180, but towards the close of
Aurangzeb’s reign their number rose to 14,449, leading to the complaints that no jagirs were left for
being granted to them. This led to jagirdari and agrarian crisis which in turn, brought about the
collapse of the mansabdari system after Aurangzeb.

Jagir System:
Jagir or tuyul were land revenue assignment to a mansabdar in lieu of his salary. The assignees were
known as Jagirdars. The jagirs assigned in lieu of salary were known as tankhah jagirs.

Besides, there were the Watan jagirs (hereditary possessions) of the autonomous chiefs, who were also
granted the former type of jagirs if in Mughal service. Under Jahangir some Muslim nobles were given
jagirs resembling to Watan jagir called al-tamgha.

The mashrut jagirs were given to a person on certain conditions. Jagirs which involved no obligation of
service and were independent of rank were called inam jagirs. The jagir lands were different from the
Khalisa land, the revenues from the Khalisa lands were earmarked for the maintenance of the imperial
court and the personal expenditure of the army. The jagir of the Mughal period was similar to the iqta
of the Delhi Sultanate.

The assignment of a jagir to a mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights to the jagir. He could
enjoy the revenues of the jagir only as long as he held the mansab (rank) and rendered services to the
state. For the purpose of assigning jagirs the revenue department had to maintain a register indicating
the assessed income (Jama) in dams, calculated at the rate of 40 dams to a rupee. This register was
called jama-dami of an area. The jama included land revenue, inland transit duties, port customs and
other taxes which were known as Sair Jihat.

The term hasil meant the amount of revenue actually collected. The term paibaqi was applied to those
areas whose revenue were yet to be assigned to mansabdars. The Mughal emperor followed the policy
of frequent transfer of jagirs of the jagirdars so as to negate any development of territorial loyalty that
would undermine the empire by strengthening the jagirdar.
Thus, the jagir system was closely related to the mansab system. All jagirdars were mansabdars, but
not all masabdars were jagirdars, because some were paid in cash.

Administrative System in the Deccan:

Vijayanagar:
Central Administration:
There was a council of ministers, headed by a Prime-minister to assist and advise the king in
administration. The council met in a hall called Venkat Vilas Mantapa. The Pradhani, the fore-runner
of Maratha peshwa was the Prime-minister. The rayasam recorded oral orders of the king. The
karanikam was the accountant.

Provincial and Local Administration:

The kingdom was divided into rajyas or mandalam (provinces) under a governor described as
Mandalesvara or Nayaka, nadus (districts), sthalas (sub-districts) and finally into gramas (villages).
Village self-government were considerably weakened under Vijayanagar ruler. Gauda, village head-
man, looked after the village administration.

The Ayagar system was an important feature of the village organisation. Every village affair was
conducted by a body of 12 functionaries known as ayagars who were granted tax free lands (manyams).

Military administration:
The top grades in the army were the nayakas or palegars who were granted territory (amaram) with a
fixed revenue in lieu of their salaries. Ordinary soldiers were usually paid in cash. The military
department was called kandachara.

Revenue administration:
Land tax was the most important source of revenue, which after assessment was 1/6 th. The
Nadalavukul, the Rajavthadankal, the Gandarayagandakol were the names of the measuring rods. The
police tax was known as arasu svatantram. The revenue department was known as asthavana and was
headed by a revenue minister.
Social conditions:
Allasani Peddana in his Manucharitam mentions the four castes that existed in the Vijayanagar society.

1. Viprulu or Brahmins

2. Rajjulu or rachavaru were generally the ruling class. Kshatriya varna seems to be absent.

3. Matikaratalu were the merchants.

4. Nalavajativaru or Sudras were mainly agriculturists.

Vipravinodins were the artisans, Kaikkolas were the weavers who formed a prominent community. The
Tottiyans were the shepherds.
Position of women:
Gangadevi, wife of Kampana, wrote Maduravijayam. Hamamma and Tirumalamma were prominent
scholars in the reign of Prauda deva and Achyuta Raya, respectively.

i. From the account of Paes, there was prevalence of Devadasi.

ii. Religion: Early rulers were followers of Saivism. Virupaksha was their family god. Later, they came
under the influence of Vaishnavism, but Siva continued to be worshipped.

iii. The Vijayanagara rulers produced a new style called Dravida style in the field of architecture.

Maratha Administration:
Shivaji’s system of administration was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the
Deccan states. The Council of Ministers (Ashtapradhan) had eight ministers, each minister being
directly responsible to the ruler. They were:

i. Peshwa — he was the chief minister and looked after general administration.

ii. Amatya or Mazumdar — Minister for finance and revenue.

iii. Waqia Navis — was responsible for intelligence, posts and household affairs.

iv. Surunavis or Chitnis — helped the king with his correspondence.

v. Dabir or Sumanta — master of ceremonies and also dealt with foreign affairs.

vi. Nyayadish — in charge of justice.

vii. Panditrao — head priest and in charge of charitable grants.

All ministers except Panditrao and the Nyayadish had to perform military duties when necessary. In
his departmental duties each minister was aided by eight staff clerks, Diwan (secretary), Majumdar
(auditor/accountant) Fadnis (deputy auditor), Sabnis (office in charge), Chitnis (correspondence
clerk), Jamadar (treasurer), Potnis (Cash) and Karkhanis (commissary).

Maratha Army:
Cavalry was the most important of the Maratha army which was composed of Bargirs (regular state
cavalry) and Siladars (brought their own horses and equipments). In the infantry, the smallest unit was
of soldiers headed by a Naik.

The highest infantry commander was Seven-Hazari. The Commander-in-chief of the army was the Sar-
i-Naubat. Shivaji’s naval u.iit was iocated at Kolaba. Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the
soldiers, though sometimes the chiefs received revenue grants (saranjam).
The revenue system was patterned on the system of Malik Ambar. The Swarajya was divided into
Mahals (province), Prants (Groups of district), Tarafs (district) and Manzas (groups of villages). The
prant was headed by subahdar who was in chage of revenue collection.

Land was measured using the Kathi. The state demand was 40% of the produce in cash or kind. Chauth
(1 /4th of land revenue) was collected from the reighbouring Mughal territories and Sardeshmukhi was
an additional levy of 10%, which Shivaji demanded on the basis of his being the (chief headman)
hereditary Sardeshmukh of Maharashtra.

After Shivaji’s death Sambhaji (1680-89), Rajaram (1689-1700) and Tarabai (1700-1708) wife of

Rajaram carried on the Maratha struggle against the Mughals.