Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and

Curriculum Research, Pune

� 84.00
The Coordination Committee formed by GR No. Abhyas - 2116/(Pra.Kra.43/16) SD - 4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on
20.6.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-20.

Psychology
STANDARD ELEVEN

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2019
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
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First Edition :
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2019
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Psychology Subject Committee Illustrations and cover

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NATIONAL ANTHEM
 Preface
Dear students,
Welcome to eleventh standard. Congratulations on successfully completing your secondary
school education. We are extremely glad to place this Psychology textbook in your hands
as you take your first steps towards higher secondary education.
Psychology is primarily a study of the human mind, brain and behaviour. Whenever a
person engages in any act or thought, what exactly happens in his / her brain? In a given
situation, why does one individual behave differently from another? How do emotions and
thoughts affect human behaviour? What leads to the development of mental illnesses? What
are some of the reasons and remedies behind mental illnesses? These are some of the
questions that Psychology tries to answer. Every individual feels the need for guidance,
advice at some stage in his/her life. Also the stressful lifestyle of our times creates many
problems for us. In these times, a Psychologist or a counsellor or a guide can empower
people to deal with these challenges. Currently, the field of Psychology has many different
career opportunities.
Even if Psychology is classified under social sciences, it comes close to the basic Sciences
in many ways. Case studies and surveys are emphasised in Psychology. The counselling
process changes with every individual case and the issues concerned. This is a field where
a lot of responsibility rests on the shoulders of the counsellor since any intervention directly
affects human well being. The study of Psychology involves both - theory and practical.
Conducting surveys, practical hands-on experience through internships, completing research
projects is also a part of studying Psychology. Psychological tests, theories, mental illnesses
and remedies, research methodologies are some of the topics to be studied.
Since you are being formally introduced to this subject for the first time, the textbook has
been designed to provide you more clarity about the scope of the field of Psychology. You
will be required to complete different activities as part of the course. We urge you to
complete these activities in all seriousness. They will certainly help you to achieve a deeper
understanding of the concepts.
The textbook also includes plenty of small tasks. These tasks are designed to stimulate
your thought process. Carefully complete all the tasks. Seek help from your teachers, parents
and peers whenever necessary. You are of course very well versed with the use of
smartphones and computers. You can also refer to the resources available online to
supplement the textbook.
Let us know your feedback about the textbook - especially the parts that you liked the
most or the ones you found difficult to understand.
Wish you all the best for your future educational journey !

Pune
(Dr. Shakuntala Kale)
Date : 20 June 2019 Director
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook
Bharatiya Saur : 30 Jyeshtha 1941 Production and Curriculum Research, Pune
 Statement of Learning objectives : Psychology
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
Sr.No. Units Learning objectives
1. Story of 1. know how Psychology has evolved as an important subject to understand
Psychology human behaviour.
2. understand the basic concepts related to human behaviour.
3. understand the goals of Psychology.
2. Branches of 1. know about and understand difference between theoretical and applied
Psychology branches of psychology.
2. acquire knowledge about applications of various branches of psychology
in real life.
3. Self 1. develop an understanding about the concept of Self.
2. understand how does the concept of one’s self develop.
3. know the significance of self awareness, self image, self efficacy and self
esteem.
4. identify the ways of self regulation.
5. understand Rogers theory of self.
4. Human 1. know what is human development.
Development 2. understand human development and other parallel concepts.
3. understand the stages of human development with specific characteristics,
problems and developmental tasks at each of them.
4. relate the principles of development in day to day life.
5. Healthy Me - 1. develop an understanding about Normal and Abnormal Behaviour.
Normal Me 2. understand the criteria of normal and abnormal behaviour.
3. develop an understanding of Emotional Intelligence.
4. identify the problems faced by adolescents in general.
6. Stress 1. develop understanding of stress.
2. know the different types of stress.
3. know the sources and effects of stress.
4. identify the sources of stress from day to day life.
5. understand the different coping strategies.
7. Nervous 1. understand the human Nervous System.
System 2. understand the structure and functions of the neuron.
3. understand the important parts of the brain and the spinal cord.
4. understand the functions of the endocrine glands.
5. understand the behavioural implications of the endocrine functioning.
8. Memory 1. understand the process and nature of memory.
2. understand the various methods of measuring memory.
3. understand the various causes of forgetting.
4. understand the strategies of improving memory and relate the same to day
to day experiences.
 For Teachers
Dear Teachers,
We have been given the opportunity to introduce the subject Psychology to the students of eleventh
standard. This text book has been designed to fulfil the following objectives in eleventh and twelfth
standard-
1. Students should understand why is Psychology classified as a branch of Science.
2. Students should understand how are matters concerning our daily life studied under this subject.
3. Students should understand the concept of ‘self’, how it applies to them personally and how could it
be developed.
4. Students should be able to apply the techniques which they learn in this course in their day-to-day
life; for instance, techniques to remember what is read.
5. Students should feel motivated to pursue higher education in the field of Psychology and make a
career for themselves in it.
To enable us as teachers to achieve the above mentioned objectives, we must keep in mind a few
important points.
• We must ourselves go through and study the entire textbook.
• The main aim of the textbook for 11th and 12th standards, is introduction to Psychology. Therefore,
the syllabus is divided into four core themes.
1. History and scope of Psychology
2. The concept of self
3. Mental health
4. The nervous system: structure, function and relevance to everyday life experience
The book is so organised that the foundation of these themes is laid in eleventh standard whereas the
themes are explored in greater details in twelfth standard. Therefore mentioned four themes would remain
same in both the years.
Though the concepts of ‘perception’ and ‘attention’ have been introduced to the students in lower
classes, the topic of memory is very appealing to both - the students and adults alike. Thus it has been
included in the text of eleventh standard.
The level of difficulty of the text and the suggested activities has been decided after carefully
considering the resources accessible to the students and teachers, variation in their experiences and ability
to grasp different concepts as well as the resources available to the teachers. Even then, it is possible that
some students may find the book too easy whereas others may find it too difficult. Here, the teacher has
an important role to play. The teacher needs to facilitate the difficult concepts and provide higher challenges
if they are found to be too easy and preliminary. This can be done by referring the students to appropriate
resources or setting challenging activities for them to complete.
Plenty of examples of poems or suggestions of movies or activities or experiments have been provided
in the textbook. The teacher can use them at her discretion and choice. However, it should be ascertained
that students have understood the concepts for which the material and method have been suggested in the
first place. The teachers should use QR codes given in the textbook whenever possible. The teacher can
of course use resources above and beyond those suggested in the textbook.
We are all aware of the wide scope of the subject of Psychology. No textbook, however well written
can claim to be complete. We all know that a textbook is always just a medium or an instrument towards
an end.
We hope that you enjoy learning as well as teaching the subject and that the students find the subject
challenging, meaningful and interesting too.
 Index

Sr. No. Chapters Page No.

1. Story of Psychology 1

2. Branches of Psychology 11

3. Self 22

4. Human Development 33

5. Healthy Me - Normal Me 45

6. Stress 61

7. Nervous System 75

8. Memory 87
 1 Story of Psychology

1.1 Introduction 1.3 What is behaviour?

1.2 The History of Psychology 1.4 Study of Cognition
1.2.1 Study of consciousness 1.5 Psychology : Indian Perspective
1.2.2 Study of unconscious
1.6 Goals of Psychology
1.2.3 Study of behaviour
1. Behaviour
2. Mental processes
3. Scientific method

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. know how Psychology has evolved as an important subject to understand human
behaviour.
2. understand the basic concepts related to human behaviour.
3. understand the goals of Psychology.

1.1 Introduction
Although Psychology is new for us in terms of study, we are aware of this subject from our childhood,
because we have been observing different forms of emotions, behaviour, moods of human beings.
Human behaviour is full of diversity. This diversity amazes us. When we open daily newspaper
or watch news on T.V. we see different aspects of human behaviour. Some examples are given in
following pictures.

1
 Following are the news in the collage.
1. Spontaneous blood donation by youth for passengers injured in Bus Accidents.
2. Neighbour saves life from a house that caught fire risking his own life.
3. Man killed his own brother due to property dispute.
4. Wife donates her kidney to her husband.
5. Officer arrested for taking a bribe of Rs. 50,000.
6. Arunima Sinha, who lost her both legs in an accident climbed Everest.
7. Student’s suicide due to failure in exam.
8. India lost a cricket match, a viewer furiously broke his T.V. set.
9. France won Football World Cup, citizens celebrated whole night.
Activity 1 :
l What type of emotions and human nature is expressed through above news?
l Apart from above news, what type of news you read in newspapers or see on T.V.?

l What could be the possible reasons of such behaviours?

When we observe people around us, we realize that some individuals do not lose their
courage and overcome difficult situations. On the other hand some commit suicide due
to some minor failure. Some do not hesitate to harm others for their motives while some
sacrifice their lives for others.
We have seen diversity of human behaviour through the above examples. Why is human
behaviour so diverse? What type of circumstances lead to these behaviours?
Psychology helps us to understand these aspects of human behaviour.

1.2 The history of Psychology Science of soul

Psychology is a vast field studying behavioural The first attempt to define psychology was
aspects of mankind. This makes it difficult to made on the basis of the terminology used. The
define Psychology precisely and in concrete word Psychology was derived from two Greek
terms. words – ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means
soul or mind and logos means science or branch
Psychology did not emerge directly as a science. of knowledge. Thus Psychology was meant to be
It started as a branch of philosophy. It evolved as the Science or branch of knowledge that deals
a separate branch later 19th century. with soul or mind.
Plato believed that knowledge is innate, whereas Do you know?
John Locke thought that each child is born as an Symbol of Psychology
“empty slate” and that knowledge is primarily
The symbol of Psychology is
acquired through learning and experience.
the 23rd Greek alphabet Psi
means soul or mind.
But later psychologists were not satisfied with
this definition. To them, soul was difficult to
study as it could neither be visualized nor could
be described in concrete terms.
Both Soul and mind are abstract concepts.
Fig. 1.1 Plato Fig. 1.2 John Locke Rational Sciences establish their facts from
2
observation and experimentation. If Psychology Do you know?
is a Science, it must be based on some sort of
The year 1879 is an important year in the
observation and experimentation. However
history of Psychology because it was the
neither soul nor mind can be observed. We
beginning of systematic study. Psychology
cannot see or touch them. We can’t describe its
emerged as an independent branch of
nature nor can we say where it exists. Therefore,
knowledge.
the definition of Psychology was modified.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920)
Activity 2 :
Do you agree with the definition of
Psychology as the Science which deals with
the soul? If yes why? If no why?

Activity 3 :
Collect information about Bahinabai Fig. 1.4 Wilhelm Wundt
Chaudhri : Mana (description of Mind) l University of Leipzig, Germany
l Established first Psychology Laboratory in
htttp/www.youtube.com/watch? v = DEDSDQqNyg4 1879.
l Defined psychology as the study of
1.2.1 Study of Conscious
consciousness.
In late 19th century German Physician and l He used scientific methods to study
Philosopher Wilhelm Wundt established first fundamental psychological processes, such
Psychological laboratory at Leipzig University as reaction time in response to visual or
in 1879 to study human behaviour. He introduced auditory stimuli.
the term ‘conscious experience’. The term l He introduced Introspection method.

‘conscious experience’ refers to the awareness

of the mental activities of an organism. The 1.2.2 Study of Unconscious
awareness includes the stored mental impressions Dr. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician
or representations of the past, present and defined of Psychology as the study of
future. He conducted experiment on reaction unconscious. He believed that most of our
time, perception, consciousness etc. After that motives are hidden. There is an unconscious
psychology emerged as a science. level of our mind where we push or repress all
our threatening urges and desires. He stressed
the importance of early childhood experiences
and believed that personality is formed in
first five years of life. If there are any major
psychological problems seen in the person’s life,
it has roots in the early years of life.
Dr. Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)

Fig. 1.3 Wundt and his colleagues in the

first laboratary of psychology Fig. 1.5 Dr. Sigmund Freud
3
 (2) Mental processes
l Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis In Psychology, we study the external as well
as internal factors of behaviour. Here we
l Defined Psychology as the study of
study the mental processes of an individual. It
unconscious.
includes thinking, memory, forgetting, emotion,
l Believed that early childhood experiences motivation, attention, perception.
and unconscious impulses contributed to
the development of adult personality and (3) Scientific method
behaviour.
Experiment means an individual’s objective
observations in controlled conditions. Here
Activity 5 : a researcher or experimenter can test his
assumptions by observing and collecting the data
Do you agree with the definition that from sample population. These observations
psychology is the study of unconscious? can be generalized for analyzing and predicting
What could be the limitations of this human behaviour.
definition?
1.3 What is Behaviour
1.2.3 Study of Behaviour
John Watson - 1878 - 1958
Wilhelm Wundt defined Psychology as
study of Consciousness and Dr. Sigmund Freud
as study of Unconsciousness. However, here
again, ‘consciousness’, and ‘unconsciousness’
are not observed directly. Hence, John B. Watson
redefined Psychology as a Science of human
behaviour.
The latest definition is -
Fig. 1.6 John Watson
The study of human behaviour and mental
processes. l American psychologist
In this definition, following terms are important. l Established school of behaviourism.

(1) Behaviour l Conducted research on animal behaviour,

child rearing and advertising.
In general we can say that behaviour is an
organism’s response to various stimuli present in S-O-R Model
our surrounding. But each individual might have
different response to the same stimulus, because John Watson defined behaviour as anything a
of their interest, personality and attitudes. person or animal does, that can be observed,
recorded and studied. Behaviour is an organism’s
Behaviour is either overt or covert. Overt response to any external or internal stimulus.
behaviour includes directly observable
responses like walking, talking, dancing etc. This fact is represented by the symbol :
Covert behaviour includes responses which are S–O–R, where ‘S’ stands for stimulus ‘O’ stands
not directly observable but can be inferred from for organism and ‘R’ stands for Response which
behaviour like thinking, feeling etc. is reaction of the organism to the stimulus.

4
Example : walking, playing, dancing, singing, fighting and
Stimulus is same, but individual responses are many other things which can be observed directly.
different. Covert activities include mental processes like
feeling, thinking, remembering, forgetting etc.
Stimulus Organism Response which can’t be observed directly. These mental
processes can be measured through how people
Teacher Rohan – gives answer react to different problems and situations in their
lives.
asks some Sanika – remains silent
questions Sachin – ignores Activity 7 :
in the Saurabh – tries to recollect Do you agree with Watson’s definition that
classroom answer in his mind psychology is the study of covert and overt
behaviour? What are the limitations of this
Stimulus is any physical event or condition definition? Can you think of examples which
that gives rise to a reaction. The stimulus can can’t be explained with the help of this
be external or internal. An Organism stands for definition?
human being or an animal, who gives a response
to the stimulus. A Response is a reaction of the 1.4 Study of Cognition
organism to a given stimulus.
During 1950s and 1960s, focus of psychology
Activity 6 : shifted from behaviour to cognitive processes.
Make a note of how your friends react to the Psychologists were interested in studying
same stimulus in a different way. Example. processes like perception, thinking, memory
examination. and other higher order activities. Cognitive
psychologists are interested in studying inner
Behaviour includes overt and covert activities.
processes that trigger particular response to the
Overt activities include bodily movements like
stimulus.

1.5 Psychology in India

Just for your reference
Table No. 1
Professional development of Psychology in India
First psychology department was established in Calcutta University by
1916 Prof. Narendra Nath Sen Gupta.
1925 Indian Psychological Association (IPA) was established and launched the Indian
Journal of Psychology
1940 Lumbini Park Mental Hospital was founded in Calcutta.
Psychology wing of Defence Research was established. It is part of the Defence
1945 to 1949
Science of Organization of India.
National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) was
1955
established in Bangalore.
1962 Indian Academy of Applied Psychology (IAAP) was established.
1962 Establishment of Hospital for Mental diseases at Ranchi.
1968 The Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists was formed.
1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) was founded.
5
 have Tamasi qualities are idle and sluggish. They
1.5.1 Psychology : Indian Perspective
do not work hard. They seem to be depressed.
Many ancient Indian thinkers tried to solve the Rajasi people are aristocratic. Their self esteem
mystery of human mind. During the period of is very strong. They think that everything should
2000 B.C. to 500 A. C., Philosophers studied happen according to their own wish. They are
mind and human behaviour from different belligerent. People those have Sattvaguna are
prespectives and tried to explain ideas like soul, calm and understanding. They do their work
mind, intuition and so on. All this was a part of carefully and promptly. They are aware of reality
philosophy. therefore they behave calmly.

Upanishadas explain the self and personality Activity 9 :

structure with the help of concept called Kosha (1) Find out different characteristics of
(something similar to cover). Rajas, Tamas and Sattva guna.
These are Annamaya kosha, Pranmayakosha, (2) Find out which guna are observed in
Manomayakosha, Vidnyanmaya kosha and your personality?
Anandmaya kosha.
In the fifth century B.C., Patanjali explained
They also talked about factors that affected these deep thought about Psychology in Yogsutra. He
koshas and also how these koshas determine was the Yogi having a great scientific vision.
human behaviour. He studied levels of human consciousness and
also proposed ways to evolve spiritually. His
According to Ayurveda, there are three types
theory of ashtangyoga is useful today also.
of doshas, which are Kapha, Vata and Pitta and
Eight aspects of ashtangyoga are yama, niyama,
these doshas determine Prakruti (characteristics)
aasana, pranayam, pratyahar, dharana, dhyan
of human beings. For example, individuals who
and Samadhi.
have kapha as a dominant doshas are calm,
flexible, patient, and caring. They have strong
memory. It is said, that they take longer to grasp
a subject but once they understand it they are
able to retain it for a longer time. Individuals who
have Vata as a dominant dosha are unpredictable.
Their moods and thoughts fluctuate. They get
angry very quickly but they also calm down very
fast. They are art lovers. Individuals who have
Pitta as a dominant dosha are believed to be very
sharp. They are known to be short tempered.
Activity 8 :
Find out more attributes of vata, kapha and
pitta and try to find out which two dosha
dominate your personality. Fig. 1.7 Aspects of Ashtang yoga

Besides doshas, there is another concept to It also helps us to control our wishes and desires.
explain human temperament called Guna Many Indian saints and philosophers have made
namely, Sattva Guna, Rajas guna, Tamas Guna many comments about mind or human behaviour.
Jain Tirthankar, Saint Kabir, Samartha Ramdas,
Human body is made up of Rajas, Tamas and Swami Vivekanand etc. highlighted various
Sattva Guna. The influence of Gunas is seen in aspects of human mind and behaviour. It reflects
the person’s behaviour. For example, people who their understanding of human nature.
6
 1.6 Goals of Psychology 1.6.1 Describe: What is happening?
(1) Why did you opt for psychology in The primary goal of Psychology is to identify
11th std? and classify behaviours and mental processes
as accurately as possible. How do individuals
(2) Why did you select psychology over other
think? What factors are responsible to stimulate
subjects?
their behaviour? How do individuals react to
(3) Why should we study psychology? a specific situation? To know these answers,
researchers need to record a particular behaviour
Activity 10 : in the socio-economic, cultural, geographical
space. For example People behave differently in
Look at the statements given below. Analyse formal and informal situations and their reactions
each one of them and come up with goals of are studied in psychology. For this purpose
Psychology or role that Psychology plays in researchers use various psychological tools. For
real life. example Standardized psychology tests, psycho-
(1) A group of psychologists observed analytical techniques, survey method, laboratory
1000 individuals and recorded their experiments and observations.
behaviour and reactions.
1.6.2 Explanation : Why it is happening?
(2) After analysing their responses, they
tried to understand the reasons behind Second major goal of Psychology is to
their behaviours. understand the causes of the observed responses
by explaining the facts in a meaningful way.
(3) These observations can be generalized Psychologists are interested in knowing the
to entire population. Therefore reasons behind their reactions. They use
behaviour of an individual under standardized psychological tests to understand
stressful situation can be predicted. the causes of their behaviour. If a particular
behaviour is observed only in one individual,
(4) The psychologists came up with some
it can not be generalized to entire population.
conclusions so that people can change
Whereas if it is observed in most of the people,
their responses to stressful situations
then we can generalize it to entire population.
for better.
For example, accidents of bike riders are more
There are four main goals of Psychology. fatal due to head injury therefore wearing helmet
should be made compulsory for bike riders.
Four Goals of Psychology
1.6.3 Prediction : What will happen next?

1 Describe What Third major goal of Psychology is to predict

how a given condition or set of conditions will
affect or lead to particular behaviour and mental
2 Explain Why processes of an individuals. Prediction involves
knowledge about the possible outcomes of
3 Predict Anticipate behaviour.
Example : If someone drinks alcohol, it will
4 Control Change or Modify
slow down his reactions and that will increase
possibility of an accident. So driving after
consuming alcohol should be strictly avoided.

7
 1.6.4 Control : How can it be changed? For example, if some students remain absent
in the school or do not study then school
Control or modification of behaviour is psychologist can help them to find out the
the fourth goal of Psychology. Controlling causes and modify their behaviour. For this
behaviour means shaping or moulding behaviour purpose, they may organize some intervention
in a particular direction. It is accomplished programs in school. School counsellors can
when the researcher uses various principles of study psychological problems of students and
psychology to bring successful and smooth help them with proper guidance and counselling.
changes in behaviour so that unwanted behaviour Now a days, students experience stress due to
patterns can be avoided. Psychologist use bullying, parental expectations, unhealthy
various psychotherapeutic techniques to shape competition etc. Counsellor can help these
and modify human behaviour. students by making them accept the reasons
behind it so that they can modify their behaviour
wherever necessary.

Fig. 1.8 Describing Behaviour by noting behaviour, Explaining behaviour,

Predicting behaviour, Changing behaviour

Activity 11 : Activity 12 :
Find more examples of each of the above Go through internet and search for researches
goals of psychology. They could be real which fit into either of the four categories.
examples that you know or you have read Find at least one example each.
about or they could be fictional examples. Let us look at the different branches of
Psychology in the next chapter.

v v v
8
Summary :
• Psychology has evolved from the quest of man to understand behaviour. From perceiving
as a study of soul, mind, consciousness to behaviour and mental processes, it has been still
exploring the behavioural aspects of man.
• It was only in 1879 when Wilhelm Woundt established the first psychology laboratory in
Leipzig that it was known to be an independent science.
• We saw in this chapter that how in India too, the study of human behaviour has been reflected
in our Ayurveda and Patanjali Yogsutra.
• The important goals of Psychology are description, explanation, prediction and control.

Key Terms : Key Psychologists :

• Psychology John Locke : John Locke was an English
• Behaviour philosopher in the 17th century and gave
theory of mind which suggested that each child
• Overt Behaviour is born as a “an empty slate” and the knowledge
• Covert Behaviour is primarily acquired through learning and
experiences.
• Stimulus
Plato : Plato was Athenian philosopher who
• Response
believed that knowledge is innate.
• Kapha
Wilhelm Wundt : A German physician and
• Vaat philosopher who established first Psychology
• Pitta Laboratory in 1879.

• Ashtanga Yog Sigmund Freud : An Austrian neurologist and

psychoanalyst who put forth the concept of
• Prediction
unconscious level of human consciousness and
asserted that the unconscious forces have a very
strong impact upon behaviour.

John Watson : American psychologist who

established school of behaviourism.

9
 Exercise
Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements (D) Identify the odd item from the following
1. Psychology is a study of ................... and give reasons for the same.

a. Mind b. Behaviour 1. Soul, Mind, Feeling, Consciousness,

Behaviour.
c. Soul
2. Walking, dancing, playing, thinking,
2. .................. processes include thinking, eating.
memory, emotions etc.
3. Yam, Niyam, Karya, Aasana, Pratyahar.
a. Mental b. Cognitive
c. Spiritual 4. Feeling, memory, attention, perception

(B) Match the following pairs. (E) Complete the following table.

A B 1. - Soul
1. Tri-doshas a) First laboratory 2. John Locke -
of psychology
3. - Leipzig university
2. Tri-gunas b) Study of
unconscious 4. Sigmund Freud -

3. Wilhelm Wundt c) Perception, 5. - Behaviour

thinking,
memory etc Q. 2. Explain the following concepts
1. Psychology
4. Sigmund Freud d) Satva, Rajas,
Tamas 2. Behaviour
3. Overt Behaviour
5. Cognitive processes e) Ashtanga Yog
4. Covert Behaviour
6. Patanjali f.) Kapha, Vaat
5. Stimulus
and Pitta
6. Response
(C) State whether the following statements
are true or false. Q. 3. Answer the following questions in 35 to
1. Psychology is a study of mind. 40 words
2. The first mental hospital in India was 1. Psychology is a science: explain why?
established in Mumbai. 2. Explain the S-O-R model, with your own
3. There was no study of mental processes experience.
in India till the formal discipline of 3. Explain the goals of Psychology.
Psychology was recognized as a science.
4. Dr. Sigmund Freud proposed the concept Q. 4. Give a historical account of emergence
of unconscious. of Psychology as a science.
5. Control is one of the objectives of
Psychology. Q. 5. Describe the goals of Psychology.

10
 2 Branches of Psychology

2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Applied branches

2.2 Branches of Psychology 1. Educational Psychology
2.2.1 Theoretical branches 2. Clinical Psychology
1. Developmental Psychology 3. Counselling Psychology
2. Child Psychology 4. Criminal Psychology
3. Social Psychology
5. Sports Psychology
4. Cognitive Psychology
5. Experimental Psychology 6. Industrial Psychology
6. Abnormal Psychology 2.3 Careers in Psychology

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. know about and understand difference between theoretical and applied branches of
psychology.
2. acquire knowledge about applications of various branches of psychology in real life.

2.1 Introduction
Psychology is an important science in modern time. Scope of Psychology is getting wider
everyday.
Knowledge of psychology is needed to understand and combat behavioural problems.
Therefore new branches of Psychology are emerging. For example now a days sports
psychology is emerging as a new branch of psychology to deal with psychological issues
faced by sports persons.
Internet made financial transactions and social interaction easier, but it also gave rise to
online cheating and fraud. So to understand and deal with these issues a branch called ‘cyber
psychology’ has emerged.
Now a days more than 50 branches of psychology are existing to study human behaviour
from various angles.

2.2 Branches of Psychology

Activity 1 :
In the last chapter, we understood the Look at the following pairs of tasks. Can you
history of Psychology and its main goals in differentiate between task 1 and 2 on the basis
brief. Let us now take an in depth look at of what are they trying to do? Can you see the
the different branches of Psychology. same pattern in other pairs as well?

11
Task 1 : Which factors motivate student’s Modern psychology touches every aspect of
behaviour in the classroom? Write them down. human life. The scope of psychology is extremely
Task 2 : Use the information found in task 1 to wide which has led to development of many sub
create a better classroom environment. fields. Let us look at these main branches one
by one.
Task 1 : Try and identify qualities of successful
student. Make a list. 2.2.1 Theoretical Psychology
Task 2 : Using the information found in task 1 Psychology as a theoretical science includes
prepare guidelines for other students. many areas of specialization. Psychologists
Task 1 : Note down the causes of unhappiness working in theoretical fields focus mainly on
or sadness among people. conducting research and formulating theories.
Basic focus is on developing principles and
Task 2 : Using the information found in task 1 establishing laws to explain human behaviour.
write down how you can help them.
As you might have realized, task 1 in all Activity 2 :
pairs deals with finding out new information, Look at the five columns below in table
connections, relationships between an individual no. 1. Each column represents one sub-branch
and his environment. In other words, the task of theoretical branches of psychology. Can
1 deals with ‘theorizing’ about individual you look at the content of each column and
responses. Task 2 in all pairs, deals with figure out which aspect of human behaviour is
‘applying’ that information to make changes studied in that branch.
in existing structures or conditions. These two
tasks typically exemplify the two broad areas of As one can see – Refer to table No. 1
Psychology. Column 1 contains questions related to the
• Theoretical branches of Psychology changes that happens during entire life span.
• Applied branches of Psychology These qualities fall under Developmental
Psychology.
Table 1 - Theoretical Branches of Psychology
Developmental Child Social Cognitive Experimental Abnormal
Psychology Psychology Psychology Psychology Psychology Psychology

What are the What are the What incites What are Is it possible Why do some
developmental causes of the mob to the factors to conduct people behave
changes misbehaviour resort to that affects experiments abnormally?
that take in children? violence? the span of on human
place during attention of an behaviour?
childhood? individual?

What are How does When do people Why and How do we What are the
the changes separation of follow norms when do understand causes of
that take parents and when do people forget? the human depression?
place during affects a they break behaviour?
adolescence? child? rules?
Why do some Why are some How does use How we can Why are some
Why do old
devise the people extremely
people behave children suck qualities valued of language
principles of
in certain ways their thumb? more in some affect concept suspicious of
human behaviour others or why some
as they do? societies and formation? through have extreme mood
less in others? experiments? swings?

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Column 2 contains questions focusing on Developmental psychology is the scientific
children and their responses. They come under study of how and why human beings change
Child Psychology. over the course of their life. It aims to explain
Column 3 contains questions which focuses on how thinking, feeling, and behaviour change
individual responses to group influence. They throughout life. A developmental Psychology
fall under Social Psychology. may study a specific period of life such as
childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age.
Column 4 contains questions which focus on This field examines changes across three major
specific cognitive abilities. They fall under dimensions : physical development, cognitive
Cognitive Psychology. development, and social development.
Column 5 contains how experiments should (2) Child Psychology
be conduct on human behaviour under
Experimental Psychology. It deals with the biological, psychological and
emotional changes that occur during childhood.
Column 6 contains questions which focus on These changes occur as the individual progresses
abnormal behaviour. They fall under Abnormal being dependent to becoming independent.
Psychology. (Refer to fig. 2.1)
It is important to note that there are various sub- For example psychologist working in this area
branches in theoretical Psychology. However to may study problems related to children such as
limit our scope, we will only look at the main six lying, bunking school, stealing, bed wetting etc.
branches mentioned above. They use standardized psychological tests to
(1) Developmental Psychology measure intelligence, adjustment etc. They also
conduct researches on effective child rearing
Developmental Psychology studies changes practices, role of reinforcement in motivating
in behaviour from conception to death. children etc.

Fig. 2.1 Child Psychology deals with study of childhood span,

changes in behaviour from childhood to adolescence.
13
(3) Social Psychology (5) Experimental Psychology
We spend much of our lives in the presence The experimental psychologist tries to
of other people, with whom we interact in a understand the fundamental causes of
variety of ways and in different settings. Social behaviour. They conduct experiments to
Psychology studies how an individual influences
study how people react to sensory stimuli and
others and gets influenced by others. According
to Myers, social Psychology refers to the perceive the world. Experimental Psychology
scientific study of how an individual’s behaviour studies how people learn and remember, reason
is affected by others. and respond emotionally. It deals with such
problems as sensation, perception, learning
The primary focus of social Psychology is on
and memory. The method of investigation
understanding how individuals are affected
by others. Social Psychology examines issues in this field is that of laboratory experiment.
such as co-operation or conflicts within groups,
attitudes, prejudice, friendliness or leadership
qualities of an individual.
(4) Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Psychology focuses on higher mental
processes such as thinking, reasoning and
decision making. It is concerned with the study
of attention, perception, language development,
thinking, memory and problem solving. Some
of the topics of research in this field could be –
How does memory disruption occur? What are Fig. 2.3
the different types of learning styles and learning
disorders? What causes them? What leads to Ivan Pavlov conducted experiments on
speech impairment? How does the decision
classical conditioning taking dog as his subject
making mechanism work? etc. Refer to fig. 2.2
Cognitive Psychology (6) Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is the branch of

Human
Intelligence psychology that studies unusual patterns of
behaviour, emotions and thinking. It aims
to study the causes and factors leading to
Perception Language abnormal reactions. For example : excessive
suspiciousness, extreme mood swings,
Cognitive perceiving objects or situations which are not
Psychology real, mental retardation, extreme fear of objects,
Thinking animals or situation etc.
Attention & problem
solving Activity 3 :
Memory Try to find at least one example that can
fit into each of the above sub-branches of
Fig. 2.2 Mental processes studied in
theoretical Psychology.
cognitive psychology

14
 2.2.2 Applied Psychology Learner Learning
or pupil experiences
The knowledge and principles generated through
research in theoretical Psychology are used to
Scope of
develop techniques to solve practical problems Educational
of individuals. Through various branches of Psychology Learning
Teacher
applied psychology, psychologists are putting process
knowledge into practice so as to help individuals
to adjust to their real life situations.
Learning situation
Applied Psychology is further divided into many and environment
sub-branches. Let us see a few of these branches.
Fig. 2.4 Scope of Educational Psychology
(1) Educational Psychology

The field of Educational Psychology examines Activity 4 :

and studies all factors related to education. It
Can you think of at least one problem that
is concerned with increasing the efficiency of
educational psychologist can find solutions
teaching and learning process. The educational
to, concerning the following areas?
psychologist is concerned with developing
effective methods of teaching / learning, 1. Behaviour of the student
preparing intervention programs for exceptional 2. Teaching methods
children, developing personality development
programs, preparing relevant curriculum etc. 3. Teacher’s behaviour in the class
It is also concerned with the general problems
of teaching and learning process. It focuses on (2) Clinical Psychology
learning difficulties of slow learners, exceptional
Clinical Psychology is concerned with the
as well as average children. They try to design
study, diagnosis and treatment of emotional and
intervention programs to develop motivation,
behavioural problems such as mental illness,
effective study habits and better classroom
marital and family conflict, drug addiction, severe
environment.
depression, alcoholism, delinquency etc. For
Educational psychologists are primarily the purpose of diagnosis, clinical psychologists
associated with schools, colleges and collect detailed information about the client by
universities. They conduct psychological tests using psychological tests, interviews of client
to provide guidance to students. They deal with and his significant others like family and friends.
behavioural issues of children such as learning They use appropriate psychotherapy to help the
disorder, hyperactivity, lack of concentration, client to deal with his problem.
ADHD etc.

15
The Clinical Psychologists either work in (4) Criminal Psychology
hospitals and community health centers or have
This branch is closely related with social
their private practice. This is the largest sub field
Psychology. Criminal psychologists are
of Psychology.
concerned with identifying the causes of crime,
studying personality of criminals, suggesting
preventive measures to control criminal
behaviour and implementing plans for criminal
rehabilitation. Criminal psychology deals with
the motives behind the criminal behaviour. They
play significant role in forensic department to
uncover the scene of crime by understanding
and interpreting the behavioural clues of
the criminals. They generally work with the
law enforcement department or the criminal
investigation department or social organisations
Fig. 2.5 Clinical Psychology
working for rehabilitation of criminals.
Activity 5 : Activity 7 :
Watch any movie like ‘Dear Zindagi’ and Watch any crime investigation series to
note down how a clinical psychologist helps understand the causes of criminal behaviour
the female character in the movie. and make a write up on it.

(3) Counselling Psychology (5) Sports Psychology

This field of Psychology is similar to clinical Sports Psychologists help sports persons to
Psychology but counselling psychologists maintain their motivation, stamina during actual
deal with milder behavioural problems. performance and also maintaining themselves
They offer guidance about adjustment issues when they are not on the field.
faced by a person. Counselling psychologists
will be involved with vocational and career They help players to maintain composure when
guidance. Some problems dealt by counselling they are working under pressure, help them to
psychologists are related to issues or difficulties maintain their emotional balance when they are
experienced by a person in studies, personal life going through a bad patch and guide them to
issues or workplace issues. maintain themselves when they are recovering
from personal injuries.
Activity 6 :
Activity 8 :
Can you think of at least one problem that
a counselling psychologist can find solutions Think of at least one problem that a sports
to, concerning the following areas? psychologist can find solutions to, concerning
the following areas.
1. Adjusting with peers
1. Improving team spirit
2. Adjusting with parents and siblings
2. Emotional management
3. Making decision about career
3. Improving self confidence

16
 Improve preparation
for a competitive event

Develop self- Increase motivation

awareness
Help managing emotions
Help managing stress
and anxiety Sports Improve well-being
Psychology
Teach relaxations Improve self-esteem
skills and self-confidence

Improve focus and Improve teamwork

concentration skills and team cohesion

Sports skills

Fig. 2.6 Sports Psychology : Goals

(6) Industrial Psychology Activity 9 :

Industrial psychology is concerned with 1. Talk to your parents / teachers and enlist
behaviour of people working in organization. the factors that give them satisfaction at their
They play important role in selection and work.
placement of employees, motivation, job 2. While buying something from market,
satisfaction, appraisals and grievances. They which factors affect your desires? Enlist
help to enhance motivation, group morale, these factors that influence your choice. For
leadership skills among the employees. example : advertisement, brands, etc.

Consumer psychology which is a branch of Now that we have seen the various branches of
industrial psychology deals with consumer Psychology, you may have got some idea about
behaviour, quality of products, brand loyalty and the fields and also possible opportunities for
influence of advertisement on purchasing. higher studies and employment. Let us now look
at how we could use Psychology for our own
betterment.

17
2.3 Careers in Psychology
Table 2 - Careers in Psychology

Psychological Fields Career Opportunities Description

(1) Counselling psychology (1) Educational counsellor Help to solve problems in
various fields of life.
(2) Vocational counsellor
(3) Marriage counsellor

(2) Educational psychology (1) School counsellor Work in schools and

educational fields. They
(2) Educational counsellor
assess and minimize student’s
learning problems.

(3) Clinical psychology (1) Clinical and counselling Work in hospitals, school
psychologist. for children with special
needs, social agencies and
(2) Psychoanalyst
independent private practice.
(3) Psychotherapist
(4) Psychiatric Nurse
(5) Rehabilitation
Psychologist
(6) Hypnotherapist

(4) Industrial / Organizational (1) Organisational Help in selection and evaluation

Psychology psychologist of employees, marketing of
products, Examine effects
(2) Consumer psychologist
of working conditions on
(3) Ergonomist (Human employee’s behaviour.
accessible tools making)

(5) Social psychology (1) Public Relation officer Deal with social fields.
They attempt to solve social
(2) Social welfare officer problems. Work in NGO.
(3) Labour welfare officer

(6) Sport psychology Sports counsellor Work in gyms, schools,

professional sport teams.
Help to improve confidence,
concentration and morale of
players.

18
(7) Rehabilitation psychology (1) Special educator Work for specially abled
persons. Help in disaster
(2) Rehabilitation management and rehabilitation.
psychologists Work in remand homes.
(3) Disaster management and
Rehabilitation officer.

(8) Child psychology (1) Child psychologists Focus on child development

work to solve the problem
(2) Women and child
related to children.
development

(3) Remand home
superintendent.

(9) Military psychology (1) Army Mental Health Working in selection of

Specialist officers. Improving morale
and Rehabilitation of people
(2) Army Psychologist
working in defence services.
(3) Navy Psychologist
(4) Air Force Psychologist
(5) Marine Psychologist

v v v

19
 Summary :
• Psychologists try to understand and help to address and resolve problems in today’s life.
Therefore many branches of psychology are emerging. For example : to understand and deal
with behavioural problems related to internet use, branch of Cyber Psychology has emerged .
• In theoretical branch, Developmental psychology discusses about various developmental
stages of human life.
Child psychology talks about changes that take place during childhood and behavioural
patterns of children. Social psychology tries to study effect of an individual on the group and
group’s effect on individual behaviour. Abnormal psychology discusses patterns, reasons and
remedies of abnormal behaviour. Experimental psychology studies patterns of fundamental
problems of human life.
• Applied field of psychology has contributed in a great way for better adjustment of human
being. E.g. Clinical psychology, Counselling psychology, School psychology. All psychologists
have their share in the welfare of human beings.

Key Terms :
• Developmental Psychology • Educational Psychology
• Child Psychology • Clinical Psychology
• Social Psychology • Counselling Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology • Sports Psychology
• Experimental Psychology • Criminal Psychology
• Abnormal Psychology • Industrial Psychology

Exercise
Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements 4. .................... Psychology is concerned with
1. The branches of Psychology which diagnosis and treatment of psychological
explore into relationships among different disorders.
variables and human behaviour are known a. Counselling b. Cognitive
as .................... Psychology. c. Clinical
a. Theoretical b. Applied
(B) Identify the odd item from the following.
c. Common
1. Experimental Psychology, Social
2. The study of human behaviour at work Psychology, Industrial Psychology,
place is the concern of ............. Psychology. Cognitive Psychology.
a. Social b. Industrial 2. Clinical psychology, Industrial
c. Experimental Psychology, Sports Psychology, Abnormal
3. One can study the problems of adolescence Psychology
in .....................
a. Developmental b. Social
c. Cognitive
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(C) Match the following pairs. Q. 3. Write Short Notes
A B 1. Clinical Psychology

1. Developmental a) studies organizations, 2. Cognitive Psychology

Psychology human factor design 3. Developmental psychology
and employee 4. Industrial Psychology
training
Q. 4.
Suggest appropriate branch of
2. Criminal b) studies how psychology related to the following
Psychology people become who situations
they are from 1. A husband and wife do not understand
conception to death each other so they keep fighting.
2. My friend’s father lost his job and he is in
3. Educational c) Studies thinking depression
Psychology process 3. A 5th standard student is unable to
concentrate
4. Industrial d) Helps educators to
4. I want to study the process of thinking and
Psychology promote learning
learning.
5. Social e) studies criminal 5. I want proper information about attitude,
prejudice or conflicts in a group.
Psychology behaviour
Q. 5. Answer the following questions in detail.
6. Cognitive f) studies the influence
Psychology of other people upon 1. Explain any five theoretical branches of
an individual’s Psychology.
behaviour. 2. Describe any five applied branches of
Psychology.
Q. 2. Compare and contrast
3. Write any five career opportunities in
1. Theoretical and Applied branches of
Psychology.
psychology.
2. Abnormal psychology and Clinical
Psychology

21
 3 Self
3.1 Introduction 3.5 Gender Identity and Gender Role
3.2 Dimensions of Self concept 3.6 Aspects of Self
3.3 Definition 3.7 Self regulation
3.4 Self and the Life cycle 3.8 Carl Rogers theory of self

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. develop an understanding about the concept of Self.
2. understand how does the concept of one’s self develop.
3. know the significance of self awareness, self image, self efficacy and self esteem.
4. identify the ways of self regulation.
5. understand Rogers theory of self.

Activity 1 : 3.2 Dimensions of self concept

Complete the following sentences
Your answers to specific questions related to
Who are you? self concept can be unique and different but the
My favourite activity is… overall organization of self concept is common
I am good at…. for all. When Rentsch and Heffener (1994) asked
I would like to be ….. 20 questions to 200 university students, they
found that there were eight categories by which
The most important thing about me is …..
the participants defined themselves. Some of the
I am……….. .
categories are concerned with personal attributes,
such as interpersonal characteristics (‘I am a
3.1 Introduction
student’ or ‘I am the team leader of my class’),
While answering the first activity, we all will interest (‘I like psychology’, or ‘I like dancing’),
be aware of the fact that we all are part of most personal beliefs (‘I am against honour killing’ or
complicated world. We play many roles as a ‘I am against child abuse’) and self awareness
son, daughter, student, teacher, friend, pal. We
(‘I am a good person’ or ‘I don’t get angry without
could answer these questions in many ways.
The sum total of these answers could define valid reason’).Others referred to our social
our uniqueness. This is called as self concept. environment such as ascribed characteristics
It includes our thoughts and feelings about (‘I am a citizen of India’) or social differentiation
ourselves and others, our behavioural patterns, that is how we differ from others (‘I am from
our beliefs, our emotional make-up and so on.
another country’ or ‘ I am from another part of
Our self concept develops rapidly during early
childhood and adolescence, it continues to India’). The point here is that ‘who am I ?’ has
form and change throughout our life span as we many meanings for us.
change.
22
Activity 2 : 3.4 Self and the life cycle
(1) Make statements about yourself
by using categories of Rentsch and On an average, till the age of six months the child
Heffener model. is unaware of himself. As the child grows, he
(2) Tally these statements with your starts making distinction between his own body
parents, teachers and friends. and everything else. He develops distinction
(3) Find out whether their thinking matches between ‘me’ and ‘what is not me’. Slowly, he
with the statements about yourself. realizes that he is different from the rest of the
world.
(4) If there is discrepancy between their
opinion and your self image, would
you like to do anything about it? When psychologists conducted a simple
experiment of recognizing oneself in mirror
3.3 Definition with a simple technique of placing a mark which
can’t be seen without mirror. Then, when the
The self concept is our total image of us. It is
our total picture of our abilities and traits. It is subject faced with mirror they tend to touch the
basically cognitive construct which determines mark on their face. (Gallop, 1977a). In normal
how we feel about ourselves and guides our children, face recognition with mirror occurs at
actions (Harter, 1996). the average age of one and half years (Lewis and
Self concept is defined as the totality of Ramsay, 2004) They are capable of pretend play
perceptions each person has of themselves. like they may pretend to feed their baby doll.
OR The totality of complex organized and When they start recognizing themselves they
dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and
start using personal pronoun like I,me, mine.
opinions that each person holds to be true about
his or her personal existence (Purkey, 1988).
By the age of 2, the child becomes aware of
According to Symonds (1957) It is the way general expectations like what is good and
individual reacts to himself. There are four
bad behaviour. They will smile when others
aspects. (1) How a person perceives himself.
(2) what he thinks about himself. (3) How he are smiling at them and frown when others are
values himself. (4) How he enhances or defends getting angry with them. They are developing
himself. a sense of themselves by comparing them with
the standard role model. This is beginning of
Activity 3 :
self esteem.
(1) Make a list of your strength and
weaknesses. By the age of three, they start recognizing
(2) Chart a plan about how and where you themselves and others as boys or girls. Between
can use your strengths and how you the age of 3-12, the self concepts are based on
can overcome your weaknesses.
developing talents and skills. Child thinks of
(3) If someone criticizes you, how will you himself as what he can do or what he can’t do.
react to the situation? Say for example, Such as he can sing, he can draw or he can travel
off hand comment on your dressing
alone. At this age, the self concept is defined
sense or your presentation in the class.
mainly in terms of sex, age, family and what
(4) How can you avoid a clash while
child believes he or she can or can’t do.
expressing your opinion about it?

23
When the schooling starts at the age of 5-6, You may say that ‘this girl is so masculine’
child begins to compare himself or herself such or you may observe a boy who is interested
as ‘I am intelligent, smart, faster than others’. in artistic things or nursing, cooking, caring
This is beginning of social comparison. etc. Here, people may give loose comments
Also during this stage, children learn that they like ‘the boy is so girly’ which may make the
can lie and keep secrets. There is hidden side person very uncomfortable. Remember, there is
of self which includes thoughts, feelings and nothing wrong if a man takes up feminine role
desires which parents are unaware of. This or woman behaves in a masculine way. You may
development of private self- concept is major notice that some men like Pt. Birjoo Maharaj,
but often difficult developmental stage in the Sanjeev Kapoor or Vikram Gaikwad are famous
growth of self concept. It may start out with in female dominated areas. Or females like
some imaginary friend, someone only they can Phogat sisters, Kalpana Chawla, Kiran Bedi,
hear or see. (Please watch the Hollywood film Avani Chaturvedi (first Indian fighter pilot) are
Bogus on YouTube). A child may not share this successful in male dominated areas. Here, we
information with others. can conclude that gender based roles are diluting
now. Society is approving and accepting these
Final unfolding of self concept during changes with open mind which is reflecting in
adolescence involves perspective taking advertisements also like a father is getting his
that is, they are able to think and understand daughter ready for the school or a man is doing
other’s point of view. This is the main reason dish washing at home.
why teenagers become self conscious and why
they are very cautious about their appearance. Now let us discuss some more concepts which
They might enter into the stage of objective self are related to self concept….
awareness where they want to become center of
attraction and popular. Many adolescents accept 3.6 Aspects of Self
group’s mannerisms and behaviour patterns for
There are four major aspects of self. They are
the sake of this need.
self awareness, self image, self efficacy and self
esteem.
3.5 Gender identity and gender role
(A) Self Awareness :
Gender role and gender identity are important This is a component of self concept. It is the
aspects of self-concept. ‘Gender identity’ and quality or trait that involves conscious awareness
‘Gender role’ are two different concepts . Gender of one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviours and traits.
identity is biological one. It is the perception of (Cherry, 2018A). To have proper self concept,
oneself as male or female. The sex chromosome one must have some level of self awareness. It
determines whether the child will be boy or a is the understanding that a person has separate
girl. identity from others. According to Piaget,
‘Gender role’ is an acquired attribute which self consciousness starts emerging between
is psycho-social by nature. Gender role is 15-24 months. Self awareness is necessary
determined by family atmosphere, cultural before the child becomes aware of being a focus
influences where the child learns through of attention so that he can understand what
observation and imitation. Sometimes, you may others are feeling. Because on this basis they can
notice a girl behaving assertively by leading the differentiate between something that belongs to
group and by taking firm decisions. them and something that belongs to others.
24
 Table no. 1
Activity 4 :
Specific steps to develop a positive self-image
Place your name in the centre. Choose five
different aspects of your identity and write • Make a list of your positive qualities.
each of them in the identity circles provided.
• Ask your parents, friends to describe
your positive qualities.

• Define personal goals and objectives that

are achievable.

• Try to overcome illogical, irrational

thinking.

• Avoid comparing yourself to others.

• Develop your strengths.

• Learn to love yourself.

• Give positive affirmations.

• Remember that you are unique.

Fig. 3.1 Self Awareness • Remember how you have dealt with
problems of your life.
Make a list of 5 strengths and 5 weaknesses
of yours. Discuss how can you convert your
weaknesses into strengths.

(B) Self Image :

Self image is a personal view or mental picture

that we have of ourselves. Self image is an
internal dictionary that describes an individual
including things such as intelligent, beautiful,
ugly, talented, selfish or kind. It is a collection
of assets (strengths) and liabilities (weaknesses)
of an individual.

Self image is dynamic and changing. We can

develop healthier and accurate view of ourselves.
A healthy self image starts with learning to
accept and love ourselves. It will also include Fig. 3.1 Self Image
being accepted and loved by others.

25
Body image is a part of self-image. Our body Table no. 2
image includes more than what we look like or Characteristics of self efficacy
how others see us. It also refers to how do we
think, feel, and react to our physical attributes. Characteristics of high self efficacy
For example, a normal girl till the age of 25, • Self confidence
Anagha Modak, became visually challenged
• Accurate self evaluation
after attack of dengue, is now successful compere
in Marathi who is positively and confidently • Willingness to take risks
helping others to look at life more positively. • Sense of accomplishment

Body image development is affected by cultural Characteristics of low self efficacy

images and the influence of family, peers, and
• Fear of risks
others. A positive body image contributes
to enhanced psychological adjustment (less • Fear of uncertainty
depression, positive self-worth, life satisfaction, • Fear of failure
less interpersonal anxiety, fewer eating • Impression management
disorders). Distortions in our thinking contribute
to a negative body image which will lead to How self efficacy can be improved?
maladjustment. • Develop skills
(B) Self Efficacy : • Accept role model and follow him/her
regarding that particular activity.
Self efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to
• Ask others to give specific and
accomplish some specific goal or a task. It depends
constructive feedback
on his trust in his own competency. Competence
can vary from one situation to another. Say for • Reinforce yourself.
example, a teenager’s self efficacy may be high • Use verbal persuasion by a counsellor
in Psychology but his self efficacy may be low • Learn various techniques to control
in mathematics. Maddux (2002) defined it as your arousal which is lowering your
performance for example : meditation,
‘what I believe I can do with my skills under
mindfulness, biofeedback, hypnosis,
certain conditions’. There are two factors related relaxation.
to it, one is Outcome expectancies means the
skills required to complete the goal and efficacy
Activity 5 :
expectancies is person’s analysis about whether
he has those capacities. Self efficacy is based Refer to Table no. 2 and evaluate yourself on
on Social cognitive theory holds that humans characteristics of high self efficacy and low
self efficacy . In a group of friends, think and
actively shape their lives rather than passively discuss about various ways of improving self
reacting to environment (Barone, Maddux and efficacy. Make a note of it and share it on
Snyder,1997). college notice board.

26
More recently, Chen et al. (2001) have (D) Self – esteem :
developed an 8 - item New General Self-Efficacy
Self esteem is general evaluation of an
Scale.
individual along a dimension. For example, good-
Table no. 3 bad or like – dislike. According to Seligman, self
esteem is ‘your overall evaluation of your worth
Using 5 - point rating scale, show how much as a person, high or low, based on all positive
you agree with the following statements: and negative self perceptions’. Self esteem is
respect one has for himself. An individual may
1 = strongly disagree; have various levels of self esteem like a girl may
have high self esteem about her intelligence but
2 = disagree; she may have low self esteem while talking to
the strangers . (we have discussed this topic into
3 = neither agree nor disagree; detail in chapter number 5).

4 = agree; Table no. 4

Characteristics of self esteem
5 = strongly agree.
Characteristics of high self esteem
1. I will be able to achieve most of the goals
that I set for myself. • Responsibility
• Goal commitment
2. When facing difficult tasks, I am certain
• Genuineness and forgiving
that I will accomplish them.
• Internal values
3. In general, I think that I can obtain • Positivity
outcomes that are important to me.
• Self improvement
4. I believe I can succeed at most any
Characteristics of low self esteem
endeavour to which I set my mind.
• Feeling of unhappiness
5. I will be able to successfully overcome • Feeling of anxiety
many challenges.
• Feeling of superiority or inferiority
6. I am confident that I can perform • Impatience with self or others
effectively on many different tasks. • Externally oriented goals
7. Compared to other people, I can do most • Negativity
tasks very well.
How self esteem can be improved?
8. Even when things are tough, I can • Eliminate negative self talk
perform quite well. • Recognize your strengths
Key for interpretation- 40- 32 means high on • Recognize self worth
self efficacy,31-24 is average on self efficacy • Accept mistakes
and below 24 is low on self efficacy . • Accept rejection

27
 Self regulation has crucial implication in our
Activity 6 :
life and our brains are evolved that way.
Refer to table number 4 and evaluate yourself Heatherton (2011) identifies important
on characteristics of high self esteem and low psychological components that helps us to stay
self esteem. Discuss with your friends about socially connected. First, we must be aware of
how you can raise your self esteem. How our actions and at least be able to evaluate it.
you can improve yourself. How you can cut Secondly, we must be able to predict other’s
reaction to it. Here, we are aware of what
down the qualities related to low self esteem.
others will think, this capacity develops during
Narrate in a write up.
childhood. Third, we must detect any kind of
After discussing various aspects of self, now threat or rejection from others. Finally, we
you must be wondering how we can regulate must do something constructive to improve the
situation. Such as establishing good relations
ourselves. Let us discuss…
with others. Here we have control over our
3.7 Self Regulation actions, control over acting on our impulse and
even avoid nasty thoughts, which is not at all
Is being able to control our thoughts, feelings easy.
and actions for our benefit. Here we are behaving
Activity 7 :
according to social norms. We must take care
that our behaviour should not disturb our college Based on Heatherton model, narrate a
atmosphere, and our relationship with others. situation of your life where you have gone
When you regulate yourself, you will not react through all these situations and how you
impulsively or you will stop or control yourself could handle the situation. If you were
from immediate satisfaction of desire. unsuccessful in handling the situation, how
you will improve next time?
Self regulation involves monitoring our actions
and reactions because we can predict or imagine To understand the concept of self better, let us
the consequences. It also involves focusing on discuss at least one theory like
certain parts of life and ignoring some other
part for some time. For example As your exams 3.8 Carl Rogers theory of self
are nearing, you will stop spending time with
your friends and focus on your studies. Higgins, According to Rogers, every individual has
(1996) research on regulatory focus shows that tendency to actualize himself. According to
people either have promotion regulatory focus Rogers, mentally healthy individuals have
or prevention regulatory focus. People either congruence between their experience and
focus on achieving positive outcomes or they their self concept. Neurotic individuals deny
don’t do anything in order to prevent negative awareness of their sensory and emotional
outcome. People from East Asian culture tend experience. For example, if a mentally healthy
to focus on preventive form of self regulation, student is facing failure in exams, he will find
attempting to avoid negative reactions from out the reasons and will try to overcome his
others (Hamamura and Heine, 2008) That may weakness. But those who deny this experience
mean that we all study because we don’t want and are incongruent with it, may accept escapist
scolding and taunts from our parents, relatives attitude, may give false excuses and will not
and friends. accept his failure and blame others for it.

28
There are two important concepts related to If ideal self and real self are similar, our self
this : concept is accurate. High congruence between
real self and ideal self leads to greater sense of
Real self (self image) is what we actually are. It self worth and a healthy productive life. When
is very important for good psychological health. there is large gap or incongruence between them,
A teenager may perceive himself as beautiful or it leads to maladjustment.
ugly, good or bad person. Self image directly
When we try to achieve our full potential. we
affects how a person feels, thinks and acts in
strive to be fully functioning individuals. These
this world. Real self has tendency to actualize
people are self actualized . Self actualization
himself, organismic valuing needs and receives means people recognize and explore their own
positive regard and self regard. Real self is our potential. They are well balanced, well adjusted
inner personality. It may not be perfect but it is and interesting to know (McLeod, 2007). For
our real part (Grice, 2007). (Rogers, 1959) a person who has high self worth
can cope with challenges of life, tolerate failure
Ideal self is what we want to be. For example,
and sadness at times and is open to people.
a girl may want to be a dancer or a boy may
An individual with low self worth may avoid
want to be a cricketer. It represents our dynamic
challenges, can’t tolerate troubles and distress.
ambitions and goals. By Ideal self, Rogers Now ask yourself, how you will prefer to see
meant some goals which are beyond our reach. yourself? If you plan to develop proper self
This may result in the gap between real self and concept, use the information given in this chapter
ideal self. and develop your appropriate self concept.

Incongruent Congruent

Self-Image Ideal-Self Self- Ideal-Self

Image

The self-image is different to the ideal self. The self-image is similar to the ideal self.

There is only a little overlap. There is a more overlap.

Here self-actualisation will be difficult. This person can self-actualize.

v v v

29
Summary :
• Self concept is defined as the totality of perceptions each person has of himself. It is how
a person perceives, thinks and values himself and how he enhances or defends himself. It
begins to form as an infant starts distinguishing his body from the rest of everything he sees.
Gradually, he continues to identify his gender, his talents and abilities in childhood. The
child also learns to hide certain things about himself. This hidden side of self which includes
thoughts, feelings and desires of which others are unaware. This is his private self- concept.
During adolescence they are able to think and understand other’s point of view. They enter
into the stage of objective self awareness.
• Self awareness is the quality or trait that involves conscious awareness of one’s thoughts,
feelings, behaviours and traits.
• Self image is a personal view or mental picture that we have of ourselves. Self image is an
internal dictionary that describes an individual including things such as intelligent, beautiful,
ugly, talented selfish and kind. It is collection of the strengths and weaknesses of an individual.
• Self efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to accomplish some specific goal or a task. It
depends on his trust in his own competency.
• Self esteem is an overall evaluation of one’s own worth as a person, high or low, based on all
positive and negative self perceptions.
• Self-regulation is being able to control our thoughts,feelings and actions according to the
social norms.
• According to Rogers, every individual has tendency to actualize himself. Mentally healthy
individuals have congruence between their experience and their self concept. Real self is what
we actually are. It is very important for psychological health. Ideal self is what we want to
be. High congruence between real self and ideal self leads to greater sense of self worth and
a healthy life. Lack of congruence between the real and the ideal self leads to maladjustment.

Key Terms : Key Psychologists :

• Self Concept Carl Rogers (1902- 1987)
• Ideal Self Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was an American
psychologist who took the humanistic approach to
• Real Self psychotherapy which was nondirective and client
• Self Actualization centered. According to Rogers, every individual
has tendency to actualize himself. According
• Self Esteem to Rogers, mentally healthy individuals have
• Self Efficacy congruence between their experience and their
self concept. Self image directly affects how a
• Self Awareness person feels, thinks and acts in this world. Real
self has tendency to actualize himself, organismic
• Self Image
valuing needs and receives positive regard and
• Self Regulation self regard

30
 Exercise

Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements (B) State whether the following statements
are True or False and give reason for
1. The Self concept begins to form when your answer.
.....................
1. Congruence between the Real self and
a. a one and half year old child recognizes Ideal Self is an indicator of good mental
her image in the mirror. health.
b. an infant is able to distinguish his body
2. Namrata aspires to become a pilot but she
from the rest in his surrounding.
should not be encouraged because one
c. a child recognizes his/herself as a boy must choose a profession appropriate to
or a girl their gender.

2. According to Carl Rogers, every individual 3. People with a high self esteem are not
strives for ..................... necessarily the ones who are always
successful.
a. Achievement
4. Accepting mistakes helps improving self
b. Self actualization
esteem.
c. Status in society
5. Self awareness is a necessary attribute to
3. Self esteem is a sense of self worth that have a healthy self concept.
depends upon ....................
6. To have a healthy self concept implies to
a. Actual performance of an individual be a highly capable person.
b. Self perception of one’s own
(C) Identify the odd item from the following:
performance
c. Other people’s perception of one’s 1. Goal-orientation, Internal values, Feeling
performance of superiority, Positivity

2. Fear of risks, Fear of uncertainty, Self

4. Ability to monitor our actions and feelings,
confidence, Impression management
is called .....................
3. Self indulgence, Self awareness, Self
a. Self regulation
efficacy, Self esteem
b. Self awareness
c. Self efficacy.

31
(D) Match the following pairs. Q. 3. Compare and contrast
A B 1. Ideal self -- Real Self

1. Rentsch and a) A sense of self 2. Private Self -- Objective Self Awareness

Heffener model worth 3. People with High Self-esteem -- People
2. Carl Rogers b) Monitoring with low Self esteem
one’s own
Q. 4. How will you deal with the following
actions
situations if it were you in those
3. Congruence c) Confidence in situations
between ideal one’s own a) Grishma thinks she is extremely good-
and real self abilities to looking;which is not true in reality; she
complete a task aspires to become a star model.
4. Self esteem d) Categories of b) Harshad is avoiding places where he has to
self concept meet many people as he wears spectacles
and he has got lot of pimples.
5. Self regulation e) Fully
functioning c) Sushma is too short so she does not mix
person with others.

6. Self efficacy f) Good mental Q. 5. Write short notes in 50-60 words each.
health
1. Gender role
Q. 2. Answer the following questions in
2. Carl Rogers’ theory of Self
around 35-40 words each.
1. How do we develop a concept of our ‘self’ 3. Self Efficacy
as we grow? 4. Self Awareness
2. Explain the sex-identity and sex-role as a
5. Self Esteem
part of the self concept.
3. What are the ways in which we can achieve 6. Self Regulation
congruence between the Ideal self and the
Real self? Q. 6. Answer the following questions in 150-
4. Why is the congruence between the ideal 200 words.
self and the real self is very significant to 1. Give a detailed account of development of
enjoy psychological wellbeing?
an individual’s Self concept through the
5. What is meant by self esteem? stages of life.
6. Describe the characteristics of individuals
with high self esteem. 2. Explain the theory of Self as proposed by
7. What are the ways to improve one’s self Carl Rogers.
esteem? Give example.
8. What are the characteristics of individuals
with self efficacy? Give examples.
9. What is self image?
10. What are the ways to regulate Self? Give
examples
32
 4 Human Development

4.1 Introduction : Concept of Human 4.4 Developmental Stages

Development
4.4.1 Prenatal Stages
4.2 Characteristics of Development
4.4.2 Postnatal Stages
4.3 Growth, Maturation and
Development

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. know what is human development.
2. understand human development and other parallel concepts.
3. understand the stages of human development with specific characteristics, problems and
developmental tasks at each of them.
4. relate the principles of development in day to day life.

4.1 Introduction : Concept of Human Development

In this chapter, we shall discuss the definition, characteristics of development and parallel concepts.

The term ‘Human Development’ means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of
maturation and experience.

Human life proceeds in stages. The life of the individual is real and significant just as the
geographical age of the earth or the revolutionary stages of life. Each stage is distinguished by a
dominant feature, a leading characteristic which gives the period its coherence, its unity and its
uniqueness.

33
 Proximodistal development also describes the
4.2 Characteristics of Development
direction of development. This means that the
1. Development follows a specific spinal cord develops before outer parts of the
pattern : body. The child’s arms develop before the hands
and the hands and feet develop before the fingers
Every species follows a specific pattern and and toes.
sequence of development. Specific pattern
follows in prenatal and postnatal development 3. Development is continuous :
of human being. e.g. all babies learn to turn
One stage of development lays the foundation
over, crawl, stand and then walk. They may
for the next stage of development. There are
skip a particular stage, but the order or pattern
various stages of human life span that is prenatal,
will remain the same. Specific pattern follows
infancy, early childhood, late childhood and
in behavioural development also. For example,
adolescence, early youth, adulthood and old age.
in language development child first makes some
But the rate of development is not same for all
sounds, then babbles and starts speaking some
stages.
words and sentences. Sexual development starts
at a specific age. There is certain pattern to the 4. Development proceeds from general to
development. specific :

2. Development takes place in specific The infant’s first motor movements are very
direction : generalized, like reflexes and non-directional
waving arms or kicking before being able to
Development takes place during prenatal and
reach or crawl towards an object. Child uses his
postnatal stage. There are two principles of
full hand before developing finger dexterity.
development.
5. There are individual differences in
(1) Cephalocaudal principle of
development :
development :
Although the patterns and sequences for growth
Development proceeds from the head to toe. and development are usually the same for all
This is called the Cephalocaudal principle. This children, the rate at which every individual
principle describes the direction of growth and reaches that stage is different. Some individuals
development. According to this principle, the attain a particular stage very early where as some
child gains control of the head first, then the of them mature late.
arms and then the legs. Infants develop control
of the head and face movements within first two 6. The rate of development is different for
months after birth. different body part :

(2) Proximodistal principle of Child first develops control over his neck, then
development : raises his head resting on chest, then sits, crawls
and finally starts walking.
Development proceeds from the centre of
the body to outward. This is the principle of

34
 Table No. 1
An Overview of Growth, Development, Maturation

Concept Growth Development Maturation

• It is quantitative change • It is qualitative change • It is species specific

behaviour
• It is physical • It is physical as well • Maturational changes
Characteristics • Perceived in size and as mental are genetic by nature
weight • Perceived through • Maturation events
• It is part of development behaviour cannot be speeded
• It is all inclusive up by special efforts

7. Development leads to integration :

4.3 Development : parallel concepts :
Physical and mental growth does not take place Growth, Maturation and Development
simultaneously. For example, we suddenly
notice child’s teeth but that does not mean that he Growth, Maturation and Development :
is grown up. Child starts producing sounds first, In order to understand meaning of human
then mono syllable, then words, the sentences development, we need to understand its
and then complex sentences. parallel concepts i.e. growth, maturation and
development. Growth refers to the physical
8. Behavioural problems are normal for
changes like increase in size, weight etc as the
the particular stage :
age advances.
Children have certain behavioural patterns in
every developmental stage. Any variation in that Maturation refers to a natural unfolding of
necessarily need not be labelled as abnormal. the genetic potential at appropriate time in the
Sometimes some behaviour perceived by parents course of development. These characteristics
as problem behaviour may subside with age. show up naturally and they are not dependent
on environment or training. e.g. approximately
9. Development is predictable : around 12 months infant starts walking.
The rate of development is fairly constant for Development results from an interaction
every child. This shows that it is possible to
between maturation and exposure to training and
predict development of a child.
environmental factors.
10. The child develops as a unified whole :
Developmental psychologist study the
Physical and mental development and characteristics and patterns of developmental
sociocultural factors like family, peers, stages. Here we are going to study various
school, influence each other and in turn affect developmental stages.
development of that individual as a whole.

35
 4.4 Developmental Stages (c) Fetal stage :
The fetal period is marked by more important
4.4.1 Prenatal Stages changes in the brain. This period of development
begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth.
A period between conception till birth is called The body parts and structures established in the
prenatal period. The duration of this is period embryonic stage continue to develop during this
is 238 to 290 day. During this period major stage.
developmental changes take place and that too
The characteristics of prenatal stages are as
in a very rapid manner. This development goes follows :
through three stages : Germinal stage, Embryonic
stage and Fetal stage. (i) Heredity serves as the foundation for later
development.
(a) Germinal Stage :
(ii) Favourable conditions in the mother’s
This stage ranges from conception to 2 weeks. womb can foster development of hereditary
Within few hours after conception, the single potentials while unfavourable conditions
fertilized cell called as zygote starts a journey can block their development. It may distort
down the Fallopian tube to the uterus where it the pattern of future development
will begin the process of cell duplication. In this (iii) Sex determination takes place during first
process zygote divides itself into two cells, then three months of life.
goes on duplicating itself. By the end of this
(iv) Proportionally faster growth and
period zygote gets attached to the wall of uterus. development takes place during the
(b) Embryonic stage : prenatal period as compared to an
individual’s entire life.
At this point, the mass of cells is known as an
embryo. This period starts from the third week (v) If proper care of the mother is not taken,
after conception and continues till the 9th week. it may lead to physical and psychological
It is a time when the mass of cells becomes hazards to the unborn child.
distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays
an important role in the development of the 4.4.2 Postnatal Stages
brain. Almost all the internal as well as external
organs are developed by the end of this period. (a) Neonatal Stage :

From birth to two weeks period is called

neonatal stage. During this period, newborn
starts adjusting with the external environment.
For example, outside temperature. The neonate
sleeps for around 18 to 20 hours.

The characteristics of neonatal stage are as

follows :

(i) Neonatal stage is the shortest of all

developmental periods

(ii) Neonatal stage is the time of radical

Fig. 4.1 Embryo adjustment

36
(iii) Neonatal stage can be a hazardous period, (c) Early Childhood :
both physically and psychologically.
Physically because the neonate has to This stage extends from 2 years to about
make radical adjustments to the new and 6 years. This age is also called preschool age.
different environment and psychologically Child develops control over his muscles. Child
because it is the time when the attitudes of becomes physically independent. The physical
significant people towards the neonate will territory of the child increases, so automatically
have an effect on his development.
child learns about social behaviour. Child asks
(b) Infancy : number of questions to others. Hence this age
This stage ranges between 2 week after birth is called as ‘questioning age’ or the ‘age of
to 2 years. During this stage rapid physical and curiosity’.
motor development takes place. Within 2 months
child can turn his head. Child can sit and walk
with support by 9 months. Child starts walking
independently by around 12th months of age.

Fig. 4.3 Child in nursery

Fig. 4.2 Infant The characteristics of Early Childhood are as

The characteristics of infancy are as follows : follows :

(i) Infancy is a foundation age because many (i) Parents call this age as toy age as children
behavioural patterns, attitudes, emotions
play with toys.
develops during this age.
(ii) There is rapid growth and changes. (ii) Educators called this age as preschool age
These change are qualitative as well as as the child starts going to preschool.
quantitative.
(iii) Infancy is an age of independence due (iii) Psychologists term this age as pre-gang
to control on body movements which age as in earlier stage the child plays
enables infant to sit, stand and walk and to alone, does not share his toys but now he
manipulate the objects. starts mixing around.
(iv) As a result of developed interests and
abilities, infancy is the age of increased (iv) They experience stranger anxiety or
individuality. separation anxiety.
(v) Infancy is the beginning of socialization,
as infant goes from being asocial to social.
37
(d) Late Childhood :

This stage ranges between 6 years to 11 years

of age. According to psychologists this age is
also called as the ‘gang age’. During this stage
boys and girls make their separate gangs. The
fundamental skills of reading, writing, and
calculations develop at this age.

According to educationalists this is the age of

skill development. During this stage, speed of
Fig. 4.4 Adolescents in a group
development is slow. At this stage eye-hand
co-ordination develops along with micro skills. Hold on, you have reached adolescence.
Even cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning, Age between late childhood and youth is
start developing. called adolescence. This age ranges between
12-13 years to 19-20 years. During this age
The characteristics of Late Childhood are as rapid physical development takes place. This
follows : stage begins with puberty. Height and weight
of adolescent increases. Menarche in girls and
(i) For many parents, late childhood is the nocturnal emission in boys occur. This is due
troublesome age. As they are curious by to maturation of sex organs. Secondary sex
nature, they experiment with new ideas. characteristics develop during this stage like
They are not satisfied with lame answers. breast development among girls, growth of
moustache and pubic hair among boys and their
(ii) Educators regard late childhood as a voice becomes hoarse.
critical period in the achievement drive.
At this point, search for identity and independence
(iii) For psychologists, late childhood is the develops. Thoughts are more logical, abstract
gang age. and idealistic. Adolescents like to spend more
time with their friends.
(e) Adolescence :
Some other adjustment problems faced by
Have you ever noticed that adolescents.

• Your friend has suddenly started gaining (1) Internet addiction :

weight. Adolescents are indulging more in social
• Girls and boys in your group have started media like whatsapp and face book and in online
becoming more conscious about their games which in turn leads to problems like lack
of concentration and social interaction.
looks and appearance.
• Suddenly your friend starts talking about (2) College drop outs :
his or her crush. Some students may leave college before
completing their graduation due to financial
• You feel like having a girlfriend or
problems or problems in academics.
boyfriend.
38
(3) Identity crisis : feeling of sadness, loss or grief. Sometimes,
they feel so hopeless that they stop following
Adolescents are confused about who they are
normal routine .
as they are neither child nor adult. Parents treat
them differently in different situations. Depression could be due to genetic and
environmental factors. Environmental factors
Some adolescents pursue psychological
like parental over expectations, unhealthy
moratorium. A period in which they take time
competition, peer pressure, unpopularity,
off from upcoming responsibility of adulthood
having less number of friends, getting bullied ,
to explore various roles and possibilities.
rejection are associated with depression
James Marcia’s Approach to Identity
(5) Suicide :
development-
The rate of adolescent suicide is higher for boys
(A) Identity foreclosure :
although girls attempt suicide more frequently
Here adolescent just accepts others decision than boys. In case of boys, it is more fatal as they
about what is best for them. For example : a use violent means to commit suicide .
doctor’s son becomes a doctor. Such adolescents
Social inhibition, perfectionism and high level
are happy and self satisfied. They have need for
of stress and anxiety also create higher risk of
self approval. They tend to be authoritarian.
suicidal attempts.
(B) Identity diffusion :
Here adolescents neither explore nor commit Activity 1 :
to the alternatives. Such people are socially Warning signals of suicide
withdrawn. They appear carefree but their lack
of commitment impairs their ability to form • Look for such signs among your
close relationships. friends/ classmates and if someone has
such signs, talk to them. Encourage
Some adolescents shift among all the four them to talk to Psychology teacher/
categories but for most of them identity gels in school counsellor.
late teens and early twenties.
• If a friend talks like ‘I wish I was dead’
(C) Moratorium : or ‘I am worthless, I must die’.
Here adolescents explore some alternatives but • A friend is missing classes or there is
make no commitments .They experience high decline in his grades.
anxiety and psychological conflict. They are
lively and appealing and seek intimacy with • Giving away important possessions
others. like their favourite pen to others.

(D) Identity Achievement : • Writing a will.

Here adolescents explore and search through • Loss of appetite or excessive eating.
what they are and what they do. Teens who have • Change in sleeping patterns , slowness,
reached this stage tends to be psychologically lethargy and reduced communication.
healthier, higher in achievement, motivation and
moral reasoning. • Dramatic changes in behavioural
patterns such as shy person becoming
(4) Depression : outgoing.
When adolescents experience break up in • Preoccupation with sad music,art or
relationship, failure in exams or in particular literature.
activity or death of loved one, they experience

39
 The characteristics of Adulthood are as
Do you know this?
follows:
World suicide prevention day is observed
on 10th September every year in order to (i) Adulthood is the age of settling-down.
provide world wide commitment and action Once they are legally mature they have to
to prevent suicides with various activities shoulder their own responsibility.
around the world. This activity is observed
since 2003. (ii) Adulthood is the reproductive age.

The characteristics of Adolescence are as (iii) Problems faced in this stage are different
follows : from problems faced at earlier age.

(i) Adolescence is an important period (iv) An adult tries to establish himself in life
because this period has its immediate and as a result he experiences tension.
effect on attitudes and behaviour of an
adolescent. (v) As they start working and get married they
don’t get time to mingle around with their
(ii) Adolescence is a transitional period,
friends like earlier.
as it is a bridge between childhood and
adulthood. (vi) They have to adjust to new patterns of life.
(iii) Adolescence is a period of physical
(vii) Adulthood is a time of changed experiences,
changes.
change in value system.
(iv) Adolescence is an age of challenges,
because during childhood, majority (viii) Early adulthood is the time of adjustment
of problems are solved by parents and to new lifestyle.
teachers but an adolescent wants to be
(g) Late adulthood :
independent.
(v) Adolescence is a time for searching one’s This period range between 40 years to 60 years
own identity. of life. It is the time of more responsibilities.
They assists next generation to be competent.
(vi) Adolescence is a time of unrealistic ideas. The capacity of reproduction starts declining.
They have a tendency to look at life Mental and physical capacities slowly start
through rose-tinted glasses and they day declining.
dream a lot. As a result they face problem
of lack of concentration. The characteristics of Late adulthood are as
follows :
(vii) Adolescence is a threshold of adulthood.
(f) Adulthood : (i) Late adulthood is a dreaded period, due to
mental and physical deterioration.
This stage ranges between 21 years to 40 years.
During this period personal career choice and (ii) Late adulthood is a time of transition, where
economic independence are the prime concerns men and women leave their physical and
for a young adult. At this stage individual behavioural characteristics of adulthood.
tries to settle in his life. Men and women take
responsibility of their families and start earning (iii) Late adulthood is a time of stress, as there
money. They plan for earning money, having is radical financial burden.
children, gaining place in society during this
stage.
40
(iv) Individual may experience nervous The characteristics of Old Age are as follows :
breakdown due to overwork, anxiety etc.
(i) Old age is a period of decline in physical
(v) Late adulthood is a time of achievement. and mental capacities.
Erikson says that at this age people get
experiences and society expect them to be (ii) There are individual differences in the
more constructive. impact of aging.

(vi) Late adulthood is a time of evaluation, (iii) Old age is judged by different criteria like
where they evaluate themselves by their society tends to judge age in terms of physical
achievements and previous aspirations. appearance and activities.
(vii) Late adulthood is the time of Empty Nest, (iv) There are many stereotypes about old
as children go out for higher education, people.
job or get married.
(v) Most stereotypes area unfavourable.
(h) Old Age :
(vi) Elderly people have a minority-group
This stage ranges between 60 years to death. status.
During this stage individual perceives that his
(vii) Aging requires role changes
capacities and strengths are declining gradually.
Individual faces certain health issues. An (viii) Adjustment is poor during old age.
individual has to adjust to his environment. In
some cases, death of spouse leads to loneliness. (ix) The desire to be young is seen in old age.

Fig. 4.5 Life span : from infancy to old age

41
 Table No. 2
Stages of development

Name of the Duration of

Characteristics
stage Development
Prenatal Conception to • Child is completely dependent on mother for nourishment.
Stage Birth • Rapid development of physical systems and organs.
• Child is still dependent.
Neonatal Birth to 2 weeks
• Development of initial reflexes.

2 weeks to • Motor, Cognitive and psychosocial development.

Infancy
2 years • Rapid physical development.

• Physical development is comparatively slow.

Early 2 years to • Increase in cognitive and linguistic development.
Childhood 6 years • Beginning of Socialization.
• Change in adjustment ability, gang age.
• School provides opportunity for overall development.
Late 6 years to
• Physical, mental, cognitive and psychosocial abilities can be
Childhood 10-12 years
observed.
• Rapid visible physical changes occur.
12-14 years to
Adolescence • Concept of self identity starts developing.
20-21 years
• Career related awareness develops.

• Individual completes education and chooses his career.

Early 21 years to
• Chooses suitable partner.
Adulthood 40 years
• Give importance to family responsibilities.

• Increase in family responsibilities.

• Increase in occupational responsibilities.
Late 40 years to • Importance is given to social responsibilities.
Adulthood 60 years • Societal expectations.
• Responsibility of parents.
• Menopause in women / Andropause in men.

• Retirement life begins.

60 years till • Increasing health problems.
Old Age
death • Forced leisure.
• Individual starts thinking about death.

v v v
42
Summary :

Development means progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly predictable pattern
as a result of maturation and experience. Hereditary potentials as well as the physical and social
environment are the factors that determine development. Development occurs at appropriate time
in various aspects, be it physical, cognitive, emotional or social. There is a certain pattern and
sequence in development. Therefore, it is predictable. We can observe developmental norms
and spot deviation in certain cases. Development begins right from conception and continues
throughout life till death. Each of the various stages of development is marked with certain typical
changes and problems. Based upon the norms of development, there is a set of expectation about
changes in an individual at a certain age. This set is known as developmental task.

Key Terms : Key Psychologist :

• Development James Marcia observed that every adolescent

resolves his identity crisis going through the four
• Maturation states: Foreclosure, Diffusion, Moratorium and
• Egocentrism Achievement.

• Prenatal stages
• Conception
• Zygote
• Germinal stage
• Fetal stage
• Neonatal stage
• Infancy
• Developmental tasks
• Identity crisis
• Foreclosure
• Diffusion
• Moratorium

43
 Exercise
Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements (C) State whether the following statements
1. The rate of development in each stage is are true or false.
.................. 1. Development has specific and continuous
a. Same b. Different pattern.
2. Development proceeds from specific to
c. Slow
general.
2. Developmental changes occur in 3. Development proceeds through
.................. pattern. dependency to independence.
a. Predictable b. Unpredictable 4. All the changes in an individual are due to
development.
c. Uncertain
(D) Identify the odd item from the following.
3. The period between conception to birth is 1. Zygote, Neonate, Embryo, Foetus.
called ...................
2. Early childhood, Neonate, Foetus, Infancy.
a. Post natal b. Perinatal
Q. 2. Explain the following concepts
c. Prenatal
1. Explain characteristics of human
4. .................. period is also known as the development.
period of identity crisis. 2. Why is prenatal period is the most crucial
a. Childhood b. Middle age period in development?
3. What are the developmental tasks?
c. Adolescence
4. Describe the neonatal stage.
5. What are the characteristics of the early
(B) Match the following pairs.
childhood?
A B 6. Write characteristics of the late childhood.
1. Early childhood a) A single 7. Describe the problems during adolescence.
fertilized cell 8. Write a note on adulthood.
9. Explain the adjustment problems in middle
2. Adolescence b) From second
age.
week to 2 years
10. Discuss the application of the principles of
after birth human development in different fields.
3. Infancy c) Age of
Q. 3. Compare and contrast :
Questioning
1. Growth and development
4. Zygote d) Adjusting to 2. Maturation and development
the new 3. Prenatal and post natal stages of
environment development
after birth
5. Neonatal period e) Storm and
stress

44
 5 Healthy Me - Normal Me

5.1 Mental health and normal behaviour 5.2 Maladjustment and abnormal
5.1.1 Indicators behaviour
5.1.2 Well adjusted individuals : My 5.2.1 Abnormal behaviour
understanding 5.2.2 Perspectives on abnormal
5.1.3 Criteria of well adjusted behaviour
individuals 5.3 Challenges faced by adolescents

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. develop an understanding about Normal and Abnormal Behaviour.
2. understand the criteria of normal and abnormal behaviour.
3. develop an understanding of Emotional Intelligence.
4. identify the problems faced by adolescents in general.

5.1 Mental health and normal behaviour After looking at the examples above, do you feel
the need to redefine, change or add to the criteria
Mental health and normal behaviour - my of healthy and normal that you previously
definition defined?
Activity 1 : Think about the words ‘mental 5.1.1 Mental health and normal behaviour
health’ and ‘normal’. What do they mean to - some indicators
you? What would be your criteria for calling
someone healthy and normal? Try to define. While there can be some disagreement on the
(1) Misha is intelligent and physically fit, absolute definition of mental health and normal
but she does not get along with anybody behaviour, some indicators are seen to be
and invariably ends up fighting with universally accepted to indicate mentally healthy
them. and normal individuals. The foremost among
these, is being a ‘well adjusted individual’. Let
(2) Saurabh does not like himself and thinks us understand more about who could be called a
he is extremely inferior as compared to well adjusted individual.
others. He feels shameful of himself and
is always withdrawn in a social setting. 5.1.2 Well adjusted individuals
(3) Akram cannot manage his anger. At - My understanding
times he indulges into self harming
Activity 2 : Following are few examples of
behaviour.
well adjusted individuals. Examine these
(4) Christopher gets so tensed during his examples and try to come up with some
exams that sometimes he turns blank criteria of well adjusted individual.
while writing his papers.
(1) Manisha experienced a break up recently
(5) Daisy gets very irritated if she has to
and went through a lot of emotional
do work which she does not enjoy. She
turmoil for some time. However she
feels she should only do things that she
managed to get over it and successfully
enjoys.
concentrated on her studies.
45
 (1) Realistic perception of self and the world
(2) Samuel was insulted by his teacher in
front of the entire class. He felt very bad (2) Openness to new experiences
about it and even cried for a couple of
days. Soon he got over it and went back (3) High emotional intelligence
to his normal routine. (4) Capability to maintain healthy relationships
(3) Rustom’s parents trust and support him. (5) High self esteem
They give him freedom. At the same
time they hold him accountable for Besides these criteria, there are some other
his actions. Rustom understands their criteria of well-adjusted individuals like
concerns and respect them. Rustom has expressing gratitude, kindness and sharing,
warm relationship with his parents. accepting success and failures as part of life.

(4) Geeta doesn’t want to choose dance as Let us take a detailed look at the five criteria
her career because she knows that she mentioned above.
cannot dance well. At the same time she
(A) Realistic perception of self and the
knows that she is good in languages so
world
she can take up her career as a language
teacher or translator or a journalist. Mahjabeen and Sheena were good friends.
Mahjabeen placed a lot of trust in Sheena.
(5) Jenny has recently moved to a
However Sheena betrayed her. Mehjabeen felt
metropolitan city to complete her
very sad about it and was upset for quite some
education. The college culture is
time. However, she soon realised that the world
extremely different from the one she
is full of different kind of people and things
is accustomed to. However she takes
will not necessarily happen as she wishes. She
efforts to adjust to it. She is open for
realised that while trusting somebody can be
making new acquaintances and learning
her choice, nobody can guarantee that the other
new skills.
person will reciprocate.
(6) Rashid gets along well with others. He
Like Mehjabeen, well adjusted individuals
understands their problems and issues.
accept the world as it is without having
People feel comfortable in his presence.
unrealistic expectations from others. So their
(7) Jasminder is a hard working boy. He feels relationships are more easy going, comfortable
good about himself, but at the same time and conflict free. They are aware of their
he is not pompous. He understands his strengths and weaknesses. They have realistic
strengths and weaknesses. He is proud of perception of themselves and their world. They
his strengths yet realizes that he needs to can use their strengths for betterment and they
work on his weaknesses without feeling can modify or accept their weaknesses. As a
shameful about them result, they develop deeper capacity to deal with
their life more effectively. So life becomes more
From the examples above, what according manageable for such individuals.
to you are the criteria of a well adjusted
individual? Here is another example.

5.1.3 Well adjusted individuals Rahul is a good speaker. He has won many
- some criteria prizes in elocution and debate competitions. In
one state level prestigious competition he failed
As you might have inferred from the examples to get the first prize. But he did not get upset by
above, there are five criteria of well adjusted it since he knew that in the real world, winning
individuals - or losing is part of the game. It is impossible to
46
win always. He knew that success or failure is is the ability to perceive one’s own and others
temporary, but hard work and consistency will emotions, to discriminate among them and to
go long way. use that information to guide one’s thinking and
action.” It has four proposed abilities : perceiving
(B) Openness to new experiences emotions, using emotions, understanding
Jenni works in a marketing firm. Recently, she emotions and managing emotions.
and her colleague were told to travel to some of People with high emotional intelligence are well
the remote rural parts of the state for some office adjusted individuals because they can deal with
work. Her colleague developed cold feet at the others and themselves in a better way. They can
thought of travelling to remote and unknown control their emotions and are able to handle
villages and interacting with the people there. the situation in appropriate way. They don’t get
But Jenny was open to the task and even looked panic easily. As a result they are able to come up
forward to meet different people. with proper solution in a crucial situation.
An individual who can try new things, who can
deal normally with strangers, is confident in Self-
voicing honest opinion fits in this criteria. Such Awareness
individuals try out new things like new fashion,
explore new places and reach out to different
people comfortably. Well-adjusted individuals Self- Self-
are more open to new experiences. They don’t Regulation Motivation
mind trying new things. They dare to take risks
regarding unknown experiences. They have
confidence in themselves to explore and try new Emotional
things. Intelligence
Activity 3 : Think about some negative
incidents in your life when things didn’t go Social
as you wished. Think about times when you Skills
Empathy
were required to move out of your comfort
zone and try out different, new things or
experiences. How did you deal with them? Fig. 5.1 Components of emotional intelligence
How would you rate yourself on the two
Now a days, emotional intelligence is given
parameters of realistic perception of self and
more importance than scholastic intelligence as
the world and openness to new experiences?
it helps for normal adjustment of the individual.
(C) Emotional intelligence Activity 4 : Given that emotional intelligence
A very intelligent student from your class is has four proposed abilities : perceiving
stressed to achieve better grades. He is unable emotions, using emotions, understanding
to make new friends or enjoy life. He doesn’t emotions and managing emotions. What
share things with others and sometimes he is so characteristics should be developed by the
depressed that he falls sick very often, becomes individual to possess these abilities? Think
nervous at things like losing marks or losing his about the people who, according to you,
rank in the class. have higher emotional intelligence. What
characteristics do they possess? Watch the
The term emotional intelligence was coined following video to understand more about
by Michel Beldoch in 1964. Daniel Goleman emotional intelligence -
further elaborated the term. According to https : //youtube /LgUCyWhJf6s
Mayer and Salovey, “emotional intelligence
47
 is putting yourself into someone else’s
Components of Emotional Intelligence
shoes. It is understanding the situation
Emotional intelligence has five components : from that person’s point of view. It is the
self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, ability to understand how exactly others
empathy and effective relationship (social are feeling in a given situation. (Refer to
skills). Let us look at them one by one - (Refer Fig. No. 5.2)
to Fig. No. 5.1)

(1) Self awareness : Are you aware of your

strengths and weaknesses? Can you
describe them? Can you describe your
efforts to overcome your weaknesses and
enhance your strengths? This ability is
called as Self-awareness. It is the ability
to recognize and understand your own
emotions. Well adjusted individuals
are aware of their actions, moods and Fig. 5.2
emotions.
(5) Social skills : Have you ever worked
(2) Self-regulation : Just imagine, you are co-operatively in a team? Social skills
with strangers and you feel like crying is the ability to interact well with others.
aloud. Have you ever controlled yourself Some important social skills include
in such situation? Have you ever controlled active listening, verbal communication
your laughter just because you felt that skills, nonverbal communication skills,
the other person would feel bad? Self- leadership, and persuasiveness.
regulation is controlling the expression of
our emotions. It is the ability to express (D) Healthy relationships
ourselves appropriately at right place and
right time. Have you ever expressed yourself openly to
your friends and family? Have you ever helped
(3) Self-motivation : It is one’s motivation them out in a critical situation? Have you ever
to change. Have you ever gone for a trek? made them feel special?
Or helped out a physically challenged
person just because you wanted to? Self These are some ways to maintain healthy
motivation is doing a particular thing just relationships. Every relationship is a dynamic
because you want to. You are setting the living experience. It is the treasure, we earn
goal and try to seek it without any external by putting special efforts. It occurs when we
reward. You enjoy that task so much that honour differences and accept others as they are.
you forget your inhibitions. It includes respecting personal space.

(4) Empathy : Have you ever cried when Such individuals express their concern for others
your friend had a bad experience? Do and don’t blame others for their mistakes. They
you feel like helping those who are poor do forget and forgive mistakes of others and
and needy? Have you ever shared your move ahead with the flow of life. Following
books and notes to a student who is in image illustrates on a few important aspects of a
need of help? This is Empathy. Empathy healthy relationship.

48
 Activity 6 : Answer the following
questionnaire.
Scale : Morris Rosenberg self-esteem scale
Instructions
Below is a list of statements dealing with
your general feelings about yourself. Please
indicate how strongly you agree or disagree
with each statement.
(1) On the whole, I am satisfied with
myself.
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
Strongly Disagree.
Fig. 5.3 Healthy Relationship Wheel
(2) At times I think I am no good at all.
Activity 5 : Think about your close Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
relationships. Do you think they fit into the Strongly Disagree
criteria of healthy relationships? Are they
missing any of the factors? What can you do (3) I feel that I have a number of good
to improve upon them? qualities.
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
(E) Self Esteem Strongly Disagree
Do you like yourself? Are you comfortable (4) I am able to do things as well as most
with yourself? It is your sense of self-worth other people.
and personal value. It is called as Self Esteem. Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
According to Rosenberg (1965) it is your attitude Strongly Disagree
towards yourself. (Refer to Fig. 5.4)
(5) I feel I do not have much to be proud
People with high self-esteem are liked by all and of.
are attractive. They have better relationships and
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
they make better impressions on others. People
Strongly Disagree
with high self-esteem take initiative and are
happy. Those who have high self-esteem show (6) I certainly feel useless at times.
characteristics like confidence, assertiveness,
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
positive outlook, ability to express themselves.
Strongly Disagree

Self-esteem (7) I feel that I’m a person of worth, at

least on an equal plane with others.
the way we feel about ourselves
higher Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
self-esteem Strongly Disagree
(8) I wish I could have more respect for
healthy social
myself.
interactions
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
High self-esteem Strongly Disagree
Fig. 5.4
49
 may be high on some other criteria. We must try
(9) All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am
to seek these qualities and try to become well-
a failure.
adjusted individual.
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, We are not well adjusted at all time and we may
Strongly Disagree experience some level of discomfort in certain
(10) I take a positive attitude towards situations. The degree of adjustment changes
myself. according to the situation and time. Some people
have low frustration tolerance to the situation
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and which may lead to maladjustment - which
Strongly Disagree means not being well adjusted. Sometimes when
traumatic effects of the situation continues for a
Scoring :
longer period, person gets “burn out”. It further
(1) For statements 1, 3, 4, 7, 10 - Give leads to mental disturbance which creates
“Strongly Disagree” 1 point, “Disagree” abnormal behaviour.
2 points, “Agree” 3 points and “Strongly
We will take a deeper look into what is termed
Agree” 4 points.
as abnormal behaviour in the next part of the
(2) For statements 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 - Give chapter.
“Strongly Agree” 1 point, “Agree” 2
5.2.1 Abnormal behaviour
points, “Disagree” 3 points, and “Strongly
Disagree” 4 points. Activity 7 : What comes to your mind when
you hear the word ‘abnormal’? Does it mean
If your score is between 10 and 20, you are
something different from you? Or something
low on self-esteem and if it is between 30 and 40
you have not seen? Or something you don’t
it indicate higher self-esteem.
approve of? Do these criteria really make
If you get low score on this scale. You will fall something abnormal? Think about it. What
into the vicious cycle given below. (Refer to Fig. would be your definition for calling someone
No. 5.5) abnormal?
Activity 8 : Think about the following
situations. Try and apply the criteria for
abnormality that you came up with, to these
cases and try to judge if they could be called
abnormal.
(1) Sameer likes to dress up like girls.
(2) Kushal is confused about his sexual
orientation.
(3) After marriage, Shoaib went to live
Fig. 5.5 Vicious cycle of low self esteem with his in-laws.
In such condition consult your psychology (4) Joseph loves to be alone and travels
teacher / counsellor. alone.
5.2 Maladjustment and abnormal (5) Delnaz is introvert and does not like to
behaviour mix with any one.
It’s very rare to find an individual possessing all Are the above mentioned behaviours really
the criteria of a well adjusted individual. Some abnormal according to your criteria? Do you need
people may show some criteria while others to change your criteria?
50
 (1) Deviance (social deviance, statistical
Criteria for abnormality
deviance, breaking laws)
In physiological sense, abnormality has a definite
criteria for everything. For example : for adult (2) Personal distress (feeling low)
human beings, height above 7 feet or below 4 (3) Failure to function normally (failure to
feet, is considered as abnormal. Physical health perform daily normal responsibilities.)
has clearer parameters. But it is not so in the
Let us look at these criteria. It is necessary to
case of mental illnesses. In Psychology, certain
remember that judging someone by only one
efforts are made to define abnormality in terms
of intensity, duration, pervasiveness of the criteria can be misleading.
behaviours and functional level of the individual. (1) Deviance : Look at the examples of
Let us understand what abnormal behaviour is. Malik, Madhura and Jahangir above.
Abnormal behaviour is defined as a behaviour Malik, Madhura shows a form of thinking
that is disturbing (socially unacceptable), that is unreal and deviating from the normal
distressing, maladaptive (self defeating) and thinking. Jahangir displays a behaviour
often is a result of distorted thoughts for a long which is against the set laws of the state
period of time. and hence deviant. Shama has an IQ which
is lower than the average IQ. Statistically
Activity 9 : Following are the examples of few
speaking, such people are rare to find.
abnormal behaviours. Inspect them closely.
Thus statistically Shama is deviant.
Some examples are grouped together. Try to
reason why the criteria on which the examples Generally when a particular behaviour
mentioned below are abnormal. is performed or displayed by majority
(1) Malik feels that somebody is constantly of people, it is considered as normal
watching over him or spying over behaviour. So any person who does not
him. Madhura constantly washes her follow such behaviour which is harmful
hands claiming that there are germs to self as well as others is considered as
everywhere. Jahangir derives great abnormal.
pleasure in breaking the rules. Shama But this criteria is insufficient to explain
has an IQ which is very low from the abnormality. For example : taking bath
standard range. is normal behaviour in India, but does
(2) Shehnaz feels extremely low throughout that mean those who don’t take bath for
the day. She is able to perform her normal four days are abnormal? Even according
duties well, but she feels constantly to cultural norms, something which is
unhappy. She cries every night. considered as normal in one culture can be
considered as abnormal in other culture.
(3) Sharada feels so lethargic that she cannot
E.g. Being homeless is considered as
get out of her bed. She cannot take care
abnormal in some cultures where as it may
of herself. She cannot do her day to day
be considered completely normal in some
functions adequately.
other cultures.
As can be seen from the examples above, there
Thus the dividing line here is vague.
are three major criteria for abnormal behaviour
51
(2) Personal distress : Case Study : Sameer, the depressed boy and
Personal distress refers to subjective his family : A ten-year-old boy, was admitted
feeling of an individual in response to to child psychiatric hospital unit after he
attempted to stab himself in the stomach with
persons and events creating extreme
a medium sized kitchen knife. The suicide
discomfort.
attempt was foiled by his mother, who pulled
Look at the example of Shehnaz. Shehnaz the knife away from her son. This suicide
can perform her day to day duties well. attempt occurred immediately after Sameer
had an argument with his father. Sameer felt
There seems to be no problem in her
that his “father hates me” and that “I would
performing the tasks. However She feels
be better off dead.” A variety of factors made
extremely low inside. Sameer vulnerable to suicidal tendencies.
Many times individuals do not pay Sameer grew up in an atmosphere in which
attention to their psychological symptoms. there was intense disagreement between his
They take problems like depression, social parents. His father used to drink heavily and
when drunk would physically assault his
withdrawal etc. casually. They are not
mother. Sameer’s mother was chronically
aware of the problems their families face
depressed and often said that “life is not
due to this. worth living,” However she loved her son
(3) Impaired functioning : Look at the and felt that because he needed her, she must
example of Sharada. She can hardly get continue to work and manage the home.
out of the bed and perform her daily chores Sameer has a serious learning disability, and
or responsibilities. Here, we can see that he struggled to maintain his school grades.
He had a private tutor who helped him to
her normal day to day functioning seems
overcome some of his sad feelings and
to be impaired. shame. Often, however, when teased by his
This type of abnormality means that people classmates, he thought about ending his life.
cannot fulfil appropriate and expected
roles in family, social and work related 5.2.2 Perspectives on abnormal behaviour
situations (Ustun and Kennedy, 2009). There are primarily seven psychological
Being sad after a traumatic experience for perspectives of abnormal behaviour. Apart
a few days is normal but if it is continued from that the Stress Diathesis Model and
for more than six months it is abnormal Biopsychosocial Model are also considered.
and can lead towards depression. The seven perspectives are as follows :
(Refer to Fig. 5.6)
Activity 10 : Think about yourself, your
(1) Biological perspective : This perspective
friends, your family. Do you think anyone focuses on biological and physiological
whom you know could be displaying abnormal factors as causes of abnormal behaviour.
behaviour? On which of the above criteria do Abnormal behaviour is treated as a disease,
you find it abnormal? Note it down to yourself. or mental illness, and is diagnosed through
Let us look at it in details in section 5.1.5. symptoms and cured through treatment.
Hospitalization and drugs are often
However, one question that you would ask is preferred methods of treatment rather than
what causes abnormality? psychological interventions.
52
 Thus in case of Sameer, the psychologist the help of this information. It holds
with a biological perspective might say that psychological disorders are the
that his abnormality is because of the consequence of anxiety produced by
chemical imbalance in his brain and may unresolved, unconscious conflicts.
prescribe him medicines. Treatment focuses on identification and
(2) Sociocultural perspective : Abnormal resolution of these conflicts.
behaviour is learnt within a social context It emphasizes the role of unconscious
which ranges from family, friends to the mind and conflicts that can be traced back
society. Cultural aspects are acquired to the childhood. According to Freud
through learning about particular social unconscious motives / conflicts have
norms which are believed to be important base of primitive sexual and aggressive
in producing abnormal behaviour. e.g. instincts.
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia are found
mostly in western culture, where they give (7) Cognitive perspective : According to this
more importance to thin female body. perspective, people engage in abnormal
(3) Behavioural perspective : They believe behaviour because of their recurrent
that abnormal behaviour is developed from maladaptive thoughts and behaviours
ineffective learning and conditioning. that are often based upon their false
assumptions. Treatment involves helping
Treatments are designed so to reshape
the maladjusted individual to adapt to new
maladaptive behaviour with the help
thinking process. Therapy is a process
of principles of reinforcement and
of unlearning maladaptive thinking and
punishment.
replacing with more adaptive one. This
(4) Evolutionary perspective : A central area of psychology focuses on mental
claim of evolutionary perspective is processes such as memory, thinking,
that the brain evolved to solve problems problem-solving, language, and decision-
encountered by our ancestors. This making.
perspective suggests that these mental
processes exist to serve an evolutionary
purpose i.e. survival and reproduction.

(5) Humanistic perspective : Those who

believe in humanist perspective focus on
the ways that human beings are driven to
grow, change, and develop to their fullest
possible potential.

(6)
Psychoanalytic / psychodynamic
perspective : This view of psychology
emphasizes the role of the unconscious
mind, early childhood experiences, and
interpersonal relationships to explain
human behaviour and to treat people
displaying abnormal behaviour with Fig. 5.6 Perspectives of abnormal behaviour

53
Apart from the 7 perspectives, let us look at experience depression himself. This example can
two models which explain causes of abnormal be explained with the help of Biopsychosocial
behaviour differently - perspective : The term Biopsychosocial refers
to the interaction of biological, psychological
(A) Stress - Diathesis model and sociocultural factors in the development of
Swapnil and Sumit both faced financial abnormal behaviour. It means that if a person
is exposed to worst environmental conditions
difficulties, experienced parental disputes and
during early childhood will make him more
there was no social support for both of them.
vulnerable for the abnormal behaviour. Contrary
In spite of these adverse conditions, Swapnil
to this, if a person is living in a protective
managed to progress in his career like a brave
environment where he is loved, cared and
fighter whereas Sumit went into depression. accepted, there are less chances of developing
Here, we can see that in spite of experiencing of abnormal behaviour even if he has biological
same adverse environmental conditions, both predisposition towards abnormality. (Refer to
of them reacted to those situations differently. Fig. 5.8)
Sumit was biologically prone to depression
due to genetic factors. When environmental Do you know this :
conditions were also adverse, he was pushed World Mental Health day is observed on 10th
into depression. This can be explained with the October every year in order to bring attention
help of Stress diathesis model. According to this to mental health concerns. Such as awareness
model, disorder is a result of both biological about psychological disorders, therapeutic
and genetic factors (nature) and life experiences interventions and preventive measures. It
(nurture). Those who are genetically predisposed is observed as awareness programme since
towards a particular disorder and experience 1992.
environmental stress are more likely to show Now that we have seen the criteria of abnormality
abnormal behaviour. The word “diathesis” and some perspectives of looking at it, let us
refers to vulnerability of an individual towards a take that understanding with us and look within
particular disorder. (Refer to Fig. No. 5.7) ourselves, around us and see if we find any signs
of maladjustment.
5.3 Challenges faced by adolescents

Activity 11 : You are all adolescents now.

Think about how you are today and how
you were in 5th / 6th standard. Make two
columns and note down the changes you see
Fig. 5.7 Stress diathesis model in these five domains - your self image, your
confidence, relationships with your parents,
(B) Biopsychosocial model : physical changes, importance of friends in
Eg : A child of a depressed mother who is your life.
constantly exposed to physical abuse from As you might have realized from the activity
his father for a long period of time and who is above, there has been a world of change in you
not accepted by his school-mates. Due to her from then and now. Adolescence is called as the
low performance; he will be more prone to
period of ‘storm and stress’ as they experience
54
lot of physiological and psychological changes As a child if they have experienced disturbed
during this phase. While it is easy to label various family background, they may lose confidence
behaviour of adolescence as maladjusted or in themselves. Also if parents have over
abnormal, a lot of them are in fact natural in this expectations about their performance, they may
age. Let us understand these changes and their become diffident.
causes before we judge them as abnormal. Adolescents may also have expectations from
themselves to perform better, to achieve better
Adolescents are in search of ‘self-identity’ as
grades irrespective of their capacity which
they are neither children nor adult. In this phase,
creates tension for them. They may tend to
they experience many challenges as they have to think that even if they try hard they will remain
constantly adjust with these challenges. failures.

I need to have
I need to
understand Sexual Orientation :
myself and I need to have
a new relationship
with Almighty : deep, be myself fun, enjoy life and
real captivating and
foundation of truth.
fill my mind and time
with good things.
Some adolescents get attracted towards the same
I need to I need
to know that I am
sex person or towards both men and women. It
understand
the world
around me.
important
I am called
to be a hero.
could be very confusing for such individuals.
TEN NEEDS OF
THE ADOLESCENT Such adolescents often have a hard time dealing
I need to
understand
the meaning
I need to love
and be loved
with their sexual orientation.
of my sexuality just as I am.

I need to have I need to Sexual orientation refers to an individual’s

positive role models have friends
for my life. I need to be
part of something
and be a friend. pattern of physical and emotional arousal
with my friends.
towards other person. Heterosexual individuals
are attracted to persons of the opposite sex,
Fig. 5.8 Challenges faced by adolescent
homosexual individuals are attracted to persons
The challenges faced by majority of adolescents of the same sex, and bisexual individuals are
are given above in Fig. 5.8. attracted to person of both sexes.
There are still some other problems faced by During adolescence, sex hormones become
adolescent. active and the adolescents become conscious of
their sexual orientation. It can be difficult for an
Some adolescents face difficulty mixing with
adolescent to accept the fact that his / her sexual
others, have an inferiority complex about
orientation is different from his / her friends.
themselves and feel excessively shy. There
could be many different reasons behind this. Gender Identity :

Some adolescents lack self confidence. They Gender identity is a perception of one’s own
gender which may or may not be corresponding
have negative opinion about others. These
to their birth sex. It is affected by gender role
behavioural changes may occur because of
expectations from the society.
hormonal changes in Puberty. They may become
awkward and conscious about their body shape, Some adolescents may show traits typically
they experience mood swings which make them thought to be of the other gender. For example,
more diffident. They may be more conscious some boys may display some feminine traits
whereas some girls may display some masculine
about their physical appearance. They may be
traits. Such adolescents may have problems
concerned about various issues like their skin
dealing with their gender identity. (Refer to
colour, height, weight, body proportions etc.
Fig. 5.9)

55
In 1974, Bem developed a test to assess gender manipulative approach to life. They don’t trust
identity. Those who are high on masculinity others and they think that they can easily break
show traits like assertiveness, boldness, their promises and take unfair advantage of
dominance, self-sufficiency and instrumentality. others. (Andreou, 2000). They are more likely to
Those who are high on femininity show traits respond to stress with aggression (lashing out at
like nurturance, expression of emotions, and someone physically or mentally) or by engaging
empathy. Those who display both masculine and in self destructive behaviour.
feminine traits are called as androgynous. If an
adolescent is inhibited from behaving in a way Boys generally indulge into bullying to
that is natural for him / her under the pressure of gain power and be a part of powerful groups.
social expectations or stereotypes, he / she may Girls indulge into bullying when they are
either become rebellious or timid. depressed.

Fig. 5.9 Gender Identity

Bullying : Fig. 5.10
Some adolescents get constantly A lot of times, if adolescents are not
humiliated and taunted by others or fall victim to supported in dealing with the challenges they
other people’s aggression because they have less face, it is possible that they start displaying
power or prestige. They are not weak but they abnormal behaviour. Do you see anybody who
are not able to stand up for themselves. They needs help?
become the target of continuous attacks.
Activity 12 : Think about yourself and your
Bullying is very common all around the
adolescent friends. Do you or anyone of them
world. Almost all bullies are also victims and
face any of the above mentioned challenges?
vice versa. Bullies and victims are generally low
How can you help yourself and them? Think
in self-esteem. To improve their self-esteem,
about it. Discuss with your classmates.
they tend to get aggressive. They accept ruthless

v v v

56
Summary :

• The common pattern of behaviour found among the majority of people is said to be normal
behaviour. Criteria of normal behaviour are: Realistic perception of self and the world,
Openness to new experience, Emotional intelligence, Healthy relationships and Self esteem.

• Abnormal behaviour is defined as a behaviour that is disturbing, socially unacceptable,

distressing, maladaptive (self defeating) and often a result of distorted thoughts for a long
period of time. There are different perspectives to understand the abnormal behaviour.
Biological perspective, Psychological perspective, Sociocultural perspective, Stress diathesis
model and Biopsychosocial perspective.

• Criteria of abnormality : Deviance, Personal distress or personal suffering, Dysfunction or

impaired functioning

• Challenges faced during adolescence : Lack of self confidence, Dealing with gender identity,
Dealing with sexual orientation, Bullying.

Key Terms : Key Psychologists :

• Normal behaviour John D. Mayer is an American psychologist
• Realistic perception at the University of New Hampshire. He is a
personality psychologist. He co-developed a
• Openness to new experiences
popular model of emotional intelligence with
• Emotional Intelligence Peter Salovey.
• Abnormal Behaviour Peter Salovey is an American social psychologist.
• Stress-diathesis model He is one of the early pioneers and leading
researchers in the field of emotional intelligence.
• Deviance
• Personal distress Morris Rosenberg was an American Social
Psychologist and sociologist. He developed a
• Gender Identity
scale to measure self esteem.
• Bullying

57
 Exercise

Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements (4) Well adjusted individual does not
encounter failure at all.
(1) One of the criteria of well adjusted
behaviour is ................ . (5) Abnormality is always hereditary.

(a) Intelligence (6) Self awareness is being passionate about

fulfilling one’s needs.
(b) Openness to new experience
(7) Social skill is the ability to interact well
(c) Success with others.

(d) Artistic ability (8) Openness to new experience leads to

dangerous situations, therefore it should
(2) According to the humanistic perspective, not be encouraged.
every individual strives for ................ .
(C) Identify the odd item from the following.
(a) Absence of problems
(i) Self awareness, Self regulation, Self
(b) Absence of mental disorder motivation, Sympathy, Social skills.

(c) Enjoyment in life (ii) Cognitive perspective, Humanistic

perspective, Psychoanalytic perspective,
(d) Development of one’s abilities to the Motivational perspective.
fullest
(iii) Failure, High Anxiety, Negative thoughts,
(3) According to ................perspective, one High self esteem, Self blame.
of the causes of abnormality is ‘genetic (iv) Deviance, Personal distress, Low
predisposition’. intelligence, Impaired functioning
(a) Behavioural (b) Biological (D) (i) Match the following.
(c) Sociocultural (d) Cognitive A B
(4) ................ face the identity crisis. (1) The emphasis (a) Biological
upon
(a) Children (b) Adolescents Unconscious
mind
(c) Young adults (d) Old people
(2) Survival and (b) Cognitive
(B) State whether the following statements reproduction are
are True or False and justify your the purpose of
answer with reason. mental processes
(1) Sucheta has an IQ which falls into the (3) Chemical (c) Psychoanalytic
category of genius which is rare to changes the
find. ‘Genius’ is a statistical deviance. brain
Therefore, she is abnormal. (4) Abnormal (d) Evolutionary
(2) It is very rare to find a person possessing behaviour is
all the criteria of well adjusted person. due to faulty
learning
(3) Over expectation from the parents can
lead to lack of self confidence. (5) Emphasis upon (e) Sociocultural
thinking process

58
(ii) Match the columns Q. 3. Compare and contrast

A B (i) Realistic perception of self --- Unrealistic

(i) Stress and storm (1) Used for perception of self
gaining more (ii) Openness to new experiences ---
power Inhibitions/ fear of new experiences
(ii) Body image (2) Adolescence (iii) High self esteem --- Low self esteem
(iii) Bullying (3) May lead to (iv) Sympathy --- Empathy
lack of self
confidence (v) Behavioural perspective --- Humanistic
perspective to abnormality
(iv) Low self esteem (4) Childhood
Q. 4. (i) What are the possible consequences
(v) Nurturance (5) Anorexia
of
(6) Feminine trait (a) Geeta is more interested in literature but
being only daughter of a well-established
Q. 2.
Answer the following questions in Orthopaedic surgeon having his own
around 35-40 words each. hospital, she is under pressure of choosing
medial profession as her career.
(1) Explain the concept of realistic perception
of self with an example. (b) Sujata is an intelligent girl but she is
extremely sensitive to criticism and
(2) What is emotional intelligence? Mention perceives herself as less competent.
the components of emotional intelligence.
(c) Trisha is not able to make friends. She
(3) What are the conditions that lead to low cannot initiate conversation with strangers
self esteem? Give examples. at all. She is placed as a leader of one of
(4) What is the significance of openness to the teams for campus-cleaning.
new experiences?
(ii) What will you do if...
(5) How does self awareness affect
(a) You see your best friend bullying your
psychological well being?
classmate.
(6) What is the significance of self motivation?
(b) You see a girl in your class who is not
(7) Enlist the qualities a person requires for included in many of the class room
having healthy relationships with others. activities, who does not have any friend
and who faces rejection from everyone.
(8) How important are the social skills? Give
example. (c) You got very less marks in the First
Terminal exam.
(9) State the biological perspective to
abnormal behaviour with an example. (d) You are very much interested in taking
part in a drama to be performed in the
(10) Explain the humanistic perspective. annual function of your college, but you
are not selected.
(11) Explain the sociocultural perspective to
abnormal behaviour.
59
Q. 5. Write short notes in 50-60 words each. On confronting Pritha, she became
violent and started damaging the furniture
(1) Criteria of well-adjusted person
uttering bad words about the middle class
(2) Criteria of abnormal behaviour people and there after her utterance was
incomprehensible for her parents. This
(3) Psychoanalytic perspective
continued for a very long time.
(4) Cognitive perspective
Questions :
(5) Bullying
(1) Which problems did Pritha face in her
(6) Sexual orientation college?

(7) Emotional Intelligence (2) Could Pritha, according to you, have

Q. 6. Case study avoided her condition of ‘feeling lonely’?

Read the following case carefully and (3) What would you do if you were in Pritha’s
answer the questions based upon that. place?

Pritha was a merit holder girl from a (4) Do you think Pritha should have spoken to
middle class family. She joined a college her parents about her feelings at college?
where majority of students were from If yes, how it would have helped her?
a rich background. Although she was
capable of following lectures and was Q. 7. Answer the following questions in 150-
doing well in her studies, she felt lonely as 200 words.
she could not get acceptance in the groups (1) What are the criteria of abnormal
of her classmates coming from affluent behaviour? Explain with examples.
families. She tried to dress like them, and
started asking for extra pocket money from (2) What are the causes of abnormal
her parents. Her classmates joked at her behaviour?
dressing sense. She could not tolerate the (3) Describe the challenges faced by
mockery and stopped going to the college. adolescents with examples.
Instead, she started spending time visiting
strange places like public parks, railway
stations and shopping malls. She did not
appear for any of her exams. Her parents
were unaware of all these things and on
asking about college or studies, Pritha
answered them without revealing the truth.
At the end of the year, her parents received
her report card by post from her college
with a remark that ‘Your ward has to take
College Leaving certificate.’

60
 6 Stress

6.1 Being well adjusted - a dynamic 6.4 Coping with stress - strategies
balance 6.4.1 Problem focused coping
6.1.1 Stress definition
6.4.2 Emotion focused coping
6.2 Types of stress
6.4.3 Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis
6.3 Stressors and their types
6.4.4 Defense mechanisms
6.3.1 Internal stressors
6.3.2 External stressors

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. develop understanding of stress.
2. know the different types of stress.
3. know the sources and effects of stress.
4. identify the sources of stress from day to day life.
5. understand the different coping strategies.

6.1 Being well adjusted-a dynamic balance • Robert had an audition on Monday but
at the time of audition he felt so under
As we have seen in chapter 5 about Mental
confident about performing well that he
health and normal behaviour, we are not well
cancelled the audition. The organisers
adjusted in all the situations and we may
said he was probably ............
experience some level of discomfort in certain
situations. The degree of adjustment changes As you may have realised, we use the terms
according to the situation and time. Let us look ‘tensed’, “worried” ‘under pressure’, ‘anxious’
at such commonly experienced discomforts in to indicate the discomfort one experiences in
this chapter. seemingly demanding situations. However
these different words mean different things in
Activity 1 : psychological terms. In psychological terms, the
discomfort that one experiences in a seemingly
Look at the following examples, we see them
demanding situation is called stress. Since,
all around us. What do we call this particular
as students of 11th standard, you are facing
type of discomfort in our day to day life?
demanding situations frequently, understanding
• Sometimes Mitali is so worried about the phenomenon is important not only as students
her performance in the examination of psychology, but also as individuals for your
that she turns blank during the exams. own mental health.
We say that Mitali is .............
6.1.1 Stress-my definition
• When Faizal was going through a bad
phase in his business he used to shout Activity 2 :
and scream at everyone around him. Look at the following examples of stress.
His family said that Faizal was .......... Try to find a pattern in them and make a
definition of stress for yourself.
61
 • Meena needs fees for her higher exam. He has moderate amount of stress. So he
education. But her father has less studies hard and gives his best in his exam.
money than the required. He feels very At the same time, Spruha is under extreme stress
stressed. for the exam as she wants to be a topper. So in
• Rashid is late for an appointment and spite of studying well, she panics and goes blank
he is stuck up in a traffic jam. He is while writing the paper.
stressed about reaching on time. Azhar does not have any stress for his exam.
• Parminder is suppose to make a model He bunks his classes while thinking that he can
for Science examination which is not prepare himself at the last moment and pass the
working. Parminder feels stressed. exam. But when he appears for the exam, he is
not able to do well.
Definition of stress
Everybody deals with stress in his own way
The word stress is derived from the Latin word depending upon his genetic predisposition and
‘Stringi’ means “to be drawn tight”. According environmental conditions. Stress works just like
to Richard Lazarus (1922-2002) “stress is a a key operated toy. If the key is wound too much,
feeling experienced when an individual feels the arrangement would break. At the same time
that the demands exceed the personal and social if it is wound too less, the toy won’t work as it
resources an individual is able to mobilize.” should. Similarly when stress exceeds a limit or if
In the examples given in activity, Meena’s it is very less it will deteriorate the performance.
education needs much more money than she Only under moderate stress, we can achieve the
is able to mobilize, Rashid needs more time to optimum performance. This phenomenon can be
reach the destination but he has only 5 minutes, explained with the help of following diagram.
making Parminder’s model needs a level of (Refer to fig. 6.1)
expertise beyond her capability. Thus in each
case, the demand of the situation is much greater Optimal
than the resources/capabilities, the person is able performance
to mobilize. Excess
Alert anxiety
In medical term, stress is described as “a
physical or psychological reaction that may lead Overwhelmed,
to illness.” Under- distressed
stimulated dysfunctional
According to Indian philosophy, our desires and
involvement in material world are the cause of
our stress which leads to Klesha. There are five Low Stress level High
types of Kleshas : Avidya, (Ignorance), Asmita
Fig. 6.1
(Ego), Raga (Attraction), Dvesha (Repulsion)
and Abhinivesha (Lust for life). Out of these Activity 3 :
Avidya is the base of remaining four. We must
seek realistic knowledge to be free from Avidya. Try to remember situations in your life when-
1. The stress was moderate.
In Sanskrit, they are not only talking about
mental health as Arogya (absence of disease) but 2. The stress was too much
it is explained as Swasthya (being relaxed and Try to remember what happened in both
maintaining one’s mental peace) these situations. Which was a more
productive situation? Did it follow the graph
Let us see three different scenarios - shown above or was it different? This leads
Jay is preparing for his upcoming semester to discussion of types of stress

62
 6.2 Types of stress • Sujay meets with an accident and has
become partially handicapped. Now he is
• Amit has nothing to do during vacation or dependent on others for assistance. Sujay
Smita who is an intelligent student finds will experience distress as he is facing
the course unstimulating. They experience this unwanted situation.
Hypostress. Hypostress is caused when
a person has nothing to do at all. It is Distress is negative type of stress. Individual
insufficient amount of stress. When people experiences it when the normal routine
have nothing to do, they get bored and is constantly adjusted and altered. While
if this feeling persists for longer time, it experiencing distress, our body is flooded
results in hypo stress. with emergency response hormones such as
Adrenaline and Cortisol. Adrenaline increases
Usually, people with hypostress are working heart rate, elevates blood pressure and boosts
on unchallenging jobs, in which they become energy supplies. Cortisol, the primary stress
demotivated, unenthusiastic and restless. hormone, increases sugar (glucose) in the
Hypostress may be due to work underload. bloodstream, enhance brain’s use of glucose and
Hypostress is different from leisure. Leisure is a increase the availability of substances that repair
quality time spent away from work or domestic tissues.
duties or studies, after a heavy period of work.
There are two types of distress :
It has relaxing and recreational qualities and we
have freedom and choice for our leisure time. Acute and chronic distress :
• Jason is stuck up in a traffic jam, has lost his 1. Acute distress is intense, short term
hall ticket and is already late for the exam. negative stress. It occurs when there is
He is going to experience Hyperstress. sudden change in routine or when we
It causes due to extremely pressurizing experience panic or threat. For example,
conditions. Due to hyperstress, a person traffic jam, accident, sudden water
may experience panic attack and may shortage etc.
engage in exaggerated reactions like
2. Chronic distress is long lasting, recurrent
throwing temper tantrums. It leads to
negative stress. It causes constant changes
frustration or agitation.
in routine for a long period of time. This is
Thus in Hyperstress; there is high stress which the worst type of stress. Chronic distress
leads to panic or exaggerated reactions. is the cause of most people’s problems.
• After much preparation, Anagha is Example: illness of a family member,
ready for her stage performance. She is suffering from a chronic illness oneself.
experiencing Eustress. Hans Selye (1907 - 1982) :
According to Greek prefix “EU” means good Hans Selye, who is the father of stress research
and therefore it is “good stress”. According to says, that stress of creative and successful
Merriam Webster (1975), eustress is a positive work is beneficial whereas that of failure and
form of stress having a beneficial effect on humiliation is harmful.
health, motivation, performance and emotional
well-being. It is a state when an individual is He introduced the General Adaptation Syndrome
excited, determined, inspired and energized and model in 1936 showing the three phases of what
“ready to go”. When we experience eustress, the alleged effects of stress has on the body. In
the body is temporarily, intensely and quickly his work, Selye, developed the theory that stress
flooded with hormones like Dopamine and is a major cause of disease because chronic stress
Oxytocin. Both these hormones are associated causes long term chemical changes.
with positive feelings.
63
 quickly. The body’s immune system, ability to
resist stress diminishes. Signs of exhaustion
includes fatigue, burn out, depression, anxiety.

Activity 4 :
Fill up the following questionnaire to
estimate your own stress level.
The Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire
Fig. 6.2 General Adaptation Syndrome TRY THIS. Here are some sample items
He observed that the body would respond to from the undergraduate stress Questionnaire
any external biological source of stress with a which asks students to indicate whether
predictable biological pattern in an attempt to various stressors have occurred during
store the body’s internal homeostasis. the previous week. (Crandall, Preisler, &
Assuprung,1992). Check off the items that
GAS may be defined as the manifestation of
apply to you, and then make a list of other
stress in the whole body, as they develop in
stressful events you have encountered
time. GAS consists of three stages : the alarm
recently that are not on this list. Keep these
reaction stage, the stage of resistance and the
stressors in mind as you read the list of this
stage of exhaustion.
chapter, and consider whether any of them
(A) Alarm Stage : have lead you to experience any of the
It is the first reaction to stress. At this stage physical and psychological stress responses
the organism recognizes that there is a danger described later.
and prepares to deal with the threat by “fight or • Assignment in several classes due the
flight” response. same day
If this energy is repeatedly not used for • Roommate conflict
physical activity, it can become harmful.
• Lack of money
This natural reaction prepares provide
• Trying to decide on a major subject
energy to the body to deal with stressful situation.
• Difficulty understanding a professor
(B) Resistance Stage :
• Staying up late for writing a paper
After the initial shock, the body begins to
repair itself. In this recovery phase, it remains • Sitting through a boring classes
on high alert for a while. If you overcome the • Going into a test unprepared
stress, your the body continues to repair itself • Parents getting divorced
until your hormone level, heart rate and blood
pressure comes to normal. • Problems at the registrar’s office

If the stress continues, the body remains Are you in a state of distress? Do you need
in state of arousal and it can lead to exhaustion. help? Talk to your teacher about it.
Signs of Resistance Stage are : irritability,
frustration, poor concentration etc. 6.3 Stressors and their types
(C) Exhaustion Stage : Stressor is an environmental condition, external
If the stree is not resolved in the Resistance stimulus or event that causes stress to an
stage, the person enters into exhaustion stage. In organism.
this stage the body’s ability to cope up becomes
There are two types of stressors : internal stressor
less. At this stage and individual may collapse
and external stressor.
64
 6.3.1 Internal stressors Activity 5 :

If a child is hungry, or not well, does not have Analyse the following examples. Can you
same level of intelligence as per the requirement find the different types of conflict of motives
of the course, it may act as internal stressor. in the four examples given below?
Internal stressors are stressors within us and we 1. Reshma has to choose between
have to deal with them by ourselves. participating in skating competition or
6.3.2 External stressors singing competition, both of which fall
on the same day and same time and she
Noise, crowding, strict teacher or parents, weak likes both of them.
economic condition or lack of space may act
2. Mahmood has to choose between
as external stressors. External stressors are
cleaning the dishes and sweeping the
stressors resulting from outside environment.
floor and he doesn’t like to do either.
External stressors results in frustration.
3. Sikandar loves to watch movies all the
For example : a student is prepared for the
time, but he also realizes that he will
exam but is not able to recall the answer when
fail his exams if he keeps on doing it.
required. Secondly, forgetting PIN while using
ATM machine or forgetting password while 4. Kulwant has to choose between using
you need to use your email id urgently. All cycle or motorcycle for commutation.
such goal directed activities, if blocked, lead to He likes cycling because it is eco-
frustration. It is a common emotional response friendly but it is very time consuming.
related to anger and disappointment. When On the other hand he likes motorcycle
an individual is highly motivated to achieve also because it is fast, but then it causes
something and when his goal directed behaviour pollution.
is blocked by an obstacle, it results in frustration.
1. Approach - Approach conflict :
Conflicts of motives In Reshma’s example, she has to choose
When an adolescent has more than one goal to between goals she likes. This is approach-
choose, he experiences conflict of motives. If he approach conflict. Imagine a teen who wants
finds it difficult to resolve, he experiences stress. to go for a party and a picnic on the same day
Conflict is a Latin word which means ‘striking and he has to choose between one of the goals.
two things at the same time’ He is experiencing approach- approach conflict.
Here, there is a conflict between two positive
Conflict of motives refers to the clash between and attractive goals. The decision will depend
two or more equally strong and incompatible on attractiveness of the goal, and its valance may
motives occurring at the same time that compels change. For e.g : while going for a party with
an individual to make a choice. friends and picnic with parents an adolescent
Lewin talked about valance or value of the goal can make a choice depending on whether he
which is attractive or unattractive because of gives importance to his parents or peers. Here,
which an individual either wants to achieve or an individual may become happy with his choice
avoid the goal he has made and he may give up the other goal.

http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/
conflicts/conflictsnotes-on-3-types-of-
conflicts psychology/688
Fig. 6.3 Approach - Approach conflict
65
2. Avoidance - Avoidance conflict : 4. Double-Approach- Avoidance conflict :
In Mahmood’s case, he is repelled by both the Kulwant has to choose between riding the bicycle
goals but he has to choose one. This is avoidance- and the motorcycle. Both the choices have
avoidance conflict. A student does not want to positive and negative values. Here, a double-
study nor does he want to fail in the exam. He approach avoidance conflict results. A girl wants
has to accept one of the goals and he does not to get married to a boy who is not approved by
her parents. If she listens to her parents and
have choice between them. He is experiencing
doesn’t get married to the boy, the boy will be
avoidance-avoidance conflict. This conflict
disappointed. And if she marries to that boy,
involves two goals with negative values. An her parents will be disappointed. In either case
individual is forced to make choice between two she has to lose one of the relations. She is facing
negative and unattractive goals. In the example double-approach-avoidance conflict. Here an
of Mahmood who does not want to study nor individual faces conflict between two or more
does he want to fail in the exam. He has to make goals which have equal positive or negative
a choice between them. Here, a person can get valance. However, an individual is always
relief that he can avoid at least one. disappointed with the choice he/she makes as
he/she has to lose the other goal.

Fig. 6.4 Avoidance-Avoidance conflict

3. Approach - Avoidance conflict : Fig. 6.6 Double Approach - Avoidance conflict
In Sikander’s case, Sikander is attracted and Activity 6 :
yet repelled by the same goal of watching Try to find examples of the given types of
movies. This is approach- avoidance conflict. A conflicts in your own life or around you. How
teenager likes to eat pastries, cakes, pizza but she are these types of conflicts resolved? Are
doesn’t want to gain weight. She is experiencing they? How does one deal with the resulting
approach-avoidance conflict. This type of conflict stress?
is very difficult to resolve as an individuals is
attracted and repelled by the same goal. There is Let us find out more about the answers to these
only one goal and it has both positive as well as questions in the next part of this chapter.
negative value. There are three possible reactions Activity 7 :
in such situation, like she gives importance to
positive value and relishes the cake or she is too Discuss any two events of your life where
cautious about negative value and avoids heavy you faced conflicts or frustration.
food or she leaves the goal all together to avoid 1. How did you face the situation?
the situation. In such case, vacillation between 2. How will you face the situation?
the positive and negative valances of the same
Let us find out the answer together.
goal is common. This type of conflict is most
difficult to resolve as an individual doesn’t have
any choice. He has to accept the consequence of 6.4 Coping with stress - strategies
his choice. Every individual tries to deal with the internal
and external stressors and resolve the conflicts
he/she faces because if they are not dealt with, it
leads to stress.
From the above example, we can see that there
Fig. 6.5 Approach - Avoidance conflict are two broad strategies of coping with stress.
66
 6.4.1 Problem focused coping tries to ward off negative emotions by keeping
his mind stable with meditation or stuff down
Problem focused coping is also known as a negative emotions by quarrelling with others.
direct way of reducing the stressors or direct
way of resolving conflict. When an individual When a person, instead of centering her efforts
focuses her efforts on her problem/conflict, she on the goal, focuses on the emotions resulting
is using direct way of resolving conflict. Here from stress, she is using emotion focused coping.
she accepts the reality as it is and tries to solve For example : If Sumi indulges into overeating
the problem. or meditation or writing poems or blogs to
reduce her stress or blames, she is using emotion
In this strategy, stress is reduced by trying to focused coping.
resolve the conflict by working on the task at
hand. Problem focused coping targets the causes Activity 8 :
of stress in practical ways. Sneha while attending a class is feeling very
1. Sumi, a football player, wants to be hungry. She has following choices. She can
selected for the state level match. She gets eat even when the lecture is going on or she
negative feedback about her performance can wait till the lecture gets over. She should
during practice matches. She focuses on not eat because it is wrong to eat when the
diet, practice and techniques for better teacher is teaching in the class.
performance. Sumi is directly attacking What do you think should be done by Sneha?
the conflicts to resolve it. Thus she is using
The choice Sneha will make can be understood
the direct way of resolving conflict called
with the help of Freud’s theory of Psychoanalysis
as Attack.
is which is the base of Defense Mechanisms. We
2. Sumi is not selected for the state level will also learn and understand various Defense
competition. So she chooses to work as a Mechanisms.
coach or a commentator. She is using the
6.4.3 Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis
direct conflict resolving strategy called as
Compromise. If a person can’t achieve the According to Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis,
goal because she lacks the capacity, she our personality is controlled by three aspects.
readjusts the goal to the nearest possible ID, Ego and Superego.
goal. When Sneha feels like eating even when the
3. Sumi may leave football altogether and teacher is in the class it show ID.
may indulge into something else which 1. ID :
she prefers the most. She is using the Id has psychic energy. ID is the most primitive
direct conflict resolving strategy called as storehouse of our biological energy. It operates
Withdrawal. When a person can’t achieve on pleasure principle and demands immediate
a particular goal after putting best efforts, gratification of desires. ID operates on primary
she may indulge into ‘beating retreat’ or process thinking where logical rules are not
withdraw herself from the goal. applied. For example : if you like someone, he or
6.4.2. Emotion focused coping she has to like you in the same way. ID operates
on two energies, libido which is the sexual
Emotion focused coping involves trying energy and thanatos which is the destructive
to reduce the negative emotional responses energy. A boy who is under the control of ID
associated with stress. Here, one does not work and if he likes someone, he would either compel
on reducing the stressors or resolving the conflict that girl to like him back (libido) or it could be
by working on the task itself. Work is done to one sided affair or if she does not like him then
reduce negative emotional responses that occur he could indulge into any other unacceptable
due to exposure to stressors. Here an individual behaviour (thanatos).
67
2. Ego : The part of Sneha which decides not to eat in the
Ego operates on reality principle. It has better class because it is morally not correct and it may
problem solving abilities compared to ID. As hurt her teacher, is called as superego.
per ego, immediate satisfaction of urges by ID According to this theory, our reaction in a
needs to be controlled as it is unacceptable. particular situation will depend upon interaction
For example : having strong desire to copy of these three systems. For example : Apeksha
during exams to get better grades. But it needs indulges into copying even when her Ego tries
to be avoided because if a student is caught to control her. So she will experience anxiety.
copying, he will be suspended and will waste his Anxiety is a state where a person may feel that
year. Secondly, next year, he will be a failure as something is wrong and will get symptoms like
his foundation will remain weak. Ego indulges palpitation, rapid heart rate, sweaty palms, dried
into secondary process thinking, as it knows throat etc. For example : If Apeksha tries to copy
how and when to satisfy the desires. in the exam, she is going to experience neurotic
3. Superego : anxiety, as her ID and Ego are in conflict with
each other and she may become worried about
Superego internalizes moral values of society its consequence. She may experience moral
through parents, friends and schools. These are anxiety if her Superego and Ego conflict with
‘do’s and don’ts’ of the society. each other, as she thinks that she is ditching her
It is a social right and wrong we pick up family values and she has to pay for this sin.
unknowingly from our role models. The super
ego helps us to control impulses coming from Here, the defense mechanisms play important
ID, making our behaviour less selfish and more role. If the situation is very painful for the
virtuous. person to accept or if it brings anxiety and leads
to stress, she may use defense mechanism to
The part of Sneha if she decides to eat even when protect her Ego from harsh reality.
the teacher is in the class is called as ID.
Let’s have a look at defense mechanisms
The part of Sneha which decides not to eat while
the lecture is going on and wait until the recess
is the Ego.

Conscious

eed
I n right
e ta nd!
to Seco
Preconscious h i s
t
EGO

SUPEREGO ’t do
You cancause
that bein the
ID you’re of an
middle tant
Unconscious impor g.
meetin

Fig. 6.7 Theory of Psychoanalysis

68
 6.4.4 Defense Mechanisms Excessive use of defense mechanisms leads to
a habit of escaping from reality and indulgence
Activity 9 : in falsehood about one’s own self. However,
reality chases and sooner or later one has to face
Following are the examples of different types
it as reality does not change. At such point of
of defense mechanisms. Go through them.
time, the ego is no longer protected and it may
1. Azhar went to a fair against his father’s lead to symptoms, of mental disorders. Defense
wish and got lost when he was a child. mechanism is indirect way to combat stress.
He slept on streets for three days. He Some of the defense mechanisms described by
went through a lot of stress during that
Dr. Sigmund Freud are as follows.
period. But he does not remember the
incident at all in his adulthood. 1. Repression :

2. Robert was scolded by his boss in the As seen in Azhar’s case, Azhar has unconsciously
office. After coming home he scolded repressed the traumatic incident. This defense
his wife for no reason. mechanism is called as Repression. Repression
3. Pritam has a lot of anger towards his is an unconscious mechanism employed by the
boss. Instead Pritam denies being ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts
angry and feels that his boss has a lot outside our conscious awareness. Thoughts that
of anger towards him. are often repressed are those that would result in
feelings of guilt from the superego. Repression is
4. Mitali likes a boy but the boy does not
like Mitali. Mitali likes to write poetry different from suppression where in the material
and diverts her mind towards poetry. can be recalled up to a certain extent whereas
in repression the person forgets those memories
5. Radhika’s mother has a violent temper.
completely and can’t retrieve them back. It is
Radhika starts imitating mannerisms
different from actual forgetting as after the break
of her mother.
up, a person may just forget about his girlfriend
6. Parminder is poor and can not fulfil altogether. (Refer to fig. 6.8)
his desires. Parminder day dreams of
living a luxurious life.

7. Zubin can not afford a car. He says

cars are not environment friendly.

Defense mechanisms are the unconscious

strategies used to protect the Ego from shattering
due to unacceptable and harsh reality. It is a face
saving device. It functions as a shock absorber.
It is a stop-gap arrangement that provides some
time to the person to come to terms with reality.
However, it should be used moderately.
Fig. 6.8 Repression

69
2. Displacement : 4. Sublimation :
As seen in Robert’s example, Robert displaced As seen in Mitali’s case, Mitali diverted her pain
his own feelings of anger on to his wife. This and energy towards a constructive and attractive
is known as Displacement. Displacement is the cause. This is called sublimation. Sublimation
redirection of an impulse (usually aggression)
is considered to be a more adaptive defense
onto a less powerful target. In this, as a person
mechanism in that it can transform negative
can’t retaliate against the actual source of
anger, the person redirects his anger on a less anxiety into a more positive energy.
threatening object. If the principal gets angry Instead of converting this energy into socially
with the teacher, she may come to class and start unacceptable behaviour, a person may use
scolding students without any strong reason. sublimation to redirect this motivation into more
(Refer to fig. 6.9)
acceptable, even productive endeavours.
Freud believed that artists’ creative energies
were often a refocusing on carnal impulses or
other anxieties, through sublimation. (Refer to
fig. 6.11)

Fig. 6.9 Displacement

3. Projection :

As seen in Pritam’s case, Pritam projected

his own feelings of anger on to his boss. This
is called projection. This involves individual
attributing their own thoughts, feeling, and
Fig. 6.11 Sublimation
motives to another person. Rakesh could not
write his paper well as he had not studied, he
5. Identification :
will not accept that he is the one responsible for
it. He may say that most of the questions were As seen in Radhika’s case, Radhika
out of syllabus. (Refer to fig. 6.10) subconsciously adopts the manners of her
mother whom she is afraid of. This is called
identification. In this, by adopting other person’s
mannerism, repeating phrase and language
patterns a person tries to use and mirror his
character traits and starts behaving like another
person, trying to control one’s anxiety level.

Fig. 6.10 Projection

70
6. Daydreaming : Rationalization occurs when a person attempts
to explain or create excuses for his failure. In
As seen in Parminder’s case, Parminder doing so, an individual is able to avoid accepting
resorted to day dreaming in order to escape the true cause or reason of his failure.
the reality of poverty. When life appears to be
distressing, people often use fantasy as a way of https://psychologenie.com/common-
escaping reality. An adolescent may daydream psychological-defese-mechanisms
about standing first in the exam or getting most https://www.psychologistworld.com/
popular person as his friend. It is dangerous for freud/defece-mechanisms-list
adolescents mental health. If they day dream
excessively they may lose touch with reality. Besides the defense mechanisms we have
(Refer to fig. 6.12) discussed, there are few more which are
depicted in fig. 6.13.

Activity 8 :
Can you think of stressful situations in your
life? How did you cope with them? Was it a
problem focused coping or emotion focused
coping? If it was emotion focused, was
it positive or negative? Do you think you
make use of any of the defense mechanisms
mentioned in this chapter? When and how?

In this chapter we have seen some general

Fig. 6.12 Daydreaming methods of how people cope with stress. We
hope that this awareness will definitely make
7. Rationalization :
you to understand the causes of stress in your
As seen in Zubin’s case, because Zubin life and give you some idea of dealing with them
could not fulfil the expectation, he gives by using a more realistic approach.
false excuse. This is called rationalization.

Denial of reality

Reaction
Regression
formation
Defense
Mechanisms

Compensation Rationalization

Fig. 6.13 Defense Mechanisms

v v v
71
Summary :
• Stress is a feeling experienced when an individual feels that the demands exceed his personal
and social resources that he can mobilize. Individual responses to stress can be different. It
determines the effects of stress upon him. Too intense or too less levels of stress affects an
individual’s performance negatively. Moderate level of stress leads to optimum performance.
• There are four types of stress: Hypostress, Hyperstress, Eustress and Distress.
• Stressors can be internal or external.
• Conflicts of motives can become internal source of stress. There are four types of conflicts
namely, Approach-approach conflict, Approach- avoidance conflict, Avoidance-avoidance
conflict and Double approach-avoidance conflict.
• Every individual tries to cope up with stress. There are two ways to cope up with stress :
Problem focused coping and Emotion focused coping.

Key Terms : Key Psychologists :

• Stress Richard Lazarus was a psychologist who
• Hypostress proposed that the effects of stress depend upon
an individual’s appraisal of the situation.
• Hyperstress
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist
• Eustress
and the founder of psychoanalysis. He found a
• Distress clinical method for treating psychopathology
• Conflicts of motives through dialogue between a patient and a
psychoanalyst which is called as free association.
• Approach- approach conflict
• Approach- avoidance conflict Kurt Lewin was a German - American
psychologist, known as one of the pioneers of
• Avoidance-avoidance conflict
social, organizational, and applied psychology.
• Double Approach-avoidance conflict
Hans Selye was a pioneering Hungarian -
• Psychoanalysis Canadian endocrionologist who worked on
• Defense Mechanism response of an organism to stressors.
• Repression
• Displacement
• Projection
• Sublimation
• Identification
• Day dreaming
• Rationalization
• Frustration
72
 Exercise
Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements C. Identify the odd item from the following.
1. When the demand of a situation exceeds i. Unchallenging job, unemployment,
personal and social resources an individual leisure, lack of purposeful activity.
can mobilize, it leads to ........... ii. Eustress, hyperstress, frustration, distress,
a. Worries b. Stress hypostress.
c. Depression iii. Attack, Withdrawal, Defense mechanism,
Compromise.
2. .................. leads to boredom.
iv. Withdrawal, Projection, Sublimation,
a. Eustress b. Hypostress Rationalization, Displacement.
c. Distress
(D) I. Match the following pairs.
3. ................. is necessary for better
performance. A B
a. High stress b. Moderate stress 1. Two negative goals a) Defense
c. Low stress mechanism
4. Low level of intelligence may act as 2. Problem focused b) Hypostress
.............. stressor while facing a difficult coping
exam.
3. Vacation after c) Avoidance-
a. Internal b. External
sufficient work avoidance
c. Imposed
conflict
5. .................... results when a goal-directed
activity is blocked by some obstacle. 4. Lack of challenging d) Direct way
a. Frustration b. Anger work of coping with
c. Conflict. stress
5. Emotion focused e) Approach-
(B) State whether the following statements
are True or False. If false, correct them, coping Avoidance
if true explain why. conflict
1. Well-adjusted person does not experience g)
Leisure.
stress at all. Q. 2. Answer the following questions in 35-40
2. Stress can be good some times. words each.
3. Hyperstress leads to the best performance. i) What are the ill effects of distress?
4. Hypostess is a bliss. ii) Explain the relationship between level of
5. Hyperstess leads to panic and exaggerated stress and performance with the help of
response. appropriate diagram.
6. Conflict of motives is an internal stressor. iii) Explain the internal and external stressor
with examples.
7. Approach-Avoidance conflict is extremely
difficult to resolve. iv) What are the effects of hypostress?
8. Compromise is Emotion focused coping v) Why the Approach-Avoidance conflict is
strategy. most difficult to resolve?

73
Q. 3. Compare and contrast with example 3) Identify the conflict of motive that
i. Eustress-- Distress is experienced by the person in the
following situation.
ii. Hypostress-- Hyperstress
a) Rashmi has got promotion in her company
iii. Emotion focused coping--problem focused and so has to go abroad. She wants to take
coping this opportunity but at the same time she is
iv. Attack-- Withdrawal not willing to leave her parents.
v. Compromise-- Withdrawal b) Yogesh has got selected by two reputed
companies at the same time and both are
vi. Projection -- Rationalization.
his dream offers.
Q. 4. (1) What are the possible consequences c) Julius doesn’t want to go for a wedding
of ceremony with his family as it’s too boring
a) Mehul is sufficiently prepared for his there but doesn’t want to stay alone at the
exams but feels tremendously stressed. same time.

b) Sujata has nothing to do as her husband is d) Shanaya is very conscious about her figure,
a multimillionaire, nor does she have any but she is also very tempted to eat sweets.
hobby. e) Vishal has got invitation from his school
c) Kalpesh sets his goals similar to his top friends for reunion party on the same day
ranker brother, without considering his as his fresher’s party in his college.
ability.
Q. 5. Write short notes in 35-40 words each.
d) Mohsin resorts to blame others every time
1. Types of stress.
he fails.
2. Relationship between stress level and
(2) Identify the defense mechanism used in performance
each of the following examples.
3. Direct ways to cope up with stress.
a) Rahul who is interested in football, was
4. Defense mechanisms
not selected for the college football team.
He says he never wanted to be a part of the Q. 6.
Answer the following questions in
college football team 150-200 words each.
b) Vipasha comes from extremely poor 1. Give definition of stress and explain
family. She sleeps into imagining herself different types of stress.
as driving her own car.
2. What is meant by conflict of motives?
c) Arnav got scolding from his teacher and Explain the different types of conflicts
he could not answer back. After coming with examples. Illustrate your answer with
home he started beating his younger appropriate figures.
brother for no reason.
d) Ajay loved a girl who turned down his
proposal. Later he became a successful
composer.

74
 7 Nervous System

7.1 Nervous system 7.2.4 Limbic system

7.1.1 Neuron 7.2.5 Nutritional pillars for better brain
7.1.2 Synapse functioning
7.1.3 Neurotransmitter 7.3 Spinal cord
7.2 Brain 7.4 Glands
7.2.1 Hind brain 7.4.1 Exocrine glands
7.2.2 Mid brain 7.4.2 Endocrine glands
7.2.3 Fore brain

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. understand the human Nervous System.
2. understand the structure and functions of the neuron.
3. understand the important parts of the brain and the spinal cord.
4. understand the functions of the endocrine glands.
5. understand the behavioural implications of the endocrine functioning.

Nervous system

Peripheral
Central
nervous system
nervous system
Carries messages to
(CNS)
and from the CNS

Spinal cord Somatic nervous system Autonomic

Brain Connects brain Controls voluntary muscles nervous system
and peripheral and transmits sensory Controls involuntary
nervous system information to the CNS body functions

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
nervous system nervous system
Arouses body to Calms body to conserve
expand energy and maintain energy

Fig. 7.1 Nervous system

Our nervous system consists of two major parts
7. 1 Nervous system
and the division of the nervous system is as
Nervous system is the complex network of follows :
neurons that carry signals from brain to body Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous
and body to brain. Human nervous system is System.
most complicated yet highly developed among Central Nervous System consists of Brain and
all living creatures. Spinal Cord. We will discuss it later on.
75
Peripheral Nervous System consists of Somatic Before discussing about Central Nervous
and Autonomic Nervous System. System, we have to first introduce ourselves
with basic unit of nervous system, that is
Somatic Nervous System is further divided into
Neuron. Neurons are the “ Building Blocks” of
sensory and motor system of the body. Somatic
nervous system.
Nervous System consists of sensory nerves
(afferent nerves) and motor nerves (efferent 7.1.1 Neuron
nerves). Sensory nerves sends messages from When a person sees a tiger, the image of the
body to brain and motor nerves messages from tiger falls on his retina and is further convert into
brain to body. electrical signals.
Autonomic Nervous System is further divided This electrical signal reaches the brain with
into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous the help of optic nerve. The brain identifies the
System. image as Tiger which is ferocious animal. When
Autonomic Nervous System controls internal this message reaches to the particular part of
activities of human body including heart rate, brain, brain sends message to run away and to
breathing, digestion, disposal of waste products execute this, neural message will be sent to his
and toxins. legs. These are specialized network of cells that
transmits messages from brain to body and from
Sympathetic nervous system prepares our body
body to brain. These cells are known as neurons.
to face stressful and threatening situations. It
Neuron consists of Dendrites, Axon, Cell body
prepares us for “flight or fight” reaction. For
and Terminal Button or Telodendria. Cell body
example : when you are chased by a dog, that
is the body of neuron. Nucleus of the neuron
time your heart beat, palpitation increases and
absorbs the food and keep the cell alive. The
you start sweating. The job of the system is just
neural message comes in through the dendrites
opposite to it’s name.
which are branches like structure of the neuron.
Parasympathetic Nervous System takes over The neural message goes out from Axon of
when the situation becomes normal. When this the neuron. At the end of Axon there are end
system takes over, your heart rate, palpitation buttons, it is a bulb like structure which contains
and sweating becomes normal. We regain our chemicals called as neurotransmitters. Neuro
cool and composed state. It directs our body to transmitters are the chemical messengers. The
store energy for emergencies. neural message jumps across the synapse in
order to reach to dendrite of another neuron.
Activity 1 : When the neural message is passing through,
Few activities are given below. Identify it excites or inhibits the neurotransmitter in it.
the system which dominates during these This chemical reaction decides our reaction to
activities. various situations of our life.

1. Picking up an object from the ground.

2. Shivering when we sense danger.
3. Feeling composed when we feel safe.
4. Increase in heart rate when we sense
that we are going to meet with an
accident.
Fig. 7.2 Neuron

76
 7.1.2 Synapse 5. Glutamate :

Is a gap between two neurons. When neural It helps in learning, memory and
message passes from end buttons to dendrite of maintaining sugar level.
another neuron, it has to cross this chemical gap.
6. GABA (Gama Amino Butyric Acid) :
As neurons are not directly connected to each
other, we don’t have fixed reactions to every If it is less, it leads to convulsions and body
situation. We get various reactions to variety cannot control body movements.
of situations. From here, we get observable
reactions. It is chief inhibitory neurotransmitter i.e. it’s
principal role is to reduce excitability of neurons
throughout the nervous system.

After knowing about the basic structure of

nervous system, let us now move to Central
Nervous System. Central nervous system
includes Brain and Spinal Cord.

As you might have realized by now, study

of Psychology can’t be completed without
studying brain. Our brain plays important role in
whatever we do, and also in higher order mental
processes like thinking, reasoning and emotions.
In this part, we will look at the basic structure
Fig. 7.3 Synapse and function of the brain.
7.1.3 Neurotransmitters 7. 2 Brain
We have already learnt about
Brain helps to adapt to the environment and
neurotransmitters.
it tries to analyze, store and synthesize the
The important neurotransmitters are-
information it receives. Brain plays important
1. Acetylcholine : role in every aspect of our lives like decision
It is a chemical that motor neurons of nervous making, emotional experience and social
system releases to activate muscles. interactions.
2. Dopamine :
Brain consists of three major parts. Hind brain,
It is released by the brain which plays a number
Mid brain and Fore brain.
of roles. If the level of dopamine is normal, we
experience happy, pleasant feeling. It also plays 7.2.1 Hind brain
important role in motivational process.
Important parts of hind brain are Cerebellum,
3. Norepinephrine :
Brain stem and Reticular Activation System.
It increase force of skeletal muscles especially
during fight or flight response. 1) Cerebellum :
4. Serotonin : It consists of two parts and helps in maintaining
It plays a role mainly in cognition, reward, body posture and body balance. It helps in
learning, memory and also controls wakefulness, coordination of the movements.
sleep, hunger, thirst, liking.
77
 Central sulcus
2) Brain stem : Precentral gyrus Postcentral gyrus

It is divided into two parts namely Medulla Parietal lobe

Frontal lobe
oblongata and Pons.
A) Medulla oblongata : Lateral
sulcus Occipital lobe

it is ‘vital center’ of the brain. As it controls Temporal lobe

functions as breathing rate, pulse rate, blood Cerebellum

pressure and digestion, it receives messages Pons

from higher centers of the brain. Medulla oblongata

Do you know this? Fig. 7.4 Human Brain

Why are we suppose to wear helmet while 7.2.3 Fore brain

riding a bike? The main parts are
Cerebrum :
While riding a bike, if someone meets with
an accident, the person falls back on his head. It is the largest part of the brain. It’s outside
Most of the time Hind brain or to be specific cover is of grey colour and is called as cerebral
cortex. Cerebral cortex controls higher order
Medulla oblongata is damaged which will
menal processes such as attention, perception,
lead to instant death. So we are suppose to
learning, memory. The surface of cerebral cortex
wear helmet while riding a bike. is divided into two halves: right hemisphere and
B) Pons : left hemisphere. Neurons from right hemisphere
controls left side of body and vice versa. Left
It is a bridge between two hemispheres. It sends hemisphere controls language, spatial relation
and receives information from lower parts of and pattern recognition. They are connected by
the brain. It helps relaying messages between bundle of fibres called as corpus callosum.
cerebellum and cortex. Try this
3) Reticular Activation System : We have neurons which jump across the
hemisphere and controls another part of the
This is “Alarm clock” of the body. We are awake body. If a person’s right side of the body
before time if we have to catch early morning is paralyzed, nurons from the left side of
train. It happens as our reticular activating his body stop functioning and the person
system elicits this response. becomes handicapped even if he has another
set of healthy neurons in the other side of
It is also called as Reticular Formation which his body. If we train ourselves to use both
contains a bunch of neurons and it’s main function parts of our body equally, we will not be
is to maintain wakefulness, concentration and dependent on others for help even if we get
alertness. paralysis attack. So try to use both sides of
your body while performing daily routine
7.2.2 Mid brain tasks like brushing teeth, combing hair etc.

It is a bridge between forebrain and hindbrain. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes.
It consists of two parts: superior and inferior 1) Frontal lobe :
Colliculus. Its function is to send information It controls motor actions, thinking, memory and
to the upper part of the brain and to control eye reasoning. It has Broca’s area which helps us in
movements. speech production.
78
2) Parietal lobe : d) Hypothalamus :
It helps us in understanding information It controls major bodily needs like hunger,
regarding skin like touch, pressure, pain and thirst, sex and temperature regulation and sleep.
temperature. (Primary needs of any individual). It is also
3) Occipital lobe : called as the pleasure center of our body.
It controls our vision. It is visual processing
center. The information regarding shape, colour,
depth, speed of the object is received and
interpreted in occipital lobe.
4) Temporal Lobe :
It controls sense of hearing, smell and taste. It has
Wernicke’s area which helps in understanding
of language.
Just above the ears, in the cortex is temporal
lobe. Hearing, understanding language, memory
for language take place because of temporal
lobe.

Fig. 7.6 Limbic System

7.2.5 Pillars of better brain functioning

1. Physical and mental exercise :

People who exercise regularly have lower risk
of developing Alzheimer’s disease. Exercise
improves blood flow and memory. It also
stimulates chemical changes in the brain that
Fig. 7.5 Human Brain Lobes improves learning, mood, and thinking.
7.2.4 Limbic System : 2. Brain and nutrition :
Another important part of the brain is limbic
system. Parts of limbic system are Nutrition plays important role in brain
functioning. Nutritional deficiency may lead to
a) Hippocampus :
some neurological problems so understanding
This is storage of our long term memories.
the need of nutrition for brain is essential.
If a person gets Alzheimer’s disease, his
hippocampus is mainly affected. Human brain consumes enormous amount
b) Amygdala : of energy. Despite representing only 2% of
It stores emotional memories of our experiences. body’s total mass, human brain consumes 20%
We experience emotions due to this part, of body’s total energy because of increased
especially fear. metabolic need of human beings. As evolution
c) Thalamus : took place, human life became more complicated
It is called as relay station of the brain. It receives and demanding. As a result, need for nutrition
all the information from the body and sends it to by the brain kept on increasing to face these
various parts of brain. challenges.

79
Nutrition plays important role during 6. Social Interaction :
developing years so to optimize the functions Spending time with others, participating in
of brain. It is also essential during old age to stimulating conversation, and staying in touch
avoid degeneration of cells. Nutrition for brain and connected with family and friends is good
will enhance brain functioning. It will prevent as for your brain health. Studies have shown that
well as help in treating neurological disorders. those who interact more with others show less
Today human brain is exposed to high level decline in their memory.
of stress which results in the process called as After brain, let us discuss about Spinal cord
oxidation. Any food which is high in Antioxidants
7. 3 Spinal Cord
like almonds, dark chocolate, onions, berries,
mangoes, sea food can help to control ill effects It is second important part of the central nervous
system. It extends from neck to waist. It’s main
of oxidation. function is to send information from brain to
3. Tackle your medical problems : body and from to body to brain and to control
reflex actions like salivation, knee jerk, blinking
Hypertension, diabetes, obesity, depression, of eyes etc. Reflex action is an involuntary and
head trauma, higher cholesterol and smoking nearly instantaneous movement in response
to stimulus. Spinal cord is connected to the
increases the risk of dementia. You can control
periphery through 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Each
and reduce these risks by going for regular health spinal nerve is joined to spinal cord through two
check ups and taking medication whenever routes: dorsal and ventral route. If dorsal routes
necessary. are injured we will not have sensations and if
ventral routes are injured, we will not be able to
4. Sleep & Relaxation : move our body and control reflex actions also.
These are quick and simple patterns of behaviour
Sleep energizes the brain, improves mood and
without the involvement of brain. For example:
immune system by clearing wastage and toxins knee jerk, sneezing, blinking of eyes.
from the body. This may reduce abnormal protein
Activity 2 :
of the brain called beta-amyloid plaque, which
is related to Alzheimer’s disease. Practicing Think of the following actions. Which of
them would be reflex actions and which of
meditation and managing stress will help to
them will not be reflex actions?
control age-related decline in brain health.
1) Throwing a ball in a cricket match.
5. Mental Fitness :
2) Closing the eyes if someone brings a
Brain exercises improve your brain’s functioning finger too close to them.
and promote new brain cell growth, decreasing 3) Removing the hand when you
chances of developing dementia. A person can accidently touch a thorn.
keep his brain simulated by solving puzzles,
4) Immediate movement of the knee
problems, watching stimulating movies, by when tapped just below it.
thinking about different issues or by learning
5) Touching a hot object and pulling back
something new.
your hand.

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 7.4 Glands 7.4.2 Endocrine Glands

You must be aware of the physical and Endocrine glands secrete chemical substances
psychological changes you are experiencing at into the bloodstream. They are called as ductless
the stage of puberty. For boys, your body mass gland as they don’t have separate duct.
increases, facial hair, pubic hair develop, your
The chemical substances secreted by endocrine
voice become hoarse. In case of girls, your
glands are called hormones. Hormones are like
body structure changes, pubic hair develop,
messengers that are responsible for certain
mood swings occur and you experience your
behaviours or absence of reactions.
first menarche. Both sexes, develop curiosity
and liking towards opposite sex. You can’t
understand these changes and as a result, you
may find it difficult to adjust with them. There is Pituitary
lack of concentration and mood swings occurring
along with these changes. You are aware of these
facts that these changes are taking place due to Thyroid Parathyroid
glandular system of your body.

So now you may be curious to know about the

glands .

Glands are specialized groups of cells or organs

Adrenals
that secrete chemical substances. There are
many glands and they all fall into two categories Pancreas
: endocrine and exocrine.
Ovaries /
7.4.1 Exocrine Glands Uterus
Prostate /
Exocrine glands directly release their secretions
Testes
into the organ or tissue. Exocrine glands have
separate ducts for it’s secretion. Therefore they
Fig. 7.7 Endocrine Glands
are also called as duct glands. For example :
sweat gland, tear gland etc.

81
Name of Gland Hormone Function/Effects Hypersecretion Hyposecretion

1) PITUITARY Somatotropin, 1) Helps growth 1) Gigantism - 1) Dwarfism- a

(a) ANTERIOR Growth of the body person becomes person is very
LOBE : It is also Hormone, very huge 8-9 short 2-3 feet tall
called as master Adrenocortico- 2) Helps adrenal feet tall. but with normal
gland as it helps tropic Hormone. gland intelligence.
other glands to 2) Acromegaly
3) Required for - the person
produce their
nourishment of has features of
secretions and
secretes majority
foetus. chimpanzee,
of hormones. large bones, big
face with huge
jaw, very long
hands with long
fingers

(b) POSTERIOR Oxytocin Creates feeling

LOBE of happiness,
helps smooth
Pituitrin muscle
functioning of
stomach
Thyrotrophic
Follicle helps thyroids
stimulating Helps
Luteinizing nourishment of
hormone fetus
Endorphins
Helps to create
neurotransmitters
2) Thyroid Thyroxin Maintains rate of Grave’s disease- 1) Cretinism
metabolism person loses among children-
his weight, the child is
irritated mood, mentally and
sleeplessness and physically slow
sweating palms,
2) Myxedema
among adults - a
person becomes
very huge, lacks
motivation and
energy, complains
about weakness

82
Name of Gland Hormone Function/Effects Hypersecretion Hyposecretion
3) Parathyroid parathyroxin Maintains Person feels Person lacks
calcium and nauseated, motivation,
phosphate vomiting energy, weakness
balance sensation, feels and muscle
sleepy and cramps, spasms.
relaxed.

4) Adrenal Cortin or Maintains level Increase in Very lazy, lacks

(cortex) cortisone of water, sugar sexual drive, sexual drive and
and sodium females hunger, weight
start looking loss.
like males,
heavy bones,
moustache,
hoarse voice.

(medulla) Adrenalin (fear) Plays important Increase in heart

Noradrenaline role in emotional beat, blood
(anger) excitement pressure and
breathing rate.

5) Gonads (sex Androgen and Secondary sex Development Males do not

gland) testosterone characteristics of bones and have desire
(a) Testes in in males, muscles, for sex, voice
males voice becomes tendency remains
hoarse. They get towards sexual childlike.
moustache and behaviour,
beard. very energetic
and aggressive
behaviour.
(b) Ovaries in Estrogen and Secondary sex
females progesteron characteristics
in females,
feminine
looks develop,
menarche starts.

6) pancreas Insulin and Maintains blood Reduces Person gets

glycogen sugar level blood sugar. diabetes, quite
Hyperglycaemia, hungry, very
person lacks tired, restless
energy and and irritated
motivation, may behaviour,
faints and go to frequent and
coma. uncontrolled
urination.
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Summary :

• Human behaviour can not be understood without the study of the nervous system. The nervous
system is subdivided into Central and Peripheral Nervous System. The CNS consists of Brain
and the Spinal Cord. The brain consists of the fore brain, mid brain and the hind brain.

• The PNS includes the Somatic and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• The Autonomic Nervous System consists of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous

System.

• Glands are of two types: Exocrine and Endocrine glands.

• Endocrine glands secrete vital chemical substances called hormones. There is a strong impact
of the hormones upon human behaviour.

Key Terms :
• Nervous System • Inferior Colliculus
• Neuron • Hind brain
• CNS • Hypothalamus
• PNS • Hippocampus
• Cerebral Cortex • Amygdala
• Frontal lobe • Pons
• Parietal lobe • Spinal cord
• Temporal lobe • Exocrine glands
• Occipital lobe • Endocrine glands
• Midbrain • Hormones
• Superior Colliculus

84
 Exercise
Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements (C) Identify the odd item from the following
with appropriate options. series of words.
1. Brain is a part of .................. nervous 1. Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Thalamus,
system. Occipital lobe
a. Central b. Peripheral 2. Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine,
c. Somatic Uric Acid, GABA
2. .................. are the building blocks of the 3. Dendrite, Nucleus, Tectum, Axon, Synapse
nervous system. 4. Knee jerk, Sneezing, Thinking, Blinking
a. Cells b. Neurons of eyes
c. Tissues 5. Thyroid, Sweat glands, Adrenal gland,
3. .................. nervous system prepares us for Gonads, Pituitary gland
the fight or flight responses.
(D) Identify which hormones with hypo
a. Somatic b. Parasympathetic secretion or hyper secretion would lead
c. Sympathetic to the following conditions.
4. The gap between two neurons is called 1. Abnormal height, gigantism
...................
2. Hyper activity, speedy metabolism
a. Synapse b. Joint
c. Vacuum 3. Cretinism
4. Stunted growth, dwarfism.
(B) I. Match the following pairs.
5. Myxedema, fatigue, sluggishness,
A B depression
6. Increased appetite, over activity,
1. Thyroxin a) Pituitary
restlessness, lack of concentration
2. Epinephrine b) Parathyroid
Q. 2. Which part of the brain is involved in
3. Parathormone c) Thyroid processing the following information.
4. Androgen d) Adrenal gland 1. Smelling a flower
5. Somato tropic e) Salivary gland 2. Maintaining balance while standing
hormones upright

f) Sex glands 3. Comprehending a speech

4. Memorizing a childhood experience
5. Feeling touch
6. Seeing a picture
7. Feeling hungry
8. Feeling afraid

85
Q. 3. Answer the following questions in 35 to Q. 4. Write short notes.
40 words.
1. Autonomic Nervous System
1. Explain the functions of hypothalamus.
2. Limbic System
2. Describe the functions of each of the four
3. Neurotransmitters
lobes.
4. Pituitary gland
3. Explain the functions of: Amygdala and
Hippocampus.
Q. 5. Compare and contrast.
4. What is a synapse? How does a nerve
1. Sympathetic Nervous System and
impulse travel from one to another neuron?
Parasympathetic Nervous System
5. Which are the important parts of the hind
2. Exocrine glands and Endocrine glands
brain? Explain their functions.
6. How do endocrine glands affect our Q. 6. Answer in 150 to 200 words.
behaviour?
1. Explain the functions of various parts of
the human brain.
2. Explain the significance of endocrine
glands in human behaviour.
State the functions of any five endocrine
glands in detail.

86
 8 Memory

8.1 Introduction : What is memory? 8.3 Some phenomena related to memory.

8.1.1. Basic processes in memory. 8.3.1. Flashbulb memory.
8.1.2. Stages of memory. 8.3.2. Tip of the tongue phenomenon.
8.2 Measurement of memory. 8.4 Forgetting and its causes.
8.2.1. Recall 8.5 Memory improvement technique.
8.2.2. Recognition
8.2.3. Relearning.

Learning objectives
This chapter aims at facilitating students to
1. understand the process and nature of memory.
2. understand various methods of measuring memory.
3. understand various causes of forgetting.
4. understand the strategies of improving memory and relate the same to day to day
experiences.

8.1 Introduction : What is memory?

We have looked at the different parts of the brain as well as the mechanism of how signals are
transferred to and fro from the brain and various parts of the body. In this chapter, let us now look
at how information and experiences are stored and recalled in the brain.
Activity 1 :
Do you remember your first picnic from your school? Do you remember your primary school
teacher? Now can you remember what food you ate last Monday? Why you can remember
some incidents from the past clearly while you cannot remember some things which happened
yesterday?

Activity 2 : Why this happens?

25 workers used to work in Thomas Edison’s Bulb and Phonogram unit of industries. There was a
huge tree near his company. After 6 months, Edison asked his workers about the huge tree but not
a single worker could give information about that tree. Why do you think this happened despite
seeing the tree everyday?
All of us are aware of the tricks that memory plays with us throughout our lives. Have you ever
felt embarrassed because you could not remember the name of a known person you were talking
to?
Memory is indeed a very fascinating, intriguing human ability. It functions to preserve our sense
of identity, interpersonal relationships, solving problems and making decisions.
Memory has been a theme of research in Psychology over a hundred years.

87
 What is Memory? 3. Retrieval
We can sometimes remember the poem which
Memory is an ability by which information is
we had learned in first or second standard and
encoded, stored and retrieved when needed.
we can recall it after our school days also. The
It is the retention of information over time for process of recalling the stored information for the
the purpose of future action. In the last chapter, purpose of its actual use is known as Retrieval.
we’ve seen that hippocampus plays an important We tend to retrieve mobile numbers, names etc.
role in storage of memory. in our daily life.

According to Tulving (2000) “Memory is the

means by which we draw on our past experiences
in order to use that information in the present”.
Memory is the term given to the structure and
processes involved in the storage and subsequent
retrieval of information.

8.1.1 Basic processes in memory

l Encoding / Acquisition
l Storage

l Retrieval

Fig. 8.2 Types of Human Memory

8.1.2 Stages of memory

Fig. 8.1 Basic processes in memory
The environmental stimulus is received with
We can think of these processes as analogous to the help of our sense organs which is called
the functions of computer. as sensory memory. When we pay attention to
the sensations coming in, they are transferred
1. Acquisition / Encoding to STM. If the information is not rehearsed
in STM, it is not retained. If it is rehearsed or
Acquisition is the process of acquiring appears frequently, then it is transferred to the
information from our sense organs. The process LTM. When we encounter any problem, we
of transforming the information received bring the information from our LTM to STM
through our sense organs into suitable symbols so that it’s available to us for solving that
problem.
like pictures, figures, words & numbers.

2. Storage

The information acquired and encoded is

preserved over a period of time. The process of
storage is essential for using that information in
Fig. 8.3 Stages of memory
future.
88
 1. Sensory memory

Sensory memory is the shortest element of

memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of
sensory information after the original stimulus
has ended. Sensory memory retains information PMS ASR
received through the five senses of sight, hearing,
smell, taste and touch for a brief period of time.
Fig. 8.4 Working Memory Model
2. Short term memory
The working memory model given by Baddeley
We are constantly bombarded with sensory can be explained as follows :
inputs, however, only if they are significant they
enter the Short Term Memory (STM). To retain Central Executive
the information in STM, maintenance rehearsal
Central executive is a supervisor responsible
is required. STM holds the information between
15 to 30 seconds and the capacity of STM is for the co-ordination of the subsystems and the
about 7 items at a time. selection of reasoning and storage strategies.

The magical number 7 +/- 2 provides the Phonological loop (PL)

evidence for the limited capacity of the STM.
Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items Phonological loop is responsible for verbal
in the STM. This idea was put forward by information. It has two subsystems, namely,
George Miller in 1956 and called as magical phonological / acoustic store and articulatory
number 7. loop.

Working Memory Phonological / acoustic store

Baddeley called STM as working bench of It is passive component of phonological loop. It
memory, because according to him STM is the
holds on verbal information. This information is
most important stage of our memory which is
forgotten if it is not rehearsed.
used most of the time for problem solving.

Working memory term was coined by Miller, Articulatory loop

Galanter and Pribram around 1960.
It involves rehearsing and refreshing the
It was formerly known as “short term store”. information, just like our inner voice.

Short term memory is also known as - Episodic buffer

primary memory.
It holds information that is not covered by all
immediate memory. other slave systems. It is link between working
memory and long term memory.
operant memory.

provisional memory.

89
 Episodic memory is a memory of experiences
Visuo-spatial sketch pad (VSSP) -
handles visual and spatial information. and specific events which we recall step by step
where we can reconstruct the actual events. It
Is one of the two passive systems. It is responsible is the memory of autobiographical events with
for storing speech based information.
times, places and associated emotions.
It has 2 components -
Semantic memory is a more structured record
1) Phonological memory store : of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge.
That can hold traces of acoustic or speech based Semantic memories have personal context.
information. It includes vocabulary, mathematics, rules of
2) Articulatory Subvocal Rehearsal : logic etc.
Material in short term store is maintained through A type of declarative memory is auto-
this component. Prevention of articulatory biographical memory. Autobiographical
rehearsal leads to rapid forgetting. memory refers to episodes recollected from an
3. Long term memory individual’s own life.

Some items enter the Long Term Memory One type of autobiographical memory is known
(LTM) after rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal as flashbulb memory, which is a highly detailed,
is making that information meaningful and exceptionally clear “snapshot” of mostly a
connecting the same with the information traumatic moment.
that already exists in the LTM. Once entered,
the information is retained for more or less Implicit Memory
permanently. It is an organized system and a It is also known as procedural memory.
store house of encoded experiences. The amount Procedural memory is the unconscious memory
of information stored here is unlimited.
of skills and how we do things, regarding the use
Activity 3 : of objects or movements of the body, such as
tying a shoelace, playing harmonium or riding a
Think about this -
bicycle. These memories are developed through
How many people do you recognize? How repetition and practice.
many flowers you can name? How many
places do you know? It is amazing that we can 8.2 Measurement of memory
store an enormous amount of information, As we’ve seen various stages of memory, let’s
thanks to our Long Term Memory. see now how our memories can be measured.
Types of Long Term Memory. These are major ways of measuring memory -
Recall,
Explicit Memory
Recognition,
Conscious memories of facts and events are Relearning.
called as explicit memory. It is also known as
Recall can be in the written form or it can be oral.
Declarative memory.
Again recall can be free recall or serial recall.
90
 8.2.1 Recall Recall is of two types.

Recall is retrieval of information from our LTM Free recall :

with few / no cues. The essay type questions It is recollection of the items in the list without
which appear in your exams is the example of its serial order. Memory for free recall is always
recall. Recall involves remembering a fact, better than if the subjects are asked to recall in
event or object that is not currently physically a serial order. Free recall is effective in studying
present and require the direct uncovering of primacy effect and recency effect. Primacy effect
information from memory. Murdock (1962) did occurs when the subject is able to recall items
one experiment to check the recall of the subjects. which are presented at the starting point of the
He asked subjects to learn a list of words. Later list and recency effect occurs when the subject
their recall was tested by a free recall method. is able to recall the items which are presented at
Murdock (1962) found that subjects could the end. Example of free recall is : we may listen
recall first few (primacy effect) and last few to a lecture and afterwords recall few important
(recency effect) words prominently, but they points irrespective of the order in which they
got confused with the words in the middle part were presented.
(serial position effect).
Serial recall :
100
Here, material is recalled in the exact order in
which it was presented. For example : if you
Words recalled (%)

are watching a dance show and if you are asked

about who presented first and who was second
50
performer and so on. Here, your answer will be
in serial order. When you solve a mathematical
problem, like 2+2= 4* 4= 16 you are doing steps
one after the other so it is serial recall.

Recall is greatly affected by emotions

0 and motivation at the time of learning and
Primary intermediate Recency
subsequently at the time of retrieval also.
Position in sequence
8.2.2 Recognition
Fig. 8.5 Serial Position Effect
In this method the individual has to point out
Activity 4 : or recognise previously learnt material which
Note down the problems you face while is presented to him in a different context. The
learning a long answer. already learned material is present and the
learner has to recognise it. It becomes relatively
Try linking your points to one another while easier than the recall method. Usually score
learning in order to reduce the effect of serial of memory by recognition method is more
position. than recall method. Example : Multiple choice
questions or match the columns.
91
 So tip of the tongue phenomenon is the evidence
8.2.3 Relearning
for the organisation of long term memory.
It measures retention by measuring how much
faster one learns a previously learnt material 8.4 Forgetting
after an interval of time. The comparison of
retention scores at the time of first learning Activity 5 :
and the second learning shows that there is
improvement in terms of time (no. of trials Think of the following situations...
taken). Thus by relearning; there is saving of
time taken to learn the same material. Have you ever experienced the feeling that
you had studied well before the exam but you
This method is also known as saving method.
did not remember the answers in the exam?
The same material is learned by the same subject
up to same learning criterion on two different After a long time you meet your old school
occasions separated by some time interval.
mate but you don’t remember his name.
It measures memory by comparing which
includes performance on the same task on two You hear your favourite song tune but you
different occasions. don’t remember the words.

8.3. Some phenomena related to memory All these are the experiences of forgetting. Let’s
understand now what is forgetting...
8.3.1 Flashbulb memory
Forgetting is simply the inability to remember
Can you remember where you were and what the things which we want to remember at that
you were doing when you first learned about
moment. In other words, Forgetting is the failure
an earthquake or tsunami taking place? If you
can, you now have flash bulb memories – a term to retrieve the material from our long term
coined by Brown and Kulik. memory which we had already stored.

Flash bulb memories are vivid memories The pioneer of experiments on forgetting was
of what we were doing at the time of an Hermann Ebbinghaus. He created several lists
emotion provoking event because they seem of “nonsense syllables”. Nonsense syllable is
to be preserved in autobiographical memory in set of three alphabets two on both the sides are
considerable detail, almost like a photograph.
consonants and middle one is vowel like GEX,
Flashbulb memories illustrate a more general
phenomenon about memory. Exceptional WOL, MUV etc and learnt it. He checked his
memories are easily retrieved. own recall at various periods of time. He found
out that he forgot most of whatever he had learnt
8.3.2 Tip of the tongue phenomenon in the first 20 minutes (40%). Following that
One way to study organisation of information in after 1 hour (20%) till 9 hours (10%) again he
long term memory is to see what happens when forgot further and after one day he could recall
we search through our library of experiences only around 30% of the material he had learnt.
to retrieve a memory. Suppose you are trying After that his recall was steady for a long period
to retrieve a person’s name but you cannot of time. This experiment proved that we forget
remember it. The name is on the tip of the most of the things we learn in a short span.
tongue, but you cannot recall it. For example if
Therefore you should revise the study material
you want to recall a name XYZ. Instead of this
name you may utter similar names starting with on the same day again when you finish studying
the same letter and having nearly similar names, it to avoid forgetting.
92
 100 Immediate recall
3) Have you gone through some similar
Memory Retention (%) situations in your day to day life, think.
80
You studied Psychology yesterday and
60 20 minutes you studied Sociology today. Now you
1 hour end up forgetting either Psychology or
40
9 hour Sociology. This kind of forgetting is
20 due to interference of material. Some
researchers believe that we forget due to
2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 31 the interference of the materials with each
Elapsed time (days)
other which we learn one after the other.
There are two type of interference namely
Fig. 8.6 Forgetting curve
retroactive interference and proactive
Now let’s see various causes of forgetting and interference.
how we can use some memory improvement
techniques to reduce the forgetting. a) Retroactive interference :

Causes As the name suggests Retro means backward

interference. It is the partial or complete
1) If you keep a book on a shelf for over 6
forgetting of the previously learnt material due
months without touching it, what will
to the new memories which get mixed up with
happen to that book? How will it start
the older ones. So in the earlier example if we
looking? You will realize that after 6
forget Psychology due to the study of Sociology,
months period, there will be dust on that
book. Similarly our memories fade out it will be due to retroactive interference.
when we don’t use them for longer period. b) Proactive interference :
These traces get decayed over a period of
time if they are not used and so we forget. As the name suggests Pro means forward
interference. It is the partial or complete
2) Have you ever played the game Chinese
forgetting of the newly learnt material due to
whispers? What happens in that game?
the old material. So in the example given, if we
Does the message remains the same as it
forget Sociology due to the study of Psychology,
was told by the first person who started
it will be proactive interference.
the message? You can try it in the class
or with your friends. You will see that the Retroactive and Proactive interference
message in the beginning and message
which is given by the last person is not the
same. What do you think why does this
happen? It is because we have a tendency
to distort our memories. The game Chinese
Whispers is the crude example of this type
of forgetting. Some researchers believe
that our memory traces are not decayed
but they are distorted over a period of time
and forgetting occurs. Fig. 8.7 Forgetting due to interference

93
4) Motivated Forgetting : 1) The Keyword Method :

It is a behaviour in which people may forget The Keyword Method is an effective method
unwanted memories either consciously or for remembering definitions, learning foreign
unconsciously. It is also called as a conscious language vocabulary with their meaning etc. Any
coping strategy but it should not be confused two different pieces of information can be linked
with defense mechanisms. together by using this method. e.g. In Japanese
“ki” means tree. A person can remember similar
There are two levels of motivated forgetting :
sounding word like “key” from English and can
a) Repression : remember as “there is a key on the tree”.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic model states 2) Encoding Specificity :

that we subconsciously push unwanted thoughts
The encoding specificity of memory (Tulving
and memories into our unconsciousness.
& Thomson, 1973) provides information about
Person thinks that such repressed memories are
how context can affect memory. According
completely forgotten. For example a girl who
to this principle, memory is improved when
had experienced sexual abuse during childhood
information available while learning is also
may completely forget about it but she may have
available at the time to recall.
difficulty while forming romantic relationship.
3) Method of Loci :
b) Thought suppression :
It is creating imaginary route so that things can
It is a conscious effort where we forget the
be remembered in better way. e.g. things to be
memories of unwanted incidents and experiences
picked up while going home or steps to solve
of our lives. For example : if your friend has
mathematical problem. By using this method, a
experienced a break up recently he may change
person with average intelligence also can form a
the topic if you want to discuss about it. Thought
route, club things in such a way that person can
suppression can be time consuming and quite
remember associated images for long period.
difficult also, because such suppressed thoughts
will reoccur. So your friend may try to suppress 4) Mnemonic Devices :
the thoughts about his ex-girlfriend but he may
These are the memory tools which help you
not be successful as she is your classmate.
to remember words, information or concepts.
8.5 Techniques of improving memory ‘Mnemonic’ in Greek means “of memory or
related to memory”. Mnemonics will include
After knowing the reasons of forgetting, now let
acronyms or first letter technique such as
us move ahead with how we can improve our
VIBGYOR which includes colours of rainbow.
memory.
It will also include visualization like imagining
face of a friend to remember your meeting

94
with him or her. Another example is, you don’t b) Organize :
repeat the same mistake if you remember the While reading we must organize the material
punishment you got before. Another technique is appropriately and plan for the time we will
chunking where you can place large information require to learn it. If the material is easy and
into small chunks. For example “Vina’s Nervous familiar, we can dedicate less time for it and
Mother was running slowly and peacefully’. if the material is unfamiliar, complicated or
this could be divided into chunks for 7 primary technical, we have to devote more time to it. We
mental abilities given by Thrustone. The must learn difficult and technical material when
sentence includes verbal, numerical, memory, we are fresh and when are tried we must go for
word fluency, reasoning, spatial and perceptual the subject we enjoy.
speed as factors of intelligence.
c) Work :
5) Practice and rehearsal : You have to work towards your goal, put efforts
Relearning the same material for a number of while learning so to achieve the goal. You must
times will lead to better retention and better associate new information with something which
recall. For small size of material like definitions you have already learnt. Learn with motive to
or easy material, if we use our time fully and remember. Form chunks, form new associations
learn the entire material, it will be more effective. so that you can remember the material.
For large size of material or difficult material we d) Evaluate :
must take breaks in between and also learn the Try to evaluate quality of your learning by
material in parts. solving questions and find out the quality of
6) Minimizing interference : your knowledge. Here, you will come to know
about how much you have gained.
We have already learnt about retroactive and
e) Rethink :
proactive interference. Therefore we must not
learn similar subjects together as they might This final stage involves reanalyzing, reviewing,
interfere with each other. Also rest is necessary questioning and challenging our assumption.
for minimizing interference. Here you can associate new material with
whatever you already know.
7) One can also use POWER method for
This chapter must have provided you enough
improving memory.
insight into the working and organisation of
a) Prepare : your memory as well as some hands on tips to
improve your retention which could aid you in
Before starting our studies, we must prepare your academic performance. Make sure you
ourselves for it by setting our goals i.e. why are apply the methods mentioned in this chapter
we studying that particular topic. We should be while studying next time!
aware of the reason.

v v v
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Summary :
• Memory is a process of receiving, storage and retrieval of information when required.
• The basic processes of memory include acquisition (encoding), storage and retrieval.
• The stages of memory include : Sensory memory : retention of sensation (sensory impression)
for a very brief time, Short Term Memory: the working memory that has limited capacity
and retains information for limited time, Long Term Memory: After elaborative rehearsal
the information from STM enter the LTM which is a highly organized system. Information
retained almost permanently. LTM can be Explicit (Declarative) or Non declarative.
Declarative memory can be episodic i.e. relating to life experiences OR semantic--for
information encoded in signs and symbols. Non declarative is implicit or procedural i. e. for
skills like riding a bike.
• Methods of Measurement of memory : Recall, Recognition and Relearning.
• Forgetting is inability to retrieve the stored information due to : Trace Decay, Trace Distortion,
Interference or Retrieval failure.
• Memory can be improved by certain techniques. These techniques are called Mnemonic
devices.

Key Terms : Key Psychologists :

• Memory Hermann Ebbinghaus :
• Sensory memory
• Short term memory From 1880 to 1885, he conducted a limited,
• Working memory incomplete study on himself and published his
• Elaborative rehearsal hypothesis in 1885 as Über das Gedächtnis (later
• Long term Memory translated into English as Memory: A Contribution
• Explicit Memory to Experimental Psychology). Ebbinghaus studied
• Implicit Memory the memorization of nonsense syllables, such as
• Episodic Memory “WID” and “ZOF”.
• Semantic Memory
• Flashbulb Memory
• Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning
• Trace Distortion
• Trace Decay
• Interference
• Retroactive Interference
• Proactive Interference
• Mnemonic device
• Method of Loci
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 Exercise
Q. 1. (A) Complete the following statements (B) State whether the following statements
are True or False. If False, correct them.
1. One of the important processes for storage
If True, explain why.
of information in the LTM is ...................
1. Our sense organs also have memory.
a. Perception b. Elaborative rehearsal
2. Short term memory has an unlimited
c. Encoding
capacity.
2. Memory is a/an ....................
3. Conscious memory of facts and events is
a. Activity b. Process called explicit memory.

c. Performance 4. Implicit memory is memory of skills.

3. ................... memory has the shortest 5. When we memorise meanings, concepts

duration. and principles, it is called episodic
memory.
a. Sensory b. Short Term
6. The method of relearning is also known as
c. Long Term
saving method.
4. ................... memory is also known as
7. The most vivid memory is flashbulb
Working Memory.
memory.
a. Long Term b. Accidental
8. Very often forgetting is due to unconscious
c. Short Term processes like repression.

5. ................ memory has unlimited capacity.

(C) Identify the odd item from the following.
a. Sensory b. Short Term
1. Encoding, storage, Tip of the tongue
c. Long Term (TOT), retrieval

6. The span of Short Term Memory is 2. Keyword method, method of Loci,

................... Chunking, Rote learning, First letter
technique
a. 5+/- 2 b. 7+/-2 c. 9+/-2
3. Sensory register, STM, Flashbulb memory,
LTM

4. Recall, recognition, relearning, trace decay

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(D) Match the following pairs. Q. 4. What will you do if...

A B 1. You have to prepare a long speech

covering all the activities in your college
1. A technique to a. Short Term
and present at the annual function.
improve memory Memory
2. How will you apply “POWER” to prepare
2. The most vivid b. Declarative
for the final exam of Psychology.
memory Memory
3. Working memory c. Implicit Q. 5. Short Notes.
Memory
1. Characteristics of Memory
4. Most organized d. Flash Bulb
2. Techniques to improve memory
memory Memory
5. Playing a harmonium e. Method of 3. Motivated forgetting
after a long time Loci 4. Causes of forgetting
6. Writing an essay on f. LTM
perceptual process Q. 6. Answer the following question in 150 to
200 words.
g. recall method
1. Explain the process of human memory in
h.
relearning
detail.
method
2. Explain the theories of forgetting in detail.
Q. 2.
Answer the following questions in
around 35-40 words each.
Q. 7.
Arrange the following elements in
1. Explain any one example of Flashbulb concepts of memory in ascending order.
memory from your life.
1. Elaborative rehearsal, Short Term
2. Explain the model of working memory Memory, receiving information from
proposed by Baddeley. the environment, Long Term Memory,
Retrieval.
3. Explain the Tip of the tongue (TOT)
phenomenon with an example.

4. Give an example of Episodic memory.

5. What is motivated forgetting?

Q. 3. Compare and contrast

1. STM - LTM
2. Implicit Memory - Explicit Memory
3. Semantic memory - Episodic memory
4. Storage failure - Retrieval failure
5. Recall method - Recognition method

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 Glossary
Abnormal behaviour : The behaviour that as thinking, reasoning, language development.
produces distress or disability and maladaptive, Conflicts of motives : A clash between two or
disruptive or harmful for the person or the more equally strong and incompatible motives
society. occurring at the same time that compels an
Abnormal psychology : A branch of psychology individual to make a choice.
that studies unusual patterns of behaviour. Conception : The beginning of life , with
Allocentrism : An ability to see a situation fertilization of an ovum with sperm.
from other people’s perspective. Counselling psychology : A branch of
Approach Approach conflict : A conflict Psychology dealing with milder behavioural
experienced when a person is attracted by problems such as adjustment problems in
two or more equally strong and incompatible workplace and family.
positive motives at the same time. Covert behaviour : Includes responses which
Approach avoidance conflict : A conflict are not directly observable but can be inferred
experienced when an individual is confronted from behaviour like thinking, feeling etc.
with a goal that has equally strong positive as Criminal psychology : A branch of Psychology
well as negative aspect in itself. This leads to a dealing with identifying the causes of crime,
conflict whether to go for it or avoid it. suggesting preventing measures to control
Ashtang yoga : A theory proposed Pantanjali criminal behaviour and criminal rehabilitation.
which has 8 aspects like yama, niyam, aasan, Daydreaming : A defense mechanism that
pranayam, pratyahaar, dharana , dhayn, involves escaping unpleasant, boring and
samadhi. frustrating situation by imagining that he/she
Avoidance Avoidance conflict : A conflict is doing something else that is interesting and
experienced when an individual encounters pleasant.
two or more situations having equally strong Defense mechanism : A face saving device to
negative aspects but is compelled to choose one protect Ego from shattering due to harsh reality,
of them. functions as a shock absorber and stop gap
Behaviour : Responses of an organism to arrangement that provide time to the person to
various stimuli either internal or external. deal with the challenging situation.
Bullying : A form of aggressive behaviour Development : The progressive series of
displayed by individuals to gain power and changes that occur in a predictable pattern as a
prestige. result of maturation and learning.
Central nervous system : A part of nervous Developmental psychology : A study of
system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. changes resulting from maturation and learning
Child psychology : A branch of Psychology in behaviour from conception to death.
that studies biological, psychological and Developmental task : A set of social
emotional changes occurring during childhood. expectations about developmental changes at a
Clinical psychology : An applied branch particular developmental stage.
of psychology that deals with diagnosis and Deviance : The extent to which a said behaviour
treatment of mental illnesses. is away or deviated from established norms.
Cognitive psychology : A branch of Psychology Diffusion : An identity status, according to
that studies higher order mental processes such James Marcia, of an adolescent who neither

99
explores nor commits to alternatives in Explicit memory : The conscious memories
reference to his self identity. There is a lack of of facts and events, also known as declarative
commitment. memory.
Displacement : A defense mechanism in which Fetal stage : A prenatal stage that begins from
there is a redirection of an impulse onto some the 28th week after conception till birth.
other object or person that is not a source of that Flashbulb memory : A vivid memory of past
impulse. experience which is mostly associated with a
Distress : A negative type of stress accompanied traumatic incident.
by emergency response hormones such as Foreclosure : An identity status typical of
adrenalin and cortisol. adolescent who accepts other’s decision about
Educational psychology : A branch of himself and how others expect him to be.
psychology that deals with teaching and Gender identity : A perception of one’s own
learning process and aims at creating effective gender which may or may not correspond
teaching learning methods. to their birth sex. Affected by gender role
Elaborative rehearsal : A process of making expectations from society.
information meaningful and connecting the Germinal stage : The prenatal stage that ranges
same with the information that already exists in from conception to two weeks.
the LTM.
Hormones : The chemical substances secreted
Egocentrism : A tendency of a child to be by endocrine glands considered to be vital for
self centered and the child’s inability to see a growth, development and emotional adjustment.
situation from another person’s point of view.
Hyperstress : An intense physiological as well
Embryonic stage : The prenatal stage that as psychological reaction to excessive demands
starts from the third week and continues till the of situation.
ninth week after conception.
Hypostress : A type of stress experienced when
Emotional intelligence : A set of skills to an individual has no challenging activity to do.
process emotional information accurately.
Identity crisis : A stage of confusion about
Endocrine glands : The ductless glands which identity of self. A typical crisis experienced by
secrete hormones which are released directly adolescents.
into the blood.
Identification : A defense mechanism of trying
Episodic memory : A memory of experiences to become like someone else to deal with
and specific events associated with time and anxiety.
places.
Ideal self : A type of self as described by Carl
Eustress : A positive form of stress having a Rogers that represents an ideal image developed
beneficial effect on motivation, performance by an individual as he would like to be.
and emotional well being.
Implicit memory : Also known as procedural
Exocrine glands : The duct glands secreting memory, a type of memory that holds
chemical substances and dispose them outside information of skills and procedures.
the membrane. Their secretions don’t get mixed
Impression management : A way of
with the blood.
consciously monitoring one’s own behaviour
Experimental psychology : A branch to lay the desired impression upon others in a
of Psychology that deals with methods situation.
of conducting experiments to study the
fundamental causes of human behaviour.

100
Industrial psychology : An applied branch given society. A behaviour pattern adhering to
of psychology concerning with the factors societal norms to a fair degree.
affecting behaviour of people at workplace Openness : A characteristic of people who are
such as selection, placement, motivation, job intellectually curious, appreciative of art and
satisfaction etc. who can think in nonconforming way.
Infancy : The period from the second week Overt behaviour : The behaviour that includes
after birth till two years. directly observable responses like walking,
Interference : A theory that explains forgetting talking, dancing etc.
the currently required information as a result of Personal distress : A subjective feeling of an
interference from previous or later learning. individual in response to persons and events
Kapha prakruti : In Ayurveda, kapha is one creating extreme discomfort.
of the three doshas. Those who are with kapha Peripheral nervous system : A system that
prakruti exhibits traits like calmness, flexibility, connects the sensory organs as well as other
patience and care. organs in the body to the brain and the spinal
Long term memory : An organized system cord.
that retains information for more or less Pitta : In Ayurveda, pitta is one of the three
permanently. doshas. Those who are with pitta prakruti
Maturation : A natural unfolding of the genetic exhibits traits like sharp and short tempered.
potentials at appropriate time in the course of Prenatal stage : The gestation period from
development. conception to birth
Memory : A process associated with storage, Proactive interference : A partial or complete
retention and retrieval of information about forgetting of the newly learnt material due to
past experience. previously learnt material.
Method of loci : A method to memorize Projection : A defense mechanism of placing
or remember by creating imaginary route one’s own unacceptable thoughts on to others
associated to actual places or locals. as if the thoughts belong to others and not to
Moratorium : An identity status of an oneself.
adolescent who explores alternatives but does Psychoanalysis : A theory proposed by
not make any commitment with reference to his Dr. Sigmund Freud emphasizing upon the
self identity. unconscious aspects of self.
Mnemonic devices : A collective name for Psychology : A science of human behaviour
memory tools which helps to remember and mental processes.
information and concepts.
Rationalization : A defense mechanism
Neonatal stage : In includes the period of two of justifying an otherwise an unacceptable
weeks after birth. situation with logically sound but false reasons.
Nervous system : A system that constitutes all Also known as ‘sour grapes attitude’.
the nerves carrying nerve impulses. Real self : The self that one is in reality.
Neurons : The special kind of cells composing Realistic perception : A perception that consists
the nervous system. They receive and transmit of expectations from self as well as others after
nerve impulses to and from the brain and the considering reality in objective terms.
peripheral organs.
Recall : A method of measuring memory in
Normal behaviour : A common pattern of which retrieval of information is with few or
behaviour observed in majority of people in a no cues.

101
Recognition : A method of measuring memory actions and reactions because we can predict or
in which one has to recognize previously learnt imagine it’s consequence.
material that is presented in a different context.
Semantic memory : A more structured record
Relearning : A method of measuring memory of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge.
in which retention is measured by comparing
Sensory memory : A capacity of a sense organ
the original retention score and the score of
to retain the sensory impression for a very
retention after relearning the same material
short time even after the source stimulus is
after an interval of time.
withdrawn.
Repression : The basic defense mechanism
Short term memory : A stage of memory
in which an individual pushes down the
when information is retained only for 15 to 30
unacceptable and painful memories into the
seconds. It has limited capacity also known as
unconscious with an impact that it appears to
working memory.
be forgotten altogether.
Social psychology : It deals with understanding
Retroactive interference : A partial or
how individuals are affected by others and vice
complete loss of information of the previously
versa.
learnt material due to newly learnt material.
Stimulus : Is anything that gives rise to a
Self : The totality of perceptions each person
response. It can be internal or external.
has of themselves.
Stress : A physical or psychological reaction to
Self actualization : The term was originally
demanding situation that one is compelled to
introduced by the organismic theorist Kurt
pool resources to fulfil the demands.
Goldstein for the motive to realize one’s full
potential. Stress diathesis model : According to this
model, a particular disorder results from genetic
Self awareness : It is the quality or trait that
factors as well as life experiences. The word
involves conscious awareness of one’s thoughts,
diathesis refers to vulnerability of an individual
feelings, behaviours and traits.
towards a particular disorder.
Self concept : Self concept is defined as the
Sublimation : It refers to giving a vent to
totality of perceptions each person has of
unacceptable urges into socially acceptable
themselves or The totality of complex organized
behaviour.
and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes
and opinions that each person holds to be true Trace decay : Also known as leaky bucket
about his or her personal existence. hypothesis, it explains forgetting as a result of
passage of time during which the information
Self efficacy : Self efficacy is a person’s belief
is not used.
in their ability to accomplish some specific goal
or a task. Trace distortion : A theory of forgetting that
proposes that there are changes in the memory
Self esteem : Self esteem is ‘your overall
traces and therefore forgetting takes place.
evaluation of your worth as a person, high or
low, based on all positive and negative self Vaat prakruti : In Ayurveda, vaat is one of the
perceptions’. three doshas. Those who are with vaat prakruti
exhibits traits like unpredictability, fluctuating
Self image : A personal view or mental picture
mood, thoughts.
that one has of him/herself.
Zygote : A single fertilized egg cell as a result
Self regulation : Is being able to control our
of fertilization.
thoughts, feelings and actions so to suit the social
norms. Self regulation involves monitoring our

102
 Suggestions for 20 marks

Field visit
Suggestions :
visit to blind and physically handicapped schools, deaf and mute schools, schools for mentally
challenged, Rehabilitation centers, jails, mental hospitals, families affected by suicides, national
players, politicians, social workers, actors. Everything that will enhance personality of students.
Important points to be noticed during field visits.
1) Whom are you planning to visit? Or which place you are planning to visit?
2) Information related to the place, historical importance / current information. Detailed
Information related to the person.
3) Why this place or a person became famous ?
4) Analyse the place or a person from your point of view.
5) Which points you noticed? What makes you motivated or inspired about the place or about a
person.
GUIDELINES ABOUT FIELD VISITS
1) Place / person.
2) Aim / motivating factor behind visiting the place or a person.
3) Collect information about geographical / social / educational / psychological / economical factors.
4) Narrate the place / take interview of a person.
5) Collect the information and analyse.
6) How this information can be utilized by you for the society .
7) Name the drawbacks / weaknesses you have noticed.
8) Suggest remedial actions.
9) Your comment. (Positive / negative feedback)
Prepare a report considering all the above mentioned points.
Marks distribution - 20 marks
1) Field visit - 5 marks.
2) Narration/interview - 5 marks
3) Write up - 5 marks
4) Presentations - 5 marks.
Important suggestion :
teacher should plan for field visit by taking into consideration factors like permission of the college
and deputy director of education. Teacher should make plan by taking local rules and regulations
into consideration.

103
 Suggestion for 20 marks

Evaluation Suggestions :

Activity 1 : Seminar

Group of 4-5 students will be given a topic related to syllabus? Ask them to present it with
help of PPT, oral presentation, poster etc.

Activity 2 : Film Review / Book review

Screening of films

Discussion

Write up

Example : Taare Zameen Par (Learning Disability), Devrai (Schizophrenia)

Activity 3 : Interview of a counsellor, Psychologist or therapist.

Activity 4 : Mental Health Awareness Campaign, Exhibition, Poster presentation, skits etc.

Activity 5 : Administration of standardized tests related to syllabus.

Example : Self esteem, Emotional Intelligence, Stress, Adjustment etc.

Activity 6 : Theme based model - making.

Activity 7 : Role plays to develop soft social skills.

Activity 8 : Case Study.

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