JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA

FACULTY OF LAW

NAME- SHANTANU AGNIHOTRI

COURSE- B.A. LLB (HONS.)

SEMESTER II (REGULAR)
SUBJECT- SOCIOLOGY II
STUDENT ID- 201903738
ROLL NO- 57
SUBMITTED TO: Prof. CA RASHEED

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UNIT- I

1.What do you mean by social change and explain different factors and Theories of Social
Change?

Introduction

Change is an ever-present phenomenon as it is the law of nature. Society is not at all a static
phenomenon, but it is a dynamic entity. It is an ongoing process. The social structure is subject to
continuous changes. Individuals may strive for stability, yet the fact remains that society is an
every changing phenomenon: growing, decaying, renewing and accommodating itself to
changing conditions.

The human composition of societies changes over time, technologies expand, ideologies and
values take on new components. Hence, no society remains complete static. Incessant change
ability is very inherent nature of human society. A social structure is a nexus of present
relationships. It exists because social beings seek to maintain it. It continues to exist because
human demand its continuance. But the existing social structure is influenced by many factors
and forces that inevitably cause it to change. Society is thus subject to continuous change. Social
change is closely related to time scale. Here, one can refer to small scale changes as the gradual
development of a leadership role in a small group, such as a club or a factory. There can be short
term changes as in the employment rates. There could also be long term changes such as in
occupational structures. There are also cyclical changes as we see in the cultural life of a society.
A fashion or life-style which declines and revives again after a short period of time.

Social change is a process through which social organisations, social relationships and forms of
values and beliefs of people in societies are altered. This happens either as a result of internal
changes in societies, such as pressure of population, changes in technology, etc. or as a result of
external pressures. These may include contact with other societies through war and trade, etc.

Nature and Characteristics of Social Change are:

Social change is a universal phenomenon
Social change is community change

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Speed of social change is not uniform
Social change occurs as an essential law
Social change maybe planned or unplanned
Social change is an objective term
Social change shows chain-reaction sequence
Definite prediction of social change is not possible
Nature and speed of social change is affected by and related to time factor

Factors of Social Change

Geography, Population and Ecology

These factors are seen to bring about sudden change or set a limit on social change. Climatic
conditions, natural recourses, physical location of country, natural disasters can be important
sources of change. A natural disaster like floods may destroy entire population, force people to
migrate to another place, or make them rebuild their community all over again. Similarly,
increase and decrease in the size of human population through birth, death or migration can pose
a serious challenge to economic and political institutions. Today, many geographic alterations
and natural disasters are induced by the activities of the inhabitants of a region. Soil erosion,
water and air pollution may become sever enough to trigger off new norms and laws regarding
how to use resources and dispose waste products.

Technology
The technological factors represent the conditions created by man which have a profound
influence on his life. In the attempt to satisfy his wants, fulfill his needs and to make his life
more comfortable man creates civilization. Technology is a by-product of civilization.
Technology is a systematic knowledge which is put into practice that is to use tools and run
machines to serve human purpose. In utilizing the products of technology man brings social
change. The social effects of technology are far-reaching.

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Values and Beliefs
The role of values in social change has been clearly brought out in Max Webber’s book the
‘Protestant Ethics and The Spirit of Capitalism’. Webber proposed that in some historical
situations, doctrines or ideas may independently affect the direction of social change. He tried to
show that the rise of modern capitalism was mainly rooted in religious values as contained in
Asiatic Protestantism.

Cultural Factors
Culture not only influences our social relationships, it also influences the direction and character
of technological change. It is not only our beliefs and social institutions which must correspond
to the changes in technology but our beliefs and social institutions determine the use to which the
technological inventions will be put in.

Ideological Factors
Political, social and religious ideologies can bring forth radical changes in social structure and
social relationships.

Psychological Factors
Man, by nature, is a lover of change. The inherent tendency to look for novelty compel man to
experiment new ideas which may sometimes results in the establishment of new social setup.
Change in attitude of society towards family planning, dowry, caste system, women's education
etc. which brought about radical changes in society are primarily psychological in nature.

The five theories of social change are as follows:

1. Evolutionary Theory
2. Conflict Theory
3. Technological Theory.
4. Cyclical Theory
5. Economic Theory of Social Change

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Evolutionary Theory

Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from simple to
more complex forms. Early sociologists beginning with Auguste Comte believed that human
societies evolve in a unilinear way– that is in one line of development. According to them social
change meant progress toward something better. They saw change as functional and beneficial.
To them the evolutionary process implied that societies would necessarily reach new and higher
levels of civilization. These evolutionary view of social change was highly influenced by Charles
Darwin’s theory of Organic Evolution.

L.H Morgan believed that there were three basic stages in the process: savagery, barbarism and
civilization. Auguste Comte's ideas relating to the three stages in the development of human
thought and also of society namely-the theological, the metaphysical and the positive in a way
represent the three basic stages of social change. This evolutionary view of social change was
highly influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of Organic Evolution. Those who were fascinated
by this theory applied it to the human society and argued that societies must have evolved from
the simple and primitive to that of too complex and advanced such as the western society.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory assumes the status quo is generally bad. It thus views sudden social change in the
form of protest or revolution as both desirable and necessary to reduce or eliminate social
inequality and to address other social ills. Following the views of Karl Marx, says that
industrialization exploited workers and thus increased social inequality.

Conflict theorists recognize that social change often stems from efforts by social movements to
bring about fundamental changes in the social, economic, and political systems. In his sense
social change is more “planned,” or at least intended.

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Technological Theory

When the average person speaks of the changes brought about by ‘science’, he is generally
thinking of ‘technology’ and the manifold wonders wrought thereby. The technology refers to
the application of knowledge to the making of tools and the utilisation of natural resources.

It involves the creation of material instruments used in human interaction with nature. It is not
synonymous with machinery as it is understood in common parlance. Machines are the result of
the knowledge gained by science but they themselves are not technology.

Social change takes place due to the working of many factors. Technology is not only one of
them but an important factor of social change. When it is said that almost whole of human
civilization is the product of technological development, it only means that any change in
technology would initiate a corresponding change in the arrangement of social relationships.

Cyclical Theory

Cyclical change is a variation on unilinear theory which was developed by Oswald Spengler and
Arnold J. Toynbee. They argued that societies and civilisations change according to cycles of
rise, decline and fall just as individual persons are born, mature, grow old, and die. According to
German thinker Spengler, every society has a predetermined life cycle-birth, growth, maturity
and decline. Society, after passing through all these stages of life cycle, returns to the original
stage and thus the cycle begins again. On the basis of his analysis of Egyptian, Greek Roman and
many other civilisations, he concluded that the Western civilisation is now on its decline. The
world renowned British historian Toyanbee has also upheld this theory. Cyclical theory of
change or sometimes called ‘rise and fair theory presumes that social phenomena of whatever
sort recur again and again, exactly as they were before in a cyclical fashion.

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Economic Theory of Social Change

Owing largely to the influence of Marx and Marxism, the economic theory of change is also
known as the Marxian theory of change. Of course, economic interpretations of social change
need not be always Marxist, but none of the other versions of the doctrine are quite as important
as Marxism.

The Marxian theory rests on this fundamental assumption that changes in the economic ‘infra-
structure’ of society are the prime movers of social change. According to Marx, productive
forces constitute ‘means of production’ (natural resources, land, labour, raw material, machines,
tools and other instruments of production) and ‘mode of production’ (techniques of production,
mental and moral habits of human beings) both and their level of development determines the
social relation of production.

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UNIT- II

2. Write an elaborate essay on Sustainable Development, and explain Environmental issues

and different Environmental movements in India.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

According to, Our Common Future is "Sustainable improvement is advancement that addresses
the issues of the present without trading off the capacity of future ages to address their own
issues". It contains inside it two key concepts:

1.) The concept of "needs", specifically the fundamental needs of the world's poor, to which
superseding need ought to be given; and

2.) The possibility of restrictions forced by the condition of technology and social association on
the environment's capacity to meet present and future needs".

So as to comprehend the importance of the definition, it is basic to comprehend the center issues
tended to in the above definition. First is the issue of monetary development. The monetary
development isn't just viewed as basic for destitution decrease yet additionally for addressing
human needs and yearnings for better life.

Second is the issue of restrictions of the environment's capacity to address the issues of the
present and future ages. Because of the weights produced by developing cultural needs, social
orders are utilizing present day innovations for separating and using natural resources, which are
restricted. On the off chance that we keep on misusing existing constrained natural resources,
future ages won't have the option to address their own issues.

The World Conservation Strategy of 1980 is the first international document on living resource
conservation. The report discuss that for development to be sustainable, it should support
conservation rather than hinder it. It targets policymakers, conservationists and development
practitioners with its core tenets of protection of ecological processes and life-support systems,
preservation of genetic diversity and sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems. The

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report influenced “Our Common Future,” also known as the “Brundtland Report” (1987) and laid
the foundations for defining the principle of sustainable development. 

Prepared by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN),
it contains inputs from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Wildlife
Fund (WWF), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco).

The concept of "sustainable turn of events" depends on an incorporated perspective on

improvement and environment; it suggests compatibility of advancement techniques so as to
boost financial development from a given natural environment from one viewpoint, and to limit
the dangers and risks to the environment on the other, for having the option to address the issues
and desires of the current age without trading off the capacity to meet those of the future ages.
K.R. Nayar looks at the concept of "sustainable turn of events" as a political instrument and is
disparaging of numerous parts of the Commission's definition.

Critical objectives for environment and development policies that follow from the concept of
sustainable development include:

(i) reviving growth;

(ii) changing the quality of growth;

(iii) meeting essential needs for jobs, food, energy, water, and sanitation;

(iv) ensuring a sustainable level of population;

(v) conserving and enhancing the resource base;

(vi) reorienting technology and managing the risk; and

(vii) merging environment and economics in decision-making”.

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Environmental Issues

Miraculous achievement has been made in the agricultural production through Green Revolution
during last three decades, which converted India of the fifties, as an importer of food grain to that
of an exporter. The technological advancement in agriculture is brought about through the
increased production of new high yielding varieties of crops by means of the application of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. On the other hand various developmental activities such as
construction of huge dams, establishment of power plants and industrial units have changed the
man-nature relationship. They have changed not only the economic and socio-cultural life of the
people but also their values, systems, ideas, beliefs and indeed their entire life style.

The increase in the discharge of toxic gases from the industrial units and carbon dioxide liberated
from animals and human beings and from burning of fossil fuels is as sharp as decrease in
release of oxygen by the trees and plants as a result of which the biospeheric equilibrium
maintained since time immemorial has been affected.

1. Population Growth and Pollution

The pressure of population on the environment has become more acute during past few decades.
About 34 million people in 1947, the time of independence have swelled up to 86 million in
1991 and is likely to cross 100 million mark by the turn of this century and more than 200 crore
by 2035. Concentration of people in the urban areas which are already polluted is becoming heavier.
The hard pressed economic necessities have overlooked environmental aspect altogether.

2. Denudation of Forests

In spite of the target of having 100 million hectare of forest area i.e. 33 per cent of the total
geographical area of the country as specified by the Forest Policy Resolutions, 1952, our forests
continue to shrink which results in yet another problem of the short supply of fuel wood and
fodder in rural India. As the human and cattle population grew, forest areas have been cleared for
agricultural and other household purposes. Again, railways, roadways etc., have expanded their
network.

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3. Land Degradation

Uncontrolled deforestation, intensive irrigation and mining activities are the major cause of
land degradation. Deforestation on a massive scale has resulted in an unmanageable fast flow of
water from upstream areas. The eroded soil has led to siltation of rivers which naturally have
overflown their banks with roaring speed. Soil erosion is a natural process and is as old as the
earth. But today it has increased to the point where it far exceeds the natural formation of new soil. In
the face of continuously expanding the demand for agricultural products and increase in pressure
on land, soil erosion is accelerating.

4. Green House Effect

The green house effect is one of the most hotly debated environmental issues of the current
world. With the increase in green house gases (carbon-dioxide, water vapour,
Methane, chlorofluorocarbons etc.) in the atmosphere, the average temperature of earth has
been rising slowly but steadily. The adverse physiological effect of double atmospheric CO2 on
climate have been described. Deforestation indirectly increases the amount of carbon-dioxide
thereby increasing the atmospheric temperature. India is the world’s six biggest producer of
CO2. The average climate of the Indian plain would become hotter and drier which would affect
the agricultural yield due to increased weed infestations. The use of chlorofluorocarbon in
refrigeration units and pesticides in agriculture are causing severe damages to the
environment.

5. Hazards of Chemical Abuse

Pesticides are the most important factor in improving agricultural production particularly in
developing countries to sustain the greater supply of food, necessary to feed their growing population.
Amount of hazardous chemicals used in India is very high. The average per hectare pesticide
consumption has increased remarkably during the last three decades.

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Environmental Movements in India

Reasons of the Emergence of Environmental Movements in India

(i) control over natural resources

(ii) false developmental policies of the government

(iii)socioeconomic reasons

(iv) environmental degradation

(v) spread of environmental awareness and media.

Major Environmental Movements in India

1. Bishnoi Movement

This movement took place in 1700’s led by Amrita Devi in which around 363 people sacrificed
their lives for the protection of their forests. This movement was the first of its kind to have
developed the strategy of hugging or embracing the trees for their protection spontaneously. Aim
was to save sacred trees from being cut down by the king’s soldiers for a new palace.

2. Chipko Movement

The women of Advani village of Tehri-Garhwal tied the sacred thread around trunks of trees and
they hugged the trees, hence it was called ‘Chipko Movement’ or ‘hug the tree movement’. The
main demand of the people in these protests was that the benefits of the forests (especially the
right to fodder) should go to local people. The Chipko movement gathered momentum in 1978
when the women faced police firings and other tortures. The then state Chief Minister, Hemwati
Nandan Bahuguna set up a committee to look into the matter, which eventually ruled in favor of
the villagers. This became a turning point in the history of eco-development struggles in the
region and around the world.

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3. Save Silent Valley Movement

The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam across the
Kunthipuzha River that runs through Silent Valley. In February 1973, the Planning Commission
approved the project at a cost of about Rs 25 crores. Many feared that the project would
submerge 8.3 sq km of untouched moist evergreen forest. Several NGOs strongly opposed the
project and urged the government to abandon it. In January 1981, bowing to unrelenting public
pressure, Indira Gandhi declared that Silent Valley will be protected. In June 1983 the Center re-
examined the issue through a commission chaired by Prof. M.G.K. Menon. In November 1983
the Silent Valley Hydroelectric Project was called off. In 1985, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi
formally inaugurated the Silent Valley National Park.

4. Jungle Bachao Andholan

Singhbhum tribes in the state of Bihar started the protest when the government decided to
replace the natural forest forest with a much cheaper machine. This initiative has been dubbed
the “Greed Game Political Populism”. Later the movement spread to Jharkhand and Orissa.

5. Narmada Bachao Andholan

The organization started as a protest against not providing for the rehabilitation and resettlement
of people who were lost through the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam. Later, the
organization turned to environmental conservation and logistics programs. Activists also
demanded that the dam height be reduced to 88 m from the proposed height of 130m. The World
Bank withheld from the deal. The environmental issue was brought to court. In October 2000,
the High Court ruled in favor of the construction of the Town of Sardar Sarovar on the condition
that the height of the dam could rise to 90 feet. Though unsuccessful, as the dam was
unstoppable, the NBA has created a vision for pools against India and beyond. It asks the
question of development.

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UNIT- III

3. Write an essay on the issues and challenges facing by the woman in India and explain
Constitutional Mandate and Different legislations for empowering the Woman in India.

Introduction

India is where women are given the status of a goddess. Be that as it may, the problems they
need to confront simply show something contrary to this idea. Available they revere them as
goddesses and on the other, they misuse them endless and think of them as second rate. India
women consistently had some issue or the other to look in the public eye. People developed thus
did the problems, they didn't leave however changed starting with one then onto the next. We
have to understand these problems and follow up on them quick to enable our nation to flourish.

Overview of challenges faced

When in the good old days, there were extreme issues like the Sati framework, no widow
remarriage, devadasi framework and that's only the tip of the iceberg. While the greater part of
them are not predominant now, there are new issues that women face. They might be not the
equivalent but rather they are still as serious as the mid ones. They ruin the development of a
nation and cause the women to feel second rate.

Firstly, brutality against women is a grave issue looked by women in India. It is going on pretty
much consistently in different structures. People choose to disregard it as opposed to
accomplishing something. Abusive behavior at home happens more regularly than you might
suspect. Further, there is additionally share related harassment, conjugal assault, genital
mutilation and that's just the beginning.
Next up, we likewise have the issues of gender discrimination. Women are not viewed as
equivalent to men. They face discrimination in pretty much every spot, regardless of whether at
the workplace or at home. Indeed, even the young ladies become a casualty of this
discrimination. The patriarchy directs a lady's life unjustifiably.

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Issues and challenges facing by the woman in India

Women’s health-status in India

1.) Sex-ratio and Life Expectancy
Sex-ratio (number of female per 1,000 male) is an important indicator of women’s status in the
society. The census figures show that while the female population has increased from 117
millions in 1901 to 329 millions in 1981 and 495 million in 2001, the number of females per
thousand males is steadily declining. Life expectancy has increased over the decade from 44.7
years in 1971 to 54.7 in 1980 for women. It was estimated to be slightly higher in 1980 for
women than men: 54.7 and 54.1 years at birth respectively. During 1995-2000 the life
expectancy for women and men were 64.9 and 61.9 respectively.

2.) Neglect During Early Childhood

3.) Death during Childbirth
4.)Female Infanticide and Foetal Killing

Early Marriage and Women’s Health

In India, women have on an average 8-9 pregnancies and they spend around 80 percent of their
reproductive years in pregnancy and lactation. Study shows that in the low income group
pregnant women have deficiency of 1,100 calories and lactating women 1,000 calories. Women
of the lower socio-economic groups gain only around 3-5 kilograms during pregnancy which is
far less than the required weight. Anaemia in pregnancy accounts directly 15 to 20 percent of all
maternal deaths in India.

Property and Inheritance

The lack of control over both productive and non-productive resources that is apparent in both
rural and urban settings places women at a reduced level of advantage in areas of security of
home, maintaining a basis for survival, and accessing economic opportunities. Women are
relegated to a secondary status in terms of property and inheritance.

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Crime against Women
1.)Sex Determination Test
2.)Harassment at workplace
3.)Early Practice of Sati, Child Marriage
4.)Indecent Representation of Women

Constitutional Mandates

The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006

The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act was made effective in 2007. This act defines child
marriage as a marriage where the groom or the bride are underage, that is, the bride is under 18
years of age or the boy is younger than 21 years. Parents trying to marry underage girls are
subject to action under this law. Since the law makes these marriages illegal, it acts as a major
deterrent.

Special Marriage Act, 1954

The objectives of this act is to provide – a special form of marriage in certain cases, provide for
registration of certain marriages and, to provide for divorce. In a country like India and with the
diverse religions and cast, when people from different faiths and caste chose to get married they
do it under the Special Marriage Act.

Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

According to this act, taking or giving of dowry at the time of the marriage to the bride or the
bridegroom and their family is to be penalised.

Indian Divorce Act, 1969

The Indian Divorce Act allows the dissolution of marriage, mutual consent, nullity of marriage,
judicial separation and restitution of conjugal rights. Family Courts are established to file, hear,
and dispose of such cases.

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Maternity Benefit Act,1861
This act regulates the employment of women and maternity benefits mandated by law. It states
that a woman employee who has worked in an organisation for a period of at least 80 days during
the 12 months preceding the date of her expected delivery is entitled to receive maternity
benefits, which includes maternity leave, nursing breaks, medical allowance, etc.

Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013

Sexual harassment at workplace includes – the use of language with sexual overtones, invasion
of private space with a male colleague hovering too close for comfort, subtle touches and
innuendoes.

Indecent Representation of Women(Prevention) Act,1986

This Act prohibits indecent representation of women through advertisement or in publications,
writings, paintings, figures or in any other manner.

National Commission for Women Act, 1990

The National Commission for Women (NCW) is a statutory body of the Government of India,
established in January 1992. Lalitha Kumaramangalam was appointed its Chairperson in 2014.
The NCW represents the rights of women in India and provides a voice for their issues and
concerns. The National Commission for Women Act aims to improve the status of women and
worked for their economic empowerment.

Reservation for Women in Local Self –Government, 1992

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-third of the
total seats for women in all elected offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas.

The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000)

The plan of Action is to ensure survival, protection and development of the girl child with the
ultimate objective of building up a better future for the girl child.

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National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001
The Department of Women & Child Development in the Ministry of Human Resource
Development has prepared a “National Policy for the Empowerment of Women” in the year
2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment
of women.

To uphold the Constitutional mandate,

the State has enacted various legislative measures intended to ensure equal rights, to counter
social discrimination and various forms of violence and atrocities and to provide support services
especially to working women. These are broadly classified under two categories. The Crimes
Identified Under the Indian Penal Code (IPC):
(i) Rape (Sec. 376 IPC)
(ii) Kidnapping & Abduction for different purposes ( Sec. 363-373)
(iii) Homicide for Dowry, Dowry Deaths or their attempts (Sec. 302/304-B IPC)
(iv) Torture, both mental and physical (Sec. 498-A IPC)
(v) Molestation (Sec. 354 IPC)
(vi) Sexual Harassment (Sec. 509 IPC) (vii) Importation of girls (up to 21 years of age)

Relavent Cases Laws:

C. B. Muthamma VS Union of India

The judgment of Muthamma's case described the Foreign Service as ‘misogynist.’ The Supreme
Court Judgement ensured that henceforth it was not mandatory for women officers in the IFS to
seek government permission for getting married.

Air India v. Nargesh Meerza

Air India, a state-owned company, required female flight attendants to retire under three
circumstances: (1) upon reaching 35 years of age, (2) upon getting married, or (3) upon first
pregnancy. The Court struck the rules down, holding that these requirements constituted official
arbitrariness and hostile discrimination.

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Vaishaka and Others vs State of Rajasthan

After this case, the Supreme Court made the term Sexual harassment well defined, accordingly
any physical touch or conduct, showing of pornography, any unpleasant taunt or misbehavior, or
any sexual desire towards women, sexual favor will come under the ambit of sexual harassment.

Apparel Export Promotion Council v. A.K. Chopra

In this case court held the actions that outrage the modesty of female employees constitutes
sexual harassment. Also “Actual molestation” or “tried to molestation” Repentance or
unqualified apology does not reduce the seriousness of the charges.

Maya Devi v. State of Maharashtra

The court held that the requirement of husband's consent for wife's application for public
employment was struck down as an anachronistic obstacle to woman's equality and economic
justice, reflects this approach.

M/s. MacKinnon Mackenzie and Co. v. Audrey D'Costa

The Supreme Court upheld a lower court decision supporting the respondent's claims. It noted
that an employer could not deliberately create conditions of work only with the object of driving
away women from a particular type of work that they can otherwise perform with the object of
paying them less and that union settlements must yield to the provisions of the Equal
Remuneration Act.

Githa Hariharan vs Reserve Bank of India

This case challenged the constitutional validity of Section 6, the Supreme Court deemed both
mother and father as natural guardians of a child. The apex court also ruled that ‘after’ cannot be
given a literal interpretation, and the child's welfare has precedence in determining the guardian
of a child. The father by reason of a dominant personality cannot be ascribed to have a
preferential right over the mother in the matter of guardianship since both fall within the same
category.

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UNIT- IV

4. Write an essay on different Types of minority Community in India and their Rights and
explain Issues and Challenges facing by the Minority communities of India.

The expression “minority” has been derived from the Latin word “minor” and the suffix ‘ity’,
which means “small in number”. Thus minorities means “group held together by ties of common
descent, language or religious faith and feeling different in these respects from the inhabitants of
a given political entity”. The Oxford Dictionary defines minority as "the condition or fact of
being smaller, inferior, or subordinate; smaller number or part; a number which is less than half
the whole number.

Louis Wirth, who spearheaded the investigation of Minority issues and offered a definition and
arrangement, characterizes a Minority as, "A gathering of individuals who, as a result of physical or
cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society wherein they live for differential
and inconsistent treatment and who consequently views themselves as objects of aggregate
discrimination. Besides, minority status conveys with it an avoidance from full interest in the life of the
society"

According to the contemporary sociologist, minority is a group of people differentiated from

others in the same society by race, nationality, religion or language who both think of themselves
as differentiated group and are thought of by the others as fundamental group identification from
within the group and those of prejudice from without and a set of behaviors those of
discrimination and exclusion from without.

Inclusive growth demands that all social groups have equal access to the services provided by the
State and equal opportunity for upward economic and social mobility. It is also necessary to
ensure that there is no discrimination against any section of our society. In India, certain social
groups such as the SCs, STs, OBCs and Minorities have historically been disadvantaged and
vulnerable.

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Then there are certain other groups which may be discriminated against and which suffer from
handicaps. These include persons with disabilities, older persons, street children, beggars and victims of
substance abuse. Our Constitution contains different arrangements for the improvement of such
minimized gatherings, for example, Article 341 for SCs, Article 342 for STs, Article 340 for OBCs,
Article 30 which gives the privilege to minorities to set up and manage instructive establishments, etc.
Their individual and aggregate development, notwithstanding, can't be guaranteed without improving
their environmental factors and giving clean drinking water, toilets and instructive chances.

SCHEDULED CASTES (SCs)

The SCs constitute 16.23% of India’s population. In the past, they have been socially ostracized,
economically exploited and denied human dignity and a sense of self worth. The socio-economic
development and protection of SCs from discrimination and exploitation has been a high priority
from the very start of the planning process. People belonging to SC communities are spread all
over the country, with 80% of them living in the rural areas. They constitute more than a fifth of
the population of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and West Bengal. Punjab has the
highest proportion of SCs to the State population.

SCHEDULED TRIBES (ST’s)

The population of STs in India stood at 84.33 million as per the Census of 2001. STs constitute
8.2% of the total population of the country with 91.7% of them living in rural areas and 8.3% in
urban areas. The sex ratio of ST population in 2001 was 978, which was much higher than the
national average of 933. The proportion of ST population to the total population had also
increased from 6.9% in 1971 to 8.2% in 2001. The proportion of STs to the total population in
States/UT was highest in Mizoram (94.5%)

Constitutional Safeguards and Rights

The Constitution of India guarantees protection from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation (Art. 46). It guarantees equality before law (Art. 14), and enjoins upon the State not
to discriminate against any citizen on grounds of caste (Art. 15 (1)). Untouchability is abolished
and its practice in any form is forbidden (Art. 17). The Constitution mandates that no citizen
shall, on grounds only of caste or race, be subjected to any disability and restriction (Art. 15 (2)).

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It empowers the State to make provisions for reservation in educational institutions (Art. 15 (4)
and (5)), and in appointments for posts in favour of SCs. Reservation of seats for SCs in the Lok
Sabha is provided under Article 330, in the State Assemblies under Article 332 and in the Local
Self-Governments bodies. In addition to the above, the Parliament has enacted the
Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, renamed as Protection of Civil Rights Act, in 1976. To
check and deter atrocities against SCs and ST’s the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 has also been enacted.

Two important protective legislations in operation are the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955
and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. However,
despite these Constitutional provisions, atrocities and crimes on them, especially the women,
continue to occur in all parts of the country in varying degrees. As per the National Crime
Records Bureau Report 2005, the crimes against minorities in the last few years were mainly
atrocities followed by hurt and rape.

OTHER BACKWARD CLASS(OBC’s)

The Second Backward Classes Commission headed by B.P. Mandal (1980), basing its
calculation on the Census of 1931, estimated that OBCs constituted 52% of the population.

Indira Sawhney and Others vs Union of India (1992), the National Commission for Backward
Classes was set up on 14August 1993 under the National Commission for Backward Classes Act,
1993. Thus, after 46 years of independence of the country, the backward classes or OBCs got
recognition as a separate group of people for the purpose of 27% reservation in services in the
GoI and public sector undertakings. The States/UTs were free to decide the quantum of
reservation based on the OBC population in their State/UT

Religious Minorities

As per the provisions under the National Commission of Minorities Act, 1992, five religious
communities including Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Parsis have been notified as
minorities. Among the minorities, Muslims, especially Muslim women, need special attention
since relative to other communities they have remained socially, educationally and economically
backward. According to the Census of 2001, 18.4% of our population belongs to Minority

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communities. Muslims constitute 13.4%, Christians 2.3%, Sikhs 1.9%, Buddhists 0.8% and
Parsis 0.07% of the country’s total population.

Racial or ethnic minorities

Every large society contains ethnic minorities. They may be migrant, indigenous or landless
nomadic communities. In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may constitute a numerical
majority such as Blacks in South Africa under apartheid.

Gender and Sexual Minorities

In addition, various gender variant people can be seen as constituting a minority group or groups,
such as inter-sexual, trans-sexual, and gender nonconformists – especially when such phenomena
are understood as intrinsic Characteristics of an identifiable group. An understanding of Lesbian,
Gay, Bisexual and transgender people as minority group or groups has gained prominence in the
western world since the 19th century.

Disabled Minorities

The Disability rights movement has contributed to an understanding of disabled people as a

minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvantaged by society, not just as people who
are disadvantaged by the society but as people who are disadvantaged by their impairments.
people with Autism argue for acceptance of neuro-diversity, much as opponents of racism argue
for acceptance of ethnic diversity. The deaf community is often regarded as a linguistic and
cultural minority rather than a disabled group.

PROBLEMS FACED BY MINORITY COMMUNITY

1. Social Restriction
These problems pertained to the concept of purity and pollution. The untouchables were given a
very low position in the society. Earlier the high-caste Hindus maintained a social distance from
them. They were denied many basic amenities of life which were accorded to the high-caste
Hindus. Minorities are looked upon as unholy and inferior and thus were treated servants of other
caste people.

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2. Religious Problems:
These pertained to the denial of the right of entering temples which were exclusively served by
the high-caste Brahmins. The untouchables were neither allowed to enter the temples nor served
by the Brahmins. They had no right to worship the Gods and Goddesses in the temple.

3. Economic Problems

They suffered from many economic problems. They had to face many economic hardships and
they were not given proper reward for their service. Traditionally, untouchables were deprived of
landed property of their own. They were not allowed to carry on any business. They were not
permitted to engage themselves in the professions which were being carried out by the people of
other castes. The untouchables were not free to choose any occupation according to their own
ability they had to clean the streets, remove dead cattle and to undertake heavy agricultural work.
Mostly they were landless labourers. In 1956-57, 90% of them were indebted.

4. Public Disabilities
Harijans had to face many public indignities because they were denied the right to use the
services of public utilities like wells, public transport as well as educational institutions. They are
forced to live in outskirts of villages. Restricted from making houses, wearing shoes, covering
upper body part, milking cows etc.

5. Educational Problems
Traditionally the untouchables were deprived of getting education. They were not allowed to use
public educational institutions. Even today most of the illiterates are untouchables. Doors of
schools and institutions were closed for them.

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UNIT- V

5. Write an essay on different issues of Old aged in the family and Problems of disabled
persons in India and its Legal and sociological solutions.

Introduction

Old age being the last phase of the human phase starting from Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence,
Adulthood and then Old age. The elderly population is large in general and growing due to
advancement of health care education. These people are faced with numerous physical,
psychological and social role changes that challenge their sense of self and capacity to live
happily. Many people experience loneliness and depression in old age, either as a result of living
alone or due to lack of close family ties and reduced connections with their culture of origin,
which results in an inability to actively participate in the community activities. With advancing
age, it is inevitable that people lose connection with their friendship networks and that they find
it more difficult to initiate new friendships and to belong to new networks.

Problems faced by Old Age people

1.) Memory loss and dementia

People with dementia will often experience difficulties with their memory, which interfere with
their day-to day activities. This memory loss is often due to damage in a part of the brain called
the hippocampus, which plays a very important role in day-to-day memory.

2.) Cerebral arteriosclerosis 

Physicians also may recommend treatments to help people control high blood pressure, quit
cigarette smoking, and reduce cholesterol levels, all of which are risk factors for cerebral
arteriosclerosis. Cerebral arteriosclerosis is the result of thickening and hardening of the walls of
the arteries in the brain.

3.) Addicted to Drugs and Medicine

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4.)Depression and Unsteadiness

Physical health is indeed the major cause of depression in late life. There are many reasons for
this, which include the psychological effects of living with an illness and disability, the effects of
chronic pain; the biological effects of some conditions and medications that can cause depression
through direct effects on the brain; and the social restrictions that some illnesses place upon older
people’s life style resulting in isolation and loneliness.

5.) Loneliness and societal exclusion

Loneliness is a subjective, negative feeling related to the person’s own experience of deficient
social relations. Many people experience loneliness either as a result of living alone, a lack of
close family ties, reduced connections with their culture of origin or an inability to actively
participate in the local community activities. When this occurs in combination with physical
disablement, demoralization and depression are common accompaniments.

DISABILITY IN INDIA

Today, there are millions of people living with one or multiple disabilities. In India, the
population with disabilities is around 26.8 million, constituting 2.21% of India’s total population,
if one goes by the 2011 population census data. Disability rights activists and
academicians performing on disability issues, however, say that these numbers within the census
are a very small percentage of the particular numbers. World bank data on the entire number of
persons with disabilities in India suggests the number is between 40 and 80 million.

Who could be a person with disability?

Disability isn't a homogeneous concept, because it varies from person to person. Seen through a
microscopic lens, one person will always be more or less disabled than the other, in terms of
their relative physical capabilities.

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The Social Statistics Division under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation,
government of India, came up with a report titled Disabled Persons in India: A statistical profile
2016. While defining disability, the report states:
What constitutes a disability or of who should be considered as having a disability.
Moreover, there's no one static condition of disability. A disability could be a results of the
interaction between someone with a health condition and a specific environmental context.

Large percentage of the population with disabilities will be reduced if two listed causes for child
births with disabilities will be eliminated. The primary being lack of awareness and care to
pregnant mothers and second, the shortage of fine and accessible medical facilities across the
rural heartland. For eliminating both these barriers, the state governments must invest heavily in
their health sector as health comes under the ‘state subject’ in our constitution.

Constitutional framework for disabled population

Article 13 (1) – Enjoins on the govt. to not discriminate again any citizen of India (including
disabled) on the ground of faith, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

Article 17- No one including the disabled regardless of his belonging will be treated as an

untouchable. it would be an offence punishable accordance with law.

Article 21- Every one including the disabled has his life and liberty guaranteed.

Article 23- There will be no trafficking in human beings and other types of forced labour is
prohibited and the same is created punishable in accordance with law.

Article 32- every disabled person can move to the Supreme Court of India to enforce his
fundamental rights and the rights to move the Supreme Court.

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Rights to Persons With Disabilities Act, 2016

It has been almost a year since the govt. of India came up with this landmark act on disability
which increased the number of disabilities from seven to 21. This act which replaced the
earlier Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995 has also increased the quota of reservation for persons
with disabilities from 3% to 4% in government jobs and three to five in higher education
institutions. All this looks good on paper. Plenty of posts, especially in group a and group
b services within the government, still lie vacant. And it's the same in higher education
institutions. In both cases, the standard answer is given by authorities is that they couldn’t find
any ‘suitable candidate’. This answer could be a face-saving attempt by the authorities, and
will be right in only two instances.

One, if the Indian education system is proving itself incapable of producing candidates with
disabilities who possess essential educational qualifications to take a seat for an exam for a
specific post in a government job or higher education. Secondly, if because of systemic
discrimination, the employers are just not inquisitive about recruiting someone with disabilities.
Both cases are shameful, if true. Since the inception of Rights to Persons With Disabilities Act,
2016, there are many instances of faulty implementation of disability reservation. The new act
can only achieve success if there's a genuine ‘intent’ to recruit persons with disabilities.

International Day of Persons with Disabilities on December 3, 2017

It shouldn't be just another day where various workshops, talks, seminars and events are
organised on the problem of disability. The thought should be to reflect on where we've got been
going wrong as a society with respect to citizens with disabilities and how these wrongs will
be undone.

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Challenges faced by disabled population in India

Person with Disabilities often have lower education accomplishments, poorer health conditions,
higher poverty rates and fewer economic engagement than people without
disabilities. they're disabled not only by their bodies but by society as well. Persons with
disabilities are considered as one of the marginalised groups in the whole world. they'll even
experience a narrower health margin, both due to social exclusion and poverty, and even
because they'll be liable to the secondary conditions like urinary tract infections or pressure
sores.
According to studies, PWDs often have lower education accomplishments, poorer health
conditions, higher poverty rates and fewer economic engagement than people without
disabilities. They're disabled not only by their bodies but by society as well. Thus disability isn’t
only a health problem. It’s a complex phenomenon that reflects the interaction between the
features of an individual’s body & characteristics of the society within which the person lives in.

1. A large number of youngsters with disabilities (CWDs) remain out of school. Whether or

not they do stay at school, they hardly progress beyond primary levels resulting in lower
employment & incomes.
2. Although the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan has made an attempt to promote the inclusion of
youngsters with disabilities, the system faces plenty of challenges in identifying these children
further as responding to their needs. Budget for educating these children in regular school
settings hasn’t increased commensurately since concentrate on inclusive education in 1970s
3.A number of disabilities in India will be avoided and prevented including people who arise
from medical issues during pre-natal, natal and post-natal conditions, injuries, accidents and
malnutrition. But the health sector hasn’t yet reacted proactively to disability, particularly in
rural regions.
4. Despite of the fact that 3% is reserved for PWDs, only ten percent posts are identified as
suitable. The quota policy even covers only three kinds of disability-hearing, visual and loco

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motor.

There are even more disability issues.

Barriers to Health Care- The lack of appropriate services for people with disabilities may be
a significant barrier to health care. Affordability of health service and transportation are two
main reasons why people with disabilities don't receive needed health care.

Inaccessibility- Most of the govt. buildings or private offices and other infrastructure are
inaccessible for disabling population.

Low Representation- The Disabled person incorporates a very low representative in fields like
government jobs, politics, economy etc.

Attitudinal Barriers- Attitudinal barriers which help in stigmatization and discrimination, deny
people with disabilities their dignity and potential and are one of the greatest obstacles to
achieving equality of opportunity and social integration.

Poor Implementation- Poor implementing policies and plans can prevent the inclusion of
individuals with disabilities.

Institutional Barriers- Institutional barriers include many laws, policies, strategies or practices
that discriminate against people with disabilities. Discrimination might not be intended but
systems can indirectly exclude people with disabilities by not taking their needs into
consideration.

The Education System is still not Inclusive- School buildings don't seem to be accessible.

Teachers are not well trained to assist such students. Even the curriculum doesn't  take care of
the disabled person.

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