1-terminal

the name of the main building which passengers have to go through to board/get on
a plane

2-gate.
in a terminal, what is the name of the place where passengers both go to and wait at
to board a plane? It's called a gate. But it's also the place where people get
off/disembark from a plane too. These are too easy!'

3-ramp

So let's make it a little more difficult. What is the area in front of the gates where
planes are parked (whether directly in front of the gates or further away)
called?''Some people do call this space where planes are parked the tarmac, but for
pilots and controllers it is called the ramp or the apron.'

4-runways. 
So what are the roads which the planes can move slowly on called? I know that the
roads where planes take off and land are called runways

5-taxiways

But what are the roads which connect the ramp to runways called.''These are
called taxiways.

6-signs

There are so many taxiways at airports, how do pilots know which is which or where
to go? Or what is a taxiway and what is runway? 'Well, first of all there are signs.
These are squares or rectangles of metal which are above the ground which have
information written on them (e.g. taxiway name, directions etc...) to help pilots. 

7-markings

there are lines and information painted on the actual taxiway, runway or ramp.
These markings also help the pilots when moving around the airport. 

8- intersections

when two taxiways (or a runway and a taxiway) cross or one joins another.
9-lights

'But what happens at night? It must be difficult to see signs or markings!''It's more
difficult. So to help pilots, there are also lights on the taxiways, runways etc... which
have different colours to help pilots move around airports. 

10-beacon.

There's one special flashing light which is used to show pilots who are approaching to
land where the airport is at night or when visibility is low. This is called a beacon.'

11-control tower
I have another question for you. What do you call the tall building with lots of
windows which air traffic controllers use to see what's happening at the
airport?''That's easy, it's called a control tower.'

12-hangars.'

What do you call the buildings which planes can park inside?'You mean the buildings
which have very large doors?''That's right.''They are called hangars.'
13- parts of a plane
14-fuselage.'

'So what's the main part of a plane called? The part which contains the passengers,
crew and cargo?''I think that's called the fuselage.'

15-nose
what do you call the front part of the fuselage?''That's called the nose

16-tail

And the section at the back of the airplane is called the tail.'

17-cockpit
Perfect. And the part of the fuselage behind the nose where the pilots fly the aircraft
from?' That's called the flight deck.''Yes it is, but it is more commonly called
the cockpit

18-cabin

And what's the section of the plane where the passengers travel in?'That's called
the cabin.'

19-baggage hold
And the section under the cabin where the passengers suitcases, bags and other
things are carried?'That's called the hold or baggage hold.'

20- landing gear
So what are the wheels called which an aircraft uses when travelling on the
ground?'They are called the landing gear and they are on the bottom of the
aircraft.''Is the landing gear just attached to the fuselage of the plane 'No, some of
the landing gear is also attached to the wings as well. The two long horizontal parts
of the aircraft attached to the middle part of the fuselage.'

21-nose landing gear

Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either
takeoff orlanding. ... For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying,
allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage.

22-jet engines 

And what do you call the things which power the aircraft so it can move and fly?'That
depends on the type of aircraft. On some aircraft (especially bigger ones), they are
powered by jet engines which are attached to the wings.
23-propeller

On other aircraft (especially smaller ones), they are powered by a propeller which is

normally attached to the nose of the airplane.'

24- wings

A fixed-wing aircraft is a flying machine, such as anairplane or aeroplane (see spelling

differences), which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by
the aircraft's forward airspeed and the shape of the wings.

25-flaps
'That's right. So, what are the name of the panels/parts attached to the back part of
the wings next to the fuselage that are used to help the airplane take off from the
runway and to slow it down when landing?''I think they are called the flaps

In the simplest terms Flaps do three things.

 Provide additional lift. All airliners and most General Aviation aircraft use
a Take-off Flaps Setting during take-off. This setting provides additional lift
that minimizes the amount of runway required for take-off.
 Lowers stall speed. A continuation of the additional lift that Flaps can
provide, flaps can lower an aircraft’s stall speed allowing the aircraft to take-
off, fly, and land at lower speeds.
 Shortens landing distance. Using full flaps for landing allows the aircraft to
descend at a steeper descent angle if desired and it also provides additional
drag to slow the aircraft once it’s touched down and thus allowing a shorter
landing distance.
The amount of lift generated by a wing depends on the shape of the airfoil,
the wing area, and the aircraft velocity.During takeoff and landing the
airplane's velocity is relatively low. To keep the lift high (to avoid objects on
the ground!), airplane designers try to increase the wing area and change the
airfoil shape by putting some moving parts on the wings' leading and trailing
edges. The part on the leading edge is called a slat, while the part on the
trailing edge is called a flap. The flaps and slats move along metal tracks built
into the wings. Moving the flaps aft (toward the tail) and the slats forward
increases the wing area. Pivoting the leading edge of the slat and the trailing
edge of the flap downward increases the effective camber of the airfoil, which
increases the lift. In addition, the large aft-projected area of the flap increases
the drag of the aircraft. This helps the airplane slow down for landing

26-ailerons
Ailerons are panels near the tip of the wing that move up and down, causing lift to increase (when they go
down) or decrease (when they go up), allowing the pilot to roll the airplane to a desired bank angle or
return from a bank to wings level

Ailerons can be used to generate a rolling motion for an aircraft. Ailerons are small hinged
sections on the outboard portion of a wing. Ailerons usually work in opposition: as the right
aileron is deflected upward, the left is deflected downward, and vice versa
 The ailerons are used to bank the aircraft; to cause one wing tip to move up
and the other wing tip to move down. The banking creates an unbalanced side force
component of the large wing lift force which causes the aircraft's flight path to curve.
(Airplanes turn because of banking created by the ailerons, not because of
a rudder input.
 Planes make shallow turns when the bank angle is less than 20 degrees.
 A turn is “medium” when the bank angle is between 20 to 45 degrees.
 Steep turns produce a bank angle greater than 45 degrees

27-spoilers
 And what about the panels/parts on the top of the wing in front of the flaps, which
are used to make an aircraft descend/go down more quickly?'I know this. They are
called the spoilers. They are also used to slow the plane down when the plane has
landed on the runway.'

Spoilers are panels on the top of the wing that reduce lift. When used in flight, spoilers can be use in
addition to or in place of ailerons to control the roll of the airplane by raising the spoilers on one wing
only. After landing, spoilers are raised on both wings to reduce lift, thereby improving braking and
traction on the runway.

Spoilers are small, hinged plates on the top portion of wings. Spoilers can be used to
slow an aircraft, or to make an aircraft descend, if they are deployed on both wings.
Spoilers can also be used to generate a rolling motion for an aircraft, if they are
deployed on only one wing. This slide shows what happens when the pilot only
deflects the spoiler on the right wing. Spoilers and Speedbrakes are secondary
flight control surfaces that can be deployed manually by the pilot or, under certain
circumstances, that extend automatically. Speedbrakes are purely drag devices
while spoilers simultaneously increase drag and reduce lift.

28-fin

So now let's look at the back or tail of an aircraft. There are two types of small wings
attached to the fuselage and are fixed (they don't move). One which is vertical and
the other which is horizontal. Do you know what these are called?'The one which is
vertical is called the fin. Also known as vertical stabilizer

29-tailplanes

And the small wings which are horizontal which are under the fin at each side of
it?''They are called the tailplanes.' Also known as horizontal stabilizer

30-rudder

At the rear of the fuselage of most aircraft one finds a vertical stabilizer and

a rudder. The stabilizer is a fixed wing section whose job is to provide stability
for the aircraft, to keep it flying straight. The vertical stabilizer prevents side-to-
side, oryawing, motion of the aircraft nose. The rudder is the small moving
section at the rear of the stabilizer that is attached to the fixed sections by
hinges. Because the rudder moves, it varies the amount of force generated by
the tail surface and is used to generate and control the yawing motion of the
aircraft. This slide shows what happens when the pilot deflects the rudder, a
hinged section at the rear of the vertical stabilizer.The rudder is used to control
the position of the nose of the aircraft. Interestingly, it is NOT used to turn the
aircraft in flight. Aircraft turns are caused by banking the aircraft to one side
using either ailerons or spoilers. The banking creates an unbalanced side force
component of the large wing lift force which causes the aircraft's flight path to
curve. The rudder input insures that the aircraft is properly aligned to the
curved flight path during the maneuver. Otherwise, the aircraft would
encounter additional drag or even a possible adverse yaw condition in which,
due to increased drag from the control surfaces, the nose would move farther
off the flight path.On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw and p-
factor and is not the primary control used to turn theairplane.The rudder is a primary flight
control surface which controls rotation about the vertical axis of an aircraft. This
movement is referred to as "yaw". The rudder is a movable surface that is
mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer or fin. Unlike a boat, the
rudder is not used to steer the aircraft; rather, it is used to overcome adverse
yaw induced by turning or, in the case of a multi-engine aircraft, by engine
failure and also allows the aircraft to be intentionally slippedwhen required. In
most aircraft, the rudder is controlled through the flight deck rudder pedals which
are linked mechanically to the rudder. Deflection of a rudder pedal causes a
corresponding rudder deflection in the same direction; that is, pushing the left
rudder pedal will result in a rudder deflection to the left. This, in turn, causes the
rotation about the vertical axis moving the aircraft nose to the left. In large or high
speed aircraft, hydraulic actuators are often used to help overcome mechanical
and aerodynamic loads on the rudder surface.Rudder effectiveness increases with
aircraft speed. Thus, at slow speed, large rudder input may be required to achieve
the desired results. Smaller rudder movement is required at higher speeds and, in
many more sophisticated aircraft, rudder travel is automatically limited when the
aircraft is flown above Manoeuvring Speed to prevent deflection angles that could
potentially result in structural damage to the aircraft.

31-elevators

So to end, tell me what the names of the panels/parts are at the back of the
tailplanes? 'They are called the elevators.''They are used to make the nose of the
aircraft either point up (so the plane climbs/goes up) or point down (so the plane
descends/goes down).' Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually at the rear of an aircraft,
which control the aircraft's pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing.
The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer. An elevator is a
primary flight control surface that controls movement about the lateral axis of an
aircraft. This movement is referred to as "pitch". Most aircraft have two elevators,
one of which is mounted on the trailing edge of each half of the horizontal
stabilizer. When a manual or autopilot control input is made, the elevators move
up or down as appropriate. In most installations, the elevators move symmetrically
but, in some fly-by-wire controlled aircraft, they move differentially when required
to meet the control input demands. Some aircraft types have provisions to
"disconnect" the right and left elevators from one another in the event of a control
surface jam while other types use different hydraulic systems to power the left and
right elevator to ensure at least one surface is operational in the event of hydraulic
system failure(s). The elevators respond to a forward or aft movement of the
control column or control stick. When the pilot moves the controls forward, the
elevator surface is deflected downwards. This increases the camber of the
horizontal stabilizer resulting in an increase in lift. The additional lift on the tail
surface causes rotation around the lateral axis of the aircraft and results in a nose
down change in aircraft attitude. The opposite occurs with an aft movement of the
flight deck controls.

32-Six Pack – The Primary Flight Instruments

Six Pack?
The Six Pack is not a half-dozen beers, and it’s not a well toned and muscled belly. Instead, Pilots
know the 6-Pak refers to the six Primary Flight Instruments

The SIX PACK:

1. Airspeed Indicator (Pitot Static)

2. Attitude Indicator (Gyro)
3. Altimeter (Pitot Static)
4. Vertical Speed Indicator (Pitot Static)
5. Heading Indicator (Gyro)
6. Turn Coordinator (Gyro)
33- Airspeed Indicator

The Airspeed Indicator measures the speed of the aircraft through the air, but really this is the
speed at which the air is flowing over the airplane. And remember, this is not a measurement of
ground speed. The dial is usually calibrated in Nautical miles known as KNOTS.

KNOTS vs. Miles

KNOTS are a measure of speed based on nautical, or sea miles. Aviation uses both nautical and
statute miles for measuring distance and speed, but the Airspeed Indicator typically shows
KNOTS.

Nautical Mile = 6,076 feet

Statute Mile = 5,280 feet
Therefore, 1 Nautical Mile distance = 1.15 Statute Mile distance

Speed Ranges and limitations are marked on the Airspeed Indicator and are specific to the make
and model of the aircraft. Different makes and models of airplanes will have the markings at
different speeds based on limitations of each aircraft. Typically Green markings on instruments
reflect normal operations, and Red markings reflect abnormal operations or limitations.

The Red Line

The speed marked by the Red Line is the Never Exceed Speed (Vne). This speed should never be
exceeded in the Aircraft or structural damage may occur.

The Yellow Arc

The speed range marked by the Yellow Arc is the Caution Speed Range. Speed range indicated
by the Yellow Arc is for Smooth Air Only.

The Green Arc

The Green Arc denotes the Normal Operating Airspeed Range.

The White Arc

The Flaps Operating Range is denoted by the White Arc. Flaps may only be used within this
range of speed
34-Attitude Indicator

The Attitude Indicator is also called the artificial horizon or the gyro horizon. This
flight instrument depicts the position of the airplane in relation to the horizon. It
shows whether the wings are level, and if the plane is climbing or descending, or
flying straight and level. A pair of wings represents the attitude of the aircraft.
Behind the aircraft is a ball. The top is blue, representing the sky, and the bottom
half is usually brown, representing the ground. As the airplane manoeuvres in the
air, the pair of wings will show the degree of bank and pitch attitude. Whether part
of an Electronic Flight Instrument System display or a mechanical instrument, an
Attitude Indicator (AI), Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) or Artificial Horizon (AH)
provides flight crew with essential information about aircraft attitude relative to the
real horizon when the latter cannot be determined because of poor forward
visibility or dark night conditions. As such, the correct interpretation of what the
instrument shows at any given time is critical to maintaining control of an aircraft
in the absence of a clearly discernible horizon.
35-Altimeter

The Altimeter measures the Altitude or height of the aircraft above Sea Level.
Remember, ground elevation varies widely, so the Altimeter reading does not
measure height about the Ground, but instead above Sea Level. The Pilot must be
aware of the Ground elevation, to then calculate the height of the airplane above
the Ground.

Similar to a clock, an Altimeter has three hands. The fastest moving hand reads in
Hundreds of Feet. The shortest hand reads in Thousands of feet. The Longest
hand, which moves the slowest, reads in Tens of Thousands of feet. (On some
altimeters, the Tens of Thousands of feet is represented with the shortest hand,
instead of the Longest Hand)

The Altimeter pictured here has a reading of 1,410 feet above sea level. The fastest
moving hand (Hundreds) is between the 4 and 5, and the small hash marks
represent 20 feet each. Therefore, this hand has a reading of 410 feet. The shortest
hand (Thousands) is between the 1 and 2. Therefore, the current altitude would be
1,410.

The Altimeter reading is based on barometric pressure, and barometric pressure is

constantly changing. This requires the altimeter to be set prior to every flight, and
during flight as barometric pressure in your flying area changes.
36-Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

The Rate of Climb and Rate of Descent are indicated on the Vertical Speed
Indicator (VSI). This is measured in Feet Per Minute, and displayed in Hundreds of
FPM.

The VSI flight instrument measures the vertical speed (vertical velocity, or rate of
climb). This instrument is connected to the static air pressure system. There is a
standard barometric pressure change with altitude changes, and this standard rate
of change is calibrated to measure the aircraft’s change in altitude and rate of
change.

The pilot relies on both the Altimeter and the Vertical Speed Indicator to monitor
altitude and altitude changes. At a glance, the VSI shows the pilot if they are flying
at a steady altitude, or if they are ascending or descending, and the rate at which
their altitude is changing in feet per minute.

37-Heading Indicator
The Heading Indicator is another Gyroscopic flight instrument. Sometimes known
as the Directional Gyro or Heading Gyro, this instrument is the principal direction
instrument used in flight.

The Heading Indicator is gyroscopically stabilized. Unlike the magnetic

compass, the Directional Gyro is not as affected by banks, turns, and speed
changes. However, the Heading Indicator is NOT a magnetic compass.

The Heading Indicator must be set according to the Magnetic Compass indication

before takeoff, and occasionally adjusted to the Magnetic compass while the
aircraft is in steady, level flight. Precession error must be corrected for at regular
intervals of about 15 minutes by re-calibrating the Heading Indicator (HI) to the
Magnetic Compass.

The outline of an aircraft is positioned over a 360 degree scale with markings for
North, East, South and West. The larger markings indicate 10 degrees each, and
the smaller markings denote 5 degree variations.

38-Turn Coordinator

This is another Gyroscopic instrument. This instrument gives information about

the direction and rate of a turn. Additionally, it indicates if the turn is being flown
in coordinated flight. If the aircraft is slipping or skidding during a turn, the ball (or
inclinometer) in the bottom portion of the Turn Coordinator will not be centred.
During a coordinated turn, the ball will remain centered. If the ball is not centered,
the pilot must adjust the turn by using more or less rudder to correct for adverse
yaw.

Standard Rate Turn

The white lines indicate the bank amount for a Standard Rate Turn. The turn
indicator indicates the rate of turn, and not the amount of turn. A Standard Rate
Turn, or Rate One Turn, will give a standard rate of turn of 3 degrees per second.
Therefore, a 360 degree turn will be exactly 2 minutes. This allows the pilot to
determine by time, the degrees of turn. For instance, a pilot could use a standard
rate of turn for 60 seconds, and confidently know they have changed their course
by 180 degrees based on 3 degrees per second. This becomes particularly
important when pilots begin Instrument flying.
 Turn coordinator:
(noun) This is two instruments in one. The first thing it shows (like the 'altitude
indicator' is how much a plane is banking (or turning) and to which side (whether
left or right). This is shown by the representation of a plane in the middle of the
instrument where the wings of the plane can move left or right. The amount it is
turning is shown by whites marks on either side, which indicate upto a 30 degree
turn). 

The second part of the instrument shows a black ball at the bottom of the
instrument which can move from side to side. This is used to show the 'yaw
movement' of the plane. This basically means the direction of the tail of the
airplane. 

When turning, the tail of an airplane may move (very much like the back wheels of
a car if it is going round a corner at high speeds). This will affect the direction
which the plane is heading in and could be dangerous (you could lose control). So,
this part of the instrument shows if this is happening. The ball can move to the left
or right to indicate if the tail of the plane is 'skidding' (moving towards the outside
of the turn) or 'slipping' (moving towards the inside of the turn). The pilot can then
make the appropriate adjustments to stop this happening. 

To find out more, watch this YouTube video to see how this instrument is used.

39-Bird Strike
A bird strike is strictly defined as a collision between a bird and an aircraft which
is in flight or on a take off or landing roll. The term is often expanded to cover
other wildlife strikes - with bats or ground animals.

Bird Strike is common and can be a significant threat to aircraft safety. For smaller
aircraft, significant damage may be caused to the aircraft structure and all aircraft,
especially jet-engined ones, are vulnerable to the loss of thrust which can follow
the ingestion of birds into engine air intakes. This has resulted in a number of fatal
accidents.

Bird strikes may occur during any phase of flight but are most likely during the
take-off, initial climb, approach and landing phases due to the greater numbers of
birds in flight at lower levels. Since most birds fly mainly during the day, most bird
srikes occur in daylight hours as well. The nature of aircraft damage from bird
strikes, which is significant enough to create a high risk to continued safe flight,
differs according to the size of aircraft. Small, propeller-driven aircraft are most
likely to experience the hazardous effects of strikes as structural damage, such as
the penetration of flight deck windscreens or damage to control surfaces or the
empennage. Larger jet-engined aircraft are most likely to experience the
hazardous effects of strikes as the consequences of engine ingestion. Partial or
complete loss of control may be the secondary result of either small aircraft
structural impact or large aircraft jet engine ingestion.

The majority of bird strikes (65%) cause little damageto the aircraft; however the collision is
usually fatal to the bird(s) involved. ... Most accidents occur when abird (or birds) collides with
the windscreen or is sucked into the engines of mechanical aircraft.

40-Unruly Passenger

The term unruly or disruptive refers to passengers who fail to respect the rules of
conduct on board
aircraft or to follow the instructions of crew members, thereby disturbing good
order and discipline on board and compromising safety.
Illegal consumption of narcotics;
 Refusal to comply with safety instructions (examples include not following cabin
crew
requests, e.g., instructions to fasten a seat belt, not to smoke, turn off a portable
electronic
device or disrupting the safety announcements);
 Verbal confrontation with crew members or other passengers;
 Physical confrontation with crew members or other passengers;
 Uncooperative passenger (examples include interfering with the crew’s duties,
refusing to
follow instructions to board or leave the aircraft);
 Making threats (includes all types of threats, whether directed against a person,
e.g., threat
to injure someone, or intended to cause confusion and chaos, such as statements
referring to
a bomb threat, or simply any threatening behavior that could affect the safety of
the crew,
passengers and aircraft);
 Sexual abuse/harassment; and
 Other type of riotous behavior (examples include: screaming, annoying behavior,
kicking and
banging heads on seat backs/tray tables).
Prevention is the most effective mitigation measure to unruly passenger incidents
and could be
promoted as the responsibility of employees throughout the entire organization.
The organization could promote this as part of their safety culture by involving
employees in the prevention of unruly passenger incidents. Preventing unruly
behavior and its escalation would be recommended as the focus of an airline’s
approach
41-Landing Gear Problem
Fixed, non-retractable landing gear was common in the early days of aviation but
is now only seen on light aircraft. Commercial airliners use complex retractable
undercarriages with multi-step automated retraction and extension sequences,
and various systems to provide status information, redundancy and control. One
such system provides easily interpretable indicator lights to provide the positional
status of the landing gear. The principle is simple - a green light when the landing
gear is down and locked and a red light when there is a discrepancy between the
gear lever and landing gear positions. The unsafe indication might be the first sign
of a problem related to the proper preparation of the landing gear for landing.
Depending on the aircraft type and landing gear retraction system, the exact
nature of the problem may vary significantly.

Due to the variety of modern aircraft landing gear design, it could be quite difficult
for a non-professional to distinguish between normal and abnormal gear
operation. In the case of a partial extension, any visual inspection should be done
only by a qualified professional

Landing with main/nose gear that might not be locked/fully extended could result
in:

 Gear-up landing;
Landing with partially extended undercarriage

 Gear collapse with subsequent airframe damage.

 In case of a gear problem, the crew bears significant stress. They will need
time to fully assess the nature of the problem. Further steps could include
crew visual inspection (depending on aircraft design), alternate extension
procedures which may include manual emergency landing gear extension,
or flight manoeuvres designed to force the drop of the landing gear. All of
these steps require significant preparation.
 It might be necessary to perform several low pass approaches in order for
qualified technical personnel to inspect visually the landing gear status and
position.
 A landing with confirmed unlocked gear could result in an emergency
evacuation of the aircraft and the cabin crew will need to prepare the cabin
and passengers for such an event.

What to Expect
If a crew has declared gear problems, the controller may anticipate:

 Need for time to resolve the exact nature of the problem;

 Holding pattern request for preparation and execution of manual
extension;
 The necessity of time and place to perform specific manoeuvres with the
purpose of full extension;
 One or multiple low passes for visual inspection;
 Low speed approach;
 Need for rescue and fire services to be on standby;
 Runway blockage after landing;
 Aircraft Evacuation.
What to Provide
Apart from the above mentioned, a controller should:

 Transfer affected aircraft to another frequency, if applicable;

 Maintain close coordination with ground emergency units - an early call
could facilitate more effective deployment of resources;
 Have direct contact with aircraft operator’s technical representative (if
possible) - any result of a visual inspection should be passed to the crew
without delay.
 Be prepared to provide a wider range of information to the crew on
request.
 DO NOT certify the down and locked position of the landing gear - visual
inspection during low pass should be done by qualified personnel. If not
possible, the tower controller should provide information about landing gear
not extended or only partly extended to the aircraft concerned without delay.
 Use the proper phraseology as recommended by ICAO for such events,
i.e. “The landing gear appears down” and “Landing gear appears up”. Useful
phraseology utilised for such events is included in UK CAP413
Radiotelephony: Section 1.9.6, which states:
"If the low pass is made for the purpose of observing the undercarriage, one of the
following replies could be used to describe its condition but these examples are
not exhaustive:

 a) landing gear appears down;

b) right (or left, or nose) wheel appears up (or down);
c) wheels appear up;
d) right (or left, or nose) wheel does not appear up (or down).

42-Loss of Cabin Pressurisation

Definition
Depressurisation of the aircraft cabin as a result of structural failure,
pressurisation system malfunction, an inadvertent crew action or a deliberate crew
intervention.

Description
Loss of pressurisation is a potentially serious emergency in an aircraft flying at
the normal cruising altitude for most jet passenger aircraft. Loss of cabin
pressure, or depressurisation, is normally classified as explosive, rapid,
or gradual based on the time interval over which cabin pressure is lost.

The cabins of modern passenger aircraft are pressurised in order to create an

environment which is physiologically suitable for humans (Aircraft Pressurisation
Systems). Maintaining a pressure difference between the outside and the inside of
the aircraft places stress on the structure of the aircraft. The higher the aircraft
flies, the higher the pressure differential that needs to be maintained and the
higher the stress on the aircraft structure. A compromise between structural
design and physiological need is achieved on most aircraft by maintaining a
maximum cabin altitude of 8,000 ft.

The composition of atmospheric air remains constant as air pressure reduces with
increasing in altitude and since the partial pressure of oxygen also reduces, the
absolute amount of oxygen available also reduces. The reduction in air pressure
reduces the flow of oxygen across lung tissue and into the human bloodstream. A
significant reduction in the normal concentration of oxygen in the bloodstream is
called Hypoxia.
The degree to which an individual’s performance is affected by lack of oxygen
varies depending on the altitude of the aircraft, and on personal factors such as
the general health of the person and whether he/she is a smoker. Below 10,000 ft,
the reduced levels of oxygen are considered to have little effect on aircrew and
healthy passengers but above that, the effect becomes progressively more
pronounced. Above 20,000 ft, lack of oxygen leads to loss of intellectual ability
followed by unconsciousness and eventually respiratory and heart failure. When
suddenly deprived of normal levels of oxygen, estimates of the Time of Useful
Consciousness are a pertinent guide - at 35,000 ft it is less than one minute. See
the separate article on Hypoxia for more detailed information.

Note that some military flights may involve deliberate depressurisation at high
altitude for the purpose of dropping troops or equipment by parachute. Such
flights are normally conducted in accordance with specific special procedures.

Types
 Structural Failure: Failure of a window, door, or pressure bulkhead for
example, or in-flight explosion. An in-flight explosion may be due to a system
failure, dangerous cargo, or a malicious act consequential on such as an
explosive device on board.
 Pressurisation system failure: Malfunction of some part of the
pressurisation system such as an outflow valve.
 Inadvertent system control input(s): Accidental or incorrect activation of
a critical pressurisation control.
 Deliberate Act: A drastic measure but one which an aircraft captain might
consider, for example, as a way of clearing the cabin of smoke.

Effects
 Crew Incapacitation. Depending on the altitude of the aircraft when
depressurisation takes place, loss of pressurisation can very quickly lead to
the incapacitation of the crew and passengers unless they receive
supplementary oxygen.

Solutions
 Oxygen. In the event of loss of pressurisation, it is essential that the
flight crew don oxygen equipment as soon as possible. In the case of a
deliberate depressurisation, the crew should be on oxygen before the
depressurisation commences.
 Emergency Descent. In the case of an uncontrolled depressurisation, the
crew will want to descend immediately to an altitude at which they and the
passengers can breathe without supplementary oxygen - usually given as
10,000 feet amsl subject to adequate terrain clearance.

43- Fire in the Air

Fire in the air is one of the most hazardous situations that a flight crew can be
faced with. Without aggressive intervention by the flight crew, a fire on board an
aircraft can lead to the catastrophic loss of that aircraft within a very short space
of time. Once a fire has become established, it is unlikely that the crew will be able
to extinguish it.

Time is critical

The following table from a UK CAA report in 2002 supports the generally held view
that, from the first indication that there is a fire onboard the aircraft, the crew has
on average approximately 17 minutes to get the aircraft on the ground.
Types
 Engine Fire. An engine fire is normally detected and contained
satisfactorily by the aircraft fire detection and suppression systems.
However, in certain circumstances (e.g. an explosive breakup of the turbine),
the nature of the fire is such that onboard systems may not be able to
contain the fire and it may spread to the wing and/or fuselage. Where an
engine fire has been successfully contained, there is still a risk that the fire
may reignite and therefore it is still advisable for the crew to land the aircraft
as soon as possible and allow fire crews to carry out a visual examination of
the engine.
 Cabin Fire. A fire within the cabin will usually be detected early and be
contained by the crew using onboard fire fighting equipment. As with an
engine fire, it is still advisable to land the aircraft as soon as possible and
carry out a detailed examination of the cause of the fire and any damage.
 Hidden Fire A hidden fire may be detected by onboard fire detection
systems or by the crew or passengers noticing smoke or fumes, a hot spot
on a wall or floor, or by unusual electrical malfunctions particularly when the
systems are unrelated. This is the most dangerous type of fire for 2 reasons:
o Hidden fires are difficult to locate and access in order to fight them.
The time delay may allow the fire to take hold and do considerable damage to
the aircraft.
o A hidden fire may initially be difficult to confirm and the crew may be
slow to initiate an emergency landing. The consequence of such a delay may be
that the fire becomes non-survivable before the aircraft has an opportunity to
land.

Effects
 Smoke & Fumes. Smoke can reduce visibility within the aircraft. An
electrical fire in an aircraft typically generates a lot of thick white smoke
which can render the flight crew blind, unable to see the instruments or see
out of the windows. In such circumstances, unless the smoke can be cleared,
the crew are unable to control the aircraft. Smoke and fumes from an in-flight
fire are likely to be highly toxic and irritating to the eyes and respiratory
system. Smoke and fumes may therefore quickly incapacitate the
crew unless they take protective action.
 Heat. Heat from fires will affect aircraft systems and ultimately affect the
structural integrity of the aircraft both of which will lead to Loss of Control

Solutions
LAND AS SOON AS POSSIBLE

Accidents and Incidents

 MD11, en-route, Atlantic Ocean near Halifax Canada, 1998  (On 2
September 1998, an MD-11 aircraft belonging to Swissair, crashed into the
sea off Nova Scotia following an in-flight electrical fire.)
 B744, vicinity Dubai UAE, 2010 (On 3 September 2010, a UPS Boeing 747-
400 freighter flight crew became aware of a main deck cargo fire 22 minutes
after take off from Dubai. An emergency was declared and an air turn back
commenced but a rapid build up of smoke on the flight deck made it
increasingly difficult to see on the flight deck and to control the aircraft. An
unsuccessful attempt to land at Dubai was followed by complete loss of
flight control authority due to fire damage and terrain impact followed. The
fire was attributed to auto-ignition of undeclared Dangerous Goods originally
loaded in Hong Kong.)
 NIM, vicinity Kandahar Afghanistan, 2006 (On 2 September 2006, a UK
Royal Air Force (RAF) Nimrod, engaged in operations over Afghanistan
experienced a fuel-fed bomb bay fire shortly after completing air-to-air
refuelling. The fire spread and the aircraft exploded in flight before the crew
were able to land at Kandahar. The Investigation concluded that the fuel leak
had been the result of a series of systemic failures to ensure continued
airworthiness of the aircraft type.)
 CRJ2, en-route, east of Barcelona Spain, 2006 (On 27 July 2006, a
Bombardier CRJ200 being operated by Air Nostrum on a scheduled
passenger flight from Barcelona to Basel, Switzerland in night VMC, suffered
a sudden left hand engine failure and an associated engine fire when passing
FL235 some 14 minutes after take off. An air turn back was made with
indications of engine fire continuing until just three minutes before landing.
An evacuation using the right hand exits was ordered by the Captain as soon
as the aircraft had come to a stop and had been promptly actioned with the
RFFS in attendance. There were no injuries to the 48 occupants during the
evacuation and the only damage was to the affected engine.)
 DH8B, en route, southwest of Windsor Locks CT USA, 2015 (On 5 June
2015, a DHC8-200 descending towards Bradley experienced an in-flight fire
which originated at a windshield terminal block. Attempts to extinguish the
fire were unsuccessful with the electrical power still selected to the circuit.
However, the fire eventually stopped and only smoke remained. An
emergency evacuation was carried out after landing. The Investigation was
unable to establish the way in which the malfunction that caused the fire
arose but noted the continuing occurrence of similar events on the aircraft
type and five Safety Recommendations were made to Bombardier to address
the continuing risk.)
44-aircraft de icer
If you've traveled by air in wintry weather, you've probably looked out your window
before takeoff and seen vehicles circling the plane, spraying deicing fluid on the wings.
Passengers often ask me why it's so important to make sure the aircraft is free of snow
and ice accumulation.
Not just removing, but also preventing a build-up of snow and ice on the wings and tail
of an airplane is crucial for a safe take-off. A plane's wings and rear tail component are
engineered with a very specific shape in order to provide proper lift for flight. Snow and
ice on these areas in essence changes their shape and disrupts the airflow across the
surface, hindering the ability to create lift.
Whenever snow, ice, or even frost has accumulated on the aircraft, the pilots call on the
airport deicing facility to have it removed. Deicing fluid, a mixture of a chemical called
glycol and water, is generally heated and sprayed under pressure to remove ice and
snow on the aircraft.
While it removes ice and snow, deicing fluid has a limited ability to prevent further ice
from forming. If winter precipitation is falling, such as snow, freezing rain or sleet,
further action needs to be taken to prevent ice from forming again on the aircraft before
takeoff. In these cases, anti-icing fluid is applied after the deicing process is complete.
This fluid is of a higher concentration of glycol than deicing fluid. It has a freezing point
well below 32 degrees Fahrenheit or zero Celsius and therefore is able to prevent the
precipitation that falls into it from freezing on the plane's surface Anti-icing fluid also
has an additive that thickens it more than deicing fluid to help it adhere to aircraft
surfaces as it speeds down the runway during takeoff.
Pilots temporarily disable the aircraft's ventilation system during the deicing/anti-icing
process to prevent fluid fumes from entering the cabin. Although the fumes are
considered nontoxic for inhalation, we try to keep the odor out of the cabin regardless.
Sometimes the scent, similar to maple syrup, does find its way into the aircraft cabin.
As the anti-icing fluids lose their effectiveness in flight, the aircraft is still equipped with
systems that prevent frozen precipitation from building on the wings, tail and various
sensors around the airplane. These systems are not only important in the winter months,
but also in the summer months, because at higher altitudes, the temperature is well
below freezing year-round.
Typically aircraft systems prevent ice buildup in one of two ways. On most jet aircraft,
hot air from the engines is routed through piping in the wings, tail and engine openings
to heat their surfaces and prevent icing.
Preventing ice formation in the engine openings is important, as ice here could dislodge and
cause damage as it's ingested into the engine. This occurrence would be similar to throwing
a rock into a running washing machine -- clearly not a good idea.
On propeller driven aircraft, balloon-like devices attached to the wings and tail are inflated
and deflated with air from the engines, breaking up any ice accumulation.
We can't promise your trip to the airport will be ice-free, but there won't be any icy buildup
on the plane getting you to your holiday destination.
Failure to remove contamination from an airframe and/or to protect it from
acquiring further contamination before it becomes airborne may result in
sudden loss of control at or shortly after take off. In the case of aircraft with rear
mounted engines, any ice on the inner wings of an aircraft at take off may be shed
and ingested into the engines causing a partial or total loss of thrust.

In respect of engines, frozen deposits within the intakes including on the fan
blades of jet engines may detach and be ingested by the same engine(s) during
the subsequent application of take off power, with the attendant risk of adverse
effects on engine performance during the potentially critical stage of initial climb,
including the possibility of engine flameout

Failure to de/anti ice when facilities available

 CL60, Birmingham UK, 2002 (On 4 January 2002, the crew of US-operated
Bombardier Challenger lost control of their aircraft shortly after taking off
from Birmingham and after one wing touched the ground, it rolled inverted,
crashed and caught fire within the airport perimeter and all five occupants
died. The Investigation found that the cause of the accident was failure to
remove frost from the wings which reduced the wing stall angle of attack
below that at which the stall protection system was effective. It was
considered that the combined effects of non-prescription drug, jet lag and
fatigue may have impaired crew performance)
 AT72, vicinity Manchester UK, 2016 (On 4 March 2015, the flight crew of
an ATR72 decided to depart from Manchester without prior ground de/anti
icing treatment judging it unnecessary despite the presence of frozen
deposits on the airframe and from rotation onwards found that manual
forward control column input beyond trim capability was necessary to
maintain controlled flight. The aircraft was subsequently diverted. The
Investigation found that the problem had been attributable to ice
contamination on the upper surface of the horizontal tailplane. It was
considered that the awareness of both pilots of the risk of airframe icing had
been inadequate)
 C208, Helsinki Finland, 2005 (On 31 January 2005, the pilot of a Cessna
208 which had just taken off from Helsinki lost control of their aircraft as the
flaps were retracted and the aircraft stalled, rolled to the right and crashed
within the airport perimeter. The Investigation found that the take off had
been made without prior airframe de/anti icing and that accumulated ice and
snow on the upper wing surfaces had led to airflow separation and the stall,
a condition which the pilot had failed to recognise or respond appropriately
to for undetermined reasons)
 CL60, Montrose USA, 2004 (On 28 November 2004, the crew of a
Bombardier Challenger 601 lost control of their aircraft soon after getting
airborne from Montrose and it crashed and caught fire killing three
occupants and seriously injuring the other three. The Investigation found
that the loss of control had been the result of a stall caused by frozen
deposits on the upper wing surfaces after the crew had failed to ensure that
the wings were clean or utilise the available ground de/anti ice service. It was
concluded that the pilots' lack of experience of winter weather operations
had contributed to their actions/inactions)
 AT72, vicinity Tyumen Russian Federation, 2012 (On 2 April 2012, the
crew of an ATR72-200 which had just taken off from Tyumen lost control of
their aircraft when it stalled after the flaps were retracted and did not recover
before it crashed and caught fire killing or seriously injuring all occupants.
The Investigation found that the Captain knew that frozen deposits had
accumulated on the airframe but appeared to have been unaware of the
danger of not having the airframe de-iced. It was also found that the crew had
not recognised the stall when it occurred and had overpowered the stick
pusher and pitched up)
 JS41, en-route, North West of Aberdeen UK, 2008 (On 9 April 2008, a BAe
Jetstream 41 departed Aberdeen in snow and freezing conditions after the
Captain had elected not to have the airframe de/anti iced having noted had
noted the delay this would incur. During the climb in IMC, pitch control
became problematic and an emergency was declared. Full control was
subsequently regained in warmer air. The Investigation concluded that it was
highly likely that prior to take off, slush and/or ice had been present on the
horizontal tail surfaces and that, as the aircraft entered colder air at altitude,
this contamination had restricted the mechanical pitch control)

46-flatbed truck

The use of a flatbed truck extends across industries, whether you are in transportation,
construction, or general manufacturing, these trucks are vital to any fleet operation. Flatbed
trucks are often used for carrying oversized loads or products with unusual shape

47-fuel tanker
 Delivering kerosene refueling

48- Fire trucks

Fire trucks are equipped with very large ladders that extend from
the truck but do not come off. Key components of a fire truck
include:

 Hydraulically operated (aerial) ladder

 Full complement of ground ladders of various types and lengths
 Specialized equipment for forcible entry, ventilation, and search and rescue tasks
49- maintenance truck

Repair or make maintenance

50- pushback tractors or tugs

in aviation, pushback is an airport procedure during which an aircraft is

pushed backwards away from an airport gate by external power. Pushbacks
are carried out by special, low-profile vehicles called pushback tractors
or tugs.

51- snowplough

A snowplough is a device intended for mounting on a vehicle, used for

removing snow and ice ... Large custom snowplows are commonly used at
major airports in North America. These plows have oversized blades and
additional equipment ...

52- sweeper
High Speed Airport Runway Sweeping. ... Many airports have personnel
dedicated to operating sweepers on the airfield to sweep all debris while they
perform their routine checks for larger FOD

53- flash flooding

A flash flood is a rapid flooding of low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes

and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe
thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm, or meltwater from ice or snow flowing
over ice sheets or snowfields.

54- blowing dust

Drifting and Blowing Dust or Sand. (Section 3.2.2.2.1) Definition: Drifting and blowing dust or sand: An ensemble of
particles of dust or sand raised, at or near the observation site, from the ground to small or moderate heights by a
sufficiently strong and turbulent wind.

55- scattered showers

Any of a series of showers of rain, whose number, location and timing are
impossible to predict.

56- Runway Incursion

 Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or
person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take off of aircraft.
57- Runway Excursions
A runway excursion (RE) is a veer off or overrun from the runway surface (ICAO).
These surface events occur while an aircraft is taking off or landing, and involve many
factors ranging from unstable approaches to the condition of the runway. It is important
that all parties involved (Pilots, Air Traffic Controllers, Airport Authorities, etc.) work
together to mitigate the hazards that result in an RE. ATO's Office of Runway Safety is
committed to reducing RE risk through analysis, awareness, and action.

Description
A runway excursion occurs when an aircraft departs the runway in use during the
take-off or landing run. The excursion may be intentional or unintentional.

Types of Runway Excursion

 A departing aircraft fails to become airborne or successfully reject the

take off before reaching the end of the designated runway.
 A landing aircraft is unable to stop before the end of the designated
runway is reached.
 An aircraft taking off, rejecting take off or landing departs the side of the
designated runway.

Effects
 Death or injury to persons on board the aircraft
 Damage to the aircraft
 Death or injury to persons not on the aircraft
 Damage to airfield or off-airfield installations
 Damage to other aircraft or to vehicles
 Delay consequent upon runway obstruction due to the excursio
58- blown tire

 Question: If a tire blows out on the runway, what is the normal course of
action?            
 — Coleman M., Tampa
 Answer: Most modern airliners have more than a single tire on a landing
gear. The tires are designed to take the load if the companion tire is
compromised.
 If the pilots know a tire has failed during takeoff at low speed, they will
abort the takeoff. At high speed they will go ahead and take off, then return to
land for a safety inspection.
 If the tire fails during landing, a normal landing is conducted.
 Q: When a plane blows a tire on takeoff, why do they return to the airport? Could
they not fly to their destination and change the tire then instead of dumping fuel and
returning?
 — Glenn Wantz, Santa Ana, Calif.
 A: The flight crew cannot know if the tire has caused any additional
damage to the airplane. In some cases the landing gear is left extended to
prevent the tire casing (if it is still attached) from becoming lodged in the
wheel well. The more conservative action is to return to the departure airport
for landing.
 Q: How does the pilot know when a tire has burst upon takeoff?  Is there a noise or
just instrument indicators?
 — C.B., Sydney
 A: Often the airport authority will advise air traffic control of tire parts
being found on the runway. This can be reported by the next aircraft taking
off.
 There are a few airplanes that will inform the pilot of a tire causing
damage to protective screens in the wheel wells, but most airplanes do not
advise the pilot of a burst tire.
 Q: I find it remarkable that a set of rubber tires can take the brunt of landing planes
many tons heavy with only occasional blowouts. Do the tires have any special
composition/construction?
 — Ric Guy, Mount Pleasant, Mich.
 A: The manufacturing of aircraft tires is complex, resulting in tires that
can withstand a jet weighing more than 100,000 pounds landing at more than
twice normal gravity (2 Gs) or twice the normal descent rate and not fail.
Years of production experience and special processes produce a very strong
tire.
 There are two types of tire: bias ply and radial. The bias ply is easier to
retread while the radial is lighter. Each has their advantages. Special rubber
compounds combined with steel provide the internal strength.
 Q: How much air pressure is in the landing gear tires on big jets?               
 — Jerry, Sarasota, Fla.
 A: It varies, but with most airliners it is more than 200psi. But tires on
airplanes are filled with nitrogen, not air. There have been accidents caused
by a tire bursting in the wheel well and causing a fire. Nitrogen reduces the
possibility of such a fire.

59- jet engine fire

 Engine Fire. An engine fire is normally detected and contained
satisfactorily by the aircraft fire detection and suppression systems.
However, in certain circumstances (e.g. an explosive breakup of the turbine),
the nature of the fire is such that onboard systems may not be able to
contain the fire and it may spread to the wing and/or fuselage. Where an
engine fire has been successfully contained, there is still a risk that the fire
may reignite and therefore it is still advisable for the crew to land the aircraft
as soon as possible and allow fire crews to carry out a visual examination of
the engine.
 This article provides guidance for controllers on what to expect and how to
act when dealing with the effects of fire during flight on the aircraft
engine(s) or Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). This article does not focus on
ground fire scenarios. There are no standard rules to be followed
universally. As with any unusual or emergency situation, controllers should
exercise their best judgment and expertise when dealing with engine fire
situations. A generic checklist for handling unusual situations is readily
available from EUROCONTROL but it is not intended to be exhaustive and is
best used in conjunction with local ATC procedures.
 There are some considerations which will enable the controller to provide
as much support as possible to the aircraft concerned, and also to maintain
the safety of other aircraft in the vicinity and of the ATC service provision in
general.

Anticipated Impact on Crew

A wide range of practical problems could arise in the cockpit following an engine
failure associated with:

 High workload - Such scenarios are associated with intense workload;

the crew will carry out the appropriate engine on fire drills.
 Engine shutdown - Normally the fire drills require shutting down the
engine and cutting off fuel and electrical supply to the engine. Following this,
extinguishant is fired into the engine and a visual inspection of the affected
engine is carried out by a member of the cabin or flight crew (if possible). It
should be noted that an engine on fire could still produce thrust; it is a
critical element to consider when dealing with engine fire emergencies on
single engine aircraft. In addition, it should be noted also that historically
there have been cases of improper identification of the problematic engine
followed by wrong engine shutdown.
 Announcing the problem - the crew will communicate the problem to
ATC. Non-standard phraseology should be avoided; an emergency
(MAYDAY) or urgency (PAN PAN) call should be made.
 Seeking information and deciding on course of action - the crew will need
any information available regarding adjacent aerodromes and weather
conditions if they decide to proceed to and land at the nearest suitable
aerodrome.

What to Expect
 Rejected Take Off - if the fire is identified prior to V1, the crew might
abandon the take-off during the take-off roll; this will normally be
communicated to ATC at the same time.
 Emergency landing - if the fire occurs after V1 or during any other airborne
phase of the flight, the crew will normally complete the take-off and carry out
an emergency landing at the nearest suitable airfield.
 Engine failure - a malfunction, or Uncontained Engine Failure, associated
with fire could render the engine inoperative. The emergency procedures
followed will depend whether the aircraft is single or multi engined. For a
single-engined aircraft, an immediate landing will be unavoidable whether or
not a suitable airfield is available.
 Rate of descent - in the event of an enroute engine fire three descent
scenarios are possible. If the fire drill is successful and the fire is out,
assuming that there is some distance to the diversion airfield, the crew are
most likely to initiate a "drift down" profile resulting in a low rate of descent.
If the fire is out and the decision has been made to divert to an enroute
airfield or continue to planned destination, the descent rate will be more or
less normal for the aircraft type. If the fire is uncontrollable, the flight crew
are likely to initiate a high speed/maximum rate descent and divert to nearest
airfield.
 Smoke in the Cockpit - possible intrusion of smoke into the cockpit or
the cabin, due to bleed air system contamination, with the associated
communication problems due to sound distortion caused by donning of
oxygen masks.
 Pressurisation problems - due to the engine fire/engine shutdown, the
aircraft might not be able to stay pressurised. In this scenario,
depressurisation is likely to be gradual but depending upon the aircraft type
and any collateral damage caused by the fire or uncontained engine failure,
the depressurisation could be rapid.

60- Level Bust

Definition
Level Bust is defined as any unauthorised vertical deviation of more than 300 feet
from an ATC flight clearance.

Within Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) airspace this limit is reduced

to 200 feet.(EUROCONTROL - HEIDI)

Definitions applied by other organisations are similar but sometimes refer to a

deviation of 300 feet or more.

The level bust issue only relates to aircraft in controlled airspace or a designated
ATZ outside controlled airspace and under either radar or procedural ATC control.

Description
A Level Bust or Altitude Deviation occurs when an aircraft fails to fly at the level to
which it has been cleared, regardless of whether actual loss of separation from
other aircraft or the ground results.

A Level Bust can result in Loss of Separation between aircraft or between an

aircraft and the terrain or a ground obstruction such as a mast (Controlled Flight
Into Terrain (CFIT)).

Level busts are becoming less dangerous because improvements in technology

such as better Short Term Conflict Alert (STCA) and Mode S have improved the
ability of controllers to safely manage any consequent loss of separation.
Furthermore, the availability and proper use of Airborne Collision Avoidance
System (ACAS) provides a final safety net which significantly reduces the risk of
a Mid-Air Collision, and GPWS/TAWS has also reduced the risk of a level bust
resulting in a CFIT accident.

The move to Flexible Use Airspace (Flexible Use of Airspace), the absence of
ACAS on many military aircraft and the high performance of many military jet
aircraft, means that the consequences of level busts involving military aircraft are
more difficult to manage.

A potential loss of separation resulting from the ATCO assigning an inappropriate

altitude or flight level in a flight clearance does not constitute a level bust because
no deviation from the flight clearance occurs; however for completeness,
examples of situations in which the action of the ATCO could contribute to a level
bust are listed in this article.

Types of Level Bust

The following types exclude involuntary transient departure from acquired levels
attributable to the effects of turbulence:

 aircraft both accepts a clearance and sets/records it correctly but then

does not follow it [flight management error (usual) or technical fault (rarely)]
 aircraft accepts a clearance correctly but then sets it incorrectly without
the error being picked up by the crew [flight management error]
 aircraft reads back clearance incorrectly and this error is not picked up
by ATC so it is then recorded/set and followed [ATC error]

61- AIRPROX

An AIRPROX is a situation in which, in the opinion of a pilot or air traffic services personnel,

the distance between aircraft as well as their relative positions and speed have been such that
the safety of the aircraft involved may have been compromised

62- aborted takeoff

In aviation terminology, a rejected takeoff (RTO) or aborted takeoff is the situation in which it is

decided to abort the takeoff of an airplane. ... Below the decision speed, the airplane should be
able to stop safely before the end of the runway.

63- fuel leak

 Fuel Leak - Fuel can leak at the engine, from the tank or anywhere in
between due to fuel tank or fuel line rupture.

Location of Leaks and Defects

Close visual inspection is required whenever a leak or defect is suspected in a fuel system.
Leaks can often be traced to the connection point of two fuel lines or a fuel line and a
component. Occasionally, the component itself may have an internal leak. Fuel leaks also
occur in fuel tanks and are discussed below. Leaking fuel produces a mark where it travels. It
can also cause a stronger than normal odor. Gasoline may collect enough of its dye for it to be
visible or an area clean of dirt may form. Jet fuel is difficult to detect at first, but it has a slow
evaporation rate. Dirt and dust eventually settle into it, which makes it more visible. When fuel
leaks into an area where the vapors can collect, the leak must be repaired before flight due to
the potential for fire or explosion. Repair could be deferred for external leaks that are not in
danger of being ignited. However, the source of the leak should be determined and monitored
to ensure it does not become worse. Follow the aircraft manufacturer’s instructions on the
repair of fuel leaks and the requirements that need to be met for airworthiness. Detailed visual
inspection can often reveal a defect.

Fuel Leak Classification

Four basic classifications are used to describe aircraft fuel leaks: stain, seep, heavy seep, and
running leak. [Figure 1] In 30 minutes, the surface area of the collected fuel from a leak is a
certain size. This is used as the classification Standard

64-chest pain
.

 this condition is an inflammation or irritation of the lining of the lungs andchest. You likely
feel a sharp pain when you breathe, cough, or sneeze. The most common causes of
pleuritic chest pain are bacterial or viral infections, pulmonary embolism, and
pneumothorax

65- Fainting
Fainting (syncope) is a sudden temporary loss of consciousness that usually results in a
fall. When you faint, you'll feel weak and unsteady before passing out for a short period of
time, usually only a few seconds. There may not be any warning symptoms, but some
people experience: yawning. a sudden, clammy sweat.

66- seizure

A seizure is a sudden, uncontrolled electrical disturbance in the brain. It can cause changes in
your behavior, movements or feelings, and in levels of consciousness. If you have two or
more seizures or a tendency to have recurrent seizures, you have epilepsy

67- Choking
Choking (also known as foreign body airway obstruction) is a life-threatening medical
emergency characterized by the blockage of air passage into the lungs secondary to the
inhalation or ingestion of food or another object. Choking is caused by a mechanical
obstruction of the airway that prevents normal breathing.

68- belly landing

A belly landing or gear-up landing occurs when an aircraft lands without its
landing gear fully extended and uses its underside, or belly, as its primary
landing device.

69- skidded off a runway

All 143 passengers and crew have escaped after a Boeing 737 plane skidded off a
runway and landed in a river during a “terrifying” attempted landing at an airport
in Jacksonville

70-flame out

Flameout basically means that the flame in the combustion chamber has been extinguished. A
jet engine compresses air, then adds fuel and ignites it. So, it needs three things to function
correctly- fuel, air (oxygen), and the heat to make them burn. Removing any of the three can
cause a flameout

71- glider

a light aircraft that is designed to fly without using an engine.

72-jetway

A jet bridge is an enclosed, movable connector which most commonly extends from
an airport terminal gate to an airplane, and in some instances from a port to a boat or
ship, allowing passengers to board and disembark without going outside and being
exposed to the elements.

73- Wind shear 

Wind shear (or windshear), sometimes referred to as wind gradient, is a difference in wind

speed or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Atmospheric wind
shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear.
74- negative windshear landing

Horizontal and/or vertical wind shear during the approach can result in sudden
loss of airspeed and apparent loss of power, with potentially disastrous
consequences. A sudden change of wind component or drift prior to landing can
make the approach unstable at a point where go-around is not possible or would
be extremely hazardous. It is vital that such conditions should be quickly
recognised if they are encountered, and that pilot response should be immediate
and correct.

75-hail
76- air rage

sudden violent anger or aggressive behaviour provoked in a passenger on board an

aircraft by the stress associated with air travel.

77- UNRULY PASSENGERS

A group of intoxicated passengers singing and indulging in
horseplay in the aisles could initially receive requests from the
flight attendants to be quiet and be seated with high spirits.
However, if they fail to observe this request, the situation may
escalate to a point where their behaviour could become threatening
without being violent.
In a similar situation documented recently, the consequence of
these actions resulted in the flight being diverted and the
passengers in question off loaded. The captain felt these
passengers might have posed a threat had the flight continued. The
passengers paid a hefty penalty. They failed to reach their holiday
destination and needed to book and pay for return flights on any
airline that would accept them.Airlines are starting to ban passengers who have been
identifiedas being disruptive and unruly. There is talk of displaying signs inairports, which
warn passengers of a zero tolerance policy for unruly behaviour. Many airlines specify rules
and conditions of
boarding on the back of the boarding pass.Cabin crew has the authority to restrain drunk or
violentpassengers. Passengers deemed unruly may be refused boarding,or the flight may be
diverted to have the occupants in question off loaded.

78- catering trucks

79-baggage belt loaders

16 Different Types Of Aircrafts You

Need To Know About
By Hayati | May 16, 2018

Aircrafts are of varied shapes and sizes and they also come with different engines.
Different aircrafts are for different purposes and for all the aviation-lovers out there,
this article will be very helpful, as here we are going to be discussing about the different
types of aircrafts in the world and their different uses. The list of all aircraft types
known is covered in the article.

Especially in USA, there are aircrafts available which will charge you not more than the
value of an used car. At the same time, there are aircrafts which will have a cost
somewhere near to a beach-side house.
Different Types Of Aircrafts With Names And Uses:
1. Amphibians

 
Amphibians are a different category of the floatplanes. As the name indicates, they can
travel in water and air. The only different between an Amphibian and a Floatplane is a
set of retractable wheels to help it run on land.

2. Helicopters

 
Helicopters also called Choppers are the most popular forms of aircrafts. They are
widely used by the Army, Navy, Police and Tourism departments for the convenience
they offer. Helicopters do not need a special runway and a plain land can serve as a pad
for landing. They are operated using a rotor which when rotates makes the engines run.
3. Multi Engine Piston

 
These aircrafts are advanced and need two or more piston engines to fly. They are
expensive and require a special training to operate the planes. Pilots who are undergo
this training earn a special Multi Engine Piston rating to fly a plan with more than one
engine.

[See More: Airports Of India]

4. Biplanes

 
Biplanes are also a type of taildraggers, but with two main wings. They were used before
the Second World War, but are a common sight even in the modern era. They are mainly
used to perform aerial acrobatics as they quite small and agile.
5. Balloons

Balloon aircrafts are filled with air to help them stay afloat in the sky. They are usually
unpowered and travel using wind energy. The hot air inside the balloon is lighter than
the surrounding air, which lifts it up into the air. These balloons are mainly used for
carrier and military purposes.

6. Gliders

 
A glider is a small aircraft that is used to fly higher and greater distances. The
mechanism to fly gliders is different from that of a normal aircraft. They need to be
maintained a high flying speed to give its wings, a lift from the ground. Gliders use the
technique of a slingshot, which they use to launch from an altitude and descend. By
maintaining a high speed, they again can fly high into the air.

7. Gyroplanes

 
Gyroplanes work on an aircraft engine with a small propeller attached on the front of
the plane. This propeller rotates with a speed to push the air through them and enabling
the plane to move forward. They are inexpensive and easy to operate compared to an
helicopter, due to their small and compact size.
8. Parachutes

 
Parachute Aircrafts are powered with a motor to help it glide in the air. Unlike the
normal parachutes used to descend from an altitude, Parachute aircrafts can fly. A strap
with a motor and propeller is attached to the back of a person to gently fly in the sky.
The maximum seating capacity of a Powered Parachute is two people.

9. The Single Engine Piston:

This is one of the most commonly sighted aircrafts out there. The engine is fixed at the
nose and it is considered to be one of the most affordable aircrafts out there. It is used
for general aviation sighting purposes and most of the time are used by certified pilots
only. It is definitely one of the best aircrafts out there. The aircraft has only one piston
engine and that is what makes it so comfortable for aviation-lovers to get their hands on
this particular product. The aircraft can be said to be one of the most purchased ones
throughout the world.
10. The Tricycle Gear Aircraft:

Here, we have one of the most interesting aircrafts out there. The airplane was made
after being inspired by the design and work-process of the WWII aircrafts. The landing
gears are place a bit further on this compared to the other ones. The engine of this one is
quite interesting and people often purchase this as a vintage beauty to cherish the
memories of winning the war. It is not used massively but still can be said to be one of
the most preferred aircrafts by all the aviation enthusiasts out there. Nowadays, it is
mostly used as a sport aircraft.

11. The Business Jets:

Now we have stepped into the aristocratic class aircrafts. More people can fit on this one
and is considered to be one of the priced possession of all the millionaires in the world.
This is often used as a presidential class aircraft and is one of the most beautiful sedan-
class aircrafts right now. This is one of the best jets for pleasing the CEO’s of the
corporate giants right now. The GA fleet is quite impressive in this one. This particular
aircraft can cover distances quite easily and more faster compared to the previous two
ones.
12. The Taildraggers:

This is quite different from the ones discussed previously. Generally, the aircrafts have
their two landing gear the back. This one, however, has them to the front and the single
landing gear is at the back. The design of this one is quite interesting and is definitely
considered to be one of the most interesting aircrafts right now. One of the foul things
about this aircraft is that it takes long time to take off. Special training is require to fly
this one.

13. Tiltrotors:

This is one of the most complicated aircrafts or all time. It is mechanized to work under
the vertical take off procedure. Besides being relatively complex, it is quite interesting
and impressive at the same time, according to engineers. Without a doubt, any aviation
enthusiast can easily claim that this is one of the most beautiful aircrafts right now and
is something that all people out there will love to fly someday. The propellers face the
sky to create the vertical flight and for the forward or progressive flight, they are to face
the back,
15. Turboprops:

Looking for something that will cover miles within a fraction of minutes? This might be
the one for you then. It is considered to be one of the fastest aircrafts out there. There is
a massive debate on it being that fast to be mentioned in the list of the fastest aircrafts in
the world. But still, it can be said without a doubt that it flies pretty fast and is definitely
one of them things that you can rule the sky with. The passenger space on this one is a
little bit more than the business jet and the aircraft offers a wide range of luxury
facilities to the flight attendants.

The engine is quite powerful and the hydraulics are always on point. It looks quite good
as well and can be said to be one of the fastest and prettiest luxury passenger carrier
aircrafts of all time. The body is quite well designed and for all it’s fantastic features it
find it’s place in this list containing the different kinds of aircrafts out there.

HIJACK
Aircraft hijacking (also known as skyjacking and aircraft piracy) is the
take-over of an aircraft, by a person or group, usually armed. In most
cases the pilot is forced to fly according to the orders of the hijackers.
Alternatively one of the hijackers flies the plane himself. The latter was
the case in the September 11, 2001 attacks. In another case the official
pilot hijacked the plane: he flew to Taiwan after threatening to crash the
plane killing the passengers if the other members of the crew prevented
him from flying to Taiwan.
Most aircraft hijackings are committed to use the passengers as hostages
in an effort to obtain transportation to a given location, to hold them for
ransom, or for the release of comrades being held in prison. Another
common motive is publicity for some cause or grievance.
Hijackings for hostages have usually followed a pattern of negotiations
between the hijackers and the authorities, followed by some form of
settlement -- not always the meeting of the hijackers' original demands
-- or the storming of the aircraft by armed police or special forces to
rescue the hostages.
Options for preventing hijacking include screening to keep weapons off
the airplane, putting air marshals on the flight. Cockpit doors on most
commercial airlines have been strengthened, and are now bullet proof.
The task of airport security is to prevent hijacks by screening passengers
and keeping anything that could be used as a weapon (even smaller
objects like nail clippers for example) off aircraft.
AIRMISS / AC PROXIMITY
A near miss or airmiss is an unplanned event that did not result in
injury, illness, or damage - but had the potential to do so. Only a
fortunate break in the chain of events prevents an injury, fatality or
damage. Although human error is commonly an initiating event, a
faulty process or system invariably permits or compounds the harm,
and is the focus of improvement.
The events that caused the near miss are subjected to root cause
analysis to identify the defect in the system that resulted in the error
and factors that may either amplify or ameliorate the result.
To prevent the near miss from happening again, the organization
must institute teamwork-training, feedback on performance and a
commitment to continued data collection and analysis, a process
called continuous improvement.
Aircraft proximity is a situation in which the distance between
aircraft as well as their relative positions and speed have been such
that the safety of the aircraft involved may have been compromised.
Aircraft proximity is classified as follows:
- risk of collision, when serious risk of collision has existed;
- safety not assured, when the AC safety may have been
compromised;
- no risk of collision, when no risk of collision has existed;
- risk not determined, when insufficient information was available to
determine the risk.
BELLY LANDING
A Belly landing is an emergency landing procedure in which an
aircraft lands without its landing gear fully extended—using its
underside, or belly, as its primary landing device. During a belly
landing there is normally extensive damage to the airplane.
Belly landings are particularly risky because of the danger that
the airplane may explode, flip over, or disintegrate if it lands too
fast or too hard. Extreme precision is needed to ensure that the
plane lands as straight and level as possible while maintaining
enough airspeed to maintain control. Strong crosswinds, low
visibility, damage to the airplane, or unresponsive instruments or
controls greatly increase the danger of performing a belly
landing.
A good example of a belly landing in modern times is the July
2006 emergency landing of an Australian F-111
Fighter/Bomber. A wheel on the landing gear fell off after takeoff,
prompting the pilot to circle for 3 hours burning off fuel
before coming in with his landing gear retracted. The F-111
suffered only superficial damage.
AIRCRAFT BREAKDOWNS
The major concern of aviation industry is safety of flight. The
contributing factor in the domain is the condition of the aircraft.
The event of technical malfunction and failure can be a reasonable
cause for the accident, that’s why such an intent attention at the
performance of the plane is paid. The investigation of sample
cases concerning the in-flight breakdowns can serve as a typical
manual for coping with emergency situations of that kind. Let’s
get acquainted with one of such occasions. While on a night flight
over the South China Sea an aircraft suffered a fuel transfer error.
It caused all four engines to run down. In order to correct an
imbalance the Flight Engineer had all four engines feeding from
one main tank, but forgot about the situation. Later on when he
was briefly away from his station the main tank ran dry, creating
an eerie silence on the flightdeck as the four engines suddenly ran
down. The electric ram air turbine was quickly deployed, restoring
electrical power to the flight controls. The Flight Engineer
returned to his post and started to restart the four engines. Several
minutes later all was back to normal except for the deployed
ELRAT. The only way to restore it was on the ground. Because of
this the aircraft had to continue flight with the ELRAT extended. It
caused the ELRAT to overspeed and fail later in flight.

80- Aircraft Ground Damage

Description
This article describes the factors that can cause or contribute to occurrences that
result in aircraft being damaged while on the ground, especially on the apron. It
also provides practical A&I examples. Damage caused by hard landing, runway
excursions, etc., is not a subject of this article.

Flight Phases
Most ground occurrences happen when the aircraft is parked, e.g. during
maintenance, loading and unloading. Relatively high number of events
involve airbridges. The parts that usually sustain damage in such cases are the
fuselage (especially the doors) and the engines.

The next most risky phase is aircraft towing. Incidents during this phase often
result in damage to the landing gear, wings or empennage.

Taxiing aircraft participate in ground events relatively less often. A frequent

outcome of such incidents is wingtip damage.

Maintenance
Note: Most maintenance events do not fall within the definition of Accident.
Therefore only a few are described on Skybrary.
 B762, Los Angeles USA, 2006 (On June 2, 2006, an American Airlines
Boeing 767-200ER fitted GE CF6-80A engines experienced an uncontained
failure of the high pressure turbine (HPT) stage 1 disc in the No. 1 engine
during a high-power ground run carried out in designated run up area at Los
Angeles for maintenance purposes during daylight normal visibility
conditions. The three maintenance personnel on board the aircraft as well as
two observers on the ground were not injured but both engines and the
aircraft sustained substantial damage from the fuel-fed fire which occurred
as an indirect result of the failure.)

Airbridges
 B74S, Stockholm Arlanda Sweden, 1996 (On 14 June 1996, a Boeing
747SP being operated by Air China on a scheduled passenger flight from
Beijing to Stockholm was arriving on the designated parking gate at
destination in normal daylight visibility when it collided with the airbridge.
None of the 130 occupants of the aircraft suffered any injury but the aircraft
was “substantially damaged” and the airbridge was “damaged”.)
 B74S, Stockholm Arlanda Sweden, 2006 (On 11 December 2006, a Boeing
747SP being operated by Syrian Air on a scheduled passenger flight from
Damascus to Stockholm was arriving on the designated parking gate at
destination in normal visibility at night when it collided with the airbridge.
None of the 116 occupants of the aircraft suffered any injury but the aircraft
was “substantially damaged” and the airbridge was “damaged”.)
 B738, Barcelona Spain, 2015 (On 12 December 2015, whilst a Boeing 737-
800 was beginning disembarkation of passengers via an air bridge which had
just been attached on arrival at Barcelona, the bridge malfunctioned, raising
the aircraft nose gear approximately 2 metres off the ground. The door
attached to the bridge then failed and the aircraft dropped abruptly. Prompt
cabin crew intervention prevented all but two minor injuries. The
Investigation found that the occurrence had been made possible by the
failure to recognise new functional risks created by a programme of partial
renovation being carried out on the air bridges at the Terminal involved.)
 A320, Lisbon Portugal, 2015 (On 19 May 2015, an Airbus A319 crew
attempted to taxi into a nose-in parking position at Lisbon despite the fact
that the APIS, although switched on, was clearly malfunctioning whilst not
displaying an unequivocal ‘STOP’. The aircraft continued 6 metres past the
applicable apron ground marking by which time it had hit the airbridge. The
marshaller in attendance to oversee the arrival did not signal the aircraft or
manually select the APIS ‘STOP’ instruction. The APIS had failed to detect
the dark-liveried aircraft and the non-display of a steady ‘STOP’ indication
was independently attributed to a pre-existing system fault.)
 A319, Ibiza Spain, 2016 (On 19 June 2016, an Airbus A320 failed to follow
the clearly-specified and ground-marked self-positioning exit from a regularly
used gate at Ibiza and its right wing tip collided with the airbridge, damaging
both it and the aircraft. The Investigation found that the crew had attempted
the necessary left turn using the Operator’s ‘One Engine Taxi Departure’
procedure using the left engine but then failed to follow the marked taxi
guideline by a significant margin. It was noted that there had been no other
such difficulties with the same departure in the previous four years it had
been in use.)
Towing
 A320, Dublin Ireland, 2017 (On 27 September 2017, an Airbus A320 being
manoeuvred off the departure gate at Dublin by tug was being pulled forward
when the tow bar shear pin broke and the tug driver lost control. The tug
then collided with the right engine causing significant damage. The tug driver
and assisting ground crew were not injured. The Investigation concluded that
although the shear pin failure was not attributable to any particular cause,
the relative severity of the outcome was probably increased by the wet
surface, a forward slope on the ramp and fact that an engine start was in
progress.)
 B738, Singapore, 2015 (On 6 December 2015, a Boeing 737-800 was being
manoeuvred by tug from its departure gate at Singapore to the position
where it was permitted to commence taxiing under its own power when the
tug lost control of the aircraft, the tow bar broke and the two collided. The
Investigation attributed the collision to the way the tug was used and
concluded that the thrust during and following engine start was not a
contributory factor. Some inconsistency was found between procedures for
push back of loaded in-service aircraft promulgated by the airline, its ground
handling contractor and the airport operator.)
 A388, Changi Singapore, 2008 (On 10 January 2008, an Airbus A380 was
damaged during push back at Singapore Changi International airport when
the aircraft right wing undercarriage became stuck in soft ground adjacent to
the taxiway.)
 B772 / A321, London Heathrow UK, 2007 (On 27 July 2007, a British
Airways Boeing 777-200ER collided, during pushback, with a stationary
Airbus A321-200. The A321 was awaiting activation of the electronic Stand
Entry Guidance (SEG) and expecting entry to its designated gate.)
 B735, Newark NJ USA, 2006 (On 21 August 2006, a Boeing 737-500
suffered a nose landing gear collapse during towing at the Newark Liberty
International Airport. A technical crew was repositioning the aircraft in visual
meteorological conditions during the occurrence. No persons were injured
and minor aircraft damage occurred.)
 B744 / A321, London Heathrow UK, 2004 (On 23 March 2004, an out of
service British Airways Boeing 747-400, under tow passed behind a
stationary Airbus A321-200 being operated by Irish Airline Aer Lingus on a
departing scheduled passenger service in good daylight visibility and the
wing tip of the 747 impacted and seriously damaged the rudder of the A321.
The aircraft under tow was cleared for the towing movement and the A321
was holding position in accordance with clearance. The towing team were
not aware of the collision and initially, there was some doubt in the A321
flight deck about the cause of a ‘shudder’ felt when the impact occurred but
the cabin crew of the A321 had felt the impact shudder and upon noticing the
nose of the 747 appearing concluded that it had struck their aircraft. Then the
First Officer saw the damaged wing tip of the 747 and informed ATC about
the possible impact. Later another aircraft, positioned behind the A321,
confirmed the rudder damage. At the time of the collision, the two aircraft
involved were on different ATC frequencies.)
Taxi
 B789 / A388, Singapore, 2017 (On 30 March 2017, a Boeing 787 taxiing for
departure at night at Singapore was involved in a minor collision with a
stationary Airbus A380 which had just been pushed back from its gate and
was also due to depart. The Investigation found that the conflict occurred
because of poor GND controlling by a supervised trainee and had occurred
because the 787 crew had exercised insufficient prudence when faced with a
potential conflict with the A380. Safety Recommendations made were
predominantly related to ATC procedures where it was considered that there
was room for improvement in risk management.)
 B738 / B738, Dublin Ireland, 2014 (On 7 October 2014, a locally-based
Boeing 737-800 taxiing for departure from runway 34 at Dublin as cleared in
normal night visibility collided with another 737-800 stationary in a queue
awaiting departure from runway 28. Whilst accepting that pilots have sole
responsible for collision avoidance, the Investigation found that relevant
restrictions on taxi clearances were being routinely ignored by ATC. It also
noted that visual judgement of wingtip clearance beyond 10 metres was
problematic and that a subsequent very similar event at Dublin involving two
737-800s of the same Operator was the subject of a separate investigation.)
 A332/A345, Khartoum Sudan, 2010 (On 30 September 2010, an A330-200
was about to take off from Khartoum at night in accordance with its
clearance when signalling from a hand-held flashlight and a radio call from
another aircraft led to this not taking place. The other (on-stand) aircraft crew
had found that they had been hit by the A330 as it had taxied past en route to
the runway. The Investigation found that although there was local awareness
that taxiway use and the provision of surface markings at Khartoum did not
ensure safe clearance between aircraft, this was not being communicated by
NOTAM or ATIS.)
 A124, Zaragoza Spain, 2010 (On 20 April 2010, the left wing of an Antonov
Design Bureau An124-100 which was taxiing in to park after a night landing
at Zaragoza under marshalling guidance was in collision with two successive
lighting towers on the apron. Both towers and the left wingtip of the aircraft
were damaged. The subsequent investigation attributed the collision to
allocation of an unsuitable stand and lack of appropriate guidance markings.)
 RJ85 / RJ1H, London City Airport, London UK, 2008 (On 21 April 2008, an
Avro RJ85 aircraft was parked on Stand 10 at London City Airport, with an
Avro RJ100 parked to its left, on the adjacent Stand 11. After being
repositioned by a tug, the RJ85 taxied forward and to the right, its tail
contacting the tail of the RJ100 and causing minor damage to the RJ100’s
right elevator.)
 A343 / B744, London Heathrow UK, 2007 (On 15 October 2007, an Airbus
340-300 being operated on a scheduled passenger flight by Air Lanka with a
heavy crew in the flight deck was taxiing towards the departure runway at
London Heathrow at night in normal visibility when the right wing tip hit and
sheared off the left hand winglet of a stationary British Airways Boeing 747-
400 which was in a queue on an adjacent taxiway. The Airbus 340 sustained
only minor damage to the right winglet and navigation light.)

APPROACH DELAYS
In between the Aerodrome Tower (TWR) and the Area Control Center
(ACC), lies the Approach Control. This service is responsible for a big
area over one or more airports. This airspace is a portion of a larger one,
which is named Terminal Area (TMA). TMAs receive constant converging
traffic that destines the included airports. Controlling such traffic is
particularly difficult because airplanes are moving in a relatively limited
area and all have the same destination. Additionally, there is departing
traffic, which has to be separated from the inbounds, plus any terrain
obstacles.
In case of simultaneous arrivals, pre-designated elliptic patterns have been
published, which are called Holding patterns. These are located over the
navigational aids of the TMA. The rule is to give priority to the airplane
that arrives first over the nav-aid and is at lower altitude than the others.
For the second plane that arrives over the spot, but not far enough behind
the first one, delay is issued and it receives instructions to enter the Holding
Pattern until a predefined time. If a third one arrives it is instructed to
hold at a different altitude (higher) than the preceding. In this way a
"stack" of airplanes, which are flying in elliptic orbits, is formed until
time comes for them to initiate approach. Delays, due to holding in the air,
vary from 4 to 30 minutes. This is the main reason why it is necessary for
all aircraft to be supplied with supplementary fuel. Nevertheless if a pilot
declares insufficiency of fuel, his flight automatically receives priority
clearance and is instructed to the nearest airport.
81- evacuation slide 

An evacuation slide is an inflatable slide used to evacuate an aircraft quickly.

Emergency Evacuation is the urgent abandonment of an aircraft utilising all
useable exits.

Threats
Failure to evacuate the aircraft in a timely manner may lead to the death or injury
of crew and passengers. Failure to evacuate an aircraft in an orderly and safe
manner may also lead to injuries to passengers

An inflight fire, smoke or fume emergency will be dealt with as aggressively as

possible by the crew and, if appropriate, an immediate diversion to landing will be
initiated. If the emergency is not secured, once on the ground, the most
appropriate course of action is to remove the passengers and crew from the risk
as a precautionary measure. Likewise, in the event of an uncontrolled engine or
airframe fire during ground operations, an aircraft crash on a takeoff or landing, or
any other situation that results in fire or structural failure, the best defence
available is an immediate evacuation of the aircraft.

Typical Scenarios
 During the takeoff roll, the number two engine fire warning system is
activated. The takeoff is rejected and the aircraft is stopped on the runway.
Checklist items are carried out but the warnings persist and the air traffic
control tower reports smoke and flames on the right wing of the aircraft. The
remaining engine is shut down and an evacuation is initiated. Rescue and
Fire Fighting Services(RFFS) arrive on scene within 3 minutes and extinguish
the fire. Minor injuries are reported by some passengers as a result of the
evacuation
 An inflight fire in a rear toilet fills the aircraft with smoke. An emergency
is declared and, after some initial evaluation during which the situation
worsens, the aircraft diverts to land at a nearby airport. RFFS are on scene
and evacuation is initiated immediately after the aircraft comes to a stop on
landing. Flashover occurs before the evacuation is complete resulting in the
deaths of many of those on board.

 Emergency Exits
 Depending upon the aircraft, emergency exits can include normal boarding
and service doors, overwing exits, and tailcone exits within the passenger
cabin; and cockpit windows or hatches on the flight deck and in freight
bays. These may be equipped with boarding stairs, evacuation slides or
emergency egress ropes. 

Evacuation Slides
An evacuation slide is an inflatable device which facilitates the rapid evacuation of
an aircraft. Slides are required on all passenger carrying aircraft where the door
sill height (measured as the normal height above ground level) is such that able
bodied passengers would be unable to jump or "step down" from the exit without
a significant risk of injury. This has been interpreted in Regulatory requirements
as meaning slides must be installed at all aircraft doors where the floor is 1.8
metres (6 feet) or more above the ground. Slides are also required on overwing
exits when the height of the wing above the ground, with the flaps fully extended,
exceeds the maximum certified distance or where an evacuation route ahead of
the wing is intended. Some slides are also designed to serve as rafts when
detached from the aircraft in the event of a landing on water.

In the case of over-wing exits, no slide is required providing the escape route
utilises the flap surface and the height to the ground from the trailing edge of the
flap is less than six feet.
 82- VFR and IFR

To fly any aircraft there are generally two sets of rules: VFR and IFR.
IFR stands for Instrument Flight Rules and VFR stands for Visual
Flight rules. A pilot may decide to go for one of the set of rules on the
basis of the weather conditions. On the whole there are many other
aspects that influence the decision but in simple words it totally
depends on the weather, whether a pilot fly VFR or IFR. Let’s take a
look at these terms:

What is IFR?

IFR is a set of rules and regulations established by the FAA (Federal

Aviation Administration) to administer flight under conditions where
flight by outside visual reference is unsafe. IFR or VFR flight plan are
terms used by pilots and controllers to indicate the type of flight plan
an aircraft is flying. IFR flight flies with reference to flight deck
instruments and navigation (by reference of electronic signals).

 IFR means Navigating entirely on instruments, or under ATC

control.

IFR is implemented when VFR is not in the picture i.e. when VFR
conditions do not exist, then IFR is implemented. When any pilot flies
under IFR, he is required to be under the direction of ATC (Air Traffic
Control). They direct you regarding the aircraft direction course,
speed, altitude, etc. IFR is imperative in weather with visibility lesser
than 2 miles.

What is VFR?

VFR (Visual flight rules) are a set of rules and regulations established
by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) under which a pilot flies
an aircraft in weather conditions (generally a clear climate where a
pilot can see the aircraft’s route direction). When the weather is below
VMC (visual meteorological conditions), a pilot has to use the IFR (the
aircraft would be controlled through the instruments reference
instead of visual reference).

 VFR means Navigating by what’s outside.

 VFR + instruments means (as mentioned above but utilizing
navigation instruments ADF, GPS, etc.).

VFR (Visual Flight Rules) usually means that you are flying without
definite control from ATC. You can maneuver freely in the sky
considering you don’t breach any airspace. Moreover, in several
airspaces you have to observe the ground also, as you are in control of
observing other aircrafts to avoid any collision. VMC (Visual
Meteorological Conditions) have to be maintained to fly under VFR.
This means that you have to keep a safe distance from the clouds (you
can’t fly in the clouds). A pilot flying under VFR is required to observe
outside the cockpit in order to navigate, avoid other aircrafts &
obstacles and to control the aircraft’s altitude.

Thus, any aspiring pilot or an individual holding a PPL or CPL can add
to their skills by applying for an instrument rating if he wishes to fly
under IFR. Also, some of the FAA type rating courses require
instrument rating as well as VFR.

DE-ICING
De-icing is a very important process for the safety of flight to cope with
the adverse effect of altitudes and weather. Most de-icing treatments are
performed in so-called remote areas, located near the RW ends. A
supply base for de-icing fluids on the RW end guarantees quick
refueling of the vehicles. Aircraft are only guided to the de-icing areas
by ATC if subsequent take-off is confirmed, and de-icing treatments are
performed with engines running. This ensures that holdover times are
minimized, as aircraft take off only a few minutes after de-icing. As a
consequence the probability of delays is minimized. All types of fluids
are collected, cleaned by mechanical and chemical means, evaporated
and reformulated. Up to 60 % of the used fluids is reclaimed by the
aircraft de-icing system. The positive ecological effects of this method
are evident. De-icing operators are part of a unique network – airlines,
ATC, winter service and other airport service facilities are integrated in
the development and control of processes. De-icing movements areas
and aircraft de-icing are harmonized; information is distributed in line
with requirements. This leads to safer aviation operations with a high

take-off frequency even under adverse weather conditions.

AIRPORT SECURITY
Ensuring the safety of passengers and aircraft is the major concern at
airports. Security personnel operate metal detectors and X-ray machines
that screen baggage for possible weapons or illegal substances. Many
areas of the airport, especially those that contain critical equipment, are
protected by security personnel and are off-limits to the public.
In the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United
States, airport security became the responsibility of the government. The
new law was developed and expanded the number of baggage screeners,
imposed standards for their training, and made them federal employees
for the interim period of time. Beginning in January 2002, it required
that all passenger luggage, including checked luggage, be screened. By
the end of 2002, all checked luggage was to be put through special
explosives-detecting devices. All passengers must go through checking
procedure and can be asked for thorough personal inspection. Security
on board was also promoted by installing reinforced doors in cockpits to
prevent from unlawful interference. All items that can provoke danger

(sharp, flammable and so on) are prohibited in passenger cabin.

BIRD SCARING
When a pilot is told by the ATC that he is ‘clear to take off, or land’
the Controller is making a statement that the RW is clear of objects,
which could interfere with the safe take-off, and landing of his aircraft,
such as debris or birds. Debris on the RW can cause catastrophic
damage to an aircraft as well as birds. Birds on an airfield should be
applied the same effort to their detection and removal. Airports are
necessary large, flat and open areas and detection distances of well over
a kilometre are not unusual.
An Integrated Bird Management System is designed to reduce the
attractions for birds on an airport and then to disperse those birds that
persist by bio-acoustic and other means. Others in the business of
contributing to the implementation of an overall airport safety policy are
Land and Grass management, Lighting and signage, Foreign Object
Debris detection, Surface Friction Testing.
Integrated Management System has been proven to be effective in
reducing the risk of damage from birdstrikes. Part of that system is
Scarecrow Bio-acoustic System, which demonstrates a good rate of
dispersal. It can be seen to reduce the number of high-risk species (such
as Gulls, Corvine, Lapwing, and Starling) on airports and thus improve

chances of Birdstrike Avoidance.

DANGEROUS GOODS
Dangerous goods are articles or substances which are capable of posing
a significant risk of health, safety or property when transported by air and
which are classified according to the IATA Dangerous Goods regulation.
Dangerous goods may be divided into
- those which are acceptable for transport provided all the
regulations,
- those which are forbidden for transport under any circumstances,
- those which are forbidden for transport unless exempted by the
rules concerned.
Disabling devices such as mace, pepper spray, etc. containing an irritant
or incapacitating substance are prohibited on the person, in checked and
carry-on luggage.
The list of DG includes the names, the quantities and the packaging. In
case of emergency it must be known either any DGs are available on
board the plane in order not to worsen the situation. DGs are divided into
9 classes reflecting the type of risk involved. Pilot –in- command is aware
of the DG available on board his plane having filled in the special form. It
includes the proper shipping name, the class or division and risk
corresponding to the label, for non-radioactive material, the quantity,
weight and location, for radioactive- their category, numbers of packages
and location, the destination of cargo. Each package is labeled with a
special red-hatched label. In the event of leakage the cabin and flight deck

may become flammable, irritating or toxic.

ACTIONS TAKEN AFTER THE RAMP INSPECTIONS

Based on the category, number and nature of the findings, several actions may be taken.
If the findings indicate that the safety of the aircraft and its occupants is impaired, corrective
actions
will be required. Normally the aircraft captain will be asked to address the serious
deficiencies, which
are brought to his attention. In rare cases, where inspectors have reason to believe that the
aircraft
captain does not intend to take the necessary measures on the deficiencies reported to him,
they will
formally ground the aircraft. The formal act of grounding by the State of Inspection means
that the
aircraft is banned from further flights until appropriate corrective measures are taken.
In 2006, the following examples of events led to the grounding of aircraft: no valid Certificate
of
Airworthiness onboard, no MEL onboard but aircraft had outstanding technical deficiencies,
very poor
technical condition of the aircraft, no maintenance release issued, heavy corrosion, no
emergency lights
to indicate emergency exits, improper repairs, heavy leakage, improper cargo loading, no up-
to-date
navigation documentation, and tyres worn out beyond limits. Another type of action is called
“corrective actions before flight authorized”. Before the aircraft is allowed to resume its
flight,
corrective action is required to rectify any deficiencies, which have been identified. In other
case an

aircraft may depart under operational restrictions

FUEL LEAK
One of the most frequent problems that can appear and cause an accident is a problem with
fuel on board.
This can lead to shortage, exhaustion or leakage. Lets look at one of such problematic
examples, where only
fortune and attention as well as assistance of other pilots helped to escape fatality. This
incident occurred to BA
Boeing 777 that spewed fuel from an uncovered fuel tank aperture inside the left main gear
wheel well. This
happened during take-off at Heathrow airport. Immediately after take-off another aircraft at
the holding point
reported a trail of smoke from the rear of 777. A smell of fuel vapour was also reported. The
BA crew decided to
dump fuel and return to base/ they correctly deduced there was a fuel leak from the centre-
wing fuel tank. The
crew landed with minimal breaking. Emergency services were in attendance to reduce the
chance of fire. There
were no injuries to the 15 crew and 151 passengers. The mistake that caused the incident
occurred during a check

at heavy maintenance base when the centre-wing fuel tank was being checked only internally

RADAR OPERATIONS
The main terrain airport facility, which is of constant use, is Radar. Radars are classified into
4 types,
considering their function, power and coverage. The most common type of radar is a Terminal
Area
Surveillance Radar for traffic control in the vicinity of an airport. This is a medium-range
radar.
Another type of radar is a long-range one, known as an En-route Surveillance Radar. The
system has a
range up to about 200miles. The third type of radar equipment is a Surface Movement Radar
normally
used with range about four miles. One more type of radar, not generally installed at civil
airports, is a
Precision Approach Radar. PARs are used as landing facilities for the procedure, known as
GCA.
Radars can also be classified by type of data showed. The initial and the simplest type of
radar, called
primary radar, began to be used in most parts of the world in the early 1950s. Another form of
radar, a
secondary surveillance radar is used for advanced air traffic control. When the word “radar” is
used
alone, it usually includes both primary and secondary radars. There are some more terms
associated
with radars. Radar Echo is a visual indication on display of a signal reflected from an object.
Radar
Response is a visual indication on display of a radar signal transmitted from an object in reply
to an
interrogation. Radar Blip is a collective term meaning both echo and response. Radar
Identification is a

process of definition that a radar target is radar return from a particular aircraft.

Bomb Threat
A bomb threat is generally defined as a verbal threat to detonate an explosive or incendiary
device to
cause property damage or injuries, whether or not such a device actually exists. Typically
delivered by
phone, or other telecommunication means, the great majority of such threats are the result of
pranks or
other sociopathies. Criminal statutes typically dictate severe penalties. For example, some
states
provide for penalties of up to 20 years in prison, up to $50,000 fine, and restitution for the
costs of the
disruption.
Many bomb threats that are not pranks are made as parts of other crimes, such as extortion,
hijacking,
or robbery. Actual bombings for malicious destruction of property, terrorism purposes or
murder often
occur without any warning, let alone threats. In many cases it is very difficult and time-
consuming to
ensure the absence of any bomb or other hazardous device or substance.
For instance, several years ago Chicago's Airport was temporarily closed after a written bomb
threat
was found aboard a flight from Seattle to Chicago. Flight 202 landed safely but was not
allowed to
approach the airport terminal. The 129 passengers and five crew members were transported
by bus to a
secure area and were met by investigators. A written note was discovered in the aircraft
during landing.
The aircraft and the onboard luggage were searched but no bomb was found. Due to the
incident the
Federal Aviation Administration closed down all air traffic at the airport for more than 20
minutes but it

caused only short delays to flights.

Fire on board
Fire on board is one of the greatest hazards to flight safety. Any fire is an emergency status on
board.
Fire can either be a cause of an aircraft accident or incident or result from it. Fires occur in
engines,
engine bays, cabins, cargo holds, wheel wells and fuel tanks. Despite the fact that in-flight fire
events
are relatively rare, post-impact fires are not. Even when there is no evidence of an in-flight
fire or
reason to suspect one, the post impact fire can destroy a lot of evidence related to aircraft
systems and
structure. For this reason, some knowledge of how materials behave in the presence of fire is
useful to
the aircraft accident investigator. In addition, one of the areas an investigator must evaluate is
the Fire
Response and Survivability aspect of the accident. This requires familiarity with aircraft fire
response
procedures and capability.
If there is a fire on board, the crew have fire extinguishers to fight it. Should the source
remain
unidentified or the fire become out of control, an immediate emergency descent will be made.
Passengers on a Pacific Western 737 initiated an evacuation when a left-hand engine failure
resulted in
a fire, which subsequently engulfed the aircraft. Their rapid action was a major factor in
everyone on

board escaping alive.

Landing Incidents
Despite considerable attention to the subject of landing incidents, the record so far is
discouraging.
Never had the flight safety become such a talking point in the world than in the last 2-3 years.
Many
incidents relate to problems during landing. New tools are being deployed every year to defeat
great
hazards to flight safety. For instance, new technology has been deployed to defeat CFIT
accidents. An
enhanced ground proximity warning system (EGPWS) provides crews with an earlier alert of
threatening terrain. This is only one example of several incidents, which may have resulted in
huge
disasters, and a majority of these cases occurred because of faulty systems or their
malfunction.
A false instrument landing system glideslope indication may have been a main factor to the
disastrous
accident with Korean Air Boeing 747-300. According to the investigation the crew believed
they were
on the correct descent when the aircraft crashed 5 km from touchdown. The investigators have
led
studies of other similar cases. They revealed that maintenance staff had erroneously left the
system in a
test mode, which sent out a carrier signal but no displacement information. The crew were
given
indications which showed the AC on glideslope and centerline no matter where the AC really
was,
provided it was within arc 40o either side of the localizer. So, crews are required to check
gradual
capture of the ILS localizer and glideslope as they intercept them. Pilots are advised to reject
the system

if it gives sudden indication that the AC is on centerline and glideslope

Aviation English
Safety experts are constantly seeking to identify means of improving safety in order to reduce
the
accident rates. With mechanical failures featuring less prominently in aircraft accidents, more
attention
has been focused in recent years on human factors that contribute to accidents.
Communication is one
human element that receiving renewed attention.
In 1998 the ICAO Assembly formulated Resolution in which the Council was urged to direct
the
Commission to consider the matter of English language proficiency and complete the task of
strengthening the relevant requirements. States must take steps to ensure that ATC personnel
and crews
involved in flight operations in airspace where the use of the English language is required are
proficient
in conducting and comprehending radiotelephony communications in English.
The development and publication of guidance material related to language proficiency
training and
testing were seen as necessary.
States should ensure that their use of phraseologies aligns as closely as possible with ICAO
standardized phraseologies.
Pilots and controllers should be aware of the natural hazards of cross-cultural communication.
Native
and other expert users of English should refrain from the use of idioms, colloquialisms and
other jargon

in radiotelephony communications. Plain language should be specific, explicit and direct

Misunderstanding
There are cases of frequent misunderstanding between a pilot and a controller in stressful or
emergency
situations. The reason for that lies in several domains. The English used in emergency events
can be
confusing and does not give the information needed to make a reasonable assessment of the
situation.
The pilots may not be proficient in the use of English outside the standard laid down
phraseologies.
And there are no laid down phraseologies for emergency situations. It would be totally
impossible to
write such a document, and if it were ever attempted, some new emergency would arise which
the
document didn’t contain. But there are also many incidents where the problem is clear, and
the
controller can act without bothering the crew for more precise information. If in doubt, and if
unable to
get more information from a hard-pressed crew, then a controller shall go for the worst
scenario. To
over-react never costs lives. To under react has. Never forget that one unusual situation can
lead to
another, and that they can overlap. One of the examples of misunderstanding can serve the
case of a
missed mayday call due to pilot’s poor English and awful pronunciation. Air traffic
controllers at
Heathrow airport failed to understand two distress calls from an Italian airliner carrying 104
people
about suffering a near complete loss of its navigational equipment in its final approach to
London. That

time unlike in lots of other cases the airplane fortunately landed safely.

Take Off Incidents

There are numerous problems at take off that can lead to incidents or even accidents. Starting
from
cancellation or change of clearance to take off abortion, traffic interference, and runway
incursions. The
cases of overheating or problems with steering gear are well known in aviation incidents lists.
Quite
often bird/animal hazards affect the successful course of a take off, let alone aircraft
breakdowns. One
of the deadliest take off accident took place at Los Rodeos on the island of Tenerife in 1977
when two
Boeing 747 airliners collided. All 234 passengers and 14 crew members in the KLM plane
were killed.
326 passengers and 9 crew members aboard the Pan Am flight perished, primarily due to the
fire and
explosions resulting from the fuel spilled in the impact. Fifty-six passengers and 5
crewmembers aboard
the Pan Am aircraft survived, including the Captain, First Officer, and Flight Engineer. Most
of the
survivors on the Pan Am aircraft were able to walk out onto the left wing through holes in the
fuselage
structure.
As a consequence of the accident, there were sweeping changes made to international airline
regulations and to aircraft. Requirements were introduced for standard phrases and a greater
emphasis
on English as a common working language. For example, the phrase "line up and wait" as an
instruction
to an aircraft moving into position but not cleared for take-off was implemented. Additionally
the
phrase "take-off" is only spoken when the actual take-off clearance is given. Up until that
point both

aircrew and controllers should use the phrase "departure" in its place (e.g. "ready for
departure").

Human Factor
According to the statistics, human factors are count between 60-80% of aviation crashes.
These factors
include: controller’s inattention, mechanic’s carelessness, engineer’s error and pilot’s fatigue.
Situational awareness is being aware of everything that is happening around and the relative
importance
of everything observed — a constantly evolving picture of the state of the environment.
Situational
awareness can be described broadly as a person’s state of knowledge or mental model of the
situation
around him or her. Situational awareness is important for effective decision making and
performance in
any complex and dynamic environment. Very often the pilots involved in accidents and
incidents are
unaware of the danger until it is too late. The ability of the flight crew to maintain situational
awareness
is a critical human factor in air safety. If the crew are aware of navigation system and monitor
it
properly, it will prevent or eliminate accidents. Various technical aids can be used to help
pilots
maintain situational awareness. A Ground proximity warning system is an on-board system. It
will alert
a pilot if the aircraft is about to fly into the ground. Other aircraft warning devices are alerting
lights,
voice signals, which are used in Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) and
wind shear

warning system. Also, air traffic controllers constantly monitor flights from the ground and at
airports

Collisions
Collision is a crash between two objects, two vehicles. In aviation we differentiate between
ground
collisions and mid air collisions. In ground collisions two vehicles, aircraft, persons or
animals are
involved. Collision is an accident or even a disaster. At level crossings sometimes aircraft
collide. Due
to the velocity and mass of an aircraft it needs a long distance to react on pilots’ input. For
that reason
the traffic collision avoidance system is installed on all passenger aircraft. The world's mid-air
collision
with the highest number of fatalities was in 1996, when Saudia Flight and Air Kazakhstan
Flight
crashed over India. It was mainly the result of the Kazakh pilot flying lower than the altitude
his aircraft
was given clearance for. 349 passengers and crew died from both aircraft. As a consequence it
was
recommended to create "air corridors" to prevent planes from flying in opposite directions at
the same
altitude.
The worst ground collision in aviation history was in Tenerife with the highest number of
fatalities. In
this disaster, 583 people died when a KLM Boeing 747 attempted take-off without clearance
and
collided with a taxiing Pan Am 747 at Los Rodeos Airport. Pilot error, communications
problems, fog,

and airfield congestion (due to a bomb threat at another airport) all contributed to this
catastrophe

83- Streamlining
Streamlining, in aerodynamics, the contouring of an object, such as an aircraft body, to
reduce its drag, or resistance to motion through a stream of air.
A moving body causes the air to flow around it in definite patterns, the components of which
are called streamlines. Smooth, regular airflow patterns around an object are called laminar
flow; they denote a minimum of disturbance of the air by the object’s motion through
it. Turbulent flow occurs when air is disturbed and separates from the surface of the moving
body, with the consequent formation of a zone of swirling eddies in the body’s wake. This
eddy formation represents a reduction in the downstream pressure on the moving object
and is a principal source of drag. Streamlining, then, is the contouring of an aircraft or
other body in such a way that its turbulent wake is reduced to a minimum. The mechanics
of airflow patterns lead to two principles for subsonic streamlining: (1) the forward part of
the object should be well rounded, and (2) the body should gradually curve back from the
midsection to a tapering rear section. An efficiently streamlined body thus takes on the look
of a horizontally inclined teardrop shape.

An aircraft or other body that is traveling at supersonic speeds requires a different

streamlined form from that of a subsonic aircraft because it is moving faster than the speed
at which the pressure impulses it creates are propagated in air. Because the pressure waves
can no longer be transmitted ahead of an aircraft moving at supersonic speed, they pile up
in front of it, creating a compression, or shock, wave. Further shock waves are created at the
midsection and tail of the supersonic aircraft. The strength of these shock waves is
dependent on the magnitude of the change in the air’s direction, which in turn is dependent
on the sharpness or angle of the forward tip and other surfaces of the aircraft’s body.
Supersonic aircraft thus have sharply pointed noses and tails and straight, narrow bodies to
minimize the intensity of the shock waves (and attendant drag)

84- layover
In scheduled transportation, a layover (also way station, or connection) is a point where a
vehicle stops, with passengers possibly changing vehicle. In public transit, this typically
takes a few minutes at a trip terminal. For air travel, where layovers are longer, passengers
will exit the vehicle and wait in the terminal.

In air travel, a stop or transfer (from one airplane to another) is considered to be a layover
or connection up to a certain maximum allowed connecting time, while a so-called stopover
is a substantially longer break in the flight itinerary.

The maximum time depends on many variables, but for most U.S. and Canadian itineraries,
it is 4 hours, and for most international itineraries (including any domestic stops), it is 24
hours.

In general, layovers are cheaper than stopovers, because notionally layovers are incidental

to traveling between two other points, whereas stopovers are among the traveler's
destinations.

row a number of seats beside each You are in seat B of rownine.

noun other
 stopove touching down at more than It's not a direct flight. We're making
r one airport during a flight one stopover in Toronto.
noun

ALTITUDE. The vertical distance from a given level (sea level) to an aircraft in flight

CEILING. Height above ground of cloud base

ELEVATION. The height above sea level of a given land prominence, such as airports,
mountains, etc.

STALL. The reduction of speed to the point where the wing stops producing lift.

85-tail strike and skid off

Investigations are underway after an Asiana Airlines jet skidded off the runway at
Hiroshima Airport in Japan, leaving 23 passengers injured.

Airport authorities reported that the Airbus A320's tail touched the runway while
landing, causing it to slide off the runway on to a nearby embankment.

The plane's left wing and engine were damaged in the crash, with some passengers
giving unconfirmed reports to local media of smoke entering the cockpit and flames
coming from the engine.

Passengers interviewed by Japanese media after the accident described a tense

evacuation, with the plane's emergency slides being deployed while several fire engines
stood nearby.

While it is not yet clear what caused the accident, a Japanese transport ministry official
said the plane may have clipped an airport communications antenna which then got
stuck in the engine. 74 passengers and 7 crew were on board the Asiana flight 162 from
Incheon Airport near Seoul in South Korea.

None were severely hurt, with most injuries being bruises and scratches from the rough
landing, and all passengers were safely evacuated.
In July 2013, an Asiana Airlines flight crashed during a landing at San Francisco
International Airport, after its tail struck a seawall near the runway, killing three
teenagers and injuring 200 others.

Hiroshima Airport, one of the busiest in Japan, was closed several hours after the crash,
for transport ministry officials to investigate the cause of the accident.

86- collision with a catering truck

A plane has been evacuated after it was involved in a collision with a catering truck,
Manchester Airport has said. About 40 passengers were onboard the Aurigny Airlines flight to
Guernsey, which was being pushed back from the gates at about 09:45 BST. An airport
spokesman said: "The incident is minor with no injuries and we are investigating with our third
party partners involved." An Aurigny spokesman said one of the plane's wings had been
damaged. "It appears the aircraft was reversed, by third-party handling agents, into a catering
vehicle during push back," he added. "The incident is being looked into by the airport
authorities and engineers will assess the extent of the damage to the wing of the aircraft."

Passengers have been put on another flight and other Guernsey services from Gatwick and
East Midlands have been delayed as a result.

"We apologise to all passengers for the disruption and the inconvenience this will cause," the
Aurigny spokesman said.

Passenger Scott Grayson praised the pilot and crew for their response, tweeting: "Fire brigade
there in quick time, pilot and stewardesses bang o
 87- plane’s engine catches fire

 The engine of a SkyWest passenger jet caught fire moments after the aircraft landed at Denver
International Airport on Sunday.

 All 63 people aboard exited the plane safely, an airline spokeswoman said.

 There was no indication of an engine problem until the plane was on the ground.

 The engine of a SkyWest passenger jet caught fire moments after the aircraft landed
at Denver International Airport on Sunday, but all 63 people aboard exited the plane
safely, an airline spokeswoman said.

 The twin-engine Bombardier CRJ700, operated as a United Express commuter flight

from Aspen to Denver, made a normal landing at about 2:20 p.m. local time and was
on the taxiway before the flight crew was alerted to the fire electronically, SkyWest
spokeswoman Marissa Snow said.
 She said there was no indication of an engine problem until the plane was on the
ground.

 The crew of SkyWest Flight 5869 immediately called for airport emergency vehicles
to meet the aircraft, which was safely evacuated on the taxiway through the main
cabin door, according to Snow.

 No injuries were reported among the 59 passengers and four crew members aboard
the plane, she said.

 Denver Fire Department personnel extinguished the flames, airport spokesman

Heath Montgomery said, adding there "were no substantial impacts to airport
operations."

 "The fire was contained to one rear engine and flames were extinguished in a small
amount of time," fire department Captain Robert Miller told Reuters.

 Montgomery said the National Transportation Safety Board was notified of the
incident. Snow said the cause was under investigation.