Bertillonage

Anthropometry consisted of taking specific body measurements metrically and classifying those
measurements into small, medium, and large. That information was then recorded and placed on
index cards and filed. The body measurements consisted of the length of arms, sitting height,
caliper measurements of the head, right arm, left foot, left middle finger, left forearm, and right
ear. When measuring women, measurements of the head, left foot, and elbow were excluded. For
boys and young men, classification was according to the color of eyes and details of ears.
Bertillon's Principle of Anthropometry

 1. The human skeleton is unchangeable after the twentieth year. (Thigh bones grow
but the spine curves to compensate.)
 2. It is impossible to find two human bones exactly alike.
 3. Necessary measurements could easily be taken with the aid of simple instruments
(calipers).

The other part of Bertillonage was known as portrait parlé, which literally means “spoken
picture” or physical description. This part of the system consisted of four parts.

 1. Determination of color of the left eye, hair, beard, and skin.

 2. Morphological determinators such as shape, direction, and size of every part of the
head.
 3. General determinators such as grade of stoutness, carriage, voice, language, dress,
social standing, height, and weight.
 4. Description of indelible marks such as birth marks, scars, and tattoos.

Bertillon also required the use of a full face and profile photo which were affixed to the cards.
And finally, Bertillon affixed fingerprints to the rear of the index cards; however, Bertillon
always championed his anthropometry as a means
of identification. Oddly enough, it was fingerprints, which Bertillon recorded, that were
responsible for the ultimate demise of the anthropometrical system.
Shortcomings of the Bertillon system of identification were the cause of the demise of the system
in its totality. Examination of the Bertillon system reveals the following shortcomings:

 1. The system was limited to adults, as the theory espoused by Bertillon said the
skeleton remained unchanged after the twentieth year. What about those persons
under the age of twenty? Although provisions were made for children, the provisions
proved insignificant.
 2. The system was often marked by significant differences in measurements of the
same criminal by different examiners. As with any repetitious task, often the
practitioner became complacent and was not as vigilant as one would desire.
 3. Soft property of the ears resulted in that portion of anthropometry being dropped.
  4. The system was extremely slow (measuring devices consisted of calipers and
similar measuring devices, which in and of themselves were laborious to use).
 5. The West Case of Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, 1903. Will West was sentenced to
prison, and when being processed was accused of being William West on the basis of
his physical appearance and anthropometrical measurements. William West was
called from the prison population where he was serving a life sentence for murder.
The appearance of the two men was striking and their physical attributes were
identical. Fingerprints were then taken in an attempt to determine identity. When
compared, the prints did not match. Were they two twins who had never met? The
two Wests were African American and it has been speculated that they may have
been the offspring of slaves, separated at birth, and had never met until this fateful
day.

Although there were shortcomings to the Bertillon system, there were values established that are
still in use today. The values established by Bertillonage were:

 1. Establishment of a full face/profile fixed-scale photograph. (Today the addition of

numbers on the photographs serve as an additional identification marker.)
 2. Establishment of the use of a detailed description (portrait parlé/physical
description). (General descriptors such as height, weight, race, age, and specific
descriptors such as scars, marks, and tattoos are used.)
 3. Establishment of the concept of repeated subdivision of data for ease of filing and
searching (gathering information and categorizing it in a systematic form).
 4. Demonstration that fingerprints could be used to individualize identity.

Although Bertillon promoted the idea of a systematic method of identification, the shortcomings
of his system gave rise to what would become the most widely used method of identification and
individualization worldwide for the next eighty years: fingerprints. Technology did not come to
the forefront for purposes of individualization through bodily fluids until the 1980s with the
advent of the use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Fingerprints
The use of fingerprints began in earnest as a method of identification in the late 1800s and early
1900s with the establishment of fingerprint classification systems. To thoroughly understand
fingerprint identification and the
methodology associated with the process, it is necessary to understand the terminology
associated with fingerprints that has been established. 
Definitions Associated with Fingerprints

 Dactylography, a Greek term that translates as “finger writing.”

 Dactyloscopy, a Greek term that translates as “to view the fingers.”
 Dermatoglyphics, a Latin term that translates as “skin carving.”
How, one might ask, do these terms apply to fingerprints? The terms are all associated with the
fingers in one way or another and demonstrate that the pursuit of knowledge of fingerprints has
been around for centuries. The modern
day equivalent or usage of these terms can be converted into the scientific study of fingerprints
for the purpose of identification.

 Fingerprint—The impression or reproduction left on any material by the friction

skin of the fingers. Most often we see the impression left by the fingertips or the bulb
of the fingers. But the friction skin covers the entire area of the inner hand (the palm)
and fingers.
 Palm print—The impression or reproduction left on any material by the friction skin
of the palms.
 Footprint/toe print—The impression or reproduction left on any material by the
friction skin of the foot (feet) or toe (s)

It should be noted that friction skin is found on the hands and the feet of individuals. The friction
skin is the outer layer of skin that contains many of the elements and characteristics we use to
identify and individualize a print.

 Friction skin—The skin on the inner hands and fingers, and on the bottom of the feet
and toes, which is characterized by alternating strips of raised ridges and furrows
arranged in a variety of patterns. The friction skin is found on both humans and
anthropoids. In lower mammals, friction ridge patterns are sometimes similar to ours.
Friction surfaces are sometimes padded in apes. The purpose of the friction skin, as
the name implies, is to provide resistance so that those surfaces containing friction
skin will be able to grasp objects. The friction skin forms during the third or fourth
month
of fetal growth (approximately 120 days). The process by which friction skin
develops is through the formation of small islands surrounding pores, which then
develop to form ridges.
 Friction ridge—The raised portion of the skin that leaves the impression or
reproduction.
 Furrow—That portion of the skin lower and between the ridges.

A cross-section of the friction skin illustrates the various parts and layers of the skin.
 Cross-section of the structure of friction skin.
1. Epidermal layer: outer layer
a. Stratum corneum: surface skin
i. Friction ridges, furrows, and pores
ii. 1 to 2 mm thick
b. Stratum mucosum (Malpighi—inner skin)
i. Programs/forms outer skin
2 Dermal layer: (inner layer/2nd layer)
a. Dermal papillae
i. Determines ridge structure
b. Sweat glands and ducts
c. Nerves of touch (sensors)
d. Fat
Friction skin is permanent. That is, the skin does not change under normal conditions from the
time of formation until decomposition after death. The exception is that, like other parts of the
anatomy, the fingerprints or friction skin will get larger as the body grows. The specific
characteristics will remain the same, however. Friction skin will deteriorate with age as well as
all skin, but classification and identification normally will not be affected. There is an adage that
is
often used to describe the permanence: under normal wear and tear, the friction skin will remain
unchanged throughout one’s life. 
Friction skin destruction (temporary or permanent) encompasses: An injury penetrating into
the dermal layer (second layer of skin), through the dermal papillae, will result in the ridges not
being regenerated. Scar tissue will form to the extent that the damage occurred, and only those
ridges in the path of the injury should be permanently affected.
Injuries to the epidermal layer (first or outer layer) will repair themselves as they were prior to
the injury, for example, paper cuts.
There are many instances in legend where allegedly people have sanded, burned, or surgically
altered their fingerprints with permanent results. Research has demonstrated what effect different
techniques have on the appearance of fingerprints.
Self-induced injuries cannot remove all ridges or the hands would be too severely injured to be
used. What one must understand is that friction ridges cover the entire surface of the inner hands
and bottom of the feet.
If the pattern area alone were disfigured, classification might be affected, but identification or
individualization would not. In all likelihood, the pattern would be made more unique which
would make identification and individualization
that much easier.
Other alterations to the friction skin whether it be surgical, occupational, or medical can have an
impact on the appearance. Examples are:
Skin grafts would result in either the old pattern being regenerated as the graft skin wore away
or the graft area remaining smooth. A new pattern would not occur.
Occupational wear might wear down the ridges, but the cessation of the work will result in the
ridges becoming distinct again.
Disease can have an effect on the fingerprints as well; such as in the latter stages of leprosy, the
skin may flake off and the pattern may be lost. Allergic reactions may have an effect on the
ridges in that a temporary change may occur but when the reaction disappears, ridges should
return to their configuration. Other conditions such as warts, creases, or calluses may be present
but seldom affect classification and rarely, if ever, affect identification.
Based on the foundation and fundamentals of the aforementioned information, a basis of the
science of fingerprints was established:
1. Every finger contains ridge detail which is unique to that finger and no other.
2. Unique ridge details do not change (except in size) from approximately 120 days (3-4 months)
after conception until decomposition after death.
3. A set of fingerprints lends itself to classification and therefore can be filed and searched.
Whether the system be manual or automated does not matter.
Fingerprint classification—The process of assigning a formula, consisting of numbers and
letters, to a set of fingerprints determined by the pattern interpretation and ridge detail of the
fingerprints themselves.
Fingerprint identification (individualization)—The process of determining that the same
finger made two or more impressions based on the friction ridge details of both impressions (to
the exclusion of all others).
 

Basic Principles of Fingerprint

Science
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT SCIENCE (3 DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES)

 PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY

This principle states that the complex of the ridge details in a single fingerprints or even part of
one is not duplicated in any other finger. The patterns may look similar but if a close scrutiny is
made, their specific ridge details are very different from one another. This was spoken by Galton
when he mentioned about the Minutiae of fingerprints or the Galton’s Details.

 PRINCIPLE OF PERMANENCY (A.K. A. Perreniality/Persistency/Constancy)

This states that fingerprints do not change in its ridge characteristics of FP pattern throughout or
life time of an individual and they persist after DEATH until the skin is decomposed. Ridge
characteristics are formed prior to birth and remain constant through life except for growth and
deep scarification. Skin condition such as warts and blisters are temporary impairments caused
by certain occupations, e.g. bricklayers, carpenters, have no permanent effect and the individual
characteristics revert to their natural alignment once the temporary skin condition has been
corrected.

 INFALLIBILITY

 This states that fingerprint is absolute and cannot be forged. It means that when a person is
identified by means of fingerprints, it is positive and conclusive. The person may not deny that
the fingerprints are not his own. However, as experiences dictate, many FP experts are attacked
on their credibility and the accurateness of the processes he had made in order to arrive to such
conclusion. Lawyers would not question the principle but rather on the expertise of the
technician. Many of them would find loophole on the procedures done not on the accurate
principle.

Background
Forensic scientists distinguish between class and individual characteristics of forensic evidence.
Class characteristics are features that group items by type. For example, a group of people may
have black, brown, blonde, or red hair. A person cannot be identified based solely on class
characteristics such as hair color, eye color, ethnicity, and so on. Conclusive identification of an
individual can only be accomplished with individualizing characteristics. What characteristics
make someone an individual? Fingerprints and DNA can conclusively determine individuality on
a biological level. Otherwise, a preponderance of class characteristics can narrow a field of
potential individuals to one particular person. For example, the following class characteristics
can narrow down a suspect pool to potentially identify a suspect in a crime:
• Short, black hair
• Brown eyes
• 5′ 5″ tall
• 65 Kgs
• Malay
• Tattoo of a dragon on right bicep
• Scar on chin
Each of these class characteristics alone does not narrow down the field of potential suspects.
However, any
individual associated with the crime who also possesses all of these attributes may be a likely
suspect.
Forensic evidence such as trace evidence utilizes class characteristics to determine whether a
fiber, hair, or soil sample is consistent with similar material from a crime scene. While fiber does
not contain individualizing characteristics such as DNA, it does contain class characteristics such
as length, color, material (natural or synthetic), and cross-sectional shape. A comparison of class
characteristics from evidentiary fibers and fibers from a suspect’s home, car, or clothing can
elucidate an association between the suspect and the crime scene but cannot conclusively
determine the origin of the fibers.

Fingerprints contain both class and individual characteristics. Pattern types are class
characteristics because they are not unique to an individual. There are three main pattern types:
arches, loops, and whorls. There are eight subpattern types: plain arches, tented arches, ulnar
loops, radial loops, plain whorls, double loop whorls, central pocket loop whorls, and accidentals
(see image below).
Minutiae are individualizing characteristics. There are three types of fingerprint minutiae:
bifurcations, ending ridges, and dots (see next image). While all individuals have ending ridges
and bifurcations present along friction ridges, the relative locations of those minutiae make it
possible to identify one person as the source of a particular fingerprint. An analysis of both the
class characteristics (pattern types) and individual characteristics (minutiae types and locations)
contribute to fingerprint identification. In the following laboratory exercises, you will explore the
class and individual characteristics of various types of forensic evidence as well as the three
types of fingerprint minutiae.

Fingerprint minutiae.

Background
Many historical figures have contributed to the science of fingerprint identification. It is
important to be able to identify key historical figures and their contributions to fingerprint
analysis. A fingerprint analyst may be asked about the history of the science in a court of law or
in professional certification and proficiency tests. Modern forensic scientists have the option of
taking certification exams to test their knowledge of not only their science but also the
development of the science. Historical figures and scientific achievements played a key role in
the development of fingerprint analysis and criminal identification.

One of the first methods of criminal identification was anthropometry: the identification of an
individual using biological measurements. Bertillonage—named for Alphonse Bertillon—was
the name given to the anthropometric method of identification and classification of arrestees.
Measurements of body features such as the head, ears, arms, and legs were compiled on a card
known as a Bertillonage card. This card featured a photograph (what we now call a “mug shot”)
surrounded by anthropometric measurements (See first figure).
Anthropometry was abandoned in the early nineteenth century because it was not a reliable
method of individualization. It is possible for two individuals who are similar in appearance to
have similar measurements. Fingerprints, however, are a reliable form of individualization.
Fingerprint cards replaced Bertillonage cards as the primary records of criminal identification
and classification and are still the preferred criminal records in use today.

Materials
• Bertillonage Card (See sample below)
• Digital camera
• Computer
• Printer
• Scissors
• Tape or glue
• Measuring implements (tape measure, ruler, cloth measuring tape)
• Pen or pencil
 Sample of a Bertillonage Card

Exercise
Anthropometry—Bertillonage Cards
1. Ask someone to take your digital photograph (head and shoulders).
2. Upload the photograph to a computer.
3. Resize the photograph to 3″ × 3″ and print it out.
4. Cut and adhere the photo to the center of the Bertillonage card (follow format below).
5. Record the following anthropometric measurements on Bertillonage card (Use a Short Bond
Paper): Scan your outputs and upload. (You can accomplish the card directly on a word
document whichever is more convenient)
a. Height
b. Length of the left ear
c. Width of the left ear
d. Length of the right little finger
e. Measurement of wingspan (from the left middle finger to the right middle finger when the
arms are held
parallel to the ground)
f. Length of the left index finger
g. Length of the left forearm
h. Length of the left foot

Sample of a Bertillonage Card

HISTORICALBACKGROUND OF
FINGERPRINTS
IMPORTANT RECORDS /EVENTS ON F.P.

 Nova Scotia – prehistoric picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was
discovered
 Ancient Babylon – FP were used in clay tablets for business transactions.
 Ancient China – thumb prints were found on clay seals. . Some of these seals can be
seen in the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C.. (TANG
DYNASTY, 618-907)
EMPEROR Te’ in Shi (BC 246-210) – the first Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from a
white jade. Fingerprints during this time were used in business transaction as a sign of
acknowledgement of purchase.
To the Chinese, fingerprints are known as Hua Chi. Slices of matches of fingerprints are kept to
preserve the identity of people.  The arches are known as Lo (snail) and Loops as Ki
(sieve/basket). The loops are called upon as presage of good luck.

 Persia, 14th century, various official gov’t papers had FP (impressions) and one gov’t
official, a doctor, observed that no two FP were exactly alike.

EARLY PUBLICATIONS CONCERNING FINGERPRINTS

 1686, Marcello Malpighi, (Grandfather of Dactyloscopy) a professor of anatomy

at the University of Bologna, noted in his treaties; ridges, spirals and loops in
fingerprints. He made no mention of their value as a tool for individual identification.
 1823, John Evangelist Purkinji, (Father of Dactyloscopy) a professor of anatomy
at the University of Breslau, published his thesis discussing 9 FP patterns but he too
made no mention of the value of FP for personal identification. The 9 patterns are
named:
o Transverse curves (plain arch)
o Central Longitudinal stria (tented arch)
o Oblique stripe (ulnar or radial loop)
o Oblique loop (ulnar or radial loop)
o Almond (whorl)
o Spiral (whorl)
o Ellipse-elliptical whorl (whorl)
o Circle-circular whorl (whorl)
o Double whorl (Twin loop)

  1858, William Herschel, an English civil servant (India), required natives to sign

contracts with an imprint of their right hand – Hindu custom?
 In 1880, Scottish physician, Henry Fauld wrote that skin ridge patterns could be
important in identification work. A thief left his fingerprint on a whitewashed wall –
compared with 1st suspect - No match; compared with 2nd suspect with positive
association. He recommended the use of thin film of printers ink as a transfer medium
and is generally used today.
 During 1880’s, Sir Francis Galton, a British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles
Darwin, began his observations of FP as a means of identification. In 1892, he
published his book, “FINGERPRINTS”, establishing the individuality and
permanency of FP. The book included the first classification system of FP. Proposed
three pattern types: loops, whorls and arches.  Galton identified the characteristics by
which FP can be identified. The same characteristics (minutiae) are basically still in
use today and are often referred to as the Galton’s detail.
 FRANCIS GALTON mentioned that No two prints are identical. An individual’s
prints remain unchanged from one year to the next.
  1788 – J.C.A. MAYER - He found that the fingerprints of two persons are never
alike. The ridges have similarities but never duplicated. (Principle of Individuality)
 1856 – HERMAN WELCKER took the prints of his own palm in 1897 (forty one
years later) he printed the same palm to prove that the prints do not change. (Principle
of Permanency)
 1891, Juan Vucitech, an Argentine Police Official, began the first FP files based on
Galton pattern types. 1892, he made the first criminal fingerprint identification. He
was able to identify a woman by the name of Francisca Rojas, who murdered her two
sons, and cut her own throat in an attempt to place blame on other. Her bloody print
was left on a door post, proving her identity as the murderer.
 SIR EDWARD HENRY, an Englishman who, In 1897, proposed another
classification system which is still in use today. Most English-speaking countries use
some version of Henry’s classification system. The system was so applicable that
Henry emerged as the “Father of Modern Fingerprint Science”, at least, as the first
man who successfully applies fingerprints for identification.
 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his
own FP on a document to prevent forgery. This is the first known use of FP in the
U.S.

FP IN THE UNITED STATES

 1901 – First systematic use of fingerprints adopted by the New York Civil Service
Commission(Dr. Henry DeForrest-1902)
 1903 – New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of FP in U.S.
for Criminals. Captain James Park of that institution installed the identification
system where the fingerprints of prisoners were taken and classified and the
fingerprint system was officially adopted in June of that year.
 1904 – American police received training in fingerprint techniques from Scotland
Yard’s representatives

FINGERPRINT IN THE PHILIPPINES

 GARRY JONES was the first one to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the
Philippine Constabulary sometime in the year 1900.
 The Bureau of Prison records show that of the year 1918 CARPETAS (commitment
and conviction records) already bear fingerprints. The first Filipino fingerprint
technician employed by the Philippine Constabulary was Generoso Reyes, Capt.
Thomas Dugan of New York City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C.
Guerrero of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, D.C. gave the first
examinations in fingerprints in 1937. The first Filipina Fingerprint Technician
was Isabela Bernales.
 On December 23, 1933, the first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the
Supreme Court of the Philippines in the case of People of the Philippines versus
Medina and was considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine
Jurisprudence concerning the science of fingerprinting.
LEGALITY OF FINGERPRINTS
It is a universal knowledge that fingerprint is the most positive means of personal identification.
As such, fingerprint as evidence is accepted in every court of justice in any part of the
globe. Pioneers in the science of fingerprints like Galton and Locard believe in the (although
very remote like in 1 in 64 billion or 1 in 3 trillion) law of probability in the duplication of
fingerprints in two individuals. The following are decided cases regarding fingerprint used as
evidence.
In 1911, an Illinois court, in the case of People vs. Jennings [252 III. 534, 96 NE 1077 (1911)]
pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.

  In that case, fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of personal

identification. It was also held that persons experienced in the matter of fingerprint
identification may give their opinions as to whether the fingerprints found at the
scene of the crime correspond with those of the accused.

New Jersey, State v. Cerciello, in which fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced.

 In the Cerciello case, the defendant argued that it was an error to allow the testimony
of the experts explaining the comparison of fingerprints obtained from the defendant
voluntarily with those fingerprints found upon a hatchet near the body of the
deceased when the body was discovered.
 The New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals held, “in principle, its admission as
legal evidence is based upon the theory that the evolution in the practical affairs of
life, whereby the progressive and scientific tenderness of the age are manifested in
every other department of human endeavor, cannot be ignored in legal procedure.
 But that the law in its effort to enforce justice by demonstrating a fact in issue, will
allow evidence of these scientific processes which are the work of educated and
skillful men in their various departments, and apply them into the demonstrations of
fact, leaving the weight of the effect to be given to the effort and its results entirely to
the consideration of the jury”, [State v. Cerciello, 86 NJL 309, 90 Atl. (1914)].

In the case of State v. Conners [87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl. 812 (1915)] it was held competent to
show by a photograph the fingerprints upon the balcony post of the house entered, without
producing that post in court, and to show by expert testimony that the fingerprints found on the
post were similar to the fingerprints of the defendant.
In the case of Lamble v. State [Lamble v. State, 96 N.T.L. 231; 114 Atl. (N.J) 346 (1991)]
which involved the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court was of the
opinion that it was not necessary to produce the door, it should be sufficient along with the
identification of the fingerprints by an expert to show these of the defendant. The court referred
to the previous decided case of State v. Conners.
In the case of Commonwealth v. Albright, [101 Pa. Sup. C.L. 317 (1931)] a fingerprint expert
testified that the fingerprint on a piece of glass, establish to be from a pane in a door that had
been broken to effect entrance to the house was the same as the impression of the defendant’s
left index finger and he explained in detail the points of identity which led him to that judgment.
In the Albright case, the court stated, “it is well settled that the papillary lines and marks on the
fingers of every man, woman and child posses an individual character different from of any
other person and that the chances that the fingerprints of two different persons maybe identical
are infinitesimally remote.
In a California case, People v. Corral [224 cal. 2d 300 (1964)], the court stated, “It is
completely settled law that fingerprints are the strongest evidence of the identity of the person”.
The Doctrine was reasserted in another California case, People v. Riser [47 cal. 2d 566 (1956)]
in which the court stated, “fingerprint evidence is the strongest evidence of identity and is
ordinarily sufficient alone to identify the defendant”.
The US Supreme Court in the case of Schmerber v. California [Schmerber v. California, 384
US, 757, 763, 764 (1966)], held that the introduction into evidence of fingerprint impression
taken without consent of the defendant was not an infringement of the constitutional privilege
against self incrimination.  The high court held that it is constitutional to obtain real or physical
evidence even if the suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital environment, submit to
fingerprinting, photographing or measurement, write of speak for identification, appears in court,
stand or walk, assume a stance or make a particular gesture, put on a cloth that fits him, or
exhibit his body as evidence when it is material. The Schmerber case points out the fact that the
privilege against self incrimination is related primarily to “TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION’’.
In the Philippines, several decided cases could be cited where fingerprints evidence was
admitted, considered and appreciated by the appellate courts with even lesser number of ridge
similarities. In the BILANGWA V. AMADOR case, (Court of Appeals No. 37320-b), a
fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant testified and successfully defended fingerprint
evidence based on eight identical ridge points.
People v. Medina 59 Phil. 330

 The first leading judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence on the Science of
Fingerprinting.

FINGERPRINT PATTERN
RECOGNITION AND
INTERPRETATION
GENERAL GROUP OF F.P. PATTERNS
 The following are the three general groups of patterns as described by Sir Francis Galton.
  ARCHES – ridges flow from one side and make an exit to the other side.
 LOOPS – ridges make a recurve and goes back to the same side of origin.
 WHORLS – ridges make a circuit.

From the general sets of pattern, come the 8 specific patterns namely:

 THE ARCH FAMILY (5%)

o Plain Arch
o Tented Arch
 THE LOOP FAMILY (60%)
o Radial Loop
o Ulnar Loop
 THE WHORL FAMILY (35%)
o Plain Whorl
o Central Pocket Loop Whorl
o Double Loop Whorl
o Accidental Whorl

 Ideally, before interpretation, identify first the pattern area and type lines. These make the
classification of fingerprints easier since they are the ones defining the actual extent of the
patterns, hence making them the starting points of classification.
 
WHAT IS A PATTERN AREA?
The pattern area is that part of a loop or whorl in which appear the cores, deltas, and ridges
with which we are concerned in classifying. The pattern area is the only part of the finger
impression with which we are concerned in regard to interpretation and classification. It is
present in all patterns, of course, but in many arches and tented arches it is impossible to
define. The pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed by type lines.
WHAT ARE TYPE LINES?
It may be defined as the two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge, and surround or tend

to surround the pattern area.

 ***Lines A and B are the type lines, point C is the Delta***
ARE TYPELINES ALWAYS CONSISTING OF TWO CONTINUOUS RIDGES?

 No, Type lines ARE NOT ALWAYS two continuous ridges. In fact, they are more often found
to be broken. When there is a definite break in a type line, the ridge immediately outside of it is
considered as its continuation. (Examine the figure below)
 
***Sometimes type lines may be very short. Care must be exercised in their location.

NOTA BENE:
When locating type lines it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between a divergence and
a bifurcation
A bifurcation is the forking or dividing of one line into two or more branches.
A divergence is the spreading apart of two lines which have been running parallel or nearly
parallel.
According to the narrow meaning of the words in fingerprint parlance, a single ridge may
bifurcate, but it may not be said to diverge. Therefore, with one exception, the two forks of a
bifurcation may NEVER constitute type lines.
EXCEPTION:
When the forks run parallel after bifurcating and then diverge. In such a case the two forks
become the two innermost ridges required by the definition.
In the figure below, ridges A and B are two separate ridges that converged. Therefore it cannot
be used as the pair of the other type line because the requirement must be two diverging lines.
The correct typelines are ridges C and D.

Remember this:
Angles are NEVER formed by a single ridge but by the abutting of one ridge against another.
Therefore, an angular formation cannot be used as a type line.

THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

Loop Pattern
Definition: A loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enter on
either side of the impression; recurve, touch, or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to
the core; and terminate or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression from
which such ridge or ridges entered. Requirements of a loop: A loop pattern must possess the
following essentials:
• A delta and core
• A sufficient recurve
• One or more ridge count across a looping ridge
A sufficient recurve can be defined as that part of a recurving ridge between the shoulders of a
loop that is free of any appendages abutting upon the outside
of the recurve at right angles.
The delta:
• A delta may be:
• Bifurcation—To be chosen, the bifurcation must open toward the core.
• An abrupt ending ridge
• A dot
• A short ridge
• A meeting of two ridges
• A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the divergence
of the type lines.
Radial and Ulnar Loops
1. The terms have been derived from radial and ulnar bones of the forearm.
a. Loops flowing in the direction of the little finger are ulnar loops.
b. Loops flowing in the direction of the thumb are radial loops.
i. Fingerprint cards
ii. Right hand: Position as on the hand
iii. Left hand: The reverse
c. For purposes of automated use, loops are termed either a right slanted (those patterns where
ridges flow to the right) or left slanted (those patterns where ridges flow to the left).
2. Determining the direction of flow:
a. Begin at the core and follow or trace the ridges away from thedelta.
b. From the recurve to the open end of loop.
Other Issues Pertaining to Loops
1. Sufficient recurve: That part of a recurving ridge between the shoulders of a loop. It must be
free of any appendage abutting upon the outside of the recurve at right angles.
2. If a ridge enters on one side of the impression, recurves, and passes an imaginary line drawn
between the delta and core but does not terminate on the side from which it entered, but has a
tendency to do so, the pattern is a loop.
3. The recurve may take unusual forms.
4. The recurving ridge does not begin at the edge of the print, but possesses all the requirements
of the loop.
5. The recurving ridge enters from one side, recurves and turns back on itself. This is a loop
pattern.
Plain Arch and Tented Arch Patterns
The Plain Arch
Definition: The ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or tend
to flow out the other with a rise or wave in the center. There may be various
ridge formations such as ending ridges, bifurcations, dots, and so forth, but
they all tend to follow the general ridge contour. The “crest” of an arch is
the highest point reached by the rising friction ridge. Most often that will
be in the middle of the friction ridge. The plain arch is also known as an
absence of pattern (the plain arch has no delta, no real core as in a loop, nor
can a ridge tracing be conducted as in a whorl pattern)
The Tented Arch
Definition: Most of the ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or
tend to flow out on the other side, as in the plain arch; however, the ridge or
ridges at the center do not
There are three types of tented arches.
a. The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle of 90 degrees or less.
b. The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an upthrust. An upthrust is an ending
ridge of any length rising at a sufficient
degree from the horizontal plane, that is, 45 degrees or more.
c. The type approaching the loop, possessing two of the three
basic essential characteristics, but lacking the third.
i. The mere converging of two ridges does not form a recurve,
without which there can be no loop.
ii. The presence of the slightest upthrust at the center of the
impression is sufficient to make the pattern a tented arch.
iii. The upthrust must be an ending ridge. It cannot be a continuation
of a curving ridge. Test for upthrust: If the ridges
on both sides of the ending ridge follow direction or flow
trend of the upthrust, the print may be classed as a P/A. If,
however, the ridges on only one side follow its direction, it
is a T/A.
iv. An appendage or spike abutting upon a recurve at right
angles in the space between the shoulders of a loop on the
outside is considered to spoil the recurve.
The Whorl Pattern
Definition: A whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are
present with a recurve in front of each.
Types: The plain whorl, the central pocket loop whorl, the double loop
whorl, and the accidental whorl.
Plain Whorl
A plain whorl possesses two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete
circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle'
1. The type lines for both deltas does not have to be the same ridge.
2. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch or
cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern.
Central Pocket Loop Whorl
Combines the features of both loops and whorls.
1. The pattern looks like a loop but has a small whorl inside the loop
ridges.
2. It has two deltas, one at the edge of the pattern area, and one inside
the pattern area just below the centermost ridges (inner delta).
3. It fulfills the requirements of the loop with one or more whorl
ridges around the core.
4. This pattern is sometimes called a bulb or flower for obvious
reasons.
Definition: The central pocket loop has two deltas and at least one ridge making
a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a
circle
1. One or more of the simple recurves of the loop type usually recurve
a second time to form a pocket within the loop (inside delta).
2. This does not have to be a continuation of the first ridge or connected
to it. Example: Loop convergence
a. An imaginary line between the inner and outer delta must not touch
or cross any of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area.
b. In lieu of a recurve in front of the delta in the inner pattern area,
an obstruction at right angles to the line of flow will suffice.
c. The obstruction may be curved or straight, connected or unattached
to the recurve.
d. A dot cannot be considered an obstruction.
e. The inner line of flow is determined by drawing an imaginary
line between the inner delta and the center of the innermost
recurve or looping ridge.
f. A true recurving ridge does not have to cross the line of flow at
right angles; an obstruction does.
g. If the recurve or obstruction has an appendage at the point of
intersection of the line of flow, at the delta side, it is spoiled.
Double Loop Whorl
A double loop whorl is a pattern that consists of two separate loop formations
with two separate and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas (2 × 2 × 2)
1. The loops may be connected by an appendaging ridge provided that
it does not abut on the loop at right angles between the shoulders,
spoiling it.
2. The loops do not have to conform to the ridge count requirement of
a plain loop.
3. It is not essential that both sides of a loop be of equal size or length.
4. It is not material from which side the loops enter. The loops may
enter from either side or both from the same side.
Accidental Whorl
An accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different
types of patterns, with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas,
or a pattern which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different
types, or a pattern which conforms to none of the definitions
If there is an issue between two types of patterns in the whorl pattern or
ridges which conform to more than one subdivision, the order of priority in
preference is:
1. Accidental
2. Double loop
3. Central pocket loop
4. Plain

Ridge Formation
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS/MINUTIAE OF FINGERPRINTS
THE GALTON’S DETAILS

 BIFURCATION
 BRIDGE
 CROSSOVER
 FRAGMENT
 RIDGE ENCLOSURE
 RIDGE ENDING
 RIDGE HOOK/SPUR
 SHORT RIDGE

 BIFURCATION- single ridge which splits into two ridges, going side by side or parallel to
each other
 RIDGE HOOK – ridge that divides to form two ridges; one connecting ridge which splits at the
side is extremely shorter than the other.
 RIDGE ENDING – the termination of the ridge
 RIDGE ENCLOSURE – is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which then rejoin again to
form a single ridge. (island/lake/eyelet)
 SHORT RIDGE – a ridge of limited length
 FRAGMENT – a ridge of extremely short length (not more than 3 mm)
 BRIDGE– connects two adjacent ridges
 CROSS OVER – the interlapping of two ridges against each other
 
OTHER TYPES OF RIDGE FORMATION
Recurving Ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direction in which it started.
 Converging Ridges – two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end is angular
and serves as a point of convergence.
 Diverging Ridges – two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridges going
one way and the other ridge, another way.
 Sufficient Recurve – the space between shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and
abutting right angle.
 Appendage – a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
 Core – is a point on a ridge formation located at the center or heart of a pattern.
Delta or Tri-radial Point – is a point on the ridge formation at or directly in front or near the
center of the divergence of the type lines.
 Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
 Envelop - is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
 Staple – single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.
 Creases – are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or formed side to
side, across the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
Incipient or Nascent Ridge – this is a kind of ridge which is badly formed, thin, short or broken
which appear or appears in the depressions between two well formed ridges.

 
Focal Points
FOCAL POINTS OF FINGERPRINTS
Within the pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal points which are used to
classify them. These points are called delta and core. The delta and core are the two most
important points in classification aside from the typelines and pattern area. These differentiate
one pattern from another pattern.
THE DELTA
It is otherwise known as “tri-radius”, “outer terminus”. It is the first obstruction at or in front of
and nearest the center of the point of divergence of the type lines. So to speak, the delta is
obviously located at the point of divergence of the two type lines. The delta is comparable to the
small island found in the middle of the river which water flows towards the lake.

The island on the mouth of the river is known as the delta. Its shape resembles that of the letter
“D” (∆) in the Greek alphabet meaning “Delta”.
The delta may appear in the pattern area in any of the following ridge characteristics:

 A bifurcation
 A short ridge
 An ending ridge
 A convergence
 A dot
 A point in the first recurving ridge or a long ridge.

In figure below, the dot marked "delta" is considered as the delta because it is the first ridge or
part of a ridge nearest the point of divergence of the two type lines. If the dot were not present,
point B on ridge C, as shown in the figure, would be considered as the delta.
  
 
RULES IN DELTA SELECTION
 Rule 1.  The Delta may not be located at the bifurcation which does not open towards the core.

Rule 2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation
selected.

Rule 3. If there are series of bifurcation opening towards the core, equally close to the point of
divergence of the type lines, the delta nearest to the core shall be selected.
Rule 4. When there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the definition, the one
nearest the core is chosen.
  Rule 5. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines
toward the core, but at the nearer end only.
    
 
THE CORE
 It is otherwise known as the “inner terminus” and is known as the approximate center of the
fingerprint impression. It will be necessary to concern ourselves with the CORE OF THE LOOP
TYPE ONLY. Whorl patterns do not require that the core be located so as the family of arch
pattern.
RULES IN CORE LOCATION
Rule 1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.
 
Rule 2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as
the shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.   
 
Rule 3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as high
as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping
ridge or not.
 
Rule 4.   When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high
as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center rods, the
two center rods being treated as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.

Ridge Tracing and Ridge Counting of

Loops and Whorls
RIDGE COUNTING

 The process of counting the intervening ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line
drawn between the core and delta.
 The number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core is known as the
ridge count.

***NOTE: It applies only to loops

GUIDELINES IN RIDGE COUNTING

 An imaginary line is drawn between delta and the core.

 Neither delta nor core is counted.
 In the event there is a bifurcation of a ridge exactly at the point where the imaginary
line would be drawn, two ridges are counted.
 Where the line crosses an island, both sides are counted.
 Fragments and dots are counted as ridges only if they appear to be as thick and heavy
as the other ridges in the immediate pattern.

RIDGE TRACING
The method of ridge coursing using two deltas as the focal points. The technique of whorl
tracing depends upon the establishment of the focal points—the deltas. Every whorl has two or
more. When the deltas have been located, the ridge emanating from the lower side or point of the
extreme left delta is traced until the point nearest or opposite the extreme right delta is reached.
The number of ridges intervening between the tracing ridge and the right delta are then counted.
 PROCEDURES:
 Tracing always commence from the point of the left delta, but never on the lower type line.

 Tracing goes across the pattern following the lower contour of such pattern till it ends
at a relative point nearest to the right delta.
 If the traced ridge ends, drop perpendicularly to a point on a ridge found below and
continue the tracing.

If the traced ridge reached the relative point nearest the right delta, and goes above or inside it
and there are three or more ridges intervening between such ridge and the right delta = INNER
WHORL Tracing (I)
If the traced ridge reached the relative point and goes above or below the right delta with one or
two ridges intervening between such delta and the traced ridge, or if the traced ridge run directly
to the right delta = MEETING WHORL Tracing (M)
If the ridge traced passes outside (below) the right delta, and three or more ridges intervene
between the tracing ridge and the right delta, the tracing is designated as an "OUTER WHORL”
Tracing (O)
Whenever the ridge traced bifurcates, the rule for tracing requires that the lower limb or branch
proceeding from the bifurcation be followed.
Accidentals often possess three or more deltas. In tracing them only the extreme deltas are
considered, the tracing beginning at the extreme left delta and proceeding toward the extreme
right delta.
In a double loop or accidental the problem of where to stop tracing is sometimes presented.