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1
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Anthropology
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and the Study of Culture Listen to the Podcast on myanthrolab

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outline
Introducing Anthropology’s Four Fields
Anthropology Works: Delivering Health Care in Rural Haiti

Introducing Cultural Anthropology

Think Like an Anthropologist: Power in the Kitchen
Culturama: San Peoples of Southern Africa

Distinctive Features of Cultural

Anthropology

the big questions

What is What is cultural What are distinctive
anthropology? anthropology? features of cultural
anthropology?

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 3

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 anthro current
A Zhuang (zhoo-ANG) girl works in the famously beautiful
rice terraces of southern China near its border with
Vietnam. The Zhuang number about 18 million, making
­
natural springs (Lin and Huang 2012). Another is the area’s
reputation for having many people who live for a long time,
including ­China’s oldest person who is 127 years old. An
them the largest ethnic minority in China. In addition to elderly resident comments, “My high blood pressure was
growing tourism in the Zhuang region, it is now a favored brought under control after I spent a month here. I would
retirement destination for elderly Chinese. One major at- get epileptic attacks about once in two months, but it never
traction is the quality of the drinking water that comes from strikes now.”

Cannibalism,  Jurassic Park, hidden treasure, ­Indiana Jones and O Archaeology the study of past human cultures through
the Temple of Doom, ancient prehuman fossils. And the Fountain their material remains.
of Youth in China? The popular impression of anthropology is O Linguistic anthropology the study of human commu-
based mainly on movies and television shows that depict anthro- nication, including its origins, history, and contemporary
pologists as adventurers and heroes. Many anthropologists do variation and change.
have adventures and discover treasures such as ancient pottery, O Cultural anthropology the study of living peoples and
medicinal plants, and jade carvings. But most of their research their cultures, including variation and change. Culture
is not glamorous. refers to people’s learned and shared behaviors and beliefs.
Some anthropologists spend years in difficult physical con-
ditions, searching for the earliest fossils of our ancestors. Others Some anthropologists argue that a fifth field, applied an-
live among people in Silicon ­Valley, California, and study firsthand thropology, should be added. Applied anthropology is the use
how they work and organize family life in a setting permeated by of anthropological knowledge to prevent or solve problems or
modern technology. Some anthropologists conduct laboratory to shape and achieve policy goals.
analyses of the contents of tooth enamel to reveal where an indi-
vidual once lived. Others study designs on prehistoric pottery to Biological or Physical Anthropology
learn what the symbols mean, or observe nonhuman primates such
as chimpanzees or orangutans in the wild to learn how they live. Biological anthropology encompasses three subfields. The
Anthropology is the study of humanity, including prehistoric first, primatology, is the study of the nonhuman members of
origins and contemporary human diversity. Compared with other the order of mammals called primates, which includes a wide
disciplines that study humanity (such as history, psychology, eco-
Theory
nomics, political science, and sociology), anthropology is broader plied
Ap Ap
pli
in scope. Anthropology covers a much greater span of time than ed
ry
these disciplines, and it encompasses a broader range of topics. eo
Th

Th
eo
lied

ry

BIOLOGICAL CULTURAL
App

Introducing Anthropology’s ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY

Applied

Four Fields
Theory

In North America, anthropology is divided into four fields

(figure 1.1) that focus on separate, but connected, subject mat- LINGUISTIC
ARCHAEOLOGY
Theo

ANTHROPOLOGY
ter related to humanity:
ed

ry

O Biological anthropology or physical anthropology—the

pli
Ap

study of humans as biological organisms, including evo-

Ap

pl
lution and contemporary variation. ry
ie
d
eo
Th The
ory
Applied
anthropology  the study of humanity, including its prehistoric ori-
gins and contemporary human diversity. Figure 1.1  The Four Fields of Anthropology

4 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 Anthropologists study the entire diversity
of humanity, past and present. Cultural
anthropologists focus on living people in-
cluding (bottom) the Dani people, of West
Papua, the Indonesian part of the island
of New Guinea. This Dani man, holding
a stone adze, was photographed in the
1990s. (top) Members of a team of an-
thropologists and students discuss their
research project on 20th century Silicon
Valley culture.

As you read this chapter, make a list

of the kinds of data (information) that
anthropologists in the four fields collect
during their research.

range of animals from very small, nocturnal creatures to go-

rillas, the largest members. Primatologists study nonhuman
primates in the wild and in captivity. They record and analyze
how the animals spend their time, collect and share food, form
social groups, rear offspring, develop leadership patterns, and
experience and resolve conflicts. Primatologists are alarmed
about the decline in numbers, and even the extinction, of non-
human primate species. Many apply their knowledge to non-
human primate conservation.
The second subfield is paleoanthropology, the study of hu-
man evolution on the basis of the fossil record. Paleoanthro-
pologists search for fossils to increase the amount of evidence
related to the way human evolution occurred.
The third subfield is the study of contemporary human
biological variation. Anthropologists working in this area seek
to explain differences in the biological makeup and behavior

biological anthropology  the study of humans as biological

organisms, including evolution and contemporary variation.
archaeology  the study of past human cultures through their
material remains.
linguistic anthropology  the study of human communication,
including its origins, history, and contemporary variation and
change.
cultural anthropology  the study of living peoples and their
cultures, including variation and change.
culture  people’s learned and shared behaviors and beliefs.
applied anthropology  the use of anthropological knowledge to
prevent or solve problems or to shape and achieve policy goals.

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 of contemporary humans. They study such biological fac-
tors as DNA within and across populations, body size and
shape, human nutrition and disease, and human growth and
development.

Archaeology
Archaeology means, literally, the “study of the old,” but “the
old” is limited to human culture. Therefore, the time depth of
archaeology goes back only to the beginnings of Homo sapi-
ens, between 300,000 and 160,000 years ago, when they first
emerged in Africa. Archaeology encompasses two major areas:
prehistoric archaeology, which concerns the human past before
written records, and historical archaeology, which deals with
the human past in societies that have written documents. Pre-
historic archaeologists often identify themselves with broad
geographic regions, studying, for example, Old World archae-
ology (Africa, Europe, and Asia) or New World archaeology
(North, Central, and South America).
Another set of specialties within archaeology is based on
the context in which the archaeology takes place. For example,
underwater archaeology is the study of submerged archaeologi-
cal sites. Underwater archaeological sites may be from either
prehistoric or historic times. Some prehistoric sites include
early human settlements in parts of Europe, such as household
sites discovered in Switzerland that were once near lakes but
are now submerged.
Maya people watch as forensic anthropologist Francisco de León The archaeology of the recent past is an important re-
conducts an exhumation of more than 50 bodies in a highland search direction. Industrial archaeology focuses on social
Guatemalan village in 1997. change during and since the Industrial Revolution. It is espe-
Are courses in forensic anthropology offered at your school? cially active in Great Britain, home of the Industrial Revolu-
tion. There, industrial archaeologists study such topics as the

Underwater archaeology is a special

focus of some archaeologists. Stephen
Lubkemann, trained as both a cultural
anthropologist and an underwater
­archaeologist, documents the remains
of the hull of DRTO-036, a vessel that
wrecked in the Dry Tortugas in the
mid-nineteenth century. The vessel lies
within Dry Tortugas National Park in the
Florida Keys.

You can access UNESCO’s

­Convention on the Protection
of Underwater Heritage on the
Internet.

6 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 Iron Bridge, England, is an important
site of industrial archaeology.
­Considered the “birthplace of industry,”
the site includes the world’s first
iron bridge and remains of factories,
­furnaces, and canals.

Take a virtual tour of the site by

­going to http://www.ironbridge
.org.uk/.

design of iron bridges, the growth and distribution of china (Duranti 1997a). Second, they look at the role of information
potteries, miners’ housing, and cotton mills. Industrial archae- technology in communication, including the Internet, social
ologists seek to conserve industrial sites, which are more likely media such as Facebook, and cell phones. Third is attention
to be neglected or destroyed than are sites that have natural to the increasingly rapid extinction of indigenous languages
beauty or cultural glamour attached to them. and what can be done about it.
An example of the archaeology of contemporary life is the
“Garbage Project” conducted by archaeologists at the Univer- Cultural Anthropology
sity of Arizona at Tucson (Rathje and Murphy 1992). They have
Cultural anthropology is the study of contemporary people
excavated part of the Fresh Kills landfill on Staten ­Island, near
and their cultures. The term culture refers to people’s learned
New York City. It is one of the largest human-made structures
and shared behaviors and beliefs. Cultural anthropology con-
in North America. Excavation of pop-top can tabs, disposable
siders variations and similarities across cultures, and how cul-
diapers, cosmetics containers, and telephone books reveals much
tures change over time. Cultural anthropologists learn about
about recent consumption patterns and how they affect the en-
culture by spending a long time, typically a year or more, living
vironment. One surprising finding is that the kinds of garbage
with the people they study (see Chapter 3).
people often blame for filling up landfills, such as fast-food
Prominent areas of specialization in cultural anthropol-
packaging and disposable diapers, cause less serious problems
ogy include economic anthropology, psychological anthro-
than paper. Newspaper is a major culprit because of sheer quan-
pology, medical anthropology, political anthropology, and
tity. This information can improve recycling efforts worldwide.
international development anthropology.

Linguistic Anthropology Applied Anthropology: Separate

Linguistic anthropology is devoted to the study of communi- Field or Cross-Cutting Focus?
cation, mainly (but not exclusively) among humans. Linguis- In the United States, applied anthropology emerged during and
tic anthropology has three subfields: historical linguistics, the View the
after World WarImage firstmyanthrolab
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study of language change over time and how languages are lives of contemporary peoples and their needs, so it was more
related; descriptive linguistics, or structural linguistics, the study closely Watch
associated with cultural
the Video anthropology than with the
on myanthrolab Watch o
of how contemporary languages differ in terms of their formal other three fields.
structure; and sociolinguistics, the study of the relationships Many anthropologists feel that ap-
among social variation, social context, andthe
View linguistic
Imagevariation,
on myanthrolab Listen to the Chapter AudioView
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should be considered
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including nonverbal communication. Listen to the Podcast a fifth field of anthropology, standing
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the Concept
Village Many others
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Watch think that the
on myanthrolab Explore
rent issues as discussed in Chapter 11. First,they study lan- Funnels Suicide application of knowledge to solve prob-
guage in everyday use, or discourse, and how it relates to Bombers to Iraq” lems, just like theory, should be part of
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Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture 7
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 anthropology works
Delivering Health Care in Rural Haiti

J ournalist Tracy Kidder’s book, Mountains

Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Paul
Farmer, a Man Who Would Cure the World
A woman cares for
her sick child while he
receives treatment for
(2003), is an inspiring story about an inspir- cholera at a cholera
ing person: Paul Farmer. Farmer earned a clinic in Port-au-Prince,
Ph.D. in anthropology and a degree in medi- Haiti, in 2011. Cholera
cine from Harvard University. His training has affected more than
in cultural anthropology and medicine is a 450,000 people in this
country of 10 million, or
powerful prescription for providing health
nearly 5 percent of the
care to the poor.
population, and it has
In his first book, AIDS and Accusation:
killed more than 6,000.
Haiti and the Geography of Blame (1992),
he wrote about the coming of HIV/AIDS to
Haiti and a rural community’s attempt to
understand and cope with this devastating
new disease. He also describes how the
wider world mistakenly blamed Haiti for has shaken the very foundations of Western Students are choosing courses and select-
being the source of the disease. In addi- medicine. ing majors and minors to help them achieve
tion to his scholarly publications, Farmer is In my undergraduate cultural anthropol- that goal.
an influential health practitioner and activ- ogy class, when I ask who has heard of Paul I began to notice the PFE about five
ist. As one of the co-founders of Partners Farmer, many hands shoot up. Of these stu- years ago, and it is still growing. Because
in Health, he has helped heal thousands dents, most have read Mountains Beyond of the PFE, more students each year com-
of people. In 2009, Farmer was named Mountains. A few have heard him speak. bine their academic interests in anthropol-
U.S. deputy special envoy to Haiti. Since This level of awareness of Farmer’s contribu- ogy, global health, and international affairs.
the earthquake in January 2010, he has tions to health and anthropology prompted These students are beginning to graduate
worked tirelessly to alleviate suffering in me to create a label that captures Farmer’s and are going on to pursue humanitarian ca-
Haiti. inspirational role: the Paul Farmer Effect reers. Thanks to Paul Farmer and the PFE,
Farmer focuses attention on poverty (PFE). This label refers to the Pied Piper they are more powerfully informed to make
and social justice as primary causes of role he plays for students: they want to fol- the world a better place.
health problems worldwide. This position low his lead; they want to be a Paul Farmer.

the author’s position, and, therefore, many examples of applied O Cultural anthropologists apply their knowledge to poverty
anthropology appear throughout this book. reduction, education, health care, international business,
Applied anthropology connects all four fields of anthro- and conflict prevention and resolution (see Anthropology
pology, for example: Works throughout this book for examples).
O Archaeologists are employed in cultural resource manage-
ment (CRM), assessing the presence of possible archaeo-
logical remains before construction projects, such as roads
and buildings, can proceed.
O Biological anthropologists are employed as forensic anthro-
Introducing Cultural
pologists, participating in criminal investigations through Anthropology
laboratory work identifying bodily remains. Others work Cultural anthropology is devoted to studying human cul-
in non-human primate conservation, helping to protect tures worldwide, both their similarities and differences.
their habitats and survival. Cultural anthropology makes “the strange familiar and the
O Linguistic anthropologists consult with educational institu- familiar strange” (Spiro 1990). It teaches us to look at our-
tions about how to improve standardized tests for bilingual selves from the “outside” as a somewhat “strange” culture. A
populations and conduct policy research for governments. compelling example of making the familiar strange is the

8 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 case of the Nacirema (nah-see-RAY-muh), a “culture” first Darwin and others offered for the first time a scientific ex-
described in 1956: planation for human origins. Biological evolution says that
early forms evolve into later forms through the process of
The Nacirema are a North American group living in the
natural selection, whereby the most biologically fit organ-
territory between the Canadian Cree, the Yaqui and the
isms survive to reproduce while those that are less fit die out.
Tarahumara of Mexico, and the Carib and the Arawak
According to Darwin’s model, continuous progress toward
of the Antilles. Little is known of their origin, though
increasing fitness occurs through struggle among competing
tradition states that they came from the east. Accord-
organisms.
ing to Nacirema mythology, their nation was originated
The concept of evolution was important in the think-
by a culture hero, Notgnihsaw, who is otherwise known
ing of early cultural anthropologists. The most important
for two great feats of strength—the throwing of a piece
founding figures of cultural anthropology in the late eigh-
of wampum across the river Pa-To-Mac and the chop-
teenth and early nineteenth centuries were Sir Edward
ping down of a cherry tree in which the Spirit of Truth
Tylor and Sir James Frazer in England and Lewis Henry
resided (415).
Morgan in the United States (see Figure 1.2 on page 10).
The anthropologist goes on to describe the Nacirema’s intense They developed a model of cultural evolution whereby all
focus on the human body. He provides a detailed account cultures evolve from lower to higher forms over time. This
of a daily ritual performed within the home in a specially view placed non-­Western peoples at a “primitive” stage and
­constructed shrine area: Euro-American culture as “civilization.” It assumed that
non-Western cultures would either catch up to the level of
The focal point of the shrine is a box or chest which is
built into the wall. In this chest are kept the many charms
Western civilization or die out.
and magical potions without which no native believes he
Bronislaw Malinowski, a major figure in modern cultural
could live. These preparations are secured from a variety of
anthropology of the first half of the twentieth century, es-
specialized practitioners. The most powerful of these are
tablished a theoretical approach called functionalism. It says
the medicine men, whose assistance must be rewarded with
that a culture is similar to a biological organism: the parts
substantial gifts. . . . Beneath the charm box is a small font.
work together to support the operation of the whole. Religion
Each day every member of the family, in succession, enters
and family organization, for example, contribute to the func-
the shrine room, bows his head before the charm-box, min-
tioning of the whole culture. Franz Boas is considered the
gles different sorts of holy water in the font, and proceeds
founder of North American cultural anthropology (see photo
with a brief rite of ablution. (1965: 415–416)
on page 11). Born in Germany and educated in physics and
geography, he came to the United States in 1887 (­Patterson
If you do not recognize this tribe, try spelling its name 2001:46ff ). He brought with him a skepticism toward West-
backwards. (Note: Please forgive Miner for his use of the mas- ern science gained from a year’s study with the Inuit, the in-
culine pronoun in describing Nacirema society; his writings digenous people of Baffin Island, Canada (see Map 3.4). He
are several decades old.) learned from the Inuit that people in different cultures may
have different perceptions of even basic physical substances,
such as “water.” Boas came to recognize the individuality and
Highlights in the History
validity of different cultures. He introduced the concept of
of Cultural Anthropology cultural relativism, or the view that each culture must be
The beginning of cultural anthropology goes back to writ- understood in terms of the values and ideas of that culture
ers such as Herodotus (fifth century bce; note: bce stands and not be judged by the standards of another. A ­ ccording to
for ­Before the Common Era, a secular transformation of bc, Boas, no culture is “better” than any other, a view that con-
or Before Christ), Marco Polo (thirteenth to fourteenth cen- trasted markedly with that of the nineteenth-century cultural
turies), and Ibn Khaldun (fourteenth century), who traveled evolutionists.
extensively and wrote reports about cultures they encoun- Margaret Mead, the most famous student of Boas (see
tered. More recent conceptual roots are found in writers of the photo on page 11), contributed to understanding how culture,
French Enlightenment, such as the philosopher Montesquieu,
who wrote in the first half of the eighteenth century. His book
The Spirit of the Laws, published in 1748 [1949], discussed the
functionalism  the theory that a culture is similar to a biological
temperament, appearance, and government of various peoples organism, in which parts work to support the operation and
around the world. He thought that different climates caused ­maintenance of the whole.
cultural variations.
cultural relativism  the perspective that each culture must be
In the second half of the nineteenth century, the dis- understood in terms of the values and ideas of that culture and
covery of the principles of biological evolution by Charles not judged by the standards of another culture.

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 Figure 1.2  Key Contributors
to Euro-American Cultural Anthropology
Late Nineteenth Century
Sir Edward Tylor First definition of culture, armchair anthropology
Sir James Frazer Comparative study of religion, armchair anthropology
Lewis Henry Morgan Insider’s view, cultural evolution, comparative method
Early Twentieth Century
Bronislaw Malinowski Functionalism, holism, participant observation
Franz Boas Cultural relativism, historical particularism, advocacy
Margaret Mead Personality and culture, cultural constructionism, public
anthropology
Ruth Benedict Personality and culture, national character studies
Zora Neale Hurston African American, women’s roles, ethnographic novels
Mid- and Late Twentieth Century and Early Twenty-First Century
Claude Lévi-Strauss Symbolic analysis, French structuralism
Beatrice Medicine Native American anthropology
Eleanor Leacock Anthropology of colonialism and indigenous peoples
Marvin Harris Cultural materialism, comparison, theory building
Mary Douglas Symbolic anthropology
Michelle Rosaldo Feminist anthropology
Clifford Geertz Interpretive anthropology, thick description of local culture
Laura Nader Legal anthropology, “studying up”
George Marcus Critique of culture, critique of cultural anthropology
Gilbert Herdt Gay anthropology
Nancy Scheper-Hughes Critical medical anthropology
Leith Mullings Anti-racist anthropology
Sally Engle Merry Globalization and human rights
Lila Abu-Lughod Gender politics, politics of memory

specifically child-rearing, shapes personality and gender roles. In the 1960s, Marxist theory emerged in anthropology,
Her writings had wide influence on U.S. child-care patterns stating the importance of people’s access to the means of
in the 1950s. Mead was thus an early public anthropologist who livelihood. It inspired the emergence of a new theoretical
took seriously the importance of bringing cultural anthropol- school in the United States called cultural materialism.
ogy knowledge to the general public in order to create positive Cultural materialism is an approach to studying culture by
social change. emphasizing the material aspects of life, especially the natu-
Following World War II, cultural anthropology expanded ral environment and how people make a living. Also aris-
substantially in terms of the number of trained anthropolo- ing in the 1960s was the theoretical position referred to as
gists and departments of anthropology in colleges and uni- interpretive anthropology, or interpretivism. This perspec-
versities. Along with this growth came increased theoretical tive developed from both U.S. symbolic anthropology and
diversity. Several anthropologists developed theories of culture French structural anthropology. It says that understanding
based on environmental factors. They suggested that similar culture should focus on what people think about, their ideas,
environments (for example, deserts or tropical rainforests or and the symbols and meanings that are important to them.
mountains) would predictably lead to the emergence of simi- These two positions are discussed in more detail later in
lar cultures. this section.
At this time, French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss Since the 1990s, two other theoretical directions have
was developing a different theoretical perspective, known gained prominence. Both are influenced by postmodernism, an
as French structuralism. He maintained that the best way to intellectual pursuit that asks whether modernity is truly prog-
understand a culture is to collect its myths and stories and ress and questions such aspects of modernism as the scientific
analyze the underlying themes in them. French structural- method, urbanization, technological change, and mass com-
ism inspired the development of symbolic anthropology, or the munication. The first theory is termed structurism (the au-
study of culture as a system of meanings, which was especially thor coined this term), the view that powerful structures such
prominent in the United States in the latter part of the twen- as economics, politics, and media shape cultures, influencing
tieth century. how people behave and think, even when they do not realize it.

10 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 Two giants in the history of anthropology. (left) Franz Boas emphasized the four-field approach and the principle of cultural relativism. (right) Mar-
garet Mead, a student of Boas at Columbia University, moved the Boasian legacy forward by her pioneering research on the cultural c­ onstruction of
personality and gender. She is the woman in the center.

The second theory emphasizes human agency, or free will, selection because males with “better” spatial skills would have
and the power of individuals to create and change culture by an advantage in securing both food and mates. Males with
acting against structures. “better” spatial skills impregnate more females and have more
offspring with “better” spatial skills.
Cultural constructionism, in contrast, maintains that
Three Debates human behavior and ideas are best explained as products of
Three debates in anthropology go to the heart of basic ques- culturally shaped learning. In terms of the example of “bet-
tions of why people differ and are similar across cultures, why ter” male spatial skills, cultural constructionists would pro-
they behave and think the way they do, and how anthropolo- vide evidence that such skills are passed on culturally through
gists should proceed to understand these questions. The first learning, not genes. They would say that parents and teachers
debate engages biological anthropology with cultural anthro-
pology. The second and third are debates specifically within
cultural anthropology. cultural materialism  or a political economy approach, takes
­material aspects of life, such as the environment, natural
Biological Determinism Versus Cultural Con- ­resources, and mode of livelihood, as shaping other aspects
structionism  Biological determinism seeks to explain of life, including power relations, social organization, and ideology.

people’s behavior and thinking by considering biological fac- interpretive anthropology  or a symbolic approach, seeks to un-
tors such as people’s genes and hormones. Thus, biological derstand culture by studying what people think about, their ideas,
and the meanings that are important to them.
determinists search for the gene or hormone that contributes
to behavior such as homicide, alcoholism, or adolescent stress. structurism  a theoretical position concerning human behavior
and ideas that says large forces such as the economy, social
They also examine cultural practices in terms of how they and political organization, and the media shape what people
contribute to the reproductive success of the species, that is, how do and think.
they contribute to the gene pool of subsequent generations by agency  the ability of humans to make choices and exercise free
boosting the number of surviving offspring produced. In this will even within dominating structures.
view, behaviors and ideas that have reproductive advantages
biological determinism  a theory that explains human behavior
are more likely than others to be passed on to future genera- and ideas as shaped mainly by biological features such as genes
tions. Biological determinists, for example, explain why hu- and hormones.
man males apparently have “better” spatial skills than females. cultural constructionism  a theory that explains human behavior
They say that these differences are the result of evolutionary and ideas as shaped mainly by learning.

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 socialize boys and girls differently in spatial skills and are play a more important role alive than dead or carved into steaks
more likely to promote learning of certain kinds of spatial ­(Harris 1974). The many cattle wandering the streets of Indian
skills among boys. cities and villages look useless to Westerners. A closer analysis,
Though recognizing the role of biological factors such as however, shows that the seemingly useless population of bovines
genes and hormones, anthropologists who favor cultural con- serves many useful functions. Ambling along, they eat paper
struction and learning as an explanation for behaviors such as trash and other edible refuse. Their excrement is “brown gold,”
homicide and alcoholism point to childhood experiences and useful as fertilizer or, when mixed with straw and formed into
family roles as being perhaps even more important than genes or dried patties, as cooking fuel. Most important, farmers use cattle
hormones. Most cultural anthropologists are cultural construc- to plow fields. Cultural materialists take into account Hindu
tionists, but some connect biology and culture in their work. beliefs about the sacred meaning of cattle, but they see its rela-
tionship to the material value of cattle as symbolic protection,
Interpretive Anthropology Versus Cultural Mate- keeping these extremely useful animals out of the meat factory.
rialism  Interpretive anthropology, or interpretivism, fo- Some cultural anthropologists are strong interpretivists,
cuses on understanding culture by studying what people think whereas some are strong cultural materialists. Many combine
about, their explanations of their lives, and the symbols that the best of both views.
are important to them. For example, in understanding the di-
etary habits of Hindus, interpretivists ask why Hindus do not Individual Agency Versus Structurism  This debate
eat beef. Hindus point to their religious beliefs, where cows are concerns the question of how much individual will, or agency,
sacred and it is a sin to kill and eat them. Interpretivists accept ­affects the way people behave and think, compared with the
this explanation as sufficient. power of forces, or structures, that are beyond individual con-
Cultural materialism attempts to learn about culture by trol. Western philosophical thought gives much emphasis to
first examining the material aspects of life: the natural envi- the role of agency, the ability of individuals to make choices
ronment and how people make a living within particular envi- and exercise free will. In contrast, structurism emphasizes that
ronments. Cultural materialists believe that these basic facts of free choice is an illusion because choices are structured by
life shape culture, even though people may not realize it. They larger forces such as the economy, social and political organiza-
use a three-level model to explain culture. The bottom level is tion, and media.
infrastructure, a term that refers to basic material factors such A prime example is the study of poverty. Those who em-
as natural resources, the economy, and population. According phasize agency focus their research on how individuals at-
to this model, infrastructure tends to shape the other two do- tempt to act as agents, even in situations of extreme poverty, in
mains of culture: structure (social organization, kinship, and order to change their situation as best they can. Structurists, by
political organization) and superstructure (ideas, values, and contrast, would emphasize that the poor are trapped by large
beliefs). This book’s chapters are organized roughly in terms and powerful forces. They would describe how the political
of these three categories, but with the recognition that the lay- economy and other forces provide little room for agency for
ers are not neat and tidy but have interconnections. those at the bottom. An increasing number of cultural anthro-
A cultural materialist explanation for the taboo on kill- pologists seek to blend a structural perspective with attention
ing cows and eating beef involves the fact that cattle in India to agency.

An urban scene in India (left) and in the United States (right) showing two patterns of traffic congestion.

With growing aspirations of people worldwide to own a car, what do you think urban planners need to consider in the immediate future
and for ten years from now?

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 Colombian anthropologist Patricia Tovar
(center) at an anthropology conference
in Colombia. In Central and South
­America, applied anthropology is an
­integral part of cultural anthropology.

Changing Perspectives The Concept of Culture

Cultural anthropology continues to be rethought and refash- Although cultural anthropologists are united in the study of
ioned. Several new theoretical perspectives have transformed culture, the question of how to define it has been debated for
and enriched the field. Feminist anthropology is a perspective that decades. This section discusses definitions of culture, charac-
emphasizes the need to study female roles and gender-based in- teristics of culture, and bases for cultural identity.
equality. Early feminist anthropologists, starting in the 1970s,
realized that anthropology had overlooked women. To address Definitions of Culture  Culture is the core concept in
this gap, feminist anthropologists undertook research that ex- cultural anthropology, so it might seem likely that cultural an-
plicitly focused on women and girls, half of the world’s people. thropologists would agree about what it is. In the 1950s, an
A related area is gay and lesbian anthropology, or queer anthropol- effort to collect definitions of culture produced 164 different
ogy, a perspective that emphasizes the need to study gay people’s ones (Kroeber and Kluckhohn 1952). Since then, no one has
cultures and discrimination based on sexual identity and prefer- tried to count the number of definitions of culture used by
ences. This book presents findings from these areas. anthropologists.
In North American anthropology, African American, British anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor proposed the
­Latino, and Native American anthropologists are increasing first definition in 1871. He stated, “Culture, or civilization . . .
in number and visibility. Yet, anthropology in North A ­ merica is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief,
and Europe remains one of the “whitest” professions ­(Shanklin art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and hab-
2000). Some steps for moving the discipline toward being its acquired by man as a member of society” (Kroeber and
View the Image on myanthrolab View on
more inclusive include (Mullings 2005): ­Kluckhohn 1952:81). The phrase “that complex whole” has
O Examine and recognize anthropology’s history of racism. been the most durable feature of his definition.
InWatch
contemporary cultural
the Video anthropology, the cultural ma-
on myanthrolab Watch o
O Work to increase the diversity of professors, researchers,
terialists and the interpretive anthropologists support two
staff, and students in the discipline.
different definitions of culture. Cultural
O Teach about racism in anthropology
View theclasses
Imageand text-
on myanthrolab Listen to the Chapter AudioView on myanthrolab
on myanthrolab Listen o
materialist Marvin Harris says, “A cul-
­books. Listen to the Podcast ture is the total socially acquired life-
Worldwide, non-Western anthropologists are question-
Watch the Video on myanthrolab Explore
“Clifford Geertz,the Concept on myanthrolab
way or life-style of a group
Watch of people. It
on myanthrolab Explore
ing the dominance of Euro-American anthropology, and they Pioneering Cultural consists of the patterned repetitive ways
Anthropologist”
are offering new perspectives (Kuwayama 2004). Their work of thinking, feeling,
Simulate the Experiment and acting that are
on myanthrolab Simula
Listen to the Chapter Audio
provides useful critiques of anthropology as a largely Western- on myanthrolab Listen on myanthrolab
characteristic of the members of a par-
defined discipline and promises to lead it in new directions in ticularStudy
societyand
or segment of society”
Review on myanthrolab(1975:144). In contrast, Study
the future. Explore the Concept on myanthrolab Explore on myanthrolab
Clifford Geertz, speaking for the interpretivists, believes that

Read the Document on myanthrolab Read o

Simulate the Experiment on myanthrolab Simulate on myanthrolab
Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture 13
Map the Concepts on myanthrolab Map on
Study and Review on myanthrolab Study and Review on myanthrolab

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 Map 1.1  Weyéwa Region
in Indonesia
Sumba, one of Indonesia’s many Flores Sea
­islands, is 75 miles long. The Weyéwa
people number about 85,000 and live
in small settlements on grassy plateaus Flores
in the western part of the island. They Java Bali
grow rice, maize, and millet, and they EAST
Sumba Timor TIMOR
raise water buffaloes and pigs. INDONESIA

Timor
Sea

0 100 200 Miles

0 100 200 Kilometers

Weyéwa
region
Sumba

0 25 50 Miles

0 25 50 Kilometers

culture consists of symbols, motivations, moods, and thoughts and eliminating. Given the primary importance of these four
and does not include behavior as a part of culture. This book functions in supporting a human being’s life, it seems logical
defines culture as learned and shared behavior and beliefs, a that people would fulfill them in similar ways everywhere. But
definition broader than Geertz’s. that is not the case.
Culture exists among all human beings. Some anthro-
pologists refer to this universal concept of culture as Culture Eating Culture shapes what people eat, how they eat, when
with a capital C. Culture also exists in a more specific way. they eat, and the meanings of food and eating. Culture also
The term microculture, or local culture, refers to distinct pat- defines foods that are acceptable and unacceptable. In China,
terns of learned and shared behavior and ideas found in local most people think that cheese is disgusting, but in France, most
regions and among particular groups. Microcultures are based people love cheese. Throughout China, pork is a widely favored
on ethnicity, gender, age, and more. meat. The religions of Judaism and Islam, in contrast, forbid
the consumption of pork. In many cultures where gathering
Characteristics of Culture Understanding of the wild plant foods, hunting, and fishing are important, people
complex concept of culture can be gained by looking at its value the freshness of food. They would consider a package of
characteristics. frozen food on a grocery store shelf as way past its time.
Perceptions of taste vary dramatically. Western research-
Culture Is Not the Same as ­Nature The relationship be- ers have defined four supposedly universal taste categories:
tween nature and culture is of great interest to cultural anthro- sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. Cross-cultural research disproves
pologists in their quest to understand people’s behavior and these categories as universals. A prominent East Asian flavor,
thinking. This book emphasizes the importance of culture. not on the Western list, is umami, or savoriness. To add even
A good way to see how culture diverges from, and shapes, more complexity, the Weyéwa (wuh-YAY-wuh) people of the
nature is to consider basic natural demands of life within dif- highlands of Sumba, Indonesia (see Map 1.1), define seven
ferent cultural contexts. Universal human functions that every- categories of taste: sour, sweet, salty, bitter, tart, bland, and
one must perform to stay alive are eating, drinking, sleeping, pungent (Kuipers 1991).
How to eat is also an important aspect of food behav-
microculture  a distinct pattern of learned and shared behavior ior. The proper way to eat is one of the first things a person
and thinking found within a larger culture. needs to learn when living in a foreign culture. Dining rules

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 Drinking Cross-cultural variations related to drinking are
also complex. Every culture defines the appropriate sub-
stances to drink, when to drink and with whom, and the
meanings of the beverages and drinking occasions. French
culture allows for the consumption of relatively large
amounts of table wine with family meals, including lunch. In
the United States, water is generally served and consumed
during family meals. In India, water is served and consumed
at the end of the meal. Around the world, different catego-
ries of people drink different beverages. In cultures where al-
coholic beverages are consumed, men tend to consume more
than women.
Culture often defines the meaning of particular drinks
Ethiopian women dining at an Ethiopian restaurant. The main
and the style of drinking and serving them. Social drinking—
meal consists of several meat and vegetable dishes, cooked with
distinctive spices and laid out on injera bread, a soft, flat bread
whether the beverage is coffee, beer, or vodka—creates and
that is torn into small pieces and used to wrap bits of meat reinforces bonds. Beer-drinking rituals in U.S. college frater-
and vegetables. The entire meal can be eaten without utensils. nities are a good example. In an ethnographic film entitled
How does this dining scene resemble or differ from a recent Salamanders, filmed at a large university in the northeastern
meal that you have had in a restaurant? United States, the fraternity brothers run to various “sta-
tions” in the fraternity house, downing a beer at each (Horn-
in India require using only the right hand. The left hand is bein and Hornbein 1992). At one point, a brother chugs a
considered polluted because it is used for personal cleansing beer, turns with a stagger toward the next station, falls flat
after elimination. A person’s clean right hand is the preferred on his face, and passes out. The movie documents another
eating utensil. Silverware that has been touched by others, drinking ritual in which both young men and women at fra-
even if it has been washed, is considered unclean. In some ternity parties swallow live salamanders, sometimes two or
cultures, it is important to eat only from one’s own plate, three at a time, with large gulps of beer. (This practice is now
whereas in others, eating from a shared central platter is con- forbidden by law.)
sidered proper.
Another area of cultural variation involves who is respon- Sleeping Common sense might say that sleep is the one nat-
sible for cooking and serving food. In many cultures, domes- ural function that is not shaped by culture because people tend
tic cooking is women’s responsibility, but cooking for public to do it at least once every 24 hours, everyone shuts their eyes
feasts is more often something that men do. Power issues may to do it, everyone lies down to do it, and most people sleep at
arise about who cooks what for whom (see Think Like an night. Going without sleep for an extended period can lead to
Anthropologist). insanity and even death.

Sleep might appear to be one of the most “natural” aspects of human behavior. In fact, culture shapes much about sleep in terms of the amount
and quality of sleep, the location of sleep, with whom a person sleeps, infant learning of sleeping at night, personal security during sleep, and the
value of dreams. (left) Members of a roving girl gang sleep together on the street in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (right) Employees of a wealthy corpora-
tion sleep on its private airbus on a flight from London to Delhi.

Do Internet research on culture, social inequality, and sleep and report on your findings to the class.

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 think like an anthropologist
Power in the Kitchen

W ithin a family, cooking food

for other members can be a
sign of love and devotion. It may
distributed the tamales to friends,
relatives, and local taverns. The
effort and expense involved were
carry a message that love and enormous. But for the women, it
devotion are expected in return. was worth it. Through their tamale
Among Tejano (tay-HAH-no) mi- making, they celebrate the holi-
grant farm workers in the United day, build ties with people whom
States, preparing tamales is a sym- they may need to call on for sup-
bol of a woman’s commitment to her port, and maintain communication
family and thus of the “good wife” with tavern owners so that they will
(Williams 1984). The Tejanos are watch over male kin who drink at
people of Mexican descent who live in their bars.
Texas. Some of them move to Illinois in Tejano women also use tamale
the summer, where they are employed making as a statement of domestic
as migrant workers. protest. A woman who is dissatisfied
For Tejanos, tamales are a cen- with her husband’s behavior will refuse
tral cultural identity marker. Tamales to make tamales, a serious statement on
contain a rich inner mash of pig’s her part. The link between being a good
head meat wrapped in corn husks. wife and making tamales is strong, so
Making tamales is extremely time a husband can take his wife’s unwilling-
consuming, and it is women’s ness to make tamales as grounds for di-
work. Typically, several women vorce. One young Tejano sued his wife for
work together over a few days to divorce in Illinois on the grounds that she
do the necessary tasks: buying refused to cook tamales for him, in addition
the pigs’ heads, stripping the meat, to dancing with other men at fiestas. The
preparing the stuffing, wrapping the judge refused to grant a divorce.
stuffing with the corn husks, and baking
or boiling the tamale. Tamales consist of fried meat and peppers in a
Tamales symbolize and emphasize food for thought
cornmeal dough that is encased in cornhusks.
women’s nurturance of their husbands. One Provide an example from your micro-
What is a similarly important food item cultural experience about food being
elderly woman, at home in Texas for Christ-
in your cultural world?
mas, made 200 tamales with her daugh- used as a way of expressing social
ters-in-law, nieces, and goddaughter. They solidarity or social protest.

Sleep, however, is at least as much culturally shaped as it is much is to be a wimp. A disorder in Japan called excessive day-
biologically determined. Cultural influences on sleep include the time sleepiness (EDS) is common in Tokyo and other large cit-
questions of who sleeps with whom, how much sleep a person ies (Doi and Minowa 2003). Excessive sleepiness is correlated
should have, and why some people have insomnia or what are with more accidents on the job, more absenteeism, decreased
called sleep disorders. Across cultures, marked variation exists in productivity, deteriorated personal and professional relation-
rules about where infants and children should sleep: with the ships, and increased rates of illness and death. Women are al-
mother, with both parents, or by themselves in a separate room. most twice as likely as men to experience EDS, and married
Among indigenous peoples of the Amazon region of South women are especially vulnerable.
America, mothers and babies share the same hammock for many
months, and breastfeeding occurs whenever the baby is hungry. Eliminating In spite of its basic importance to people every-
Culture shapes the amount of time a person sleeps. In where, elimination receives little attention from anthropologists.
rural India, women sleep fewer hours than men because they The first question is where to eliminate. Differences
have to get up early to start the fire for the morning meal. emerge in the degree to which elimination is a private act or
In fast-track, corporate North America, “type A” males sleep can be done in more or less public areas. In many European
relatively few hours and are proud of that fact—to sleep too cities, public options include street urinals for males but not for

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 The United Nations seeks to convey a message worldwide that handwashing with soap is an effective way of preventing disease. (left) Women in
a village in Bangladesh look out a window beside a poster showing how to wash one’s hands properly. (right) Students participate in an event
in the Philippines that teaches children the principles of handwashing with soap to promote hygiene and help prevent an outbreak of swine flu.

Be prepared to discuss how the UN’s promotion of handwashing with soap might need to take into account contexts where people do not
have access to soap and clean water.

females. In most villages in India, houses do not have interior In many cultures, the products of elimination (urine
bathrooms. Instead, early in the morning, groups of women and feces) are considered polluting and disgusting. Among
and girls leave the house and head for a certain field, where some groups in Papua New Guinea (Map 1.2), people take
they squat and chat. Men go to a different area. Everyone car- great care to bury or otherwise hide their fecal matter for
ries, in their left hand, a small brass pot full of water with which fear that someone will find it and use it for magic against
they splash themselves clean. Think about the ecological ad- them. A negative assessment of the products of elimination
vantages: This system adds fertilizer to the fields and leaves is not universal, however. Among some Native American
no paper litter. Westerners may consider the village practice cultures of the Pacific Northwest region of Canada and the
unclean and unpleasant, but village-dwelling people in India United States, urine, especially women’s urine, was believed
would think that the Western system is unsanitary because us- to have medicinal and cleansing properties and was consid-
ing toilet paper does not clean one as well as water does, and ered the “water of life” (Furst 1989). In some death rituals, it
they would find the practice of sitting on a toilet less comfort- was sprinkled over the corpse in the hope that it might reju-
able than squatting. venate the deceased. People stored urine in special wooden

Map 1.2  Papua
New Guinea
The Independent State of
Papua New Guinea (PNG),
INDONESIA Sepik R.
the eastern half of the island
of New Guinea, gained its
Ok Tedi Mine
autonomy from Australia in Ok Tedi R.
1975. Mostly mountainous
PAPUA Mt. Hagen
with coastal lowlands, PNG NEW GUINEA
is richly endowed with gold,
New Britain
Fly

copper, silver, natural gas, Huon

R.

Gulf
­timber, oil, and fisheries.
Its population is around Gulf of
Papua Trobriand
5,700,000. Port Moresby, Islands
the capital, has a high rate
Goodenough
of HIV/AIDS infection among Port Island SOLOMON
Torres Strait Moresby ISLANDS
the working-age population.

0 100 200 Miles

AUSTRALIA Coral Sea 0 100 200 Kilometers

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 arbitrary, it is impossible to predict how a particular culture
will symbolize something. Although one might assume that
people who are hungry would have an expression for hunger
involving the stomach no one could predict that in Hindi, the
language of northern India, a colloquial expression for being
hungry is saying that “rats are jumping in my stomach.” The
linguistic history of Barbara—the name of the author of this
book—reveals that originally, in the Greek, it referred to peo-
ple who were outsiders, “barbarians,” and, by extension, un-
civilized and savage. On top of that, the Greek term referred
to such people as “bearded.” The symbolic content of the
American name Barbara does not immediately convey a sense
of beardedness in its current context because symbolic mean-
ing can change. It is through symbols, arbitrary and amazingly
rich in their attributions, that culture is shared, stored, and
transmitted over time.

Culture Is Learned Because culture is based on symbols

that are arbitrary, culture must be learned anew in each con-
In India, a white sari (women’s garment) symbolizes widowhood. text. Cultural learning begins from the moment of birth, if
What might these women think about the Western custom not before. (Some people think that an unborn baby takes in
of a bride wearing white? and stores information through sounds heard from the out-
side world.) A large but unknown amount of people’s cul-
tural learning is unconscious, occurring as a normal part of
boxes for ritual use, including for a baby’s first bath. (The
life through observation. Learning in schools, in contrast, is a
urine was mixed with water.)
formal way to acquire culture. Most cultures throughout his-
What about hand-washing practices among people in
tory have not passed on learning through formal schooling.
rich countries? One study investigated fecal bacteria on the
Instead, children acquire cultural patterns through observa-
hands of 404 commuters in five cities in the United Kingdom
tion and practice and advice from family members and elder
( Judah et al. 2010). It found that 28 percent of commuters’
members of the group.
hands had fecal bacteria on them, and men were more likely to
have fecal bacteria on their hands than women. The research-
Cultures Are Integrated To state that cultures are internally
ers are now following up to learn more about hand-washing
integrated is to assert the principle of holism. Thus, studying
practices with attention to gender differences.
only one or two aspects of culture provides an understanding
so limited that it is more likely to be misleading or wrong than
Culture Is Based on Symbols Our entire lives—from eat-
are more comprehensive approaches.
ing breakfast to greeting our friends, making money, creat-
Consider what would happen if a researcher were to
ing art, and practicing religion—are based on and organized
study intertribal warfare in highland Papua New Guinea (see
through symbols. A symbol is an object, word, or action with a
Map  1.2) and focused only on the actual practice of warfare
culturally defined meaning that stands for something else with
without examining other aspects of culture. A key feature of
which it has no necessary or natural relationship. Symbols are
highland culture is the exchange of pigs at political feasts. To
arbitrary (bearing no necessary relationship to that which is
become a political leader, a man must acquire many pigs. Pigs
symbolized), unpredictable, and diverse. Because symbols are
eat yams, which men grow, but pigs are cared for by women.
This division of labor means that a man with more than one
symbol  an object, word, or action with culturally defined meaning
wife will be able to maintain more pigs and rise politically by
that stands for something else; most symbols are arbitrary. giving more feasts. Such feasting enhances an aspiring leader’s
globalization  increased and intensified international ties related
status and makes his guests indebted to him. With more fol-
to the spread of Western, especially U.S., capitalism that affects lowers attracted through feasting, a leader can gather forces
all world cultures. and wage war on neighboring villages. Success in war brings
localization  the transformation of global culture by local cultures gains in territory. So far, this example pays attention mainly to
into something new. economics, politics, and marriage systems. But other aspects of
class  a way of categorizing people on the basis of their economic culture are involved, too. Supernatural powers affect the success
position in society, usually measured in terms of income or wealth. of warfare. Painting spears and shields with particular designs

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 is believed to increase their power. At feasts and marriages,
body decoration (including paint, shell ornaments, and elabo-
Class Gender, sexuality
rate feather headdresses) is an important expression of identity
“Race” Age
and status. Looking at warfare without attention to its wider
Ethnicity, indigeneity Institution
cultural context yields an incomplete picture.
Cultural integration is relevant to applied anthropologists
Figure 1.4   Some Bases of Microcultures
interested in proposing ways to promote positive change. Years
of experience show that introducing programs for change in
culturally homogeneous. A variant of Westernization is McDon-
one aspect of culture without considering their effects in other
aldization, a model defined by “fast-food culture,” with its princi-
domains is often detrimental to the welfare and survival of a
ples of mass production, speed, standardization, and impersonal
culture. For example, Western missionaries and colonialists in
service.
parts of Southeast Asia banned the practice of head-hunting.
Hybridization, also called syncretism and creolization, oc-
This practice was connected to many other aspects of the
curs when aspects of two or more cultures combine to form
people’s culture, including politics, religion, and psychology.
something new—a blend. In Japan, for instance, a grand-
A man’s sense of identity depended on the taking of a head.
mother might bow in gratitude to an automated banking ma-
While preventing head-hunting might seem like a good thing,
chine. In the Amazon region and in the Arctic, indigenous
outlawing it had disastrous consequences for the cultures in
people use satellite imagery to map and protect the boundaries
which it was practiced because of its central importance to the
of their ancestral lands.
entire culture.
A fourth pattern is localization, the transformation of
global culture by local microcultures into something new.
Cultures Interact and Change Cultures interact with each
­Localization is happening all around us, all the time. Con-
other and change each other through contact such as trade
sider the example of McDonald’s restaurants. In many Asian
networks, international development projects, telecommuni-
View on myanthrolab settings, people resist the pattern of eating quickly and insist
cations, education, migration, and tourism. Globalization, the
on leisurely family gatherings (Watson 1997). The McDon-
process of intense global interconnectedness and movement of
ald’s managers accommodate this preference and alter the
goods, information,
Watch and people, is a major force of contempo-
on myanthrolab
pace of service to allow for a slower turnover of tables. In
rary cultural change. It has gained momentum through recent
View on technological
myanthrolab Saudi ­Arabia, McDonald’s provides separate areas for fami-
change, especially the boom in information and
nthrolab Listen on myanthrolab lies, including women accompanied by a husband or father
communication technologies.
or brother, and for single men. Single women cannot enter
Watch on myanthrolab Globalization does not spread
a McDonald’s, but the company does offer delivery services.
b Explore on myanthrolabevenly, and its interactions with, and
Examples of localization raise questions about whether
“Hare Krishnas effects on, local cultures vary substan-
Listen onBattle
myanthrolab Western “mono-culture” is taking over the world and erasing
McDonald’s in tially from positive change to cul-
hrolab Simulate on myanthrolab cultural diversity.
Mauritius” tural destruction and extinction. Four
Explore on myanthrolab models of cultural interaction capture
Study and Review on myanthrolab
some of the variation (Figure 1.3). Multiple Cultural Worlds
The clash
Simulate on myanthrolab
of civilizations argument says that the spread Within large cultures, a variety of microcultures exist, as
b of Euro-American
Read on myanthrolab and lifeways throughout the
capitalism discussed in this section (Figure 1.4). A particular indi-
world has created disenchantment, alienation, and resentment vidual in such a complex situation is likely to be a member
Study and Review on myanthrolab
among other cultural systems. This model divides the world of several microcultures. Microcultures may overlap or may
Map on myanthrolab
into the “West and the rest.” be related to each other hierarchically in terms of power,
The Westernization model says that, under the powerful in-
Read on myanthrolab status, and rights.
b fluence of the United States and Europe, the world is becoming In discussing microcultures, the contrast between difference
Map on myanthrolab and hierarchy is important. People and groups can be considered
different from each other in terms of a particular characteristic,
Clash of civilizations Conflict model but they may or may not be unequal on the basis of it. For ex-
Westernization Western culture takeover ample, people with blue or brown eyes might be recognized as
and homogenization model different, but this difference does not entail unequal treatment
Hybridization Blending model or status. In other instances, such differences may become the
Localization Local cultural remaking and basis for inequality.
transformation of global culture
Class  Class is a category based on people’s economic posi-
Figure 1.3   Four Models of Cultural Interaction tion in society, usually measured in terms of income or wealth

Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture 19

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 “Race,” Ethnicity, and Indigenous Peoples  “Race”
refers to groups of people with supposedly homogeneous bio-
logical traits. The term “race” is extremely complicated, as it is
used in diverse ways in different parts of the world and among
different groups of people. Therefore, it makes sense to put the
word in quotation marks in order to indicate that it has no single
meaning. In South Africa, as in the United States, “race” is de-
fined mainly on the basis of skin color. In pre–twentieth-century
China, body hair was the key biological basis for racial classifica-
tion (Dikötter 1998). The “barbarian” races had more body hair
than the “civilized” Chinese people.Chinese writers referred to
bearded, male missionaries from Europe as “hairy barbarians.”
Into the twentieth century, some Chinese anthropologists di-
vided humans into evolutionary stages on the basis of amounts View on my
View the Image on myanthrolab
of body hair.
View the Image on myanthrolab View on myanthrolab
Ethnicity refers to a sense of iden-
Watch the Videotity myanthrolab
onamong a group based on a sense of Watch on m
Watch the Video on myanthrolab a common heritage, language, religion, Watch on myanthrolab
View the Image on myanthrolab View on myanthrolab
“Defining Indigenous or other aspect of culture. Examples
A view into the yard of a house in a low-income neighborhood of Listen to the Chapter Audio on myanthrolab Listen on m
Kingston, Jamaica. People in these neighborhoods prefer the term
People” include A ­ frican Americans and Italian
Listen to the Chapter Audio on myanthrolab Listen on myanthrolab
“low-income” to “poor.” Watch the Video on myanthrolab Americans in the United States,
Watch on the
myanthrolab
Explore the Concept on myanthrolab Explore on
Croats of Eastern Europe, the Han of
ExploreChina,
the Concept
and theon myanthrolab
Hutu and Tutsi of Rwanda. This sense of iden- Explore on myanthrola
and exhibited in terms of lifestyle. Class societies maytobethe
Listen di-Chapter Audio
tity may on myanthrolab
be expressed
Simulate through political
the Experiment
Listen on myanthrolab
movements to gain or
on myanthrolab Simulate o
vided into upper, middle, and lower classes. Separate classes are, protect group rights and recognition or more quietly stated in
Simulate the Experiment on myanthrolab Simulate on myanthrol
for example, the working class (people who trade their the
Explore labor
Concepthowononemyanthrolab
Studylivesand
one’s daily life.
Review on Compared
myanthrolab with theExplore on myanthrolab
term “race,” Study and
for wages) and the landowning class (people who own land on “ethnicity” appears to be a more neutral, less stigmatizing term.
Study and Review on myanthrolab Study and Review on m
which they or others labor). Classes are related in a hierarchi- But it, too,onhas been, and still is, a basis for discrimination, segre-
Simulate the Experiment Readmyanthrolab
the Document on myanthrolab Simulate on myanthrolab
cal system, with upper classes dominating lower classes. Class Read on m
gation, and oppression. Indigenous peoples, according to guide-
Read
struggle, in the classic Marxist view, is inevitable, as those at the the Document on myanthrolab Read on myanthrolab
Study and Reviewlines laid down by the United Nations, are defined as
on myanthrolab groupsand
Study thatReview on myanthrola
top seek to maintain their position while those at the bottom Map the Concepts on myanthrolab
have a long-standing connection with their home territories, a Map on m
seek to improve theirs. People at the bottom may attempt Map to theconnection
Conceptspredating colonial or other societies that prevail in
on myanthrolab Map on myanthrolab
improve their class position by gaining access toRead resources and
the Document thaton myanthrolab 1999). They are typically a numerical
territory to the Podcast on myanthrolab Read on mi-
Listen (Sanders myanthrolab
by adopting aspects of upper-class symbolic behavior, such as
Listen tonority and oftenonhave
the Podcast lost the rights to their original territory.
myanthrolab
speech, dress, and leisure and recreation activities. Map the ConceptsThe United Nations distinguishes between indigenous
on myanthrolab Map peoples
on myanthrolab
Class is a recent social development in human history, ex- and minority ethnic groups such as the Roma, the Tamils of Sri
tending back in time for only about 10,000 years. It does not Lanka, and ­African Americans. The San peoples of Southern
Listen to the Podcast on myanthrolab
exist today in remote local cultures where everyone has equal Africa, as well as their several subgroups, are an important ex-
wealth and sharing food and other resources among the group ample of indigenous peoples whose way of life was dramati-
is expected. cally affected first by c­ olonialism and now by globalization (see
Culturama).

“race”  a way of categorizing people into groups on the basis of Gender  Gender refers to culturally constructed and learned
supposedly homogeneous and largely superficial biological traits
such as skin color or hair characteristics.
behaviors and ideas attributed to males, females, or sometimes
a blended, or “third,” gender. Gender differs from sex, which is
ethnicity  a way of categorizing people on the basis of the
based on biological markers, such as genitals and hormones, to
shared sense of identity based on history, heritage, language,
or culture. define categories of male and female. Cultural anthropology
shows that a person’s biological makeup does not necessarily
indigenous people  people who have a long-standing connec-
tion with their home territories that predates colonial or outside correspond to gender. Biology directly determines only a few
societies. roles and tasks, such as giving birth and nursing infants.
Cross-culturally, gender differences vary from societies in
gender  a way of classifying people based on their culturally con-
structed and learned behaviors and ideas as attributed to males, which male and female roles and worlds are similar or overlap-
females, or blended genders. ping to those in which gender roles are sharply differentiated.

20 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 culturama
San Peoples companies, and international tourism has
greatly reduced the San’s access to their
Transnational advocacy organiza-
tions, including the Working Group of
of Southern Africa ancestral land and their ability to survive. Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa
Some have been arrested for hunting on (WIMSA) and First People of the Kalahari
S an is a cluster name for many groups
of people in southern Africa who speak
related languages that have glottal click
what they consider their land.
The Ju/wasi (True People) are a sub-
(FPK), are making progress in protect-
ing the rights of San peoples. Recently,
group of San numbering between 10,000 WIMSA waged an international legal
sounds. Around 2,000 years ago, the
and 15,000 people who live in a region case with a large pharmaceutical com-
San were the only people living in south-
crossing the borders of Namibia and pany and succeeded in ensuring that the
ern ­Africa, but today they are restricted to
­Botswana. As described by Richard Lee in San receive a portion of the profits from
scattered locations throughout the region.
the early 1960s, they were highly mobile the commercial development of h ­ oodia
European colonialists referred to San
­
food collectors and quite healthy (1979). (Hoodia gordonia). Hoodia is extracted
people as “Bushmen,” a derogatory term
Today, most have been forced from their from a cactus indigenous to the Kalahari
at the time but one that San people now
homeland and live as poor, urban squat- region. An effective appetite suppres-
prefer over what some locals call them.
ters or in government-built resettlement sant, it is widely available as diet pills,
Some San also refer to themselves with
camps. Many work as farm laborers or though controversy exists about its effi-
the English term “First People.”
in the international tourist industry, serv- cacy and safety.
For many centuries, the San sup-
ing as guides and producing and selling
ported themselves through collecting food
crafts. Others are unemployed. The liv- Thanks to Alison Brooks, George Washing-
such as roots and birds’ eggs and by hunt-
ing conditions of the San people depend ton University, for reviewing this material.
ing eland, giraffe, and other animals. Now,
on government policy toward indigenous
pressure from African governments, farm-
people in the country where they live.
ers, ranchers, game reserves, diamond

NAMIBIA
BOTSWANA
Ju/wasi
region

SOUTH
AFRICA

0 250 500 Miles

0 250 500 Kilometers

(left) Richard Lee (wearing a shirt) asks Ju/wasi men about food plants of the Kalahari Map 1.3  Ju/wasi Region in Namibia
desert. This photograph was taken in 1968. Lee and many other researchers affiliated and Botswana
with the Harvard Kalahari research project learned to speak the Ju/wasi language.
Before country boundaries were drawn, the
(center) San people eat part of the hoodia cactus when on long treks in the desert Ju/wasi ranged freely across their traditional
­because it suppresses hunger and thirst. Now they cultivate it for commercial production ­territory (shaded area), depending on the seasonal
in a diet pill sold in rich countries. ­availability of food and water. Now they must show
a passport when crossing from one country to
another.

Explore the San Peoples of Southern Africa on myanthrolab

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Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture 21

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 Huli men of the Mount Hagen region of
highland Papua New Guinea in festive
attire for a dance performance.

In much of rural Thailand, men and women are about the same Institutions  Institutions, or enduring group settings
size, their clothing is similar, and their agricultural tasks are formed for a particular purpose, have their own characteristic
complementary and often interchangeable (Potter 1977). In microcultures. Institutions include hospitals, schools and uni-
contrast, among many groups in highland New Guinea, ex- versities, and prisons. Anyone who has entered such an insti-
treme gender segregation exists in most aspects of life, includ- tution has experienced a feeling of strangeness. Until you gain
ing the kinds of food men and women eat (Meigs 1984). The familiarity with the often unwritten cultural rules, you may do
men’s house ­physically and symbolically separates the worlds things that offend or puzzle people, that fail to get you what
of men and women. Men engage in rituals that purge them you want, and that make you feel marginalized and insecure.
of female substances: nose or penis bleeding, vomiting, tongue Anthropologists who study educational institutions have
scraping, sweating, and eye washing. Men possess sacred flutes, shown that schools often replicate and reinforce stereotypes,
which they parade through the village from time to time. If power relations, and inequalities of the wider society. A study
women dare to look at the flutes, men have the right, by tradi- of middle schools in the southwestern Rocky Mountain re-
tion, to kill them. gion of the United States found a situation in which teachers
marginalized Mexican immigrant girls (Meador 2005). In this
Age  The human life cycle, from birth to old age, takes peo- school, Mexican immigrant students are labeled as ESL (Eng-
ple through cultural stages for which appropriate behavior and lish as a second language) students because they are not fluent
thinking must be learned anew. In many African herding societ- in English and take special courses designed to improve their
ies, elaborate age categories for males define their roles and sta- English. In addition, the teachers’ mental model of a “good
tus as they move from being boys with few responsibilities and student” is a student who is
little status, to young men who are warriors and live apart from O motivated to do well in school and gets good grades.
the rest of the group, to adult men who are allowed to marry,
O anathlete.
have children, and become respected elders. “The Hill,” or the
O popular and has good students as friends.
collective members of the U.S. Senate and the House of Rep-
resentatives, is a highly age-graded microculture (Weatherford O comes from a stable family.
1981). The Hill is a gerontocracy (a group ruled by senior mem- It is difficult for many Mexican immigrant children to con-
bers) in which the older politicians dominate younger politicians form to this image. Mexican immigrant girls, or Mexicanas, are
in terms of amount of time they speak and how much attention especially disadvantaged because most are not interested in, or
their words receive. It may take a junior member between 10 and good at, sports. The few Mexicanas who are motivated to try to
20 years to become as effective and powerful as a senior member. get good grades are consistently overlooked by the teachers, who
instead call on students who are confident, bright, and popu-
ethnocentrism  judging another culture by the standards of one’s lar, and who sit in front of the classroom and raise their hands
own culture rather than by the standards of that particular culture. eagerly.

22 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 Absolute cultural relativism Whatever goes on within a particular culture cannot be questioned or changed by outsiders as that
would be ethnocentric.
Critical cultural relativism Anyone can pose questions about what goes on in various cultures, including their own culture,
in terms of how particular practices or beliefs may harm certain members; follows Lévi-Strauss’s
comment that no society is perfect and that, therefore, all societies may be able to learn from
others and improve.

Figure 1.5   Cultural Relativism: Two Views

Critical cultural relativism offers an alternative view that

poses questions about cultural practices and ideas in terms of
who accepts them and why, and whom they might be harming
Distinctive Features or helping. In terms of the Nazi Holocaust, a critical cultural
of Cultural Anthropology relativist would ask, “Whose culture supported the values that
Over the course of its history, cultural anthropology has devel- killed millions of people on the grounds of racial purity?” Not
oped distinctive guiding principles and concepts that emerge the cultures of the Jews, Roma, and other victims. It was the
from its objectives of understanding and describing different culture of Aryan supremacists, who were just one group among
cultures worldwide and how they change. Some of these dis- many. In other words, the situation was far more complex than a
tinctive aspects have been adopted by other disciplines, and simple absolute cultural relativist statement suggests. Rather, it
this is something of which cultural anthropology can be proud. was a case of cultural imperialism, in which one dominant group
claimed supremacy over minority cultures and took actions in
its own interests and at the expense of the subjugated cultures.
Ethnocentrism
Critical cultural relativism avoids the trap of adopting a homog-
and Cultural Relativism enized view. It recognizes internal cultural differences: winners
Cultural anthropology has contributed two concepts that are and losers, and oppressors and victims. It pays attention to the
now accepted, and sometimes debated, beyond anthropology. interests of various power groups. It can illuminate the causes
The first is ethnocentrism: judging other cultures by the stan- and consequences of recent and contemporary conflicts.
dards of one’s own culture rather than by the standards of other Many cultural anthropologists seek to critique (which
cultures. Most people grow up thinking that their culture is the means “to probe underlying power interests,” not “to offer neg-
way of life and that other ways of life are strange and inferior. ative comments,” as in the general usage of the term “criticism”)
Ethnocentrism has fueled centuries of efforts to change “other” the behavior and values of groups from the standpoint of a
people in the world, sometimes through religious missionary set of generally agreed-on human rights and values. Two issues
work, sometimes in the form of colonial domination. emerge in this endeavor. First, it is difficult, if not impossible,
The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, the to generate a universal list of what all cultures would agree to
idea that each culture must be understood in terms of its own as good and right. Second, as Claude Lévi-Strauss said, “No
values and beliefs and not by the standards of another culture. society is perfect” (1968:385).
Cultural relativism assumes that no culture is better than any
other. This concept has great merit but also some problems.
One way that some anthropologists have interpreted cul- Valuing and Sustaining Diversity
tural relativism is absolute cultural relativism, which says that Cultural anthropology’s findings come largely from first-
whatever goes on in a particular culture must not be questioned hand experience in the field, as described in Chapter 3.
or changed because it would be ethnocentric to question any The perspectives and on-the-ground knowledge of cultural
behavior or idea anywhere (Figure 1.5). The position of abso- anthropologists lead directly to their commitment to the
lute cultural relativism, however, can lead in dangerous direc- importance of valuing and sustaining cultural diversity.
tions. Consider the example of the Holocaust during World Different cultural blueprints for life, around the world,
War II, in which millions of Jews, Roma, and other minorities show how people in diverse contexts can adapt to changing
in much of Eastern and Western Europe were killed as part of situations.
the German Nazis’ Aryan supremacy campaign. The absolute Anthropologists therefore value and are committed to
cultural relativist position becomes boxed in, logically, to saying maintaining cultural diversity throughout the world, as part of
that because the Holocaust was undertaken according to the humanity’s rich heritage. Many cultural anthropologists share
values of the culture, outsiders have no business questioning it. their expertise and knowledge to support the survival of indig-
Can anyone feel comfortable with such a position? enous peoples and other small-scale groups worldwide.

Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture 23

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 world and your place in it. More than that, anthropology
coursework may enhance your ability to get a job.

Majoring in Anthropology  An anthropology B.A. is a

liberal arts degree. It is not, however, a professional degree, such
as a business degree or a degree in physical therapy. It provides a
solid education relevant to many career directions that are likely
to require further study, such as law, criminal justice, medicine
and health services, social services, education, humanitarian
assistance, international development programs, and business.
Students interested in pursuing a B.A. major in anthropology
should know that anthropology is at least as useful as other lib-
eral arts majors for either graduate study or a professional career.
Anthropology has several clear advantages over other lib-
eral arts majors, and employers and graduate schools are in-
creasingly recognizing these features. Cultural anthropology
provides knowledge about the world’s people and diversity. It
offers insights about a variety of specialized research methods.
Cross-cultural awareness and communication skills are valu-
able assets sought by business, government, health-care pro-
viders, and nongovernmental organizations.
The recurrent question is this: Will it be possible to get a
good job related to anthropology with a B.A. in anthropology?
The answer is yes, but it takes planning and hard work. Do the
following: Gain expertise in at least one foreign language, study
abroad, do service learning during your undergraduate years,
and conduct an independent research project and write up the
results as a professional report or conference paper. Package
View on myanthrolab
these View
skills on
theyour résumé
Image so that they appear relevant to em-
on myanthrolab View on my
American Indian dancers at the 13th annual Chumash Inter-tribal Pow ployers. Do not give up. Good jobs are out there, and course-
Wow Watch
in the Santa Ynez Valley, California.
on myanthrolab work and skills in anthropology are increasingly valued.
View on myanthrolab
Think of examples in your microculture, or another, of attempts Watch the Video
Anthropology an myanthrolab
is also on excellent minor. It complements Watch on m
to revitalize or maintain the culture across generations. Are such almost any other area of study by adding a cross-cultural per-
rolab Listensuccessful
attempts on myanthrolab
or not, and why?
spective. Audio
For example, if you are majoring
Watch on myanthrolab Listen to the Chapter on myanthrolab Listen on m
View the Image on myanthrolab
Listen to the Podcast in music, courses about
View on world music will
myanthrolab
In the United States, an orga-
Explore on myanthrolab “An Anthropologist enrich your primary interest. The same
Listen on“Cultural
myanthrolab
nization called Cultural Survival Explore the Concept on myanthrolab Explore on
Survival Walks Into a Bar applies to subjects such as interior design,
helps indigenous peoples and ethnic
Watch the Video on myanthrolab Watch on myanthrolab
Quarterly” and Asks, ‘Why Is psychology, criminal justice, international
lab Simulate on myanthrolab minorities deal as equals in their in- Simulate Experiment on myanthrolab Simulate o
Explore on myanthrolab This Joke Funny?’” the affairs, economics, political science, and
teractions with outsiders. Cultural
Listen to the Chapter Audio on myanthrolab more. Listen on myanthrolab
Survival’s
Study guiding principleonis myanthrolab
and Review outlined in the preface of this
Study and Review on myanthrolab Study and
Simulatebook. Cultural Survival sponsors programs to help indige-
on myanthrolab
nous peoples and ethnic minoritiesExplore the Concept
protect and Graduate Study in Anthropology 
on myanthrolab
manage their Explore Some of you may
on myanthrolab
natural
Study and Read on myanthrolab
environment,
Review claim land rights, and protect their cul-
on myanthrolab go on to
Readpursue
the a master’s
Document degree
on (M.A.)
myanthrolab or doctoral degree Read on m
tural heritage. (Ph.D.) in anthropology. If you do, here is some advice: Be pas-
Simulate the Experiment on myanthrolab Simulate on myanthrolab
Map on myanthrolab sionate about your interest, but also be aware that a full-time Map on my
Map the Concepts on myanthrolab
Read on myanthrolab job as a professor or as a professional anthropologist is not easy
Cultural AnthropologyStudy Is and Review on myanthrolab Study and Review on myanthrolab
to get.
Map on Relevant
myanthrolabto Careers ToListen
expand yourPodcast
to the on myanthrolab
possibilities of getting a good job, it is
Read
Some of you reading this book may take only one anthro-
the Document on myanthrolab
wise to consider combining a professional Readskill or degree with
on myanthrolab
pology course to satisfy a requirement. Others may become your degree program in anthropology, such as a law degree, an
interested in the subject matter andMap takethe
a few more. Some
Concepts M.A. degree in project management, Map
on myanthrolab a master
on of public health
myanthrolab
will decide to major or minor in anthropology. Just one course (M.P.H.), a certificate in disaster relief, or participation in a
in anthropology may change your way of thinking about the training program in conflict prevention and resolution.
Listen to the Podcast on myanthrolab

24 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 Living an Anthropological Life  Studying cultural an- relationships with one another, and it helps provide some
thropology makes for smart people and people with breadth useful answers. Beyond career value, cultural anthropology
and flexibility. In North America, college graduates are likely will enrich your daily life by increasing your exposure to
to change careers (not just jobs, but careers) several times in the world’s cultures. When you read a newspaper, you will
their lives. Because you never know where you are going to find several articles that connect with what you have learned
end up working, or in what endeavor, it pays to be broadly in your anthropology classes. You will be able to view your
informed about the world. own everyday life as culturally constructed in interesting and
Cultural anthropology prompts you to ask original and meaningful ways. You will be a different person, and you will
important questions about the world’s people and their live a richer life.

Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture 25

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 View the Image on myanthrolab View on myanthrolab

Watch the Video on myanthrolab Watch on myanthrolab

1
Listen to the Chapter Audio on myanthrolab Listen on myanthrolab

the big
Explore the Concept on myanthrolab

Simulate the Experiment on myanthrolab

questions revisited Explore on myanthrolab

Simulate on myanthrolab

Study and Review on myanthrolab Study and Review on myanthrolab

history of anthropology. Many anthropologists define cul-
What isDocument
anthropology? ture as learned and shared behavior and ideas, whereas others
Read the on myanthrolab Read on myanthrolab
equate culture with ideas alone and exclude behavior as a part
of culture. It is easier to understand culture by considering its
Anthropology
Map theisConcepts
an academic discipline, like history or eco-
on myanthrolab Map on myanthrolab
characteristics: Culture is related to nature but is not the same
nomics. It comprises four interrelated fields in its attempt to as nature; it is based on symbols and it is learned; cultures are
explore all facets
Listen to theofPodcast
humanity on from its origins through the
myanthrolab integrated within themselves; and cultures interact with other
present. Biological or physical anthropology is the study of cultures and change. Four models of cultural interaction in-
humans as biological organisms, including their evolution and volve varying degrees of conflict, blending, and resistance.
contemporary variation. Archaeology is the study of past hu- People participate in cultures of different levels, including local
man cultures through their material remains. Linguistic an- microcultures shaped by such factors as class, “race,” ethnicity,
thropology is the study of human communication, including indigeneity, gender, age, and institutions.
its origins, history, and contemporary variation and change.
Cultural anthropology is the study of living peoples and their
cultures, including variation and change. Culture is people’s What are distinctive features
learned and shared behaviors and beliefs.
of cultural anthropology?
Each field makes both theoretical and applied contributions.
The perspective of this book is that applied anthropology, just
Cultural anthropology has contributed two powerful concepts
like theoretical anthropology, should be an integrated and im-
that have been widely adopted by other disciplines: cultural
portant part of all four fields, rather than a separate, fifth field.
relativism and ethnocentrism. These principles continue to
Examples of applied anthropology in the four fields include foren-
shape thinking in cultural anthropology.
sic anthropology, nonhuman primate conservation, global health
Knowledge about culture forms “on the ground.” Cultural
programs, literacy programs for refugees, and social marketing.
anthropology’s findings come largely from firsthand experience
in the field. The perspectives and on-the-ground knowledge of
What is cultural anthropology? cultural anthropologists lead directly to their commitment to
the importance of valuing and sustaining cultural diversity. Dif-
ferent cultural blueprints for life, around the world, show how
Cultural anthropology is the field within general anthropology people in diverse climates can adapt to changing situations.
that focuses on the study of contemporary humans and their Cultural anthropology can be an important foundation or
cultures. It has several distinctive features that set it apart from complement to your career. Coursework in cultural anthropology
the other fields of general anthropology and from other aca- expands one’s awareness of the diversity of the world’s cultures
demic disciplines. The concept of cultural relativism, attributed and the importance of cross-cultural understanding. Employers
to Franz Boas, is a guiding principle that other disciplines have in many fields—such as public health, humanitarian aid, law en-
widely adopted. Cultural anthropology values and works to sus- forcement, business, and education—increasingly value a degree
tain cultural diversity. in cultural anthropology.  In today’s diverse and connected world,
Cultural anthropology has a rich history of theoretical being culturally informed and culturally sensitive is essential.
approaches and changing topical focuses. Three important Graduate degrees in cultural anthropology, either at the
theoretical debates are biological determinism versus cultural M.A. or Ph.D. level, are even more likely to lead to pro-
constructionism, interpretive anthropology versus cultural fessional positions that directly use your anthropological
materialism, and individual agency versus structurism. Each, education and skills. Combining graduate coursework in
in its own way, attempts to understand and explain why people anthropology with a professional degree, such as a master’s
behave and think the way they do and to account for differ- degree in public health or public administration, or a law
ences and similarities across cultures. degree, is a successful route to a meaningful career outside
Culture is the key concept of cultural anthropology, and academia. Cultural anthropology, beyond its career relevance,
many definitions for it have been proposed throughout the will enrich your life everyday with its insights.

26 Chapter 1 Anthropology and the Study of Culture

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 key concepts
agency, p. 11 cultural anthropology, p. 4 functionalism, p. 9 microculture, p. 14
anthropology, p. 4 cultural constructionism, p. 11 gender, p. 20 “race,” p. 20
applied anthropology, p. 4 cultural materialism, p. 10 globalization, p. 19 structurism, p. 10
archaeology, p. 4 cultural relativism, p. 9 indigenous people, p. 20 symbol, p. 18
biological anthropology, p. 4 culture, p. 4 interpretive anthropology, p. 10
biological determinism, p. 11 ethnicity, p. 20 linguistic anthropology, p. 4
class, p. 19 ethnocentrism, p. 23 localization, p. 19

thinking outside the box

What are your impressions of Think about your everyday drink- Over a week, keep track of how
anthropology? How did you ing patterns and your drinking often you wash your hands each
acquire them? Make notes of patterns on special occasions. day and whether or not you use
these impressions and review What beverages do you con- soap each time. Compare the
them at the end of the course. sume, and with whom, and what data from your mini–self-study
are the meanings and wider to those of your classmates.
social implications involved? What patterns emerge?

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▶ “Child Sacrifice” in Uganda? by Pat Caplan

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