Path–Goal Theory
Description
Path–goal theory is about how leaders motivate followers to accomplish
designated goals. Drawing heavily from research on what motivates
follow-ers, path–goal theory first appeared in the leadership literature in
the early 1970s in the works of Evans (1970), House (1971), House and
Dessler (1974), and House and Mitchell (1974). The stated goal of this
leadership theory is to enhance follower performance and follower
satisfaction by focusing on follower motivation.
In contrast to the situational approach, which suggests that a leader must
adapt to the development level of followers (see Chapter 5), path–goal
theory emphasizes the relationship between the leader’s style and the char-
acteristics of the followers and the organizational setting. For the leader,
the imperative is to use a leadership style that best meets followers’
motivational needs. This is done by choosing behaviors that complement
or supplement what is missing in the work setting. Leaders try to enhance
followers’ goal attainment by providing information or rewards in the
work environment (Indvik, 1986); leaders provide followers with the
elements they think fol-lowers need to reach their goals.
According to House and Mitchell (1974), leadership generates motivation
when it increases the number and kinds of payoffs that followers receive
from their work. Leadership also motivates when it makes the path to the
goal clear and easy to travel through coaching and direction, removing
obstacles and roadblocks to attaining the goal, and making the work itself
more personally satisfying (Figure 6.1).
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116 Leadership Theory and Practice
Figure 6.1 The Basic Idea Behind Path–Goal Theory
Obstacle(s)
Goal(s)
Followers Path Path
(Productivity)
Path–Goal Leadership
• Defines goals
• Clarifies path
• Removes obstacles
• Provides support
In brief, path–goal theory is designed to explain how leaders can help fol-
lowers along the path to their goals by selecting specific behaviors that are
best suited to followers’ needs and to the situation in which followers are
working. By choosing the appropriate style, leaders increase followers’
expec-tations for success and satisfaction.
Within path-goal theory, motivation is conceptualized from the perspective of
the expectancy theory of motivation (Vroom, 1964) . The underlying
assumption of expectancy theory is that followers will be motivated if they
think they are capable of performing their work, if they believe their efforts
will result in a certain outcome, and if they believe that the payoffs for doing
their work are worthwhile. The challenge for a leader using ideas from
expectancy theory is to understand fully the goals of each follower and the
rewards associated with the goals. Followers want to feel efficacious, like they
can accomplish what they set out to do. But, they also want to know that they
will be rewarded if they can accomplish their work. A leader needs to find out
what is rewarding to followers about their work and then make those rewards
available to them when they accomplish the requirements of their work.
Expectancy theory is about the goals that followers choose and how leaders
help them and reward them for meeting those goals.
Conceptually, path–goal theory is complex. It is useful to break it down into
smaller units so we can better understand the complexities of this approach.
Figure 6.2 illustrates the different components of path–goal theory, includ-
ing leader behaviors, follower characteristics, task characteristics, and
moti-vation. Path–goal theory suggests that each type of leader behavior
has a different kind of impact on followers’ motivation. Whether a
particular leader behavior is motivating to followers is contingent on the
followers’ characteristics and the characteristics of the task.
Motivation is Contagious Path-Goal Theory
Chapter 6 Path–Goal Theory 117
Figure 6.2 Major Components of Path–Goal Theory
Leader Behaviors
Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement oriented
Follower Characteristics
Task Characteristics
Goal(s)
Followers Motivation (Productivity)
Leader Behaviors
Although many different leadership behaviors could have been selected to
be a part of path–goal theory, this approach has so far examined directive,
supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented leadership behaviors
(House & Mitchell, 1974, p. 83). Path–goal theory is explicitly left open to
the inclusion of other variables.
Directive Leadership
Directive leadership is similar to the “initiating structure” concept
described in the Ohio State studies (Halpin & Winer, 1957) and the
“telling” style described in Situational Leadership . It characterizes a
leader who gives followers instructions about their task, including what is
expected of them, how it is to be done, and the timeline for when it should
be completed. A directive leader sets clear standards of performance and
makes the rules and regulations clear to followers.
Supportive Leadership
Supportive leadership resembles the consideration behavior construct that was
identified by the Ohio State studies discussed in Chapter 4. Supportive
leadership consists of being friendly and approachable as a leader and
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118 Leadership Theory and Practice
includes attending to the well-being and human needs of followers.
Leaders using supportive behaviors go out of their way to make work
pleasant for followers. In addition, supportive leaders treat followers as
equals and give them respect for their status.
Participative Leadership
Participative leadership consists of inviting followers to share in the
decision making. A participative leader consults with followers, obtains
their ideas and opinions, and integrates their suggestions into the decisions
about how the group or organization will proceed.
Achievement-Oriented Leadership
Achievement-oriented leadership is characterized by a leader who chal-
lenges followers to perform work at the highest level possible. This leader
establishes a high standard of excellence for followers and seeks
continuous improvement. In addition to expecting a lot from followers,
achievement-oriented leaders show a high degree of confidence that
followers are capable of establishing and accomplishing challenging goals.
House and Mitchell (1974) suggested that leaders might exhibit any or all of
these four styles with various followers and in different situations. Path–goal
theory is not a trait approach that locks leaders into only one kind of leader-
ship. Leaders should adapt their styles to the situation or to the motivational
needs of their followers. For example, if followers need participative leader-
ship at one point in a task and directive leadership at another, the leader can
change her or his style as needed. Different situations may call for different
types of leadership behavior. Furthermore, there may be instances when it is
appropriate for a leader to use more than one style at the same time.
In addition to leader behaviors, Figure 6.2 illustrates two other major com-
ponents of path–goal theory: follower characteristics and task characteristics.
Each of these two sets of characteristics influences the way leaders’ behaviors
affect follower motivation. In other words, the impact of leadership is
contingent on the characteristics of both followers and their task.
Follower Characteristics
Follower characteristics determine how a leader’s behavior is interpreted by
followers in a given work context. Researchers have focused on followers’
Followers as Individuals
Chapter 6 Path–Goal Theory 119
needs for affiliation, preferences for structure, desires for control, and self-
perceived level of task ability. These characteristics and many others deter-
mine the degree to which followers find the behavior of a leader an immediate
source of satisfaction or instrumental to some future satisfaction.
Path–goal theory predicts that followers who have strong needs for affiliation
prefer supportive leadership because friendly and concerned leadership is a
source of satisfaction. For followers who are dogmatic and authoritarian and
have to work in uncertain situations, path–goal theory suggests directive lead-
ership because that provides psychological structure and task clarity. Directive
leadership helps these followers by clarifying the path to the goal, making it
less ambiguous. The authoritarian type of follower feels more comfortable
when the leader provides a greater sense of certainty in the work setting.
Followers’ desires for control have received special attention in path–goal
research through studies of a personality construct locus of control that can be
subdivided into internal and external dimensions. Followers with an internal
locus of control believe that they are in charge of the events that occur in their
life, whereas those with an external locus of control believe that chance, fate,
or outside forces determine life events. Path–goal theory suggests that for
followers with an internal locus of control participative leadership is most
satisfying because it allows them to feel in charge of their work and to be an
integral part of decision making. For followers with an external locus of
control, path–goal theory suggests that directive leadership is best because it
parallels followers’ feelings that outside forces control their circumstances.
Another way in which leadership affects follower motivation is the
followers’ perceptions of their own abilities to perform a specific task. As
followers’ percep-tions of their abilities and competence goes up, the need
for directive leader-ship goes down. In effect, directive leadership
becomes redundant and perhaps excessively controlling when followers
feel competent to complete their own work.
Task Characteristics
In addition to follower characteristics, task characteristics also have a major
impact on the way a leader’s behavior influences followers’ motivation (see
Figure 6.2). Task characteristics include the design of the follower’s task, the
formal authority system of the organization, and the primary work group of
followers. Collectively, these characteristics in themselves can provide moti-
vation for followers. When a situation provides a clearly structured task,
strong group norms, and an established authority system, followers will find
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120 Leadership Theory and Practice
the paths to desired goals apparent and will not need a leader to clarify
goals or coach them in how to reach these goals. Followers will feel as if
they can accomplish their work and that their work is of value. Leadership
in these types of contexts could be seen as unnecessary, unempathic, and
excessively controlling.
In some situations, however, the task characteristics may call for leadership
involvement. Tasks that are unclear and ambiguous call for leadership input
that provides structure. In addition, highly repetitive tasks call for leadership
that gives support in order to maintain followers’ motivation. In work set-tings
where the formal authority system is weak, leadership becomes a tool that
helps followers by making the rules and work requirements clear. In contexts
where the group norms are weak or nonsupportive, leadership assists in
building cohesiveness and role responsibility.
A special focus of path–goal theory is helping followers overcome
obstacles. Obstacles could be just about anything in the work setting that
gets in the way of followers. Specifically, obstacles create excessive
uncertainties, frus-trations, or threats for followers. In these settings, path–
goal theory suggests that it is the leader’s responsibility to help followers
by removing these obstacles or helping them around them. Helping
followers around these obstacles will increase followers’ expectations that
they can complete the task and increase their sense of job satisfaction.
In 1996, House published a reformulated path–goal theory that extends his
original work to include eight classes of leadership behaviors. Besides the four
leadership behaviors discussed previously in this chapter—(a) directive,
(b) supportive, (c) participative, and (d) achievement-oriented behavior—the
new theory adds (e) work facilitation, (f ) group-oriented decision process,
(g) work-group representation and networking, and (h) value-based leader-
ship behavior. The essence of the new theory is the same as the original:
To be effective, leaders need to help followers by giving them what is
missing in their environment and by helping them compensate for
deficiencies in their abilities.
How Does Path–Goal Theory Work?
Path–goal theory is an approach to leadership that is not only theoretically
complex, but also pragmatic. In theory, it provides a set of assumptions about
how various leadership styles interact with characteristics of followers and the
work setting to affect the motivation of followers. In practice, the theory
Motivation in Work Settings Role-Play Exercise
Chapter 6 Path–Goal Theory 121
provides direction about how leaders can help followers to accomplish their
work in a satisfactory manner. Table 6.1 illustrates how leadership behaviors
are related to follower and task characteristics in path–goal theory.
Table 6.1 Path–Goal Theory: How It Works
Follower
Leadership Behavior Characteristics Task Characteristics
Directive Dogmatic Ambiguous
Provides guidance and Authoritarian Unclear rules
psychological structure Complex
Supportive Unsatisfied Repetitive
Provides nurturance Need affiliation Unchallenging
Need human touch Mundane
Participative Autonomous Ambiguous
Provides involvement Need for control Unclear
Need for clarity Unstructured
Achievement Oriented High expectations Ambiguous
Provides challenges Need to excel Challenging
Complex
Theoretically, the path–goal approach suggests that leaders need to choose
a leadership style that best fits the needs of followers and the work they
are doing. The theory predicts that a directive style of leadership is best in
situations in which followers are dogmatic and authoritarian, the task
demands are ambiguous, the organizational rules are unclear, and the task
is complex. In these situations, directive leadership complements the work
by providing guidance and psychological structure for followers (House &
Mitchell, 1974, p. 90).
For tasks that are structured, unsatisfying, or frustrating, path–goal theory
suggests that leaders should use a supportive style. The supportive style pro-
vides what is missing by nurturing followers when they are engaged in tasks
that are repetitive and unchallenging. Supportive leadership offers a sense of
human touch for followers engaged in mundane, mechanized activity.
Participative leadership is considered best when a task is ambiguous:
Participation gives greater clarity to how certain paths lead to certain goals,
and helps followers learn what leads to what (House & Mitchell, 1974, p. 92).
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122 Leadership Theory and Practice
In addition, participative leadership has a positive impact when followers are
autonomous and have a strong need for control because this kind of follower
responds favorably to being involved in decision making and in the structuring of
work.
Furthermore, path–goal theory predicts that achievement-oriented leader-ship is
most effective in settings in which followers are required to perform ambiguous
tasks. In settings such as these, leaders who challenge and set high standards for
followers raise followers’ confidence that they have the ability to reach their goals.
In effect, achievement-oriented leadership helps followers feel that their efforts
will result in effective performance. In set-tings where the task is more structured
and less ambiguous, however, achievement-oriented leadership appears to be
unrelated to followers’ expec-tations about their work efforts.
Pragmatically, path–goal theory is straightforward. An effective leader has to
attend to the needs of followers. The leader should help followers to define their
goals and the paths they want to take in reaching those goals. When obstacles
arise, the leader needs to help followers confront them. This may mean helping the
follower around the obstacle, or it may mean remov-ing the obstacle. The leader’s
job is to help followers reach their goals by directing, guiding, and coaching them
along the way.
Summary
Path–goal theory was developed to explain how leaders motivate followers to be
productive and satisfied with their work. It is a contingency approach to leadership
because effectiveness depends on the fit between the leader’s behavior and the
characteristics of followers and the task.
The basic principles of path–goal theory are derived from expectancy theory,
which suggests that followers will be motivated if they feel competent, if they
think their efforts will be rewarded, and if they find the payoff for their work
valuable. A leader can help followers by selecting a style of leadership (directive,
supportive, participative, or achievement oriented) that provides what is missing
for followers in a particular work setting. In simple terms, it is the leader’s
responsibility to help followers reach their goals by directing, guiding, and
coaching them along the way.
Path–goal theory offers a large set of predictions for how a leader’s style interacts with
followers’ needs and the nature of the task. Among other things, it predicts that
directive leadership is effective with ambiguous tasks, that supportive leadership is
effective for repetitive tasks, that participative leadership is effective when tasks are
unclear and followers are autonomous, and that achievement-oriented leadership is
effective for challenging tasks.
Path–goal theory has three major strengths. First, it provides a theoretical
framework that is useful for understanding how directive, supportive, par-
ticipative, and achievement-oriented styles of leadership affect the produc-tivity
and satisfaction of followers. Second, path–goal theory is unique in that it
integrates the motivation principles of expectancy theory into a the-ory of
leadership. Third, it provides a practical model that underscores the important
ways in which leaders help followers.
On the negative side, four criticisms can be leveled at path–goal theory. First, the
scope of path–goal theory encompasses so many interrelated sets of assumptions
that it is hard to use this theory in a given organizational set-ting. Second, research
findings to date do not support a full and consistent picture of the claims of the
theory. Furthermore, path–goal theory does not show in a clear way how leader
behaviors directly affect follower motivation levels. Last, path–goal theory is very
leader oriented and fails to recognize the interactional nature of leadership. It does
not promote follower involvement in the leadership process.
