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LT. COL. JEFF COOPER (USMC)
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SAFETY
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DEFINITION
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Firearm refers to any handheld or portable weapon,
whether a small arm or light weapon, that expels or is
designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, mIssile or any
projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive
force of gases from burning gunpowder or other form
of combustion or any sinIilar instrument or implement.
For purposes of this Act, the barrel, frame or receiver
is considered a firearm.
Article 1, Section 3 RA 10591
HISTORY
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Handgun Examples
• Revolver: A firearm designed to be fired from
the hand and having a rifled barrel and a
revolving cylinder containing several chambers
each of which holds one cartridge.
• Auto-loading pistol: A firearm designed to be
fired from the hand and having a rifled barrel
and a removable magazine storing cartridges
with a mechanism for auto-loading.
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Shotgun
• Definition: A firearm with a smooth bored barrel
designed to fire multiple pellets simultaneously
and to be fired from the shoulder.
• Types:
– Single shot
– Over and under
– Double barrel
– Bolt action
– Lever action
– Pump action
– Auto-loading
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Rifle
• Definition: A firearm with a rifled barrel
designed to be fired from the shoulder.
• Types:
– Single shot
– Lever action
– Bolt action
– Pump action
– Auto-loading (erroneously called "automatic rifles“
or “assault rifles”)
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Machine Gun / Submachine Gun
• A firearm with a rifled barrel firing rifle
ammunition and capable of fully automatic
fire.
• Submachine guns function identically but fire
pistol rounds and are more portable.
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PARTS OF A MAGAZINE
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What is Caliber?
• Caliber (or calibre) is the internal diameter
of the firearm’s barrel, or the diameter of the
projectile it fires.
– A small bore rifle with a diameter of
0.22 inches is a .22 caliber
– Some bullets have a metric caliber rather
than an inch caliber, such as the 10 mm
caliber.
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WHAT IS A CALIBER?
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Common Calibers
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Bullet Velocity
Low Velocity Bullets
Bullets nominally rated for 800 to 1600 feet per second muzzle
velocities, such as 22 LR, most pistols, and older rifle cartridges, must
follow a rather high arc in order to reach a target 100 yards away.
Slower cartridges are generally only useful to about 50-75 yards.
High Velocity Bullets
Bullets at 2600 fps and up, such as:
.223 22-250
.243/6mm .270
.308 30-06
These follow a much lower arc to reach a target, and their useful range
can be upward of 200 yards. These are often referred to as "flatter"
trajectories. With higher velocities, these bullets go much further
before gravity and air resistance cause them to fall below the initial line
of sight.
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Bullet Trajectory
• Ballistics is the scientific discipline that deals
with the flight, behavior, and effects of
projectiles, especially bullets.
• Bullet trajectory can be calculated when there is
an entrance and exit mark in a wall or body.
• If you have these marks or one mark and the
trajectory, you can calculate the missing data:
– Angle of impact.
– Height of shooter.
– Distance from point of impact.
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Bullet Trajectory
• Bullet trajectory is important for
reconstruction of the crime.
• For a high powered rifle with high velocity
ammunition, the bullet can travel over a mile.
The trajectory can identify the location of the
shooter.
AMMUNITION
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Small Arms Ammunition
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CARTRIDGE OR AMMUNITION
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RIFLE AND PISTOL AMMUNITION
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Cartridge Case
Function:
Expands and seals chamber against
rearward escape of gases.
Composition:
Usually brass (70% copper 30% zinc);
Also plastic and paper in shotgun shell
tubes.
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Cartridge Case
Shape:
• straight (pistol ammunition) •
bottleneck (rifle ammunition)
Extractor flange:
The configuration of the cartidge base;
rimmed, semi-rimmed, rimless, belted,
rebated
Headstamp:
Manufacturer’s identification imprinted or
embossed on cartridge case
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Bullet
Function: The part of the cartridge which
exits the muzzle and strikes the target.
Composition:
• Lead alloyed with tin and/or antimony
with/without copper or copper alloy "gilding"
(less than 0.0002 inches thick).
• Metal jacketed with lead or steel core and
jacket of copper-zinc, copper-nickel or
aluminum (0.0165 to 0.03 inches thick).
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Bullet
Shapes:
• Lead bullets - roundnose, wadcutter, semi-
wadcutter, hollowpoint; generally all have
cannelures or grooves.
• Metal-jacketed -
1. full jacketing in military ammunition
2. partial jacketing in hunting rifle and semi-
automatic pistol ammunition: semijacketed
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soft point, semi-jacketed hollow point, silver-
tip (aluminum).
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Bullet
Uses:
• Lead bullets - traditionally only for revolvers
and .22 caliber rimfire ammunition; copper
gilding in .22 caliber high-velocity rimfire
ammunition.
• Metal-jacketed bullets - traditionally for semi-
automatic pistols and high velocity rifles.
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Primer
Function:
Explodes on compression, igniting the
propellant.
Composition:
• Commonly lead styphnate, barium nitrate,
antimony sulphide.
• Typically centerfire ammunition contains all 3
elements (lead, barium antimony) but rimfire
ammunition sometimes contains only lead or
lead and barium.
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• Considered in elemental trace tests to
determine if a person fired a weapon.
Primer
Location:
• Centerfire - centrally-placed primer assembly
comprising primer cup (struck by firing pin),
primer, anvil with flash holes.
• Rimfire - No primer assembly. Primer spun
into rim of cartridge case (rim struck by firing
pin) and in contact with propellant.
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Propellant
Function:
• Burns to produce large volumes of gases under
pressure.
Composition:
• Black powder (charcoal, sulphur, potassium
nitrate), now obsolete. Smokeless powder
(nitrocellulose with/without nitroglycerine) is most
common in modern rounds.
Shape:
• Sheets of smokeless powder cut into disc, flake or
cylinder shapes. Alternatively produced as ball and
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flattened ball smokeless powder (as in Winchester
brand propellants) which may be coated with silver-
black graphite.
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Cartridge Cases
• Cartridge case or shotshell casing examinations
can determine the caliber or gauge, the
manufacturer, and whether there are any marks
that may be of value for comparison.
• The microscopic characteristics of evidence
cartridge cases and shot shell casings can be
examined to determine whether they were fired
in a specific firearm.
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Cartridge Cases
• Examinations of unfired cartridges or shot shells
can determine the caliber or gauge and whether
there are marks of value for comparison.
• Examinations can also determine whether the
ammunition was loaded into and extracted from
a specific firearm.
• Unfired and fired cartridges or shot shells can
be associated through manufacturing marks.
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Rifling
Rifling is a helical
machined surface inside
the barrel that has unique
microscopic
characteristics as a result
of the manufacturing
process.
Rifles and handguns (but
not shotguns) have rifled
barrels.
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Rifling
• The raised metal between the grooves is
the lands. In the US, caliber is measured
between opposing grooves. Elsewhere, it is
measured between opposing lands.
• Some markings have "class
characteristics" indicative of the make
and model of the firearm.
• Other markings have "individual
characteristics" which reflect imperfections
peculiar to a particular firearm and may
allow its specific identification.
Bullet Striations
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• Also known as tool marking; when a hard object is
brought into forceful contact with a softer object, the
softer object will be marked.
• This is what happens when a soft bullet engages the
hard rifling in the interior of a barrel.
• Bullet jackets are typically made of some softer metal
such as a lead or copper while rifle barrels are
commonly steel.
Bullet Striations
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Bullet Striations
• Studies have shown that no two firearms,
even those of the same make and model,
will produce the same unique marks on
fired bullets and cartridge cases.
• Manufacturing processes, use, and abuse
leave surface characteristics within the
firearm that cannot be exactly reproduced
in other firearms.
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Bullet Striations
• Firearms do not normally change much
over time.
• This allows for firearms recovered months
or even years after a shooting to be
identified as having fired a specific bullet or
cartridge case.
• Tests have been conducted that found
even after firing several hundred rounds
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Bullet Striations
through a firearm, the last bullet fired could
still be connected to the first.
• Fired bullets can be examined to determine
the general rifling characteristics such as
caliber and physical features of the rifling
impressions and the manufacturer of the
bullets.
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Bullet Striations
• The microscopic characteristics on
evidence bullets can be compared to
testfired bullets from a suspect firearm to
determine whether the evidence bullet was
fired from that firearm.
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Bullet Identification Characteristics
• Number of lands and grooves (usually
4 to 6 but range from 2 to 22).
• Diameter of lands and
grooves.
• Width of lands and grooves.
• Depth of grooves.
• Degree of twist (twist is the
number of inches of bore
required for one complete
rifling spiral).
• Direction of rifling twist
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(commonly right/clockwise, less
commonly left/counterclockwise
e.g. Colt).
Pattern Matching
• The process of determining whether or not
the striated toolmarks on two objects, such
as fired bullets, correspond.
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• This is a somewhat subjective process
based on the observations and experience of
the examiner.
Glock Rifling is an
Exception
• Some weapons (e.g. Glock pistols)
do not make usable striation pattern
on fired bullets because they use
polygonal rifling instead of
conventional rifling.
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• One group of eight consecutive matching striae in
agreement would be considered a matching
evidence toolmark from this type of rifling.
Caliber Determination
• If the bullet is not deformed, its diameter can be
measured with a micrometer.
• Lead and lead‐ alloy bullets are larger in diameter than
full metal jacket or semi‐ jacketed bullets of the same
nominal caliber.
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• If the bullet is severely deformed, its possible caliber(s)
may be determined by weighing it.
• The weight of the bullet will rarely pinpoint its caliber
but will serve to eliminate a number of calibers. For
example, a 72‐ grain bullet may be .32 caliber but it
cannot be .22 caliber.
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Determining Class Characteristics
Class characteristics of firearms can also be
determined from
expended cartridges:
ejector mark
– Caliber
– Shape of firing chamber
– Location of the firing pin
– Size of extractors and
ejectors (if any)
– Size and shape of the firing
pin
– Geometrical
relationship of the firing pin mark
extractor and ejector
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Determining Class Characteristics
• Care should be exercised in inferring the general
class characteristic of a weapon.
– A shotgun can be converted into a rifle
– Sub‐ caliber cartridges can be wrapped so they fit in
larger barrels
• Determine if the weapon’s class characteristics are
consistent with those found on the fired bullets or
cartridges.
• The weapon must be test fired to obtain bullets and
cartridges for comparative microscopic examination
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IF it operates properly and if the weapon can be
safely fired.
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Other Firearms Evidence
• Fingerprints may be found on casings but usable prints are
rarely found on the firearm.
• Obliterated and/or altered firearm serial numbers can
sometimes be restored.
• Firearms can be test fired to obtain known specimens for
comparison to evidence ammunition components such as
bullets, cartridge cases, and shotshell casings.
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Other Firearms Evidence
• Firearms examinations can determine the
general condition of a firearm and whether the
firearm is mechanically functional.
• Trigger-pull examinations can determine the
amount of pressure necessary to release the
hammer or firing pin of a firearm.
• Examinations can determine whether a firearm
was altered to fire in the fullautomatic mode.
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Other Firearms Evidence
• Shot Pellets, Buckshot, or Slugs
– Examinations of shot pellets, buckshot, or
slugs can determine the size of the shot, the
gauge of the slug, and the manufacturer.
• Wadding
– Examinations of wadding components can
determine the gauge and the manufacturer.
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Other Firearms Evidence
• Shot pattern examinations can determine the approximate
distance at which a shotgun was fired by testing a specific
firearm and ammunition combination at known distances.
• Silencers are muzzle attachments can reduce the noise of
a firearm by suppressing sound during firing. Testing can
determine whether a muzzle attachment can be classified
as a silencer based upon a measurable sound-reduction
capability.
• Gun Parts examinations can determine the caliber and
model of gun from which the parts originated.
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