Coffee

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This article is about the beverage. For the bean it is made from, see Coffee bean. For other
uses, see Coffee (disambiguation).

Coffee

A cup of black coffee

Type Hot or cold beverage

Country of origin Ethiopia

Introduced Approx. 15th century (beverage)

Color Dark brown, beige, black, light brown

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted seeds, called coffee beans, of the coffee plant.
They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries, cultivated primarily
in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Green unroasted coffee is one of the most
traded agricultural commodities in the world.[1] Coffee can have a stimulating effect on
humans due to its caffeine content. Coffee is the third most popular drink in the world behind
water and tea.[2]

Coffee has played a crucial role in many societies. The energizing effect of the coffee bean
plant is thought to have been discovered in the northeast region of Ethiopia, and the
cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab world.[3] The earliest credible evidence of
coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen in
southern Arabia.[3] From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe,
to Indonesia, and to the Americas.[4] In East Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious
ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption, a ban in effect
until the reign of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.[5] It was banned in Ottoman Turkey during
the 17th century for political reasons,[6] and was associated with rebellious political activities
in Europe.

Coffee berries, which contain the coffee seed, or "bean", are produced by several species of
small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown are the highly
regarded Coffea arabica, and the 'robusta' form of the hardier Coffea canephora. The latter is
resistant to the devastating coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix). Once ripe, coffee berries are
picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the
desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and
presented in a variety of ways.

An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in
2004,[7] and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005.[8]
Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment.
Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain health
conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are ultimately positive or negative has been
widely disputed.[9] The method of brewing coffee has been found to be important to its health
effects.[10]

Contents
[hide]

 1 Etymology
 2 Biology
 3 Cultivation
o 3.1 Production
o 3.2 Ecological effects
 4 Processing
o 4.1 Roasting
 4.1.1 Preparing green coffee
 4.1.2 The roasting process
 4.1.3 Grading the roasted beans
 4.1.4 Roast characteristics
 4.1.5 Decaffeination
o 4.2 Storage
o 4.3 Preparation
o 4.4 Presentation
 5 Sale and distribution
o 5.1 Commodity
o 5.2 Fair trade
 6 Health and pharmacology
o 6.1 Caffeine and headaches
o 6.2 Caffeine content
 7 History
 8 Social and culture
o 8.1 Coffeehouses
o 8.2 Prohibition
 o 8.3 Folklore and culture
 9 See also
 10 Notes
o 10.1 Footnotes
o 10.2 Citations
 11 References
 12 External links

[edit] Etymology

Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seeds

The first reference to "coffee" in the English language, in the form chaoua, dates to 1598. In
English and other European languages, coffee derives from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, via
the Italian caffè. The Turkish word in turn was borrowed from the Arabic: ‫قهوة‬, qahwah.
Arab lexicographers maintain that qahwah originally referred to a type of wine, and gave its
etymology, in turn, to the verb qahiya, signifying "to have no appetite",[11] since this beverage
was thought to dull one's hunger. Several alternative etymologies exist that hold that the Arab
form may disguise a loanword from an Ethiopian or African source, suggesting Kaffa, the
highland in southwestern Ethiopia as one, since the plant is indigenous to that area.[11][12]
However, the term used in that region for the berry and plant is bunn, the native name in Shoa
being būn.'[11]

[edit] Biology
Main articles: Coffea and coffee varieties

Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is
extracted. The two main species commercially cultivated are Coffea canephora
(predominantly a form known as 'robusta') and C.  arabica.[13] C. arabica, the original and
most highly regarded species, is native to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and the
Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan and possibly Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya.[14] C.
canephora is native to western and central subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to the Uganda and
southern Sudan.[15] Less popular species are C.  liberica, excelsa, stenophylla, mauritiana, and
racemosa.

All coffee plants are classified in the large family Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or
small trees that may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and
glossy, usually 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide. The flowers are axillary, and
clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of
about 1.5 cm (0.6 in).[16] Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before
turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries[17]
have only one; these are called peaberries.[18] Berries ripen in seven to nine months.

Coffea arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, and as a result the seedlings are generally
uniform and vary little from their parents. In contrast, Coffea canephora, C. excelsa and C.
liberica are self-incompatible and require outcrossing. This means that useful forms and
hybrids must be propagated vegetatively.[19] Cuttings, grafting, and budding are the usual
methods of vegetative propagation.[20] On the other hand, there is great scope for
experimentation in search of potential new strains.[19]

[edit] Cultivation

Map showing areas of coffee cultivation:

r:Coffea canephora
m:Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica
a:Coffea arabica

Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put
20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. A
more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries that
are then planted outside at six to twelve months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops,
such as corn, beans, or rice during the first few years of cultivation.[16]

Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generally more highly
regarded than robusta coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less
flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated
worldwide is C. arabica.[13] Robusta strains also contain about 40–50% more caffeine than
arabica.[21] For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many
commercial coffee blends. Good quality robusta beans are used in some espresso blends to
provide a full-bodied taste, a better foam head (known as crema), and to lower the ingredient
cost.[22]

However, Coffea canephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be
cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where C. arabica will not thrive. The
robusta strain was first collected in 1890 from the Lomani, a tributary of the Congo River, and
was conveyed from Zaire to Brussels to Java around 1900. From Java, further breeding
resulted in the establishment of robusta plantations in many countries.[23] In particular, the
spread of the devastating coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix), to which C. arabica is
vulnerable, hastened the uptake of the resistant robusta. Coffee leaf rust is found in virtually
all countries that produce coffee.[24]

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worldwide. Of these,
over a third are beetles, and over a quarter are bugs. Some 20 species of nematodes, 9 species
of mites, several snails and slugs also attack the crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee
berries but their impact is minor compared to invertebrates.[25] In general, arabica is the more
sensitive species to invertebrate predation overall. Each part of the coffee plant is assailed by
different animals. Nematodes attack the roots, and borer beetles burrow into stems and woody
material,[26] the foliage is attacked by over 100 species of larvae (caterpillars) of butterflies
and moths.[27]

Mass spraying of insecticides has often proven disastrous, as the predators of the pests are
more sensitive than the pests themselves.[28] Instead, integrated pest management has
developed, using techniques such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks, and managing crop
environment away from conditions favouring pests. Branches infested with scale are often cut
and left on the ground, which promotes scale parasites to not only attack the scale on the
fallen branches but in the plant as well.[29]

[edit] Production

2007 Top twenty green coffee producers

Rank Country Tonnes[30] Bags (thousands)[31]
1  Brazil 2,249,010 36,070
2  Vietnam 961,200 16,467
3  Colombia 697,377 12,504
4  Indonesia 676,475 7,751
5  Ethiopia[note 1] 325,800 4,906
6  India 288,000 4,148
7  Mexico 268,565 4,150
[note 1]
8  Guatemala 252,000 4,100
9  Peru 225,992 2,953
10  Honduras 217,951 3,842
11  Côte d'Ivoire 170,849 2,150
12  Uganda 168,000 3,250
13  Costa Rica 124,055 1,791
14  Philippines 97,877 431
15  El Salvador 95,456 1,626
16  Nicaragua 90,909 1,700
17  Papua New Guinea[note 1] 75,400 968
18  Venezuela 70,311 897
[note 2]
19  Madagascar 62,000 604
20  Thailand 55,660 653
[note 3]
  World 7,742,675 117,319

In 2009 Brazil was the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by Vietnam,
Indonesia and Colombia.[32] Arabica coffee beans are cultivated in Latin America, eastern
Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and central Africa,
throughout southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil.[13]

Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in

flavor, aroma, body, and acidity.[33] These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the
coffee's growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing.[34] Varietals
are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as Colombian, Java and
Kona.

[edit] Ecological effects

A flowering Coffea arabica tree in a Brazilian plantation

Main article: Coffee and the environment

Originally, coffee farming was done in the shade of trees that provided a habitat for many
animals and insects.[35] Remnant forest trees were used for this purpose, but many species
have been planted as well. These include leguminous trees of the genera Acacia, Albizia,
Cassia, Erythrina, Gliricidia, Inga, and Leucaena, as well as the nitrogen-fixing non-legume
sheoaks of the genus Casuarina, and the silky oak Grevillea robusta.[36]

This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or "shade-grown".

Starting in the 1970s, many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in
which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes
berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of
trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause
health problems.[37]

Ultimately, unshaded coffee enhanced by fertilizer use yields the highest amounts of coffee,
although unfertilized shaded crops generally yield higher than unfertilized unshaded crops—
namely the response to fertilizer is much greater in full sun.[38] Although traditional coffee
production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, the quality of the
coffee is allegedly superior.[39] In addition, the traditional shaded method provides living space
for many wildlife species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as
deforestation, pesticide pollution, habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the
side effects of these practices.[35]

The American Birding Association, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center,[40] National Arbor
Day Foundation,[41] and the Rainforest Alliance have led a campaign for "shade-grown" and
organic coffees, which can be sustainably harvested.[42] However, while certain types of
shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, those more
distant from continuous forest still compare rather poorly to undisturbed native forest in terms
of habitat value for some bird species.[43][44]

Another issue concerning coffee is its use of water. According to New Scientist, using
industrial farming practices, it takes about 140 liters (37 U.S. gal) of water to grow the coffee
beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where
there is a water shortage, such as Ethiopia.[45] By using sustainable agriculture methods, the
amount of water usage can be dramatically reduced, while retaining comparable yields. For
comparison, the United States Geological Survey reports that one egg requires an input of
454 liters (120 U.S. gal) of water; one serving of milk requires an input of 246 liters (65 U.S.
gal) of water; one serving of rice requires an input of 132 liters (35 U.S. gal) of water; and one
glass of wine requires an input of 120 liters (32 U.S. gal) of water.[46]

Coffee grounds may be used for composting or as a mulch. They are especially appreciated by
worms and acid-loving plants such as blueberries.[47] Some commercial coffee shops run
initiatives to make better use of these grounds, including Starbucks' "Grounds for your
Garden" project,[48] and community sponsored initiatives such as "Ground to Ground".[49]

[edit] Processing
[edit] Roasting

Main articles: Coffee processing and Coffee roasting

Coffee sorting in Dutch East Indies.

[edit] Preparing green coffee

Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar
roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by hand; a labor intensive
method, it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly,
crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by
person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two methods—the dry
process method, simpler and less labor intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and the
wet process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and yields a mild
coffee.[50]

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by
machine, and the seeds—usually called beans—are fermented to remove the slimy layer of
mucilage still present on the bean. When the fermentation is finished, the beans are washed
with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates
massive amounts of coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried. The best (but least used)
method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and fermented
coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee,
and then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more
uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and
certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method. Next, the
coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the coffee beans dry is to let
them sit on a concrete patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use cylinders
to pump in heated air to dry the coffee beans, though this is generally in places where the
humidity is very high.[51]

[edit] The roasting process

Roasted coffee beans

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a
roasted state, and with rare exceptions all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be
sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted.[52] The roasting process influences the
taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean
decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less
dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for
packaging.

The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches approximately
200 °C (392 °F), though different varieties of beans differ in moisture and density and
therefore roast at different rates.[53] During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat
breaks down starches in the bean, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown,
changing the color of the bean.[54] Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may
disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing
the flavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), other oils start to develop.[53] One of these oils is caffeol,
created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.[55]
[edit] Grading the roasted beans

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be
labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate
method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted
beans illuminated with a light source in the near infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter
uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the
roasted coffee's relative degree of roast or flavor development.

[edit] Roast characteristics

Darker roasts are generally bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary
flavor. Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor from
aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.[56] A small amount of
chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the bean after processing.[57] Chaff is
usually removed from the beans by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark
roast coffees to soak up oils on the beans.[53]

[edit] Decaffeination

Preparing green coffee

Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar
roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionally selectively picked by hand; a labor intensive
method, it involves the selection of only the berries at the peak of ripeness. More commonly,
crops are strip picked, where all berries are harvested simultaneously regardless of ripeness by
person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two methods—the dry
process method, simpler and less labor intensive as the berries can be strip picked, and the
wet process method, which incorporates fermentation into the process and yields a mild
coffee.[50]

Then they are sorted by ripeness and color and the flesh of the berry is removed, usually by
machine, and the seeds—usually called beans—are fermented to remove the slimy layer of
mucilage still present on the bean. When the fermentation is finished, the beans are washed
with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which generates
massive amounts of coffee wastewater. Finally, the seeds are dried. The best (but least used)
method of drying coffee is using drying tables. In this method, the pulped and fermented
coffee is spread thinly on raised beds, which allows the air to pass on all sides of the coffee,
and then the coffee is mixed by hand. In this method the drying that takes place is more
uniform, and fermentation is less likely. Most African coffee is dried in this manner and
certain coffee farms around the world are starting to use this traditional method. Next, the
coffee is sorted, and labeled as green coffee. Another way to let the coffee beans dry is to let
them sit on a concrete patio and rake over them in the sunlight. Some companies use cylinders
to pump in heated air to dry the coffee beans, though this is generally in places where the
humidity is very high.[51]

[edit] The roasting process

Roasted coffee beans

The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a
roasted state, and with rare exceptions all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be
sold roasted by the supplier, or it can be home roasted.[52] The roasting process influences the
taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean
decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less
dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for
packaging.

The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches approximately
200 °C (392 °F), though different varieties of beans differ in moisture and density and
therefore roast at different rates.[53] During roasting, caramelization occurs as intense heat
breaks down starches in the bean, changing them to simple sugars that begin to brown,
changing the color of the bean.[54] Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may
disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils and acids weaken, changing
the flavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), other oils start to develop.[53] One of these oils is caffeol,
created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.[55]

[edit] Grading the roasted beans

Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be
labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate
method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted
beans illuminated with a light source in the near infrared spectrum. This elaborate light meter
uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number that consistently indicates the
roasted coffee's relative degree of roast or flavor development.

[edit] Roast characteristics

Darker roasts are generally bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary
flavor. Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor from
aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.[56] A small amount of
chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the bean after processing.[57] Chaff is
usually removed from the beans by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark
roast coffees to soak up oils on the beans.[53]

[edit] Decaffeination

Decaffeination may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are
decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but
all involve either soaking the green beans in hot water (often wrongly called the "Swiss
water" process) or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils.[55]
Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually
sold to the pharmaceutical industry.[55]

[edit] Storage

Once roasted, coffee beans must be stored properly to preserve the fresh taste of the bean.
Ideally, the container must be airtight and kept in a cool, dry and dark place. In order of
importance: air, moisture, heat, and light are the environmental factors[58] responsible for
deteriorating flavor in coffee beans.

Folded-over bags, a common way consumers often purchase coffee, are generally not ideal for
long-term storage because they allow air to enter. A better package contains a one-way valve,
which prevents air from entering.[58]

In 1931, a method of vacuum packed cans of coffee was introduced, in which the roasted
coffee was packed, ninety-nine percent of the air was removed and the coffee in the can could
be stored indefinitely until the can was opened. Today this method is in mass use for coffee in
a large part of the world.[59]

[edit] Preparation

For more details on this topic, see Coffee preparation.

Espresso brewing, with dark reddish-brown crema

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. Almost all methods of
preparing coffee require the beans to be ground and mixed with hot water for long enough to
extract the flavor, but without boiling for more than an instant; boiling develops an unpleasant
"cooked" flavor caused by overextraction from the beans that draws out unnecessary bitter
compounds. Finally, the spent grounds are removed from the liquid, and the liquid is
consumed. There are many variations in the fineness of grind, the ways in which the water
extracts the flavor, additional flavorings (sugar, milk, spices), and the removal of the spent
grounds. The ideal holding temperature is 79 to 85 °C (174 to 185 °F) and the ideal serving
temperature is 68 to 79 °C (154 to 174 °F)[citation needed].

The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy.

The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. Most
coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee
beans can be ground at home immediately before consumption. It is also possible, though
uncommon, to roast raw beans at home.

Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr mill uses revolving elements to shear the
bean; an electric grinder smashes the beans with blunt blades moving at high speed; and a
mortar and pestle crushes the beans. For most brewing methods, a burr mill is deemed
superior because the grind is more even and the grind size can be adjusted.

The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used.
Turkish grind is the finest grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest
grinds. The most common grinds are between the extremes; a medium grind is used in most
common home coffee-brewing machines.[60]

Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressured.

Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this
method.[61] It is prepared by grinding or pounding the beans to a fine powder, then adding it to
water and bringing it to the boil for no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in
Greek, a bríki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment
(which is not meant for drinking) settling on the bottom of the cup.[61]

Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic
coffeemaker hot water drips onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter made of paper, plastic,
or perforated metal, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its
oils and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and
the spent grounds are retained in the filter.[62] In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a
chamber above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the
grounds, and the process is repeated until terminated by removing from the heat, by an
internal timer,[62] or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a
certain temperature.

Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a
cafetière or coffee press). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel
and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a
plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. Because the
coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the beverage,
making it stronger and leaving more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee
machine.[63] The coffee is poured from the container; the filter retains the grounds at the
bottom. 95% of the caffeine is released from the coffee beans within the first minute of
brewing.

The espresso method forces hot pressurized and vaporized water through ground coffee. As a
result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is
more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the quantity of coffee to water as gravity-
brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution.[64]
A well-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.[60]
Other pressurized water methods include the moka pot and vacuum coffee maker.
Coffee may also be brewed in cold water, resulting in a brew lower in acidity than most hot-
brewing methods produce, by steeping the coarsely ground beans in cold water for several
hours, then filtering them.[65]

[edit] Presentation

See also: List of coffee beverages

Presentation can be an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the common fern
design layered into this latte.

Coffee in Syria

Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or

French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served with a dairy product such as milk or cream, or
dairy substitute (colloquially known as white coffee), or not (black coffee). It may be
sweetened with sugar or artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.

Espresso-based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, it is
served alone as a shot or in the more watered-down style Caffè Americano—a shot or two of
espresso with hot water added. Reversing the process by adding espresso to hot water
preserves the crema, and is known as a long black.[66] Milk can be added in various forms to
espresso: steamed milk makes a caffè latte,[67] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a
cappuccino,[66] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato.[68] The use of
steamed milk to form patterns such as hearts or maple leaves is referred to as latte art.

A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare
their own coffee.
Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can be quickly
dissolved in hot water.[69] Originally invented in 1907,[70] it rapidly gained in popularity in
many countries in the post-war period, with Nescafé the most popular product.[71] Many
consumers determined that the convenience in preparing a cup of instant coffee more than
made up for a perceived inferior taste.[72] Paralleling (and complementing) the rapid rise of
instant coffee was the coffee vending machine, invented in 1947 and multiplying rapidly
through the 1950s.[73]

Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in China,
Japan, and South Korea. Vending machines typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee,
much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience
stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically
lightly sweetened and pre-blended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the
United States.[74] Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional
situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is
described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10¢ a
cup to produce. The machines used can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water
is preheated.[75]

Coffee can also be incorporated with alcohol in beverages—it is combined with whiskey in
Irish coffee, and forms the base of alcoholic coffee liqueurs such as Kahlúa, and Tia Maria.

[edit] Sale and distribution

Brazilian coffee sacks.

Small-sized bag of coffee beans.

Main article: Economics of coffee
See also: List of countries by coffee consumption per capita

Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of tap water in North America and Europe.
[2]
Worldwide, 6.7 million metric tons of coffee were produced annually in 1998–2000, and
the forecast is a rise to seven million metric tons annually by 2010.[76]

Brazil remains the largest coffee exporting nation, but Vietnam tripled its exports between
1995 and 1999, and became a major producer of robusta beans.[77] Indonesia is the third-
largest exporter and the largest producer of washed arabica coffee.

[edit] Commodity

While coffee is not technically a commodity (it is fresh produce; its value is directly affected
by the length of time it is held), coffee is bought and sold by roasters, investors and price
speculators as a tradable commodity. Coffee futures contracts for Grade 3 washed arabicas are
traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange under ticker symbol KC, with contract
deliveries occurring every year in March, May, July, September, and December.[78] Higher
and lower grade arabica coffees are sold through other channels. Futures contracts for robusta
coffee are traded on the London Liffe exchange and, since 2007, on the New York ICE
exchange. Coffee has been described by many, including historian Mark Pendergrast, as the
world's "second most legally traded commodity."[79] However, this claim has been recently
refuted by Pendergrast among others after further research.[80]

[edit] Fair trade

Main article: Fair trade coffee

The concept of fair trade labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest
price, began with the Max Havelaar Foundation's labeling program in the Netherlands. In
2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worldwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991
metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.[81][82] A number
of fair trade impact studies have shown that fair trade coffee has a positive impact on the
communities that grow it. Coffee was incorporated into the fair-trade movement in 1988,
when the Max Havelaar mark was introduced in the Netherlands. The very first fair-trade
coffee was an effort to import a Guatemalan coffee into Europe as "Indio Solidarity Coffee".
[83]

Since the founding of organisations such as the European Fair Trade Association (1987), the
production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown as some local and national coffee
chains started to offer fair trade alternatives.[84][85] For example, in April 2000, after a year-
long campaign by the human rights organization Global Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry
fair-trade coffee in its stores.[86] Since September 2009 all Starbucks Espresso beverages in
UK and Ireland are made with Fairtrade and Shared Planet certified coffee.[87] A 2005 study
done in Belgium concluded that consumers' buying behavior is not consistent with their
positive attitude toward ethical products. On average 46% of European consumers claimed to
be willing to pay substantially more for ethical products, including fair-trade products such as
coffee.[86] The study found that the majority of respondents were unwilling to pay the actual
price premium of 27% for fair trade coffee.[86]
[edit] Health and pharmacology
Main article: Health effects of coffee

Overview of the more common effects of caffeine,[88] a main active component of coffee

Scientific studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and an array of
medical conditions. Findings have been contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific
health benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding the potentially harmful effects
of coffee consumption.[9] Variations in findings, however, can be at least partially resolved by
considering the method of preparation. Coffee prepared using paper filters removes oily
components called diterpenes that are present in unfiltered coffee. Two types of diterpenes are
present in coffee: kahweol and cafestol, both of which have been associated with increased
risk of coronary heart disease via elevation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels in blood.
[89]
Metal filters, on the other hand, do not remove the oily components of coffee.[10]

In addition to differences in methods of preparation, conflicting data regarding serving size

could partially explain differences between beneficial/harmful effects of coffee consumption.

Coffee consumption has been shown to have minimal or no impact, positive or negative, on
cancer development;[90] however, researchers involved in an ongoing 22-year study by the
Harvard School of Public Health state that "the overall balance of risks and benefits [of coffee
consumption] are on the side of benefits."[90] Other studies suggest coffee consumption
reduces the risk of being affected by Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, heart disease,
diabetes mellitus type 2, cirrhosis of the liver,[91] and gout. A longitudinal study in 2009
showed that those who consumed a moderate amount of coffee or tea (3–5 cups per day) at
midlife were less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer's disease in late-life compared
with those who drank little coffee or avoided it altogether.[92] It increases the risk of acid
reflux and associated diseases.[93] Most of coffee's beneficial effects against type 2 diabetes are
not due to its caffeine content, as the positive effects of consumption are greater in those who
drink decaffeinated coffee.[94] The presence of antioxidants in coffee has been shown to
prevent free radicals from causing cell damage.[95] A recent study showed that roast coffee,
high in lipophilic antioxidants and chlorogenic acid lactones, protected primary neuronal cell
cultures against hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death.[96]
In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly broken down by the hepatic microsomal enzymatic
system. The resulting metabolites are mostly paraxanthines—theobromine and theophylline—
and a small amount of unchanged caffeine is excreted by urine. Therefore, the metabolism of
caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver. Elderly individuals with a
depleted enzymatic system do not tolerate coffee with caffeine. They are recommended to
take decaffeinated coffee, and this only if their stomach is healthy, because both decaffeinated
coffee and coffee with caffeine cause heartburn. Moderate amounts of coffee (50–100 mg of
caffeine or 5–10 g of coffee powder a day) are well tolerated by most elderly people.
Excessive amounts of coffee, however, can, in many individuals, cause very unpleasant,
exceptionally even life-threatening adverse effects.[97] The benefits of coffee on abnormal liver
biochemistry, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma have been reported, but there is a lack of
satisfactory explanation. The benefits of coffee on abnormal liver biochemistry, cirrhosis and
hepatocellular carcinoma have been reported, but there is a lack of satisfactory explanation. A
possible opposite, if not antagonistic, role of coffee and Mediterranean Diet with regard to
overweightness and insulin resistance is envisaged in the natural history of NAFLD (Non-
Alcoholic-Fatty-Liver-Disease) .[98] Coffee consumption can lead to iron deficiency anemia in
mothers and infants.[99] Coffee also interferes with the absorption of supplemental iron.[100]
Interference with iron absorption is due to the polyphenols present in coffee. Four major
classes were identified: flavan-3-ols (monomers and procyanidins), hydroxycinnamic acids,
flavonols and anthocyanidins.[101] Although the inhibition of iron absorption can cause an iron
deficiency, iron is considered a carcinogen in relation to the liver. Polyphenols contained in
coffee are therefore associated with decreasing the risk of liver cancer development.[102]

American scientist Yaser Dorri has suggested that the smell of coffee can restore appetite and
refresh olfactory receptors. He suggests that people can regain their appetite after cooking by
smelling coffee beans, and that this method can also be used for research animals.[103]

Over 1,000 chemicals have been reported in roasted coffee; more than half of those tested
(19/28) are rodent carcinogens.[104] Coffee's negative health effects are often blamed on its
caffeine content. Instant coffee has a much greater amount of acrylamide than brewed coffee.
[105]
Research suggests that drinking caffeinated coffee can cause a temporary increase in the
stiffening of arterial walls.[106] Caffeinated coffee is not recommended for everybody. It may
aggravate preexisting conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, migraines,
arrhythmias, and cause sleep disturbances.[107]

Coffee is no longer thought to be a risk factor for coronary heart disease.[108] One study
suggests that it may have a mixed effect on short-term memory, by improving it when the
information to be recalled is related to the current train of thought but making it more difficult
to recall unrelated information.[109] Caffeine has been associated with its ability to act as an
antidepressant. A review by de Paulis and Martin indicated a link between a decrease in
suicide rates and coffee consumption, and suggested that the action of caffeine in blocking the
inhibitory effects of adenosine on dopamine nerves in the brain reduced feelings of
depression.[110] A 1992 study concluded that about 10% of people with a moderate daily intake
(235 mg per day) experienced increased depression and anxiety when caffeine was
withdrawn,[111] but a 2002 review of the literature criticised its methodology and concluded
that "[t]he effects of caffeine withdrawal are still controversial."[112] About 15% of the U.S.
general population report having stopped drinking coffee altogether, citing concern about
health and unpleasant side effects of caffeine.[113]

[edit] Caffeine and headaches

There is some controversy over whether the caffeine in coffee causes headaches or helps
relieve headaches. In a 2000 controlled study by the Diamond Headache Clinic in Chicago,
Illinois, revealed that adults who took ibuprofen, an over the counter pain killer, combined
with caffeine or one cup of coffee had increased effectiveness against tension headaches. The
study did not recommend that the caffeine and ibuprofen combination was effective against
migraine headaches. A Johns Hopkins controlled study has linked drinking coffee with
addictive withdrawal headaches, even with those who drink coffee in moderation. A 2009
Norwegian University of Science and Technology controlled study claims that heavy coffee
drinkers, four cups a day, are more likely to suffer occasional headaches than persons who
have low coffee or caffeine consumption.[114]

[edit] Caffeine content

Caffeine molecule

The stimulant effect of coffee is due to its caffeine content. The caffeine content of a cup of
coffee varies depending mainly on the brewing method, and also on the variety of bean.[115]

According to Bunker and McWilliams (J. Am. Diet. 74:28–32, 1979), coffee has the following
caffeine content:[116]

 brewed: 1 cup (7 oz, 207 ml) = 80–135 mg.

 drip: 1 cup (7 oz, 207 ml) = 115–175 mg.
 espresso: 1 shot (1.5–2 oz, 45–60 ml) = 100 mg

[edit] History

The following text needs to be harmonized with text in History of coffee.

Main article: History of coffee

Over the door of a Leipzig coffeeshop is a sculptural representation of a man in Turkish dress,
receiving a cup of coffee from a boy

Ethiopian ancestors of today's Oromo people were believed to have been the first to recognize
the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant.[3] However, no direct evidence has been found
indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a
stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th century.[3] The story of Kaldi, the 9th-
century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is
probably apocryphal.[3] From Ethiopia, the beverage was introduced into the Arab world
through Egypt and Yemen.[117]

The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree
appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries around Mokha in
Yemen.[3] It was here in Arabia that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed, in a similar
way to how it is now prepared. By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East,
Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. The first coffee smuggled out of the Middle East was by
Sufi Baba Budan from Yemen to India in 1670. Before then, all exported coffee was boiled or
otherwise sterilised. Portraits of Baba Budan depict him as having smuggled seven coffee
beans by strapping them to his chest. The first plants grown from these smuggled seeds were
planted in Mysore.[118] Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and
to the Americas.[4]

In 1583, Leonhard Rauwolf, a German physician, gave this description of coffee after
returning from a ten-year trip to the Near East:

A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses, particularly those of the
stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed
around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a
bush called bunnu.
—Léonard Rauwolf, Reise in die Morgenländer (in German)
Pouring coffee in the Palestinian village Abu Ghosh (Israel)

From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between Venice and North
Africa, Egypt, and the Middle East brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian
port. From Venice, it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely
accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite
appeals to ban the "Muslim drink." The first European coffee house opened in Italy in 1645.[4]
The Dutch were the first to import coffee on a large scale, and they were among the first to
defy the Arab prohibition on the exportation of plants or unroasted seeds when Pieter van den
Broecke smuggled seedlings from Mocha, Yemen, into Europe in 1616.[119] The Dutch later
grew the crop in Java and Ceylon.[55] The first exports of Indonesian coffee from Java to the
Netherlands occurred in 1711.[120] Through the efforts of the British East India Company ,
coffee became popular in England as well. Oxford's Queen's Lane Coffee House, established
in 1654, is still in existence today. Coffee was introduced in France in 1657, and in Austria
and Poland after the 1683 Battle of Vienna, when coffee was captured from supplies of the
defeated Turks.[121]

When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period, it was initially not as
successful as it had been in Europe as alcoholic beverages remained more popular. During the
Revolutionary War, however, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to
hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was also due to the reduced
availability of tea from British merchants.[122] After the War of 1812, during which Britain
temporarily cut off access to tea imports, the Americans' taste for coffee grew, and high
demand during the American Civil War together with advances in brewing technology
secured the position of coffee as an everyday commodity in the United States.[123][not in citation given]
Paradoxically, coffee consumption declined in England, giving way to tea during the 18th
century. The latter beverage was simpler to make, and had become cheaper with the British
conquest of India and the tea industry there.[124]

The Frenchman Gabriel de Clieu brought a coffee plant to the French territory of Martinique
in the Caribbean, from which much of the world's cultivated arabica coffee is descended.
Coffee thrived in the climate and was conveyed across the Americas.[125] The territory of San
Domingo (now Haiti) saw coffee cultivated from 1734, and by 1788 it supplied half the
world's coffee[citation needed]. However, the dreadful conditions that the slaves worked in on coffee
plantations were a factor in the soon to follow Haitian Revolution. The coffee industry never
fully recovered there.[126] Meanwhile, coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727, although
its cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822.[127] After this time,
massive tracts of rainforest were cleared first from the vicinity of Rio and later São Paulo for
coffee plantations.[128] Cultivation was taken up by many countries in Central America in the
latter half of the 19th century, and almost all involved the large-scale displacement and
exploitation of the indigenous people. Harsh conditions led to many uprisings, coups and
bloody suppression of peasants.[129] The notable exception was Costa Rica, where lack of
ready labor prevented the formation of large farms. Smaller farms and more egalitarian
conditions ameliorated unrest over the 19th and 20th centuries.[130]

Coffee has become a vital cash crop for many Third World countries. Over one hundred
million people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as their primary
source of income. It has become the primary export and backbone for African countries like
Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia,[131] as well as many Central American countries.

[edit] Social and culture

Main article: Coffee culture

A coffeehouse in Palestine (1900)

Coffee is often consumed alongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home. It is often
served at the end of a meal, normally with a dessert, and at times with an after-dinner mint
especially when consumed at a restaurant or dinner party.

Aggressively promoted by the Pan-American Coffee Bureau, the "coffee break" was first
promoted in 1952. Hitherto unknown in the workplace, its uptake was facilitated by the recent
popularity of both instant coffee and vending machines, and has become an institution of the
American workplace.[73]

[edit] Coffeehouses
See also: Coffeehouse for a social history of coffee, and caffè for specifically Italian
traditions

Most widely known as coffeehouses or cafés, establishments serving prepared coffee or other
hot beverages have existed for over five hundred years.

Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a "Kiva Han" in the late
15th century circulate in culinary tradition, but with no documentation.[132]

Coffeehouses in Mecca soon became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams
who banned them, and the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530 the first coffee
house was opened in Damascus,[133] and not long after there were many coffee houses in
Cairo.

In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire,
and coffeehouses were established and quickly became popular. The first coffeehouses in
Western Europe appeared in Venice, a result of the traffic between La Serenissima and the
Ottomans; the very first one is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in England was set up
in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in the building now known as "The Grand
Cafe". A plaque on the wall still commemorates this and the Cafe is now a trendy cocktail
bar.[134] By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England.[135]

In 1672 an Armenian named Pascal established a coffee stall in Paris that was ultimately
unsuccessful and the city had to wait until 1689 for its first coffeehouse when Procopio Cutò
opened the Café Procope. This coffeehouse still exists today and was a major meeting place
of the French Enlightenment; Voltaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it is
arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie, the first modern encyclopedia.[136] America had
its first coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676.[137] Coffee, tea and beer were often served together in
establishments which functioned both as coffeehouses and taverns; one such was the Green
Dragon in Boston, where John Adams, James Otis and Paul Revere planned rebellion.[124]

The modern espresso machine was born in Milan in 1945 by Achille Gaggia,[138] and from
there spread across coffeehouses and restaurants across Italy and the rest of Europe and North
America in the early 1950s. An Italian named Pino Riservato opened the first espresso bar, the
Moka Bar, in Soho in 1952, and there were 400 such bars in London alone by 1956.
Cappucino was particularly popular among English drinkers.[139] Similarly in the United
States, the espresso craze spread. North Beach in San Francisco saw the opening of the Caffe
Trieste in 1957, which saw Beat Generation poets such as Allen Ginsberg and Bob Kaufman
alongside bemused Italian immigrants.[139] Similar such cafes existed in Greenwich Village
and elsewhere.[139]

The first Peet's Coffee & Tea store opened in 1966 in Berkeley, CA by Dutch native Alfred
Peet. He chose to focus on roasting batches with fresher, higher quality beans than was the
norm at the time. He was a trainer and supplier to the founders of Starbuck’s.[140]

The international coffeehouse chain Starbucks began as a modest business roasting and
selling quality coffee beans in Seattle in 1971, by three college students Jerry Baldwin,
Gordon Bowker and Zev Siegl. The first store opened on March 30, 1971, followed by a
second and third over the next two years.[141] Entrepreneur Howard Schultz joined the
company in 1982 as Director of Retail Operations and Marketing, and pushed to sell premade
espresso coffee. The others were reluctant, but Schultz opened Il Giornale in Seattle in April
1986.[142] He bought the other owners out in March 1987 and pushed on with plans to expand
—from 1987 to the end of 1991, the chain (rebranded from Il Giornale to Starbucks)
expanded to over 100 outlets.[143] The company's name graces 16,600 stores in over 40
countries worldwide.[144]

[edit] Prohibition

Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,100 years ago, traders brought coffee
across the Red Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where Muslim dervishes began
cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At first, the Arabians made wine from the pulp of the
fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was
used during religious ceremonies.[145]

Coffee drinking was prohibited by jurists and scholars (ulema) meeting in Mecca in 1511 as
haraam, but the subject of whether it was intoxicating was hotly debated over the next 30
years until the ban was finally overturned in the mid 16th century.[146] Use in religious rites
among the Sufi branch of Islam led to coffee's being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of
being a heretical substance, and its production and consumption were briefly repressed. It was
later prohibited in Ottoman Turkey under an edict by the Sultan Murad IV.[6] Coffee, regarded
as a Muslim drink, was prohibited by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians until as late as 1889; it is
now considered a national drink of Ethiopia for people of all faiths. Its early association in
Europe with rebellious political activities led to Charles II outlawing coffeehouses from
January 1676 (although the uproar created forced the monarch to back down two days before
the ban was due to come into force).[124] Frederick the Great banned it in Germany in 1777 for
nationalistic and economic reasons; concerned about the price of import, he sought to force
the public back to consuming beer.[147] Lacking coffee producing colonies, Germany had to
import all its coffee at a great cost.[148]

A contemporary example of religious prohibition of coffee can be found in The Church of

Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[149] The organization holds that it is both physically and
spiritually unhealthy to consume coffee.[150] This comes from the Mormon doctrine of health,
given in 1833 by founder Joseph Smith in a revelation called the Word of Wisdom. It does not
identify coffee by name, but includes the statement that "hot drinks are not for the belly,"
which has been interpreted to forbid both coffee and tea.[150]

Quite a number of members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church also avoid caffeinated
drinks. In its teachings, the Church encourages members to avoid tea and coffee and other
stimulants. Abstinence from coffee, tobacco and alcohol by many Adventists has afforded a
near unique opportunity for studies to be conducted within that population group on the health
effects of coffee drinking, free from confounding factors. One study was able to show a weak
but statistically significant association between coffee consumption and mortality from
ischemic heart disease, other cardiovascular disease, all cardiovascular diseases combined,
and all causes of death.[151]

[edit] Folklore and culture

The Oromo people would customarily plant a coffee tree on the graves of powerful sorcerers.
They believed that the first coffee bush sprang up from the tears that the god of heaven shed
over the corpse of a dead sorcerer.[152]
Johann Sebastian Bach was inspired to pen the Coffee Cantata, about dependence on the
beverage.[153]

Origins of Coffee - Coffee Arabica - Coffee

Robusta
It is believed that coffee originated in the Ethiopian region of Kaffa in northeastern Africa, and long ago
became a popular beverage in the Arabian region.

Arabica Coffee Origins

The beans of this variety of coffee are known in the coffee trade as Arabica coffee and are widely
regarded as having a superior flavor. This region's influence is also seen in the common use of the
term mocha in coffee circles, which is derived from the name of the once leading coffee export port in
Yemen.

Arabica coffee is now mainly grown in East Africa, Central America and Indonesia, and requires
certain growing conditions in order to thrive. Almost all coffee is grown in the equatorial belt between
twenty five degrees north and thirty degrees south. Arabica grows best at higher and cooler
subtropical altitudes of between six hundred and two thousand meters. It also grows best with plenty
of rich moist volcanic soil with plenty of shade as well as sun. It is estimated that around 70% of all
coffee production is from the Arabica bean.

Reflecting the spread of Arabica coffee around the world, the old Indonesian coffee exporting port of
Java has also contributed its name for common use in coffee circles.

Robusta Coffee Origins

The Robusta coffee plant is a hardier and more easily cultivated variety of coffee. It will grow at lower
subtropical altitudes and is less susceptible to diseases and pests. It also has a higher yield than the
Arabica.

The Robusta coffee bean lacks the depth of flavor of the Arabica bean but has a higher level of
caffeine content. The Robusta variety is believed to have originated in Uganda, and is now widely
grown in Africa, Brazil and Vietnam.

The value of Robusta beans is lower because it is the less desired of the two. This economic
consideration has led to the common use of Robusta beans in coffee blends. Their lower price has
also led to most instant coffee being derived from Robusta beans.

However, the higher caffeine content, the Robusta bean's role in creating the famous crema top found
on a good espresso, and the sheer volume of demand for coffee, are other reasons for the popularity
of Robusta coffee. Processing methods have been developed that can reduce the less desirable
harsher "burnt rubber" taste of Robusta coffee.
  

Coffee beans are the "pips" of a cherry-like fruit, and the coffee trees are usually pruned to grow to
four to six feet in height to facilitate the hand picking that is necessary because the fruit ripens at
varying times.

Global coffee production is approaching 7 million tonnes a year, and prices have fallen since the late
1990s with plentiful levels of supply, especially since Vietnam entered the market with large additional
export volumes.

While coffee has become a globally traded commodity, the several varieties and varying growing
conditions around the world has created niche markets of premium quality coffee beans.

One of the more unique coffee niches is the Kopi Luwak or "monkey bean" coffee from Indonesia,
which is a coffee bean that has passed through the digestion system of a tree dwelling palm civet. This
bean results in a premium coffee that is very popular with gourmet coffee connoisseurs.

History of Coffee - Coffee Legends and

Reality
That a mere beverage could generate so many romantic tales and so much hard-headed business is a
wonder. Yet from its beginnings to the present, this dark and pungent liquid has fascinated, cured and
enriched billions the world over.

Legends abound about the origins of the coffee plant, but the most reliable history puts its discovery in
Ethiopia somewhere around 500 BC. From there, after observing the stimulating effects of its berries,
travelers brought it to Arabia, where it acquired the name.

The Renaissance gave birth not only to science and art, but the commercial production and known
world distribution of what would later be called 'that heathenish liquid'. By the late 18th century both
plantations and drinking popularity had spread to Europe, Asia, the Middle East, South and North
America and to every social class.

Throughout those long centuries the health effects ascribed to coffee border on the miraculous. But,
as with most claimed miracles, there's some fact at the bottom.

Some studies suggest that mammalian sperm swim faster, farther and longer in fluid laced with coffee.
The theory is the caffeine stimulates them. One Harvard study followed over 100,000 individuals for
almost 20 years, drawing the conclusion that moderate use can help reduce diabetes. Others show
reduction in cirrhosis of the liver and decrease of asthma severity.

As with wine, the antioxidants in coffee have been touted as helping keep hearts healthier, though
debates rage about whether the pros outweigh the cons. Coffee is a diuretic and encourages more
frequent urination, and some assert that the stimulation from caffeine leads to long term nerve
degeneration. Caffeine withdrawal can lead to increased sleeplessness. And, caffeine is a natural
insecticide.
But for good or ill - or both - coffee is here to stay. The economics alone virtually guarantee that, since
as a commodity coffee is second only in dollar volume to oil.

Whether traded on exchanges in London, New York, Hong Kong or Lima with over 400 billion cups
consumed annually, this other 'black gold' only grows in popularity. Though only 10-20% (depending
on country) of adults drink one or more cups daily, the total retail sales hovers near the $9 billion level
annually.

Add to those figures the number of raw beans, grinders, roasters, brewers and cups bought for the
home and the figures become astounding.

With the rise in both basic commodity and specialty retail prices, the future for coffee businesses
continues to look bright. Starbucks alone has over 10,000 outlets around the world.

And specialty coffee shops are not the only outlet for a wide choice of blends and styles. Home
roasters and brewers also can enjoy espresso, invented in 1901 and growing ever since. Straight
shots, long shots or double shots are a snap now with home machines.

Mocha, Latte, and Cappuccino - all available by the addition of a few ingredients at the touch of a few
buttons. Flavored coffees in as great a variety as wines are easy to make, with just a dash of vanilla,
caramel or fruit flavorings.

With all that history, money, and delicious variety maybe the legends weren't so far off after all.

Coffee Bean - Coffee Bean Tree | History

Beer may be the oldest man made brew, with wine a distant second. Beer recipes are at least as old
as 6000 BC, but the oldest winemaking processes date 'only' from about the turn of the first
millennium. Their younger cousin, coffee, arose a few hundred years later, though no one knows
exactly how old the coffee tree itself is. Some archaeological evidence shows that humans were eating
the berries as long ago as a hundred thousand years.

One legend says that a goat herder in Ethiopia observed his charges eating the red berries from a
nearby tree and became excited. Trying them himself, he too felt a great lift. By 600 AD that magical
berry, and the brew made from drying and grinding its seeds, had found its way to what is now Yemen,
on the southern tip of the Arabian peninsula.

Stories tell of a native of India smuggling the precious seeds of the coffee tree out of Arabia around
1650 AD, then planting them in the hills of Chikmagalur. Arabian law forbad the exporting of coffee
beans that could germinate, effectively controlling coffee trade for centuries. Whether myth or history,
the fruit of those seeds now forms a third of India's large coffee output.

Europeans - the British, Dutch, French, and others - spread the coffee beans to other countries during
their travels. The Dutch were responsible for its introduction to Java in the 18th century. From those
plantings, history tells us, came the famed tree coveted by France's king, presented to him as a gift.

Louis XIV of France, finding the tree did not tolerate frost well, had a greenhouse erected to supply
him with the beans to make the brew he so savored. It is said that from that source came the cultivars
used in Central and South America.

Reaching Martinique around 1720, sprouts were planted and grew well in the hot Caribbean climate.
From the thousands of coffee trees that resulted, some were transported to Mexico where coffee now
forms one of their largest exports.

Making its way to French Guiana around the same time, the coffee tree grew well in that steamy
atmosphere. Seeing an opportunity, a rascal named Francisco de Melo Palheta solicited the aid of the
governor's wife to smuggle seeds out of the country. As he prepared to part for Brazil, the lady handed
him a bouquet of flowers containing the illicit beans.

Brazil is now one of the largest coffee producers on the planet.

From Brazil the seeds complete the circle, making their way in the late 19th century to Kenya and
Tanzania, not far from their original home in Ethiopia. Six centuries to return home is a long journey
and an excellent excuse to rest and have a cup!

Fairtrade Coffee - Fair Trade Organic

Coffee
In many of the equatorial Third World economies, coffee is a leading crop with the main export
markets being in the First World economies. Consequently, the world's trade in coffee has come under
the close attention of people concerned about fair trade and exploitation issues.

Coffee has become a high volume commodity traded on world markets, comparable to the trade in
minerals. Coffee prices have fluctuated as the balance of supply and demand shifted, as often
happens in commodity markets. Speculation and futures markets trading in the coffee markets can be
very sensitive to weather and growing conditions.

Prices paid to growers fell after the high levels reached in the late 1990s as production volumes
increased, notably from the large additional contributions of Vietnam to coffee export volumes in
recent years. This had an impact on the viability of coffee growing, and on employment in many
coffee-growing regions, causing considerable hardship over a period of about five years. There has
been some price recovery since 2005.

The low returns to Third World growers become a controversial issue in some quarters, with links to
debates about world trade policies and whether they were fair. With the cost of the raw coffee beans
being a small part of the cost of the cup of coffee bought in western countries, the price fluctuations
experienced by growers had little impact on end users. This looks one-sided in its effects.

One market response from a number of coffee processors was to introduce "fair trade" coffee branding
niches in recent years. These brands have become popular with a sector of western buyers concerned
about the effects of coffee price fluctuations on Third World growers. The idea is that these processors
will buy from selected growers at prices that allow them to be profitable, irrespective of the world
coffee market's price fluctuations.

A related coffee branding strategy has been to appeal to the "organic" niche. One concern has been
that coffee growing has become careless of environmental considerations in the quest for increased
production volumes. Purchases for the organic brand niches have been tied to the adoption of organic
or more natural growing practices, including less clear felling of land for coffee plantations and the
retention of shade trees to encourage bird life. "Fair trade organic" branding has linked the issues, and
found common ground in its appeal to a sector of western coffee buyers.

A related and increasingly common practice is also for some coffee processors to buy directly with
coffee growers whose beans offer a premium quality and flavor, rather than have these beans sold
through the general market. These processors gain from being able to offer distinctive premium coffee
blends based on the unique properties of beans from these premium quality plantations. Both
processor and grower gain from the long-term continuity of this trade arrangement.

Differentiating the products of individual growers or regions in these ways is a method for countering
the commoditization of the coffee market.
Coffee Varieties - Coffee Varieties Around
The World
Once upon a time in America there was drip or instant, milk or sugar. Folger's was the name of the
game. Then, from Australian Skybury to Kenyan Peaberry, from Kona to Barcelona, the world
exploded with options. Today there's enough variety in choices of blend, country and style to boggle
the greatest coffee aficionado.

Of course there is Brazil, the world's largest producer for more than a century. Not surprising
considering a third of its landmass is suitable for coffee tree growing. This South American
powerhouse produces wonderful aromatic blends from Bahia and Minas Gerais.

Colombia, perhaps even better known - even though second in volume - makes a light, sweet delight
that comes in 'supremo' or 'excelso'. The coffees made from Popayan or Narino are surpassed
nowhere.

But beyond these two giants of coffee bean production there lies a world of different blends that add
their own distinctive colors to the spectrum of choices.

Mexico refuses to bow down to its better known South or Central American cousins. The small beans
grown there produce a delicate body and light acidity, giving the coffee a mellow flavor. And Cuba,
with its extremely strong cafe cubano - drunk like a shot of tequila - joins its Spanish relatives for a jolt.

Indonesia is well-known for its finely aged coffees, where the warm, damp climate slowly produces a
drink with deep body and less acidity. As the fourth largest producer it isn't likely to run out soon.

Malaysia won't be cowed by its more famous neighbor, though. The venerable practice of brewing in a
muslin bag, used to filter grounds, produces a strong cup. Even the lesser grade Liberica should be
experienced at least once.

Even tiny Thailand weighs in with a chicory-tinged blend served with ice and condensed milk, for those
who enjoy their coffee cold.

The Kona from Mauna Loa is sweet, medium-bodied and aromatic, while the Java from Sumatra is
full-flavored and rich. Even the Beanya from Kenya, grown at 17,000 feet is smooth and deep, with a
slight aftertaste that defies description.

But the practice of roasting and crushing beans then filtering through hot water, born in the 15th
century, has produced many more delights for the coffee addict.

Naturally, the Europeans won't take second place to anyone. France still favors its cafe au lait - half-
coffee, half-milk. And Austria still values the two-thirds dark, one-third regular that has been a
traditional Viennese blend for centuries.

Thanks to Luigi Bezzera in 1901 and later M. Cremonesi in 1938, there are Italian espressos to die for.
And since they contain less caffeine than others, you can have two and not feel guilty. For those for
whom that's still too strong, there are the weaker latte and cappuccino (named for the hood on a
monk's habit).

The Colombian is, rightly so, world-renowned. The La Esperanza from Tolima, for example, is grown
at almost 6,000 feet and the effect shows. High-toned with a delicate aroma and cherry-like it has hints
of milk chocolate and pipe tobacco. Who knew such a mixture could actually taste wonderful?
Of course, the world's second largest producer has much more to offer. The Supremo makes a
complex brew with vanilla notes and hints of semi-sweet chocolate. Be sure to drink hot, as it fades
fast.

Hopping over to Hawaii, the hand-picked Kona comes in both medium and dark roast. The latter has a
very light acid with the medium making for slightly more. But the espresso roast remains a favorite,
where the minimally acidic, dark and strong character really shines.

Jetting off to Africa we find a Tanzanian Peaberry, grown on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro.
Peaberries have a distinctive shape, making a single oval bean rather than the usual pair of flat-sided
beans. One consequence is a higher acidity and lighter body. Climbers of the famous mountain can
find a warming cup on their way up.

And while there, take a side jaunt to the legendary home of coffee - Ethiopia. The Yirgacheffe region is
home to a citrusy brew that combines ginger, orange peel and lemon that's both tart and chocolaty.

Trekking east to India we rest to take in another famous landmark - the Monsoon Malabar. The
product of three months of the well-known wet winds, the puffy yellow beans make for a pungent brew
with hints of apricot. But don't leave without sampling one of the Jumboors, with its sweet raisin tones.

Continuing east to Indonesia we find ourselves in Sumatra, long known for the product from the Lake
Toba region. A light roast, the cup is sweet and flowery. The original jasmine-like coffee flower has
been retained to produce an astringent cup with cherry overtones.

And while there don't forget about the northern provinces where the traditional dark roast gives a
spicy, tropical fruit brew with hints of cedar and grapefruit.

A short flight to Vietnam puts us in a position to enjoy a Robusta from Lampung. The washing-drying-
polishing process makes for a woody, astringent cup that competes well with its more high-toned
Arabica cousin.

On the way home, a stopover in Jamaica provides an opportunity to discover an unusual source. The
Jamaican peaberry, showing its African origins is a single bean. But the effect is altogether different.
Full-bodied, sweetly acid, and full of floral notes this cup comes on strong.

Weary from the journey, but satisfied and satiated, we close our book of 'Travels Around The Globe'
then turn out the light and switch off the coffee pot. Even with all that caffeine we should have no
trouble sleeping.

World Coffee Review - World Best Coffee

So where does the world's best coffee come from. Although the best is down to the individual palette,
here is a world coffee review on a country by country basis - hold on to your hats as we go on a
whirlwind trip around the globe in search of the world's best coffee.

Brazil

The coffee from Brazil is world famous for a good reason - it is nothing short of stellar. None more so
than the Brazil Bourbon Santos. Brazil is the world's largest coffee bean producer, but has not always
been regarded as the producing the world's best coffee.

That may change if this Brazil Bourbon Santos blend catches on. Named after the birthplace of the
cultivar, an island now known as Reunion but once called Bourbon, it hails from the port near where it
makes its present home. Aromatic, with just the right balance of bitter acids and dark body, this brew
will delight the secret South American romantic in all of us.
America

Though not grown in the U.S. there are several blends that have a distinctive American style. Made to
be enjoyed with a traditional breakfast, they complement rather than compete with the feast.

These brews are from a blend of medium roasted, medium ground Colombian and Central American
coffee beans. Smooth, light on the acid and delicate bodied, they will complement rather than call
attention to themselves.

Steep & Brew offers a clean, fruity option, as does the Madrugada blend from Flying Goat. The
Supreme Bean offers a sweet, chocolatey blend that will be perfect with morning pancakes.

Ethiopia

Legendary home of the Arabica tree, which produces the berry that contains the coffee bean, Ethiopia
is making strides in producing a fine brew.

The Coffee Klatch from the Yirgacheffe region is a dark, dark coffee with fruit overtones for those who
enjoy a bold brew. The Counter Culture of the Sidamo region is a dry processed bean that will
invariably make samplers think of its sun drenched home.

For those seeking a delicate espresso, the Belle Espresso from Coffee Klatch may be just the right
thing. A blend from five different regions, the profile is complex and entrancing.

Nicaragua

The Madriz from this Central American small but mighty powerhouse of coffee producers, will be a
welcome addition to the table. Hailing from Terroir Coffee, its pungent bouquet and full body will have
you asking for a second cup.

Panama

A small roaster in Portland, Oregon has shown us how to find the best of Panama. Stumptown Coffee
Roasters offers a bean from the Don Pachi Estate that will be perfect in a French press. From the
Geisha trees of the Boquete region, this flowered and fruity brew is lightly acidic and goes down
smooth.

Hawaii

The JavaBerry Black Estate Reserve is all the excuse you need to visit this Pacific island. From a
blend of Kona Peaberry and Kona Extra Fancy, it offers a smooth, full-flavored balance. This one is for
those who love their coffee straight.

Sumatra

Indonesian coffee is not for everybody. Now more expensive, as a consequence of the recent
tsunamis, it often has a tartness that some find off putting.

But coffee aficionados could do no better than the Organic Sumatra Reserve. With hints of chocolate,
this medium bodied brew is sweeter than average. Fruity overtones with a thick aroma give it that
South Pacific character that make one think of tropical isles and cool breezes rather than the steamy
jungles of its home.

Whatever your native country, 'see' a bit of the world by trying one of the stellar products from coffee
growers around the world. There is more than one way to experience the delight of an international
cup.
Coffee Bean Plant to Coffee Cup
From its origins over two thousand years ago, Coffee Bean processing has grown into a worldwide
market whose output as a commodity has a dollar value second only to oil. There are numerous
different varieties of coffee bean, but as far as the coffee bean plant is concerned, there are only two
classes. These are the Arabica, first cultivated on the Arabian Peninsula, and the Robusta which
contains about twice the caffeine.

By contrast to wine, coffee beans or coffee cherrys are not valued for their fruit, but only for the bean
inside. It is that bean that is aged, roasted, ground and brewed to make the four hundred million cups
of coffee consumed around the world per day.

The two varieties of coffee bean are green and red. The red bean has a higher
aromatic oil and lower acid content than the green and is used to produce the finer
coffees. In view of the difference between the two types of bean the most important
stage in the life cycle of coffee beans is the picking.

Most coffee beans are hand picked by labourers whose output is only a few
baskets per day. However, being able to separate the red and green beans is a
valued skill and has a large effect on the final product.

After picking, the fruit is removed by soaking, scouring and mechanical rubbing.
Then the coffee beans are washed to remove any remaining flesh. This
'fermentation' stage produces beans which are then dried in the sun over large
concrete or rock slabs, until they have about 12% water content.

From there the coffee beans are sorted by color and size, sometimes by hand
increasingly often by machine. Some of the beans are discarded, others polished to
remove the skin. For select types, the beans are then aged anywhere from three to eight years, while
others go to be roasted within a year.

During the 400-degree Fahrenheit roasting the coffee beans expand to about twice
their dry size, crack and change color from green to brown as oil in the interior is
released. It's this oil that gives the different types of coffee their basic flavor.

Naturally a wide variety of in-house techniques have developed for roasting coffee
beans. For example, beans from Java and Kenya are often lightly roasted
producing a distinctive flavor. After roasting, the beans produce carbon dioxide for
several days so the beans are 'de-gassed' either by airing or packaging in semi-permeable shipping
bags.

The resulting beans, up to a few weeks later, are then ground where again there
are variations in styles and results. In some cases, 'burr' grinders are used to crush
the beans to a consistent-sized granule. In others, choppers are used to chop the
beans into small pieces with a less homogeneous-sized result. Turkish coffee is
made by pounding the beans to a powdery consistency, using mortar and pestle.

The final result is then brewed, where

the variety of styles and techniques used in making good
coffee is almost as great as the number of brewers. All
these fine differences fall into one of four categories,
however: boiling, pressure, gravity and steeping.

In 'boiling', hot water is run through the grounds then

filtered or settled. In pressure methods, such as that used
in espresso coffee making machines, the slightly less than
boiling hot water is forced through the grounds at high
pressure. Gravity or 'drip brew' drips hot water onto coffee grounds and filters. Steeping is similar to
the method of tea bags, though the bags are much larger.

Through its long journey from mountains or jungles, coffee beans go into making up one of the world's
most treasured drinks. And with the new research demonstrating the health benefits of moderate
consumption, one has even greater reason to be grateful for the effort.

Coffee Bean to Cup Articles

About Coffee Beans
Coffee beans per se are not a bean at all but rather the seed of the coffee cherry fruit. The coffee plant
or tree is grown in around eighty countries around the world

Roasting Coffee Beans

Roasting coffee beans is an art and science that takes years to perfect, especially since no two
batches of coffee beans are ever the same, even when they are grown on the same farm

Types of Coffee
There are numerous types of coffee roasts from various parts of the world as well as speciality and
gourmet choices such as espresso, cappuccino, lattes, mochas and various flavoured coffees

Making Good Coffee

Most anybody can make a cup of coffee but making good coffee is another story. A great cup of coffee
needs the perfect blend of freshly ground coffee beans and not rehydrated instant granules

Coffee Making Machines

For many, coffee making machines are like having breakfast with an old friend that offers both utility
and comfort since starting their day without a good cup of coffee would be unthinkable

Coffee Accessories
Home coffee accessories such as a coffee bean roaster, coffee bean dispenser and your own coffee
grinder will all help lift your coffee experience to a whole new level

Coffee Recipes
As well as being the worlds favorite beverage, coffee can be used for a lot more than just a drink.
Coffee in food recipes are abound for baking and cooking as well

Coffee Health Effects

Coffee health effects have been the subject of many studies over the years with some more recent
results concluding that coffee may not be as bad for you as previously thought

Most Expensive Coffee in the World

by tom on December 22, 2005 · Comments (170)

The most expensive coffee in the world does not hail from Jamaica or Hawaii, but instead
from Indonesia.

Kopi Luwak the most expensive coffee in the world does exist, and those who drink the
expensive coffee insist that it is made from coffee beans eaten, partly digested and then
excreted by the Common palm civet, a weasel-like animal.
“Kopi” the Indonesian word for coffee along with “luwak” is local name of this animal which
eats the raw red coffee beans. The civet digests the soft outer part of the coffee cherry, but
does not digest the inner beans and excretes them.

Apparently the internal digestion ends up adds a unique flavor to the beans, removing the
bitter flavor, and then beans are then picked up by locals and sold. The most expensive coffee
beans can cost up to $600 a pound, and up to $50 per cup, if you can get over the fact that you
are drinking such a strange brew.

You would know if you drank the most expensive coffee in the world, because the quantities
of it are tiny amounts.

SimilMost Expensive Coffeemaker

by jeremy on July 25, 2008 · Comments (2)

Coffee has a long history dating back, as far as we can tell, to 9th century Ethiopia. The first
coffee aficionados, though, weren’t the native peoples. Rather, it was their goats whom they
noticed “dancing” after eating certain wild beans. It wasn’t until they reached Arabia,
however, that they were first roasted and brewed into the drink we’re all familiar with today.

While there are numerous ways to prepare coffee, the different sorts of devices used to
prepare the coffee are far more innumerable. What follows are some of the most expensive
coffeemakers in the world.
 The Prima Donna

The Prima Donna ESAM 6600 from De’Longhi may be the most feature rich coffeemaker
money can buy. Not only can it memorize your favorite cappuccino, cafe latte or latte
macchiato, it also cleans itself at the push of a button. The auto-cleaning milk carafe can even
be stored in your refrigerator, ensuring that the milk in your coffee is as fresh as possible. This
pricey coffeemaker retails for around $2,000, but the buzz says it’s worth every penny.

If you value form over functionality—and your preferred form is anything covered in
Swarovski crystals—then look no further than Nespresso’s Crystal coffee machine. Based on
Le Cube model, it’s adorned with 3,100 of the blingsome crystals. That’s not to say the
Crystal coffee machine doesn’t have a few tricks up its sparkling sleeve; the machine has a
built-in cup warmer, back-lit control buttons and a removable grate for latte macchiato. This
isn’t the first Nespresso machine to be so decked, either. Their Essenza models were recently
made into limited edition Brilliant Black and Sparkle Pink machines. These two models went
for $1,000 each while the Crystal Coffee Machine is the most expensive coffeemaker in the
world at £1,995 (nearly $4,000 USD).