CHAPTER - 3

NATURE AND NURTURE OF FABRICS DURING THE

MUGHALS
 Among all Indian handicrafts textiles formed a unique class. Continuous
invasions, migrations and many ups and downs instead of destroying the things led to
a synthesis among different cultures which led to the emergence of new crafts in
India. Textiles stand in an unambiguous position between art and crafts. Earlier they
were included among crafts but the recent textile experts and art historians placed this
precious heritage in the category of art. 1 It is difficult to say when threads were passed
through the shuttle. There is a long history behind it. 2 When we talk about the textile
fabrics of Mughal period, under the Mughal rulers this art witnessed a new
efflorescence. Under the Mughals Gold and Silver Brocades, fine figured muslins,
printed and painted fabrics, intricate embroideries begun to be manufactured on a
large scale. Both Akbar and Jahangir took a great interest in the development of
textile art. 3 Which reached its apex during the reign of Shah Jahan and continued for
decades.

Silk Fabric:

The silk produced in western India was mostly the fabrics mixed with cotton
and silk. The only true silk was patolas, which were also known as double Ikat of
Gujarat. The main weaving center of patola was Patan. These patolas were not only
used for the home market but much in demand in Europe also. 4 Another fabric of true
silk which was less in demand in comparison to patolas was ‘culgars’. This was
printed silk. 5 Patola is a historical fabric. It is well known for its delicacy considered
as one of the most gorgeous fabrics. Ahmedabad was also a famous silk producing
center from here patolas were exported to south-east Asia. 6

The patolas were silken stuffs, very soft, decorated all over with flowers of
various hues. 7 Barbosa tells us about the coloured cloths and silks which is called by
Indians as ‘patolas’ particularly the Cambay silk stuffs were called as ‘patolas’. 8 The

1
Rustam J. Mehta , Masterpieces of Indian Textiles, Bombay, 1970, p.1.
2
Das, Sukla, Fabric Art and Heritage of India, 1992, Delhi, p.2.
3
V.S. Agrawala, The Heritage of Indian Art, Bombay, 1964, p.37.
4
The English factories in India, 1934-6, ed. by W. Foster, Oxford, 1906, p. 102.
5
Irwin John and Schwartz J P.R. Studies in Indo-European Textile History, Calico Museum of
Textile, Ahmedabad, 1966, p. 23.
6
Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, Travels in India, tr. by. V. Ball and ed. by W. Crooke, London , 1925
vol. 2, p.2.
7
Ibid. vol. 2 , p.3.
8
Barbosa, Durate, The book of Durate Barbosa, tr. L.M. Dames, London, 1992-93, p. 185 .

56
word patola is derived from the Kanarose ‘Pattuda’, ‘a silk cloth’. 9 Terry calls the
patolas as ‘Pintadoes’.

Among mixed fabrics one important was ‘alachas’. 10 They were striped
fabric. Some of these fabrics were mixed with linen and silk instead of cotton and
silk. The other mixed cotton and silk fabrics were ‘cuttanee’. Pattern was somewhat
similar to alachas. The other cheapest mixed fabrics were tapseila. A different kind of
mixed fabric was the ‘camboolees’ of Sind. Bengal was the main center for the
production of both raw silk and finished silk piece-goods, during seventeenth
century. 11 Though Bengal silk products were not so fine in comparison to those of
Persia, Syria, but they were much costly. 12 The Persian term used for Bengal silk is
‘tafta’, which is known as ‘taffeta’ or ‘taffatie’ in English. 13 Most Bengal ‘taffaties’
came from the area around Kasimbazar and Malda. Some of them were pure silk and
some were mixed with cotton. Besides Malda and Kasimbazar area, Bengal also
produced fabrics of mixed Tassar silk and cotton commonly known as ‘herba goods’.

The most famous textiles which were in use during the Mughal period were
the velvets, brocades, metal base clothes and woven silks, mixed with other fibres
mainly with cotton. The main silk producing centres during the Mughal period were –
Ahmedabad, Surat, Sindh, Delhi, Agra, Kasimbazar and Malda. According to
Tavernier the main silk producing center during the 17th century was Kasimbazar and
some other areas of Bengal. 14 Bernier also confirms the account of Tavernier that
during Mughal period Bengal was the main silk producing centre from where silk was
exported not only to the other part of India but to foreign countries also. 15

During the Mughal period silk with various gold and silver ground was very
famous. The garments made with silk were very gorgeous. These gorgeous textiles
made with glittering metallic treads were usually patterned with flowering plants
arranged in various combinations.

9
Tavernier, vol.2, op. cit. p.3.
10
Irwin John and Schwartz J P.R. op. cit. p. 23.
11
Irwin John and Schwartz J P.R. op. cit, p. 24.
12
Ibid. p. 46.
13
Bernier, F. , Travels in the Mughal Empire, trans by A. Constable, Oxford, 1934, vol.1, pp. 439-
40.
14
Tavernier, vol. 2, op. cit. p 2.
15
Bernier, vol.1, op. cit. p. 439.

57
 The silk woven with metallic thread was produced in western India 16, mainly
at Ahmedabad, where the imperial karkhanas were located. Several seventeenth
century Indian silken fabrics were made not only of silk but also of silk combined
with other fibres, usually cotton. One of the most famous of these was – “alacha”,
which was produced in Cambay in Gujarat region. 17 Except the simple stripes of blue,
white and red colour, this silk-cotton textile was sometimes flowered or woven with
gold and silver thread. Bernier describes ‘alachas’ as silken stuffs made with gold and
silver 18, possibly the striped garments of Shah Jahan’s reign were mainly ‘alachas’,
i.e., trousers.

Taftas :

The Tafta is a Persian word which means ‘to twist’, ‘to spin’. Taftas were
‘plain silk goods’ originally. The term tafta is also used for the mixed fabric of silk
and wool. 19 The taftas were also ‘striped stuffs of silk and cotton’. It is also said that
tafta cloth was made of two different kinds of thread, which reflected both the colours
in the cloth. According to Tavernier taftas were made of silken clothes. 20The taftas
were produced in Bengal. Hugli and Qasimbaar were the main centres of production
of taftas. 21 Some other centres were Agra and Lahore. 22 During the royal camp of
Jahangir in Ajmer in 1616 striped bold taftas were also available. Coloured taftas
were prepared in Bengal. 23

The Bengal silks were exported to other places also. 24 The Dutch took these silks
to Japan and to Holland. 25 From Bengal they were also brought to Ahmedabad and
Surat where they were woven into fabrics. 26 In Surat they were used to make three
sorts of cloths – only of silk, of silk and gold, of gold and silver.

16
Tavernier, vol. 2, op. cit. pp. 2-3, 21-22.
17
Irwin John and Schwartz J P.R, op. cit. 1955A, p. 21.
18
Bernier, vol.1, op. cit., p 139.
19
Manrique, Sebastien, Travels of Fray Sebastien Manrique 1629-1643,ed. by C. E. Laurd, oxford
1927, vol. 1, p-30.
20
Tavernier, vol. 2 , p.3.
21
The English Factories, 1661-1664, pp.62-63.
22
Ibid. 1668-69, p.167.
23
The English Factories, 1664-1667, pp.46-62, 158, 290-291.
24
Tavernier, vol. 2 op. cit., p.3.
25
Ibid. p.3.
26
Ibid.

58
 Murshidabad in Bengal was another center for the production of raw silk. 27 A
raw silk known as ‘serbandy’ was also produced in Patna. 28 ‘The adhapatta’ was
another type of silk which means ‘half breadth’ and was made in Sind. 29 The alacha
another important type of silk is noticed in the English factory records as the ‘alija’,
was a Turki word. It was a silk cloth with wavy pattern. Alacha is described as a silk
cloth of 5 yard long which as a wavy line pattern running in length. 30 In Ain-i Akbari
it is referred as tarahdar or corded. It was a kind of cloth woven of silk and thread
which presents the appearance of cardamoms (ilachi). Bernier describes the Alacha as
silken stuffs woven with gold and silver. 31 Manucci refers to alachak silk cloth. 32

According to Mr. Yusuf Ali the alacha was probably introduced by the
Mughals and was manufactured at Agra alone. But this cloth was produced at other
places too. 33 The pure silk is known as Gulbadans produced in Tanjore and
Tiruchirapalli. In which a large quantity of gold thread is used. Brocade was a silk
stuff combined with the designs of flowers, foliage and ornaments. 34 The name
brocade was derived from broca or reel carrying the silk or metal threads used in
embroidery. 35 The Portuguese also traded in the brocades. 36

Kapoornoor or kapoordhur was another variety of silk cloth mentions in the

Ain and other contemporary Hindi sources. According to Abul Fazl the cloth
Kapoornoor was woven in Tibet and was renamed by Akbar as Kapoornoor. 37 The
pamri was a sort of silk cloth. Ovington calls it a silk scarf. 38The pamri cloth was also
used as a turban.

The tafsil was a ‘striped stuff with silk and cotton’ costing from Rs. 7 to Rs.
12 per piece. 39 It was also termed as tafsil silk. Both broad and narrow tafsils were

27
The English Factories in India, 1618-21, p.197.
28
Ibid.
29
The English Factories in India, 1646-50, p.29.
30
The English Factories in India, 1618-21, p.197.
31
Bernier op. cit. pp. 120-121.
32
Manucci, Storia- do-Mogor (1653-1708); tr. William Irvine, vol. 2 , Low price publication,
Delhi, 2010, p.424.
33
Ali, Yusuf A, Monograph on Silk Fabric, Allahabad, 1900.p.55.
34
Manrique, vol.1, op. cit. pp.29-30.
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid. p.29.
37
Abul Fazl Ain-i-Akbari, vol.1. trans. H. Blochman, reprint ed. in, Delhi,2011 , p.100.
38
Ovington, A Voyage to Surat in the year of 1689. London, 1929. pp. 207-208.
39
The English Factories in India, 1618-20, p. 61.

59
manufactured by Surat weavers at Surat. 40 The nihali was another silken cloth made
at Malda. Tabby was sort of silk tafta.

Out of the many types of silk fabrics one was the plain, striped and checked
fabric, made of silk and cotton, generally used for trousers, skirts, and the cholees
too. 41 Another important fabrics, also made of silk and cotton and commonly known
as Mushroo, was satin ‘with a cotton back’. 42 This material was in great demand and
was used in various ways by high class people for costumes and furnishings etc.
Numerous examples of the specimens of the patterns produced in this material are
known. 43

Some important silk fabrics and their position given in the Ain-i-Akbari 44 are;

Qatifa-yi i Purabi per yard 1 to 1½ R.

Taja-baf, per piece 2 to 30 M.
Dara-i-baf, per piece 2 to 30 M
Mutabbaq per piece 1 to 30 M
Shirwani per piece 1½ to 10 M
Milak per piece 1 to 7 M
Kamkhab, from Kabul and Persia, pier piece 1 to 5 M
Tawar per piece 2 R to 2 M.
Khuri per piece 4 to 10 R
Mushjjar, from Europe, per yard 2 R to 1 M
Mushajjar from yazd per piece 1 to 2 M
Satin, from Europe, per yard 2R to 1 M
Satin, from Hirat, per piece 5R to 2 M
Khara per yard 1R to 6 R
Shirang 45, per piece 1 to 3 M
Qutni 46, per piece 1½ R to 2 M
Katan 47, from Europe per yard ½ to 1 M

40
Ibid, 1655-60, p.57 .
41
Watson J. Forbes, Textile Manufacture and the Costumes of the People of India, London, 1866,
p. 97.
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid.
44
Ain-i-Akbari, op. cit. p.99
45
Changing silk
46
A stuff made of silk and wool.

60
Tafta 48, from Europe per yard ¼ to 2R
Anbari, from Europe per yard 4 d to ½ P
Darai, per yard 1/5 R to 2 R
Sitipuri, per piece 6R to 2 M
Qababand, per piece 6R to 2M
Tata bandpuri, per piece 2R to 1½ M
Lan per yard 1/3 to 1/7 R
Misri, per piece ½ to 1 M
Sar, per yard 1/10 to 1/5 R
49
Tassar , per piece 1/3 to 2R
Plain Kurtawar satin per yard ½ to 1R
Kapurnur formerly called Kapurdhur, per yard 1/8 to 1 R
Aleha, per yard 1/5 to 2R
Tafsila, per piece 7 to 12R

This above list of silk stuffs is mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari 50.

Nature or Characteristic of Silk Fibre:

Silk is a fibre which is produced by insects in the form of a cocoon. The fibre
which is generally used for manufacturing purposes are produced by the mulberry silk
both of China, Bombyxmori and few other moths closely allied to that insect. 51

The silk fibre is composed of fibroin and sericin, which contains a small
quantity of pigments which is mainly found in the sericin, waxes, sugars and in
organic substances which are found in both sericin and fibroin. 52

There are many kinds of silk fibres which are different from each other in
various ways, but those which are used for clothing have some different characters. 53
These common characters are:

47
Generally translated by linen. All dictionaries agree that it is exceedingly thin, so much so that it
tears when the moon shines on it; it is Muslin.
48
Properly, woven, hence taffeta
49
Nowadays chiefly made in Behrampore and Patna; V.
50
Ain-i- Akbari, op. cit. p.100.
51
Sharma, Suguna, Studies in Indian Textiles, Delhi,1998, p.68.
52
Ibid. p.69.
53
Ibid.

61
 The silk fibre used for clothing is fine and long. The molecules in a fibre are
arranged in order and in some fibres they are twisted which is used not make a thread
which is composed of orderly arranged and twisted fibre. 54

The tenacity, elongation and elasticity is the important feature of this fibre.
These three points are important for the morphology of fibres, arrangement of
molecules and use of fibres. There are many differences between different kind of
fibres which are as follows :

a) Differences in the structure and length of each molecule in fibres.

b) Differences in the arrangement of molecules in a fibre.

c) Differences of the structure and form occurred during the formation of fibres.

Therefore different kind of fibres even after resembling externally have different
structures and they are used according to their structure. 55

Silk fibre is composed of proteins peculiar to it. Protein is a naturally existing

highly polymerised substance. Cocoon filaments and raw silk consist of two different
proteins, that is, fibroin and sericin. Such a dualistic structure can not be seen in other
fibres. The silk fibre has characteristic elasticity. 56

During the Mughal period a great industrial development took place. During
the reign of Akbar and Jahangir this industrial development reached its apex. These
industries were producing goods not only for internal consumption but to export also.
Dacca muslin was well known all over the world. 57

During the Mughal period industries were established all over India. Industrial
centres were established in both rural and urban areas. The industries of rural areas
were to fulfil the local needs or the needs of the people in villages. Whereas the urban
centres were producing the goods on a vast scale. These industries were to meet the
demands of the elite class or the members of royal family. At this period industries
were not privately owned but was under the control of guilds. In this system
middlemen were playing an important role. These middle-men used to pay in advance
for the goods needed by them. During the reign of the Mughals Indian industry was at

54
Ibid.
55
Ibid.
56
Ibid.
57
Ibid., p.70.

62
its peak. After the Mughals there began a gradual decline and deterioration of the
Indian industry.

Therefore the Mughal rulers were very fond of wearing the costumes made of
silk. Among all types of silks the most famous during the Mughals was brocaded silk
or silk embellished with gold and silver thread. The patolas were also very famous.

Velvets:
The Mughal emperors were presenting a number of robes of honour to the
nobles of different rank annually. These garments were made of velvet, gold brocade
and other fine fabrics. Since the reign of Humayun the Mughal emperors started to
keep their wardrobe in which the robes of honour were always ready. He himself
received about 200 garments made of velvet when he arrived to the court of Persia at
the time of his retreat in 1544 AD. 58 Velvet was a material which was used for both
the purposes as ceremonial costumes and for the cold weather clothing at the Mughal
court. The Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle gives the reference of a high-ranking
Mughal official wearing a velvet coat which was bordered with gold at the bottom. 59

Early record of Velvets is found during Timurids the ancestors of the

Mughals used velvet in their Central Asian homeland. 60Among all fabrics produced
during the Mughals velvet was much gorgeous. Velvets sometimes are woven
according to a simple concept i.e. with the introduction of additional warp threads into
the warp and weft of the textile’s silk based weave.

Velvet has remained the costume of the elite class during the Mughal period. It
was the sign of the pomp and show of the Mughal court. The Mughal Emperor
themselves were using it for the ceremonial purposes. In comparison to the other
fabrics it was the first choice of the Mughal Emperors. 61

Velvet was the textile favorite of Mughals which is made of three elements: a
structural warp or vertical yarns, a structural weft or horizontal yarns and a non-

58
Riazul Islam, A Calender of Documents on Indo-Persian relations (1500-1750),2 vols. (Tehran,
1975), 1:75.
59
Pietro Della Valle, The Travels of Pietro Della Valle in India, 2 vols. (London, 1892), 2: 248.
60
Ellen S. Smart and Dale C. Gluckman Cloth of Luxury: Velvet in Mughal India in Krishna
Riboud’s “In Quest of Themes and skills: Asian Textiles, Bombay, 1989, p. 39.
61
Ibid. p.36.

63
structural or supplementary warp. Velvet can be made of different fabrics but
Mughal’s velvets were generally made of silk. 62

Domestic and foreign sources of velvet:

During the second half of 16th century the plain and gold based velvets were
produced in Ahmedabad and Lahore. 63 In the second half of the 17th century during
the reign of Aurangzeb velvet was produced for the use of royal people at Ghargaon
and Assam. 64During the reign of Akbar velvet was imported from Europe and Yazd,
Kashan, Herat and Mashad 65, the Safavid velvet producing centers. During the reign
of Akbar’s son Jahangir velvet was imported from China which was inferior to that of
Persia. 66 The city of Ahmedabad was famous for its rich textiles. 67

When Babur founded his empire in India, he had no time to develop art and
crafts. During his reign, we find the dominance of the Central Asian traits in fabrics
either it was in the field of fabrics and other crafts. Humayun also could not develop
crafts to a great extent because of the unstability of his empire. During his exile at
Persia, he got highly influenced by the art and craft of Persia. Humayun brought with
him the court painters of Shah Abbas and then the foundation of a new miniature
paintings developed at the Mughal court. But it was the time of Akbar when a large
number of workshops (karkhanas) related to the court were established in India.

Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari mentions that Akbar was highly influenced by
the Giyatyad-Din Ali Naqashband of Yazd, who was the master brocade designer of
Persia and was a man of considerable wealth, was a poet and collector of precious art
objects and was a prestigious man of the Shah Abbas court. Akbar received the
textiles signed by him as a present form the court of Persia. 68

During his reign of Akbar a number of royal workshops were established in

India. This is visible in the description of the products produced at different centers
given in Ain-i Akbari.

62
Ibid. p. 36.
63
Ain-i-Akbari, op. cit. p. 98.
64
Habib Irfan, An Atlas of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1982), p. 54.
65
Ibid.
66
Roe, Sir Thomas ; The Embassy of, to the court of Great Mughals (1615-19), London, 1926 , p.
285.
67
William Foster , Early Travels in India (1583-1619), London, 1927, p. 206.
68
Abul Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, op. cit.

64
(a) Gold stuffs 69

• Brocaded velvets (Makhmalai Zarbaft) from Yazd per piece 15 to 150 mohurs.
• Brocaded velvets from Europe per piece 10 to 70 mohurs
• Brocaded velvets from Gujarat per piece 10 to 50 mohurs
• Brocaded velvets from Kashan per piece 10 to 40 mohurs
• Brocaded velvets from Herat per piece 10 to 40 mohurs.
• Brocade velvet from Lahore per piece 10 to 40 mohurs.

(Plain velvet from Europe per yard 1 to 4 mohurs. 70

• Velvet from Kashan per piece 2 to 7 mohurs.

• Velvet from Yazd per piece 2 to 4 mohurs.
• Velvet from Mashhad per piece 2 to 4 mohurs.
• Velvet from Herat per piece 1½ to 3 mohurs.
• Velvet from Khafi per piece 2 to 4 mohurs.
• Velvet from Lahore per piece 2 to 5 mohurs.
• Velvet from Gujarat per yard 1 to 2 rupees.
• Qatifa-yi-I Purabi per yard 1 to 1.½ rupees.

From this list it is clear that during the reign of Akbar, velvets were woven in
Gujarat, Lahore Eastern India and possibly Bengal. In Gujarat and Lahore good
quality voided velvets, Makhmali Zarbaft were produced. Lahore was a center which
was producing excellent quality of brocaded velvets. We also find the reference of
voided velvets with gold background on the account of Edward Terry.

It appears that during the reign of Jahangir velvets were exported to foreign
country, which is clear from Sir Thomas Roe’s account, he describes that Sultan of an
Arab Kingdom at the mouth of the Red sea “met us with all his pomp… His clothes
are of Surat stuff after the Arab manner a cassock of wrought velvet red and white and
another of green gold…. 71 So far as the reign of Shah Jahan is concerned the use of
velvet continued to a great extent but the peculiarity was that the more and more
decorated velvets were produced during his reign and there was an extensive use of
gold and silver work on velvet. And the fine quality of velvets were produced at

69
Ain-i-Akbari , op.cit.p.98
70
Ibid.p.99
71
Foster W. op .cit.

65
different centers like Delhi, Agra, Lahore Ahmadabad, Surat and Jaipur. With the
decline of Mughal Empire the production of finest quality of velvet also discontinued.
The most finest quality of velvet produced from Akbar to ShahJahan’s reign. Then
with the disintegration of Mughal Empire the velvet weaving industries also affected
adversely.

. Cotton Muslins:

Cotton fabrics are the most preferable products of India. The cotton muslins
are the most famous products of India and known by different names as ‘woven air’,
‘running water’ and ‘evening dew’. 72 Muslin was the main production of cotton
weaving industry of India. It was produced all over the country. No other fabric can
compete the delicacy of muslin of India. Plain muslin as produced almost all over the
northern India. But the most famous among all were the muslins of Dacca. 73

During the Mughal period the most important industry was the cotton
industry. Under the Mughals Dacca muslin were the most famous of all cottons.
During this period most of the part of the production of Dacca muslin was consumed
by the Mughal royalty. 74 Muslin is called by different names such as: shabnam
(evening dew), Ab-i-Rawan (running water), baftnma (woven air), malmal-i-khas
(king’s Muslin), sarbati (sweet as sherbate). Ain-i-Akbari has mentioned several
varieties of cotton stuffs used at the Mughal court e.g.
Khasa, Chautar Malmal Tansukh, SiriSaf, Gangajal, Bhiraun, Sahan, Jhona, Asawali,
Bafta, Mahmudi, 75Panchtoliya, Jhola, Salu, Doriva, Bahadur Shahi, Garba Suti,
Shela, from the Dakhin, Mihrkul, Mindil, Sarband, Dupatta, Katancha, Fota,
Goshpech, Chhint, Gazina, Silahati 76etc.

Jamdani is an ancient fine muslin cloth with geometrical, floral designs. The
origin of the word Jamdani is uncertain. One popular belief is that it came from the
Persian word ‘Jama’ which means cloth and ‘dana’, which means buti or diapering.
Jamdani therefore could mean diapered cloth. Thus the word jamdani means loom
embroidered or figured, and is applied both to the woolen weaves of Kashmir as well
72
Saraswati S.K.; Indian Textiles,1961, Faridabad, p.1.
73
Ibid., p.3.
74
Biswas A ,Indian Costumes, New Delhi, 1985, p.110.
75
Ain-i-Akbari, op.cit.p.100
76
Ibid. p.101

66
as to the cotton flowered weaves of Gangetic plain. 77 It is probable, that the Muslims
introduced Jamdani weaving industry and was their monopoly for a long.

From the earliest times, the Gangetic plain was famous for its fine muslins.
Banaras was famous for its muslins and the finest of them are known as
Kasivastra. 78The Majjhima Nikaya mentions the fat that the great development of fine
cotton in Banaras was due to the growing of fine grade cotton, the presence of
proficient spinner and the softness of the water for washing and bleaching. 79

The flowered, muslins have small flowers sprays worked on them with
unequalled delicacy of touch. The malmal khas or ‘kings muslin’ are made in length
of 10 yards and one yard in width, containing from 1000 to 1800 threads in the warp.
These could only be made during the rainy season, the moisture in the air allowing the
very fine thread to be woven, and a time of about five month was required. 80

Among all the figured muslins, Jamdanis are the most beautiful. In Jamdani
muslins the designs are inserted by the hand during the process of weaving and
producing the effect of embroidery. In Jamdani weaving gold, silver and coloured
thread are through the warp. 81Dr. James Taylor describes the process of weaving
these figured fabrics. 82 “In manufacturing figured fabrics two weavers sit at the
looms. They place the pattern drawn on paper, below the warp, and arrange along the
track of the woof a number of cut threads equal to the flowers or parts of the design
intended to be made and then, with two small fine pointed bamboo sticks, they draw
each of these threads between as many threads of the warp as may be equal to the
width of the figure which is to be formed. 83 When all the threads have been brought
between the warp they are drawn close by a strokes of the day. The shuttle is then
passed by one of the weavers through the shed, and the weft having been driven
home, it is returned by the other weaver. The weavers resume their work with their
pointed bamboo sticks and repeat the operations with the lay and shuttle in the manner
above described, observing each time to pass the flower threads between a greater or
77
Jayakar, Pupul: “Cotton Jamdani of Tanda and Banaras”, in Dhamija, Jasleen and Jain,
Jyotindra, editors. Hand woven fabrics of India. Ahmedabad: Mapin, 1990 . p.97.
78
Ibid. pp. 98-99.
79
Ibid. p.99.
80
Mehta Rustam J., The Handicrafts and Industrial Arts of India, Bombay, 1960, p.97.
81
Ibid.
82
Sharma Suguna, op. cit. p.67
83
Ibid.. p.68.

67
less number of the threads of the warp, in proportion to the size of the design to be
formed”. 84

The most important thing about the Jamdani fabric is its variety of designs,
some of which are of Persian origin, 85 like small sprays or buti of flowers like the
jasmine (chameli), the marigold (genda) and the patterns of small circular dots
(chanda), stars (tara), betel leaves (pan) and bouquets of flowers (tora) are also used.
The main emphasis of the patterns of jamdanis are the brocades. Brocades are usually
applied of silk fabrics but the figured and flowered jamdanis of Dacca looks like the
silk brocades. 86

Cotton textile fabrics are having a long historical base. Cotton weaving and
cotton spinning are well known to Indian sub-continent since ancient period. Cotton is
a fabric made from the fibres taken from the seeds of the cotton plants. The woven
fabrics are always having a great importance. India produces the enormous variety of
cotton products. From the ancient period to 18th century, India was the supplier of
cotton to all countries in the world. 87

In India there was a tradition of hand-woven clothes since the ancient period.
Most probably hand spinning and weaving is the most ancient craft of Eastern world.

Among all cotton fabrics muslin was the most fabulous and preferred fabric of
India. It is well known by the poetic names i.e. abrawan or ab-i-Rawan or running
water, Bafthawa or Bafthma (woven air), Sharbati (sweet as Sherbat) and Shabnam
(evening dew). These lovely words are used for mulmulkhas or muslin. 88

The muslin was so famous for its fineness that it seemed invisible under water
most of the time. There is a story about the fineness of muslin that Zeb-un-Nissa
daughter of Aurangzeb was asked by her father that she was desecrating the dignity of
the royal court. The princess calmly replied that she was fully covered. She was
covered with not one but seven Jamas covering her slim body. No doubt Dacca
muslin was world famous during the medieval period. 89

84
Ibid.
85
Saraswati,op.cit.,1961
86
Sharma Suguna, op. cit.p.68.
87
Ibid.
88
Mehta Rustam J., op. cit. p.4.
89
Ibid., p.5.

68
 Among all types fine muslins jamdani was more famous and the finest.
The jamdani was a type of figured muslin. Among all the production of Dacca loom
the jamdani was the most finest. On jamdani cloth motifs were worked out weave
pattern which gave an effect of embroidery. The method of production of jamdani
was similar to the tapestry work. In the method of production the coloured, gold and
silver thread are passed through the warp. Generally the paper pattern are used in it.
The jamdani was the most famous and expensive cloth of Dacca. During the Mughal
period jamdani was the finest type of muslin which was in vogue. 90

The fabric of jamdani was often in grey cotton with bluish embroidery over it.
Sometimes black embroidery was also used with the combination of gold and silver
thread. The designs which were in vogue during the Mughals were mostly of Persian
origin. But the figured and floral patterns executed on jamdani cloth were not
altogether of Persian origin but were the combination of indigenous and Persian
origins. The most popular design of jamdani motif is the large rosettes set. The
jamdanis which were in white were decorated in yellow, red, blue or black cotton to
form heavy designs. 91

Abul Fazl’s Ain-i Akbari, furnishes perhaps the most informative

account of woven loom textiles developed under the Muslims and testifies intelligent
patronage of the emperor Akbar.

The weavers were not allowed to sell the pieces of muslin for more than 72
lives. Therefore the merchants were purchasing muslins through the government
intermediaries who paid annually to the government for these privileges. In its return
they were allowed to take their commission.

In the Ain-i Akbari, there is no mention of the word Jamdani in the list of
cotton cloths acquired for the royal wardrobe. The name tanzeb appears and is used as
an alternative word for a coat or a type of jacket in Ain-i Akbari. This was a type coat
made from the finer types of Jamdani cloth, the words tanzeb and pench being used
even today to denote the most expensive type of figured muslins. Although no direct
information exists, it is likely that royal Karkhanas were set up under the Mughals for

90
Ibid.
91
Ibid.

69
the manufacture of jamdani cottons. Forbes Watson mentions special jamdanis woven
at Dacca for Aurangzeb costing £ 31 par piece. 92

So far as the manufacturing technique of the jamdani is concerned, the

fineness of muslin cloth used to depend usually on the art of making yarns. The most
appropriate time for making yarn was early morning as the air then carried the highest
moisture. For making yarn weavers needed, a bamboo basket, a shell and a stone cup.
They used popcorn rice or barley for starch. Before making jamdani design they used
to dye their yarn and starch it. For dye they used flowers and leaves of creepers. The
method of weaving resembles tapestry work in which small shuttles of colored, gold
or silver threads – are passed through the weft. The jamdani dexterously combines
intricate surface designs with delicate floral sprays.

The ornamental figures are woven by two threads of yarn of the same count as
in the background, being introduced into the cloth by means of extra spools, the
threads of which are passed under and over the ornament as many times as are
required to for the design. 93 The threads selected for this purpose are lifted up by the
weaver with his finger.

We do not know exactly when jamdani came to adorned with floral patterns of
the loom. It is, however, certain that in Mughal period, most likely during the reign of
either Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) or Emperor Jahangir, the figured or flowered
muslin came to be known as the jamdani. Forbes Watson in his most valuable work
titled ‘Textile Manufacture and Costumes of the people of India’ holds that the
figured muslins, because of their complicated delights, were always considered the
most expensive productions of the Dacca looms. 94

So far as the designs and colors are concerned they were changing from time
to time. In court textiles produced by the royal karkhanas of the Mughals, living
forms of birds and animals disappear, and only floral ornaments are introduced into
the cloth, this taboo being rigidly enforced in all textiles to be worn on the body. The

92
Watson J. Forbes , Textile Manufacturers and Costumes of India. “The Jamdani or loom figured
muslins, from the exquisite delicacy of manipulation which many of them display, may be
considered the chef-d’ oeuvre of the Indian weaver. From their complicated designs they have
always constituted the expensive productions of the Dacca loom. Those manufactured for the
Emperor Aurangzeb are stated to have cost 31, while some manufactured in 1776 reached the
extravagant price of 56 per piece.” p.102.
93
Ibid., p. 102.
94
Ibid.

70
same prohibition exists even today among the weavers of Chanderi. 95 The concept of
colors also undergoes a change. In the list of colors mentioned in the Ain-i Akbari as
comprising the royal wardrobe, there is no longer mention of the various tones of
white. Here it is mentioned the white and black are believed to be the origin of all
colors. 96 The kora unbleached cloth which has ritual significance to the Hindu gives
place to the bleached jamdani worn at the Mughal. 97

Apart from them intended for the production of angarkhis the jamdani cloth is
woven for caps and for saris. Borders, pillars or end pieces of saris and the buta (small
motifs) are woven. The forms of the ornament are floral. The flowers which decorate
the cloth are woven either vertically or horizontally. The chameli, mogra, juhi,
khaspomera, genda, khaskamana, ishqapech, harsingar, phulbanjari are some of the
common flowers used for the designs. The following names of designs have been
given by one of the best known jamdani weavers of Tanda.

Airbel (bel, meaning creeper or climber) – running figures arranged

diagonally. The laharia (lahar, meaning a wave) – figures like the wave of the sea.
Harsara – straight or wave – like vertical lines interspersed with little flower like
motifs. Kharibel – running figures arranged horizontally. Kangura – border about 3”
wide for saris, dupattas, blouses etc. 98

The most important feature that distinguish the flowered muslin of Tanda from
other ornamental weaves are the use of the twill tapestry technique of weaving and the
absence of the naqsh and of the function of the naqshband. John Irwin in his
monograph on shawls has traced the origin of the twill tapestry technique to the time
of Zain-ul-Abidin (A.D. 1420-1470) of the opinion that weavers from Turkistan
introduced the twill-tapestry technique into India. He supports this view on the basis
that the twill-tapestry technique of weaving apart from the tilikar weaving of shawls
in Kashmir, does not exist in any other part of the Indian sub-continent and the
technique used in the weaving of these Kashmir shawls can be traced back to the
introduction of artisans into Kashmir at the time of Zain-ul-Abidin. 99

95
Dhamija J., op. cit.pp.100.
96
Ain-i- Akbari, op. cit. pp.102.
97
Dhamija, J. , op. cit.pp.100.
98
Ibid. pp.101.
99
Irwin, John, Shawls: A study in Indo-European Influences, London, 1955, p. 2.

71
 It is concluded that in spite of the pomp and show of the Mughal rulers they
preferred the costumes made of muslin to a great extent. Main reason behind it was
that it was well suited to the Indian climate, and widely produced in India.

Woolen Stuffs:

The English word Shawl is derived from the Persian word Shal. It should be
considered as a class of woven fabric in place of a particular dress, these shals could
be used as a girdle, a mantle, a scarf, or a turban. We can differentiate on the basis of
the quality of the material used for making these garments. 100 The material used for
making Kashmiri Shawls was fleece taken from the Centre Asian species of the
mountain goat known as, Capra hircus. In west it is known as either Pashmina or
Cashmere, derived from the old spelling of Kashmir. 101 The term Cashmere is
misspelled as these shawls were produced in Kashmir but the wool used for making
these Shawls was imported from Tibet or Centre Asia and was not produced
locally. 102

Kashmir shawls are the most unique achievement of Indian sub-continent. As

they are woven slowly by the skilled craftsmen using the rarest materials, produced in
unusual structure, which was confined to a single geographical area etc. On the basis
of all above feature we can imagine that how these world’s finest textiles were
created. It might be said on the bases of the researches done in this field that whatever
information are available about Kashmir shawls is a combination of ambiguous facts,
hyperbole, and pure fiction in some cases.

When we read the histories of Kashmir either from early travellers accounts or
from other modern works we find a very contradictory picture of the facts available
on Kashmir shawls. In spite of these contradictions many unsupported facts are
accepted by some historians. Among these the most common errors first was that the
weaving of shawls 103 in Kashmir began during the reign of the Kashmiri Sultan
Zainul’Abidin in the 15th century, second was that the shawl weaving was a
technically complex procedure which requires specialized equipments; and the third is
the confusion about the identity of the materials used to weave Kashmiri shawls.

100
Ibid, p.2.
101
Ibid.
102
Ibid., p.3.
103
Barnes Ruth, Cohen Stevan, Crill Rosemary; Trade Temple and Court Indian Textiles from
Tapi Collections, Mumbai, 2002, p-112.

72
 The most confusing fact about these Kashmiri shawls is its genesis. Sultan
Zain-ul-Abidin is generally considered the first who encouraged the production of
shawls in Kashmir, who was a prisoner of Timur, a Turko-Mongal conqueror in
Samarkand. 104 After the death of Timur Zain-ul-Abidin was released, and this
enlightened Sultan encouraged the production of shawls in Kashmir by inviting
weavers from Turkestan to Kashmir to teach the native weavers but this story seems
untrue. Because Zain-ul-Abidin was not even born when Timur invaded India in
1398. He was never ever a Timur’s prisoner in Samarkand but his long peaceful reign
in Kashmir (1420 to 1470) provided time for innovation in craftsmanship in Kashmir
valley, but woven shawls had already been woven there for many centuries before
15th century, but it was not introduced during his reign.

An Austrian Baron, Charles von Hugel 105 also gives an interesting account.
Who gives his argument on the basis of Rajatarangini that during the reign of Zain-ul-
Abidin artists came from ‘long distances’ to his court and the weavers of Kashmir
learned to weave valuable cloths of silk and wood, some of which were patterned and
decorated with creeper designs. 106 In one of the Rajatarangini’s passage Srivara
described neighboring Jammu as a ‘foreign country’, so it is clear that he talked
simply about a valley next to Srinagar. Therefore, it is clear that the Rajatarangini
does not mention about weavers came from Turkestan, or from any other specific
place. In this way Srivara’s Rajatarangini also provides little information about the
shawls of Kashmir.

The list of woollen fabrics mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari is as follows;

Scarlet Broadcloth, from Turkey, Europe, and Portugal,
per yard 2¼ R. to 4 M.
Do., from Nagor and Lahor, per piece 2 R. to 1 M.
Suf-i murabbas, do. 4 to 15 M.
Suf-i…, do. 3 R. to 1 1/5 M.
Parmnarm 107, do. 2 R. to 20 M.
Chira-yi Parmnarm, do. 2 R. to 25 M.
Fota 108, do. ½ to 3 M.

104
Ibid.
105
Ibid.
106
Ibid.
107
Ain-i- Akbari, op. cit. p. 101.

73
Jamawar-i Parmnarm, do. ½ to 4 M.
Goshpech, do. 1½ R. to 1½ M.
Sarpech, do. ½ to 4 M.
Aqhri, do. 7 R. to 2½ M.
Parmgarm 109, per piece 3 R. to 2½ M.
Katas, do. 2½ R. to 10 M.
Phuk, do. 2½ to 15 R.
Durman, do. 2 R. to 4 M.
Patu 110, do.. 1 to 10 R.
Rewkar, do. 2 R. to 1 M.
Misri, do. 5 R to 50 R.
Burd-i Yamani, do. 5 R to 35 R.
Manji namad, do. 2 R. to 1 M.
Kanpak namad, do. 2 R. to 1 M.
Takyal namad 111, from Kabul and Persia *
Do., country mae, do. 1½ to 5 R.
Lo’i, do. 14 d. to 4 R.
Blankets, do. 10 d.to 2 R.
Kashmirian Caps, do. 2 d. to 1 R.

Confusion over material: Pashmina and Tus:

There is a confusion regarding the materials used in the weaving of traditional

Kashmiri shawls. Most of the authors mention about goat hair both domestic and
wild, some mention about sheep wool, while the other mention of the wool of wild
mountain sheep, ibex and even antelopes are sometimes woven into fine shawls. The
main difficulty here is to match the specific local names for these materials; Pashm,
Pashmina, tus, asalitus and shah tus with their correct zoological sources. 112

The most of the good quality of Kashmiri shawls were woven entirely with
pashm wool. In Kashmir the word Pashm is used for the raw, unprocessed soft, fine
under hair hand-combed from a domesticated goat (Capra hircuslaniger) which is still
108
Ibid.101.
109
Ibid.102.
110
Ibid.
111
Ibid.
112
Trade Temple and Court, op. cit. p.114

74
raised in ladakh, the vast arid region directly to the east of Kashmir. Nowadays a
number of larger herds of Pashmina goats are also commercially reared in Tibet,
Mongolia and Chinese Central Asia (Xinjiang), but most of the Pashmina used in
Kashmir was coming from the Chang Thang Plateau in Ladakh, at altitudes of over
14,000 feet, as well as from western Tibet and Yarkand. It is considered that no
Pashm was ever produced in Kashmir itself, but the Kashmiris held a monopoly on
the purchase of all Ladakhi Pashm, as they were the only ones who were capable of
hand spinning the very finest grades of Pashm thread. Therefore, the woven material
Pashmina has always been associated with Kashmir rather than Ladakh or Tibet and
in the west, Pashmina is known as Cashmire or Kashmir wool because its actual
source was never cleared. 113

But all Kashmiri shawls were not woven with Pashmina. The shawls mixed
with silk and pashm, woven in Lahore were already mentioned by Abu’l Fazl in the
Ain-i-Akbari of the 1590s. It was called mayan which consisted of silk and wool
mixed.114 Historically the most expensive and rarest of all Kashmiri shawls were
woven from the wool of various wild mountain sheep, ibex, (Capra ibex siberica), and
most commonly important, a small Tibetan antelope (Pantholops, hodgsoni), which
are known in Ladakhi as stos and in Tibetan as chiru. A small quantities of these wool
was collected by herders and nomads when the beasts rub them against rocks and
shrubs in the season of spring to rid themselves from the thick winter coats.

The shawls made of this costly material in Kashmir was known as tus, aslitus
(‘genuine’ tus) or shah tus (kingly tus) and was costly because its diameter was
smaller (10 micron wide) in comparison to the diameter of Pashm fibres. (15.5
microns)

According to Moti Chandra, Ksemendra’s 11th century works Desopadesa and

Narmamala give the reference of weaving and designing of woolen Kashmir shawls
of different qualities and colours. 115 The difficulty was that the meaning of the word
was changing from time to time. In Ksemendra’s work we find the reference of cloths
woven of tus, an antelope hair by using the word tusta-pravarna, which resembles
with tus. Chandra describes the history of shawl weaving in Sind, Punjab and hilly

113
Trade Temple and Court, op. cit. p.114
114
Ain-i- Akbari, op. cit., p. 98.
115
Chandra, Moti, Costume Textiles Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and Medieval India, Delhi,
1973, p.231.

75
regions such as Swat which surrounded Kashmir, we don’t find any direct reference to
Kashmir. 116

In Mahabharata, we find the reference of many gifts in form of Kambala,

woolen blankets or shawl. The sources of these textiles are mentioned as Kamboja,
ancient Bacteria in Afghanistan and Iran, and China. It is also mentioned that these
textiles were made of goat hair called Rankava. 117 A relative term Ranku is also found
in the Buddhist Amarkosa of the Gupta period. Similarly, we find the reference of a
term Rang used by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, in 17th century, which describe the
two varieties of wild antelopes, one of which was the caprasiberica, a minor source of
Tus. Therefore Chandra’s account about the genesis of the shawl material seems
convincing to some extent, that the tradition of importing fine goat hair cloth into
northern India from far and wide sources. 118

Therefore, the weaving of patterned woolen shawls in the Kashmir valley is

well described by Srivara in 15th century in his Jaina Rajatarangini, it is similarly
discussed in Ksemendra’s 11th century Narmamala. Woolen cloth weaving was in
vogue even during the 4th-2nd century B.C. According to Chandra some of these cloths
were woven from Pashmina while others were made from Tus. If it was so then the
rare materials imported from Central Asia and China and was passing through
Laddakh to Kashmir. 119

Cashmere:
Cashmere forms the most gorgeous item of an Indian wardrobe. Cashmere120
was not only famous in India but it attracted Europeans also. The Persian meaning of
that is a fine woven woollen fabric. 121 Of all Indian “textiles” observes Ananda K.
Coomaraswamy, “none excels in beauty of colour, texture and designs the famous
Kashmiri shawls”. 122 The main raw material for making shawls is wool which is

116
Trade Temple and Court Indian Textiles from Tapi Collections, op. cit. p.117.
117
Ibid., p.117.
118
Ibid., p.117.
119
Ibid., p. 118.
120
Here along with the aforesaid predominant motifs, geometrical motifs, mosaic patterns and
zigzags in rich colours were in vogue in the pattern scheme of Mughals and others.
121
Bamzai, P.N.K. A History of Kashmir, Delhi, 1962, 448
122
Coomaraswamy Ananda K., The Arts and Crafts of India and Ceylon, London, 1913, p.250.

76
provided by shawl goats (Capra …..) which was inhabited the region of Central Asia,
Tibet and Ladakh. 123

In summers they rub their body against rocks and shrubs from where the wool
was collected once a year. Generally the hairs of the shoulders, chest and abdomen
regions is of fine quality, which are laboriously separated from coarser hair. Therefore
this wool was used to make the Asli Tush, Shahi Tush and Pashmina. 124

The art of Kashmiri shawls was fabulous in its colour schemes. During the
Mughal period more than three hundred shades were in vogue. 125 The main colours
which were in vogue are white (safed), grey (tush), scarlet (lal), golden (zari), yellow
(zard), brass (brinji), mauve (unnavi), purple (sosni), pink (gulabi), mango-green
(ambone), apple-green (sebki), parrot-green (tutki), blue (asmani), almond (badami),
magenta (magithi), pista-green, or light brown (bhojapatra) to mention a few. 126

The peculiarity of this period was that in place of synthetic colours, vegetable
dyes were used – blue and purple from indigo, orange and yellow from carthamus and
saffron and red from log-wood. When we analyse the designs and motifs used for
decorating shawls we come to the point that they were of limited nature.

Plant foliage, fruits, creepers, stems and animals figure were generally used
for ornamentation of shawls. The oldest shawl piece which is survived is preserved in
the Calico Museum of Textiles in Ahmedabad 127, and it belongs to seventeenth
century. The pattern used here is the slender floral rows with a thin significant
border. 128 A similar single flower motif piece is preserved in the Bharat Kala Bhavan,
Varanasi. 129

The buta, generic form of floral motifs 130, was transferred into a formal shape,
a cone derived from the Persian wind blowncypru. 131 At the same time this motif also
resembles with the textile patterns Gujarat and Rajasthan. 132

123
Sukladas, Fabric Art heritage of India,1992, New Delhi. p.38.
124
Irwin John , The Kashmir Shawl, London, 1973, p.5.
125
Abul Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, op. cit. p.97.
126
Ibid. p.97-98.
127
Irwin John , 1973, op. cit., 11.
128
Ibid., plate 1.
129
Singh Chandramani and Devaki, Ahivali, ‘Woolen Textiles and Costumes from Bharat Kala
Bhavan, Banaras Hindu University, 1981, pl. 2.
130
Birdwood G.C.M , The Industrial Arts of India, London, 1880, 280.
131
Anand K. Coomaraswamy, op. cit., 251.
132
Chandramani Singh and Devaki Ahivasi, op. cit., 9.

77
 The fleece was taken from the animals as it was the natural protection from the
severe cold of winters. It comes out of the rough outer hair. Goats were the main
source of shawl wool, a similar fleece was derived the Himalayan mountain sheep
such as Shapo, the Argali, the Bharan and the Himalayan Ibex. It is also believed that
the Tibetan Shepherds’ dogs were also used for this fleece. 133 This fleece is also
divided into two or more distinct grades. The best one renowned for its warmth and
silkiness was aslitus which was taken only from the wild animals, collected from the
rocks when the animals rubbed themselves in summers. 134 The second type of shawl
wool was taken from the same species of the domestic goats. This provided the plenty
of material for the Kashmir Shawls. Most of it was coming from Laddakh and
Western Tibet. This was supplied by the herds of nomadic Kirghiz tribe and was
imported through Yarkand and Khotan. 135

Therefore fine shawls were produced on a large scale in India. But the raw
material used for making shawls was not available locally. It was imported from
China, Tibbet, Leh Laddakh and other areas also but were produced mainly in
Kashmir. Thus Kashmir has remained the major center for the production of Shawls.

Thus it is concluded that under the Mughal rule, patronage given to the textiles
was remarkable. The Textiles mainly preferred by the Mughals were very gorgeous.
They used to prefer the textiles made with very fine material and obviously the cost of
these textiles was very high as it was used by the royalty. As discussed above among
Silk the Mughals preferred silk brocades and Patolas silk. Among different varieties
of cotton, muslin and jamdani muslins or figured muslin were mostly preferred by the
Mughals, as India was the major producer of cotton textiles there was a plenty of raw
material for cotton goods. The woolen fabric mainly used by the Mughals were of
pashm wool and tus or asli tus wool which was produce locally but the raw material
was imported from outside.

133
Vinge G.T., Travels in Kashmir , Laddakh and Iskardo, vol.2, London, 1842. p.124.
134
Mannucci, op. cit., vol.2, p.341.
135
Irwin John; Shawls, A Study in Indo-European influence, London, 1955, p.6.

78