Motivation and Leadership (Unit 4 49 UNIT 4 Motivation and Leadership Se A. AmMOTIVATION 41.1. Meaning and Definition of Motivation ‘The word ‘motivation’ has originated from the term ‘motive’ which relates to wants, needs, impulses and drives within a person. Motivation refers to the process of inspiring people for doing tasks and achieving goals and desires. Motivation is a psychological occurrence that originates from the wants and needs of people. It initiates a goal- oriented behaviour. It is the force that drives individuals into action. This force is the outcome of a state of tension which has arisen due to unfulfilled needs. Individuals make every effort to eliminate this stress through such behaviours which will help them in fulfilling their needs and thereby, make them stress free. According to Dalton E. McFarland, “Moiivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs direct, control or explain the behaviour of human beings”. ‘According to Likert, “Motivation is the core of management which shows that every human being gives him a sense of worth in face-to-face groups Which are most important to him. A supervisor should strive to treat individuals with dignity and Tecognition of their personal worth”. 4.1.2. Elements of Motivation Following are the main elements of motivation: ) ction: The goal or target that encourages an individual towards the better performance is called ‘direction’. There are numerous options among which a goal is selected, irrespective of whether the individual is aware of it or not. Certain intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the selection of a goal, which might oppose one another. For example, a person might naturally like to remain isolated but will be motivated to adopt a social lifestyle for career progress or social standing. 2) Intensity: The level of energy applied in the desired direction is called “intensity”. Intensity and anticipation of desired output are closely related. Intensity is based on the person's observation about the probability of achieving the desired result from the efforts that had been put in, This certainly happens, even if the perception is unrealistic. For example, if an individual believes that he would be getting a salary hike, he might be motivated to work harder to get it. This might also motivate him to work for late hours; thereby his level of productivity goes up. 3) Persistence: It is the determination with which a person puts in efforts and energy to achieve his goals. Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the maintenance of this determined behaviour. The factors responsible for the initiation of behaviour = may differ comprehensively from the factors responsible for the development, sustenance and persistence of energised behaviour. In case, a person feels learning to be satisfactory and enjoyable, the extrinsic motivation may completely get substituted by intrinsic motivation. 4.1.3. Process of Motivation ‘The process of motivation involves various steps as shown in figure 4. Motive Tension as Reduction Goal Figure 4.1: Process of Motivation 1) Motive: The process of motivation starts as soon as the individual finds a motive behind performing any action. Motives stimulate behaviour and hence, provide a reason behind that behaviour. To a large extent, motives are personal and explain the thought process of an individual, They keep on surfacing and provide the direction to the individual.180 MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) INTU-K 2) Behaviour: All the activities that an individual performs, when he is motivated towards achieving personal and organisational goals, collectively constitute his behaviour. The motives of an individual exhibit his goals. At times, these motives generate a”situation of inequality as the physiological and the psychological conditions of the individual may become imbalanced. Hence, the behaviour which directs the individual towards goal attainment strives for attaining the balance between the two, 3) Goal: Goal of an individual is inspired by numerous factors such as the customs and morals, his inherited potentials, personal learning and experiences and his social and physical surroundings, 4) Tension Reduction: In an organisation, employees tend to grow motivational urges due to the cultural environment of the organisation and the obligation to achieve their goals. These urges also affect the perception of employees about their job as well as their personal and professional life. 4.1.4. Types of Motivation Different types of motivation are as follows: 1) Positive Motivation versus Negative Motivation i) Positive Me mn: This type of motivation develops a positive and cheerful climate in the organisation. Positive motivation helps in recognising the employee's capabilities and aids in fulfilling those capabilities. When an organisation provides rewards and recognition as well as means to achieve them, the employee feels positively motivated. Rewards can be ‘monetary or non-monetary. ii) Negative Motivation: Goals set by the organisation can aiso be achieved by developing fear in the people. People are afraid of the consequences of doing or not doing a particular thing and hence, at times follow the right path. Negative motivation has many drawbacks as well. Fear leads to annoyance, aggressive mind-set and the person loses interest in his job. As a result, competence and output suffers. Hence, thi method should be avoided as much as possible. Motivation versus Emotional 2) Rational , > ational Motivation: Rational individual is ‘one who analyse the benefits and drawbacks of all the available options, before selecting the best possible one. In relation to marketing, customers who choose their product by keeping in mind various available options like weight, price, size, etc., are called rational customers. ii) Emotional Motivation: Emotional motives are those goals which an individual selects only on the basis of emotions. This means that personal criteria like fear, pride, status, ove, esteem, ctc., influence goal selection. 3) Primary Motivation versus Secondary Motivation i) Primary Motivation: Also called biological motivation, the primary motivation has a proper physiological existence. Biologically, this motivation is essential for the existence of human beings. The resulting behaviour helps in changing the internal environment, Increase or decrease in stimulation, reduced hunger, discomfort and thirst and stimulated senses (touch, taste, smell, etc.) are the basis of primary motivational needs. ii) Secondary Motivation: Also called psycho- sociological motivation, secondary motivation is learnt with the passage of time. These motives have no physical (physiological) basis, but help in personality development. Secondary motives develop during the lifecycle of an individual. ‘They can be divided into social motives and psychological motives. Social motives inspire a person to step out and meet people and involve in activities that instils a feeling of fun and contentment. Psychological motives are Personalised and differ from person to person. ‘They include self-esteem, self-exhibition, self security, self-assertion, ete, 4) Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation i) Intrinsic Motivation: This kind of motivation is internally generated and does not need any outside factor like financial rewards or grades. An employee might stick to his job as he might be getting a sense of contentinent, self-regulation and desire (© as he could feel that working ing a job is a subject of pride, 0° everyday work is interesting, ete. Such a? employce is inherently motivated to work Hence, behaviours that are not a result of at external reward but are the product of the activity itself, are called intrinsic motivatorMotivation and Leadership (Unit 4) For example, the need to fulfilment that comes with good performance, exciting, pleasurable and demanding tasks, the yearning to be a part of a social group, sense of accountability, self-respect, accomplishment, innovativeness and leaving a special mark through performance. Extrinsic Motivation: The motivation resulting from outside factors is called extrinsic motivation. Factors like rewards and recognition are the most common extrinsic factors. These factors provide more contentment than the task itself. These factors motivate the individual towards the desired outcome. Leaders or managers are capable of instilling this kind of motivation through their behaviours. Good leadership is not the only reason behind motivation. People might also be intimidated or terrorised by the managers and they might improve their performance to avoid horrible consequences. This kind of motivation is termed as negative reinforcement. People can also get motivated by external recognition, monetary rewards and benefits. People who are extrinsically motivated feel a sense of obligation to perform, in order to meet their lower order needs like money. Extrinsic motivation takes place when an individual is awarded with an incentive, which is not a part of the normal remuneration. (Self fulfilment) Esteem Needs or Ego Needs (Prestige, stats, sel-respect) Social Needs (Affection, friendship, belongingness) Safety and Security Needs (Protection, order, stability) Basic Physiological Needs (Food, water, air, sex, shelter) Figure 4.2: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory 5) Financial versus Non-Financial Motivation/ Incentives: Incentive is the stimulus that directs action into desired direction. Hence, incentive can be considered as criteria of motivation, Incentive has the power to direct the efforts of employees in right direction so that Predetermined goals can be achieved. Modern 151 organisational settings have numerous kinds of incentives that motivate the employees for better performance. Following are the two such kinds of incentives: i) Financial Motivation: It is monetary in nature as it can be measured in terms of money like salary, wages, allowances, fringe benefits, bonuses, etc. ii) Non-Financial Motivation: It is non- monetary in nature as it cannot be measured in terms of money like job enrichment, praise, growth opportunities, participative management, ete. 4.1.5. Approaches to Work Motivation/Theories of Motivation Following are the three general categories of theories of motivation: ‘Approaches to Work Motivation/Theories of Motivation Content Process ‘Contemporary Approaches pproaches ‘Approaches Maslow MeGregors Equity Theory Mowchy of Neca | Theory X and Y of Work ‘Theory room's Motivation Expectancy McClelland’s =] Theory ‘Achievement — Porter Lawler Motivation Expectancy ‘Theory Model (Extension of VIE Theoiy) 4.1.6. Content Approaches Every employee, working in any organisation, has certain needs and goals that he wants to achieve. He has a certain degree of strength to achieve those goals that can satisfy his needs. These factors motivate an employee to work harder at his job. Some of the well-known motivational content theories are Maslow’s Need Hierarchy, Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory, and Alderfer’s ERG Theory. According to content theories, there is always one best motivating technique that can commonly be used for all the employees. The content theories mainly focus on the need of the employees and their motivating factors. Thus, these theories are very useful for the managers because by using them managers can motivate the workers accordingly and thereby, increase the organisational productivity. 4.1.6.1. Theory Human beings have categorised their needs into two types ~ first one is basic (primary) needs, which are essential for the survival of the human beings and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needa MBA First Semester (Management and Organi second one is acquired (secondary) needs, which are less important as compared to basic needs. Though there are numerous needs or desires, but which one should be given priority is the important question. So, this question was answered by Abraham Harold Maslow through his theory which represents a hierarchy of needs. Need hierarchy theory mainly emphasised on following points: 1) Human beings are those animals whose desires never end. They always need some or the other things to satisfy themselves. 2) Once a need is satisfied, it stops motivating an individual further. 3) Depending upon the importance, needs have a certain order. According to Maslow, need hierarchy has following sequence: 1) Basic Physiological Needs: Basic requirements of an individual such as food, shelter, clothing, air, water, etc., are considered as basic physiological needs. Since these needs are essential for the survival and sustainability of human beings, hence, these needs are prioritised and placed at the initial stage of the Maslow's need hierarchy theory. 2) Safety and Security Needs: After the fulfilment of basic needs, human beings expect safety and security of themselves as well as of their family. These securities are in the form of job security, insurance (life insurance, vehicle insurance, etc.), old age security (pension, retirement fund, etc.), and security of income. In simple words, an individual requires an maintain his standard of living. 3) Social Needs: Social need is a kind of cognitive requirement of human beings. When this need is ‘not met, it creates a lot of imbalance in the mind of an individual which adversely affects his health. Since man lives in a society, he socialises himself by interacting with other people, share his feelings with others, making friends, etc. That is why, it is said that the community and culture of an individual reflect his identity. 4) Esteem Needs or Ego Needs: Egoistic needs are of two types, i.c., internal and external. Self- confidence, self-motivation, skills, abilities, competency, etc., are some of the factors that are based on internal egoistic needs and are earned after an immense hard work by an individual. Individuals having inward esteem needs always ‘eared gratitude’ by the society. peas focus on building External egoistic needs tional Behaviour) INTU-K goodwill and status of an individual that is eared by achieving some higher position or if the individual becomes financially, socially and politically powerful. 5) Self-Actualisation Needs: It is a stage of self- fulfilment in which people realise their highest potential for self-development in a unique or creative way. In simple words, these needs are considered as aim of an individual's life. Once all the needs of an individual are met, he searches out for personal achievement that gives mental satisfaction to him. Individual having the need for achievement wants to become better than others, takes challenging tasks in order to demonstrate his potential and becomes successful which not only satisfies him but benefits the society as well. As per Maslow’s need theory: 1) There exist five levels of human needs that he requires to satisfy. 2) These needs are organised according to their preferences, i.e, most important to least important. 3) Once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a motivator, and hence, the individual proceeds towards next need, 4) After the fulfilment of one need, the next stage of, need evolves as a depressed need that an individual tries to satisfy. 5) Though the basic physiological needs and security needs are limited and can be satisfied easily but the other three needs are unlimited and have a great influence on the individuals working at senior levels. 6) Alll the five levels of Maslow’s need theory are mutually dependent on each other as all of them have some common characteristics, An individual can move on to the next level of need, only after satisfying the previous need. Each level of need affects the behaviour of an individual that motivates him to move further. 7) The first two needs, i.e., basic and safety needs, are considered as lower order needs and remaining three, i.e., social, egoistic and self- actualisation needs, are considered as higher order needs. 4.1.6.2. ‘Theory In the late fifties, a motivational theory was introduced by Frederick Irving Herzberg, named as motivation hygiene theory. It is also known as two- Herzberg’s Motivation - HygieneMotivation and Leadership (Unit 4) factor motivation theory, as it i factors, ic. job satisfaction and joy Qeeatseeat jn order t0 identify the factors responsible fer ah satisfaction and job dissatisfaction, Hersben decided to interview maximum number of employees working at higher levels in their respective companies. Thus, he interviewed around 200 Secountants and engineers to recall the times when they felt good and bad at theit workplace separately and then specify the reasons for theit feelings respectively. The factors responsible for both the Situations Were not at all similar, which concluded that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not contradictory. Thus, absence of job satisfaction rmeans no job satisfaction and not job dissatisfaction, Herzberg classified the factors responsible for either job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction into following categories: 1) Hygiene Factors: These factors are those motivating factors whose presence motivates the employees at the workplace but for a limited period only. However, their absence can result in job dissatisfaction for the employees. Adequate rhumber of hygiene factors at the workplace help in comforting the employees. Since, these factors focus on avoiding dissatisfaction, they are also termed as maintenance factors or dissatistiers. These factors play a very important role in creating a healthy work environment, which ultimately fulfils the physiological needs of the employees. Some of the hygiene factors are as ‘The salary structure of the employees should be set according to the market value. Salary paid to the employees working at ‘same position even in different organisations should remain same. The pay should be fair, reasonable and unbiased. ii) Company Policies and Administrative Policies: The policies set by the company should be flexible, unbiased and transparent in nature. Rigidity in working hours, leaves, breaks and dress-code can make the working environment uncomfortable forthe employees. iii) Fringe Benefits: Fringe benefits in the form of medical claims, benefit plans for family, assistance programmes for employees, etc., motivate the employees to a great extent. iv) Physical Working Conditions: The working conditions have a great impact on the performance of the employees as clean * and hygienic conditions satisfy and motivate them to work effectively. Unhealthy i) 2) 153 environment, unsafe and inefficient tools and equipment not only increase the risk of accidents but also lead to dissatisfaction. ¥) Status: The employees should be given proper respect in the organisation. ‘They should have a well-known status within the organisation, which must be retained by the firm, vi) Interpersonal Relations: The relationship between the employee and his colleagues, his superiors and juniors should be healthy and understandable. Arousal of any dispute or any embarrassing situation can adversely affect their relationships. vii) Job Security: Job security in the form of insurance, pension, retirement fund, etc., given by the organisation provides maximum job satisfaction to the employees and ‘motivates them to stay with the organisation for a long duration. ‘Motivational Factors: According to Herzberg, unlike hygiene factors, motivational factors positively satisfy the human beings for a much Jonger term. That is why, hygiene factors are considered as less motivating as compared to ‘motivational factors. These factors are also known as satisfiers and are inherent by nature. ‘These factors are considered as intrinsic rewards, that motivate employees to perform more effectively. According to motivational factors, basic physical needs are just an additional benefit, to the employees. Following are some of the motivational factors: i) Recognition: Managers should motivate the employees by praising and appreciating them for their hard work and good performance. ii) Sense of Achievement: While performing any job, employees must develop a sense of achievement. They must realise that their hard work will be rewarded at the end of the day. For this, managers can use some sort of rewards to motivate the employees. iii) Growth and Promotional Opportunities: Another way by which an organisation can motivate its employees is by providing them with numerous opportunities for their advancement that can help them in their career growth. iv) Responsil Managers should ty to make their subordinates accountable by minimising their interference and excessive14 control over their job. Employees should be made solely ‘responsible for their performance and must be provided with job ownershi ¥) Meaningfuiness of the Work: The more meaningful and challenging task is given to the employees, more interesting and ‘motivating that task becomes for them, Difference between Herzberg’s Theory and Maslow’s ‘Theory Herzberg’s Theory Basis of Maslow’s Difference ‘Theory 1) Hierarchy of [Needs are not| Needs are Needs amanged in any }ananged ina sequence, sequential order to their priorities. This theory is not|This theory is comprehensive. detailed. 3) Central "|The need to get| Unsatisfied ‘Theme appreciated ‘or|needs and recognised leads to/|desites lead to the improved | employee's employee better performance. performance. 4) Motivational |The stronger desires |The needs thar Factor for recognition, | remain achievement, unfulfilled Promotion, etc. act as | become ‘motivational factors. | motivational Hygienic factors are| factor for an OL considered as | individual. motivators, 5) Applicability | This theory is applied | Applicable to to solve the work- | solve the related problems of | common the individuals | problems of working at higher | employees. 2) Nature 6) Empirical [This theory is based | Unlike Herzberg Data fon the data collected | theory, this after experimenting | theory is not higher grade | based on employees such as| experiment but professional on the accountants and | perception, engineers. 4.1.6.3. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer's ERG theory is the improved version of Maslow’s need theory. Maslow’s need theory was not applicable to organisational setup. On the other hand, Alderfer's theory has described the human needs that are relevant to the work setting. According to Alderfer, needs can be classified into three 1) Enistence: These needs aze associated with the 1) Riwtence of human beings and are an extended MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU-K version of Maslow’s physi few of his safety needs, logical needs and a 2) Relatedness: These needs are tissociated interpersonal relations within the organisation, ‘They are an extended version of Maslow’s need for belongingness and a few of his safety needs and esteem/ego needs. 3) Growth: These needs are related to growth of human capability. Maslow’s need for self-esteem and self-actualisation are equivalent to growth needs. 4.1.7. Process Approaches Unlike content motivational theories, process theories such: as Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, McGregor’s Theory X and Y, Porter and Lawler ‘Model, etc., focus on determining the way by which ‘motivation process takes place in the employees. In simple words, these theories explain the entire Process, which an employce follows in order to satisfy his needs. This process includes his commencement, his sustainability and the way he directs his behaviour to minimise his inner stress and reach the desired goal Rather than emphasising on the needs of the employees, process theories emphasises on the goals and the methods by which employees can be motivated to achieve these goals. Identification of internal factors influencing the motivation Process of, an individual is the main target of these theories, According to these theories, motivation is entirely pased on the thinking, outlook and ideology of an individual and thus, motivation is considered as» cognitive process. 4.1.7.1. —McGregor’s Theory X and Y In 1960, Douglas McGregor introduced a theory named weory X nd Theory Y which mainly ry. According to this theory, every individual has two different views, i Positive and negative, McGregor called these negative views as Theory X and positive views as Theory Y. MeGregor tried to observe the behaviour of managers while interacting with their employees and concluded that the Viewpoints of managers for their employees are based on certain perceptions and these. perceptions further shape their behaviour. In today’s time, increasing pressure in the business world has made the organisation to forget theMotivation and Leadership (Unit 4) traditional rules that should be i dealing with the employees. Thus, this ‘hay proved cout to be beneficial for the organisations as it involves simple rules and regulations that should be followed by the managers while dealing with their subordinates. ‘Assumptions of Theory X ‘According to theory X, four assumptions followed by the managers are as follows: 1) Most of the employees try to neglect the work given to them as they inherently have an aversion to work. 2) Managers believe that employees need to be pressurised, supervised and sometimes even threatened to make them achieve the set targets. 3) Managers believe that employees do not take their responsibilities seriously and only follow the same routine rules wherever necessary. 4) Employces give priority to job security which makes them non-ambitious and lenient towards their job. Assumptions of Theory Y According to theory Y, various positive assumptions followed by the managers regarding employees are as follows: 1) Employees have the ability to treat their work cither as a routine task or as an enjoyable activity. 2) Employees having determination to accomplish desired goals and objectives can easily control themselves. 3) An average employee can become a responsible employee by developing the tendency to accept the responsibilit 4) Achievement of an employee is based on his level of commitment towards his objectives. The accomplishment of these objectives results in rewards which motivates him to become loyal towards his goal 5) Employees also have a great ability to think ‘out of the box’ and do something innovative. This is not only the responsibility of the employees working at higher positions, but also the average employees can be creative. Comparison of Theories X and Y Theory X and theory Y act as two faces of the same coin and are mutually exclusive by nature. Though, both of them are related to human nature but are absolutely opposite to each other. The difference ween the two theories is given below: 135 Distinction between X and Y Theories X Theory Y Theory TAttitude towards Work ‘theory, most of the] lemployees ‘According to this|This theory believes| lnaturally do not|game and enjoy| ike working. |doing it, if suitable} atmosphere | provided to them. that people treat their work as al [2) Acceptance of [Majority of the|When _employees| ‘Responsibility employees avoid|are motivated, they| taking responsibil lnon- lambitiousness. [They like to follow’ rather than to lead. lwhich depict their/directed, but _also| inot only become| |confident and self take responsit lopenheartedly. 3)Creativity [Since people are|According to this Inot serious about|theory, _being| their innovative is not] Iresponsibilite, they|strictly related to] lavoid using theirlhigher managerial creativity 10 solvelauthorities but this| lorganisational ability is present in] issues. almost every| person. l4)Motivation [Fulfilment of basic|The motivation is Ineeds and safetylnot limited to the| Inceds become the|satisfaction of basic lsource of|physiological and| Imotivation for the|safety needs. The| lemployees, motivation increases with the satisfaction ——_of| lsocial, egoistic and) self-actualisation Inceds. [5)€ontrot [Authoritarian |Employees, _ when| lcontrol by the|motivated lsuperiors is the|appropriately, can| lonly way to makellead themselves. in the employees|the right direction work ‘and|and can control laccomplish . the|their activities. established lorganisational goals. {6)Centralisation|Theory X focuses and Jon the higher gradeltheory Y is to Decentralisati |managers of thelincrease the on ‘company _and|participation level follows a chainJof the employees inl system, making the| \decisions —_and| focuses onl decentralisation, based on autoc leadership. [This theory __is|This theory is based| clon participative and ldemocratic leadership.a MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU-K 4.1.7.2. _Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Vroom’s Expectancy Theory is also known as (Valence & Instrumentality Theory). Vroom has Proposed a new Vroom’s theory of motivation is also known as Vroom’s Expectancy Theory and Valence and Instrumentality Theory. This theory Proposed that people motivate themselves to accomplish only those goals which are achievable. ‘Vroom's expectancy model believes that the rewards play a very important role in determining the motivation of an individual. Since human beings are rational by nature, they will search for the most beneficial alternative that can increase the value of these rewards. When people know the value of reward, they automatically motivate themselves to perform better in order to achieve the desired rewards and results. The first expectancy theory related to motivation at workplace was given by Victor ‘Vroom. According to Vroom, content motivational theories were unable to explain the entire process of ‘motivation. Thus, he tried to explain the motivational Process in his model which consisted of following three variables: Figure 4.3 summarises Vroom’s expectancy theory of work motivation: fe) a ; cmc = co ‘Motivational = 7 = a retas | Looed eee — Figure 4.3: Vroom's Valence and Instrumentality Theory 1) Expectancy: The possibility or probability of receiving any specific outcome after applying a specific behaviour or effort by an individual is known as expectancy. Expectancy gives an idea about the relationship between the efforts applied and the results received. mentality: The effect of first-level 2) Tnstrime, such as improvised performance onthe Second-level outcome such as, promotions, pay hike, bonus, etc. is known as “instrumentality”. “imple words, the extent to which the Da onevent in the performance of an individual ates the salary structure of that individual is fect instrumentality. This degree of influencing second-level outcome by the first-level outcome can either be very high or it can be very low and sometimes it is nil. Higher the degree of expectancy and instrumentality, greater is the motivation of the employee. 3) Valence: The value given by individual to rewards offered by the company is known as valence. Depending upon different individuals, sometimes valence is treated as incentives, sometimes as attitudes and some consider it as expected utility. For example, some employees have great value for promotion but some consider it as an increase in burden. Thus, they have different viewpoints about promotion. Valence is basically of three types: i) Positive Valence: Positive valence alongwith high expectancy will help in increasing the efforts as well as performance of the employee. This will further motivate the employee and lead him towards satisfactory outcome. ii) Zero Valence: When there is zero valence combined with any level of expectancy, it will remain non-reactive in motivating. the ‘employee. Negative Valence: Negative valence alongwith any level of expectancy always turns into negative motivation. Thus, it can be said that motivation is dependent on three factors: Motivational Force (M) = Expectancy (BE) x Anstrumentality (1) x Valence (V) Or M=(ExIxV) The strong interrelation among these three factors plays a very crucial role in strengthening the ‘motivation within the employee. In simple words, expectancy when multiplied by instrumentality and valence will decide the degree of motivation of an employee. Positive interrelation among three factors results in strong motivation. Thus, it can be said that the attractiveness and the expectancy of a particular outcome plays a very important role in strengthening the way efforts are applied. Criticisms of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Criticisms of Vroom's expectancy theory are as follows: 1) Simple in Nature: This theory does not explain the’ different levels of efforts acted out by an individual. There is also the assumption that a reward will entice an employee to expand greater efforts in order to obtain the reward, but neglectMotivation and Leaders (nits) the fact that the reward in questi esti : negative effect for the individual, Vor cane a pay increase might push him or her into higher tax bracket. . 2) Based on Behavioural Predictions Across Individuals: The theory was tested ay if it wax based on behavioural and attitudinal predictions across, rather than within, individuals. Thus, when the scores of a group of people are collated and used to predict general motivation, the results often show only a moderate level of validity of Vroom’s theory. However, this type of research neglects to take into account a whole range of individual differences such as ability, job rolevdifficulty, different levels of rewards, and so on. It also assumes that people consider valence, instrumentality and expectancy in the same way, which is not true. 3) Ignores Influence of Situational Factors: This theory ignores the influence of situational factors. Thierry and Koopman-Iwema state that ‘the influence of “other parties” (colleague, superior, quality controller, etc.) is taken into account far too little. Opposite to the assumption of this theory, a respondent has less control on his behaviour. 4.1.7.3. Porter Lawler Expectancy Model (Extension of VIE Theory) The Porter-Lawler model is the extension of room's theory. Vroom's theory elaborated the factors responsible for development of efforts whereas Porter and Lawler's theory states that i not necessary that efforts will always result in better performance and satisfaction. The expectation of getting rewards and the value of those rewards for an employee are the factors that develop and determine the effort of an employee. But the performance of an employee entirely depends upon his capabilities and his perception about the role which he has to Perform. In simple terms, when an individual applies efforts, he improves his performance and when this performance is combined with rewards, the employee reaches his maximum job satisfaction. The two most important points of this model are: 1) Subjective Probability E —> P: ‘Under this probability, an employee is expected to apply maximum efforts and improve his performance to achieve the desired goal. 2) Probability P > O: After considering the valence or value of the outcomes, employee is expected to improve his performance that helps in achieving desired output. 137 Thus, in short, Porter and Lawler theory suggests that there are two probability factors — first one is subjective, i.e., E > P and second is P > © which helps in motivating the employees. E > P means increased efforts result in better performance and P > © means better performance culminates into desired outcomes. Components of Porter and Lawler Model Porter and Lawler model consists of following ‘components: 1) Subjective Value of Rewards: The value of rewards is different for different employees working in an organisation, That is why the performance of the employees depends upon the degree of attractiveness for the results and rewards, 2) Probability between Effort and. Rewards: When the employee knows that the effort made by him will result in certain reward, he will increase his effort, but if even after increasing his effort, he does not receive any reward, then he will not put his adequate efforts, Thus, the employees are well aware of the probability between the efforts applied and the rewards received. 3) Effort of an Organisational Member: In this ‘component, an organisational member tries to ‘maintain a certain level of performance. 4) Area of Individual Abilities. and Characteristics: The abilities and characteristics of an individual differ from other people working. in that organisation. These capabilities help him to accomplish the allotted task and are relatively stable in nature. . 5) Role Perception: Role perception includes what and in which direction efforts will be applied by ‘an individual. It also determines what an individual means by successful completion of task given to him, 6) Accomplishment of Job: ‘This component focuses on achievement level of an individual while performing a task. According to Porter and Lawler’s model, there are several variables that influence successful achievement of a task. Multiple components and various parameters alongwith their effects results in successful accomplishment of the job. 7) Reward: According to this component, the rewards are of two types, i.e., intrinsic reward which is given by individual to himself and the extrinsic reward which is given by some other persons or superiors.158 MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU-K 8) Perceived Equity of Rewards and Satisfaction: Every individual working in an organisation expects appropriate and satisfactory reward from the organisation on the basis of his performance. The difference between the expected reward and the reward received, determines the level of ‘employee's job faction or dissatisfaction, More the difference between the two rewards, greater is the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, 4.1.8. Contemporary Approaches There are a number of contemporary theories that have one thing in common each has a reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation. ‘These theories are called contemporary theories not because they necessarily were developed recently, but because they represent the current state of the art in explaining employee motivation, The two major contemporary theories are discussed as follow: 1) Equity theory of work motivation, 2) McClelland’ needs theory, 4.18.1. — Equity Theory of Work Motivation JS. Adams is the founder of equity theory of motivation. According to this theory, employees working in an organisation expect justice and fairness on the part of management, Biased and unfair treatment not only demotivates them, but also hampers their performance. Adams theory of motivation focuses on identifying the reasons for unbiased behaviour on the part of an organisation and its impact on the employees. Following are the four significant elements of Adams equity theory: 1) Person: The individual dealing with equitable or on-equitable situations, 2) Comparison Other: ‘Comparison other’ is the individual with whom the person compares his efforts and inputs made and outcomes received. ‘These are also known as ‘relevant other’. 3) Inputs: These are the characteristics of an individual such as skills, _proficiencies, experience, talent and potentials which he carries with him while joining the job. These are constantly observed by different people having different outlook. 4) Outcomes: These are the results of employees’ formance and are awarded in the form of Bae promotion, bonus and fringe benefits. These are distributed depending upon the performance of the individual. Examples of Inputs and Outcomes Inputs ‘Outcomes Time Pay Effort Promotion Education Recognition Experience: Security | Training, Personal development Teas Benefits Ability Friendship opportunity According to this theory, once the person starts comparing his contribution and result with the relevant other's effort, he starts developing motivation to perform better. When the person’s input and outcomes are not equal to that of ‘relevant other’, he gets motivated to put in more efforts and reduce that feeling of inequity. More the inequitable feeling arises in the person, greater is the degree of motivation to reduce that imbalance. Thus, equity acts as motivation force will act as follows: Individual Perceives Inequity z Individual Experiences Tension t Individual Wants to Reduce Tension -——_ Individual Takes Action 1) An Equitable Suitable TputMotivation and Leadership (Unit 4) 3) Postive Inequity Outcomes Input oS as =E1Sperhour the he 0 Ho =tlopernour Figure 44: Negative and Positive Inequity He may even try some of the following options to eliminate that inequity: 1) He may try to bring some changes in his inputs. 2) He may also try to modify his output. 3) He may deform the inputs, and outputs cognitively 4) Rather than making any alterations, he might give up. " 5) The person may try to create stich situations by which the ‘relevant other’ may leave the field or his input and outcome gets distorted cognitively. 6) The person may switch to another ‘relevant other’ for comparison. Figure 4.4 specifies three different equity relationships, ic., equity, megative inequity and positive inequity. Let us consider two people who have the same background and carry out similar tasks as shown in figure 4.4. However, they have different hourly pay rates. Equity takes place when the ratio of perceived outcomes of an individual to inputs is equivalent to that of the comparison other (See part 1 in figure 4.4). Negative inequity occurs if comparison other attains greater outcomes for similar inputs (See part 2 in figure 4.4). Positive inequity will occur when an individual’s outcome to input ratio is more than that of comparison other (See part 3 in figure 4.4). 4.1.8.2, McClelland’s Achievement = — Motivation Theory Among the numerous researchers who took Murray’s theories further, the most remarkable was David McClelland, He developed a theory which laid emphasis on need for achievement, power, and affiliation, As per him, individuals learn from the events which they take part in or experience to procure specific heeds from the society's culture. These needs are then considered as tendencies which influence individual's perception for different situations and 159 their approach towards goal attainment. Following are the needs learnt by people: 1) Need of Achievement (n Ach): According to McClelland, “(n Ach) is behaviour towards competition with a standard of excellence”. McClelland alongwith his associates propounded following four features of individual who have great need for achievement: i) They have a firm longing to tke up responsibility on personal level to solve problems or completing a job. ‘They have a habit of setting high standards and taking calculated risks. iii) They demand substantial feedback for their performance. iv) Their only concern is completing the given task successfully. 2) Need for Power (n Pow): An individual's need to impact behaviour of others, exercise full control over the environment, and have accountability for the same are included in the need for power. Following are the features of individuals who highly need power: i) They want to give directions and exercise control over someone. ‘They are concerned to build and maintain leader-follower relationships. 3) Need for Affiliation (n Aff): According to ‘McClelland, “(n_ Aff) is attraction to another organism in order to feel reassured from the other that the self is acceptable”. The urge to build and sustain amiable and cordial relations with others comes under this need. Individuals who possess high (n Aff) have the following features: i) They look to gain encouragement from others. ii) They try to adhere to the policies and fulfil the wishes of leaders whom they respect. iii) They possess sensitivity towards others. approval and Criticism of MeClelland’s Needs Theory Following points highlight the criticisms of McClelland’s need theory: 1) The individuals who need achievement expect everyone else to perform in the same manner and hence, lack effectiveness required to become managers. 2) The training required to motivate individuals to aspire for achievement consumes a lot of time. 3) It uses protective techniques like Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to identify basic needs.160 MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) INTU-K Though these techniques have their advantages over questionnaire methods, there are always chances of prejudice by the researcher. 4) Though MeClelland contends that an individu: can change his/her needs socially with the help of training and education, other experts challenge him as they think this change not be permanent. 5) McClelland failed to establish that the needs Teamt by an individual through education and training can be applied at the workplace. 4.1.9. Importance of Motivation Motivation is important in following ways: 1) Sets the Action of Individuals in Motion: Every organisation has physical, human and financial resources whose deployment is based on the capability and enthusiasm of people. Motivation stimulates human resources to act towards their goal. It makes the employees willing to work and helps management exploit its resources to the maximum, 2) Improves the Performance Efficiency: Performance of employees is improved by motivation. This is because performance depends both on employee's capability and his eagerness to perform better. There is a gap between abi to work and eagemess to work and motivation acts as a binding factor. This enhances output, reduces cost of operation and takes the overall efficiency of employees to new heights, ) Ensures Accomplishment of Organisational Goals: Organisational goals canbe successfully achieved by the management by motivating the employees towards putting their best foot forward and accomplishing the tasks assigned. If they fail to motivate the employees, the planning, organising and staffing functions would fail to serve their purpose. The management can gain the confidence of its employees and meet organisational goals efficiently by fulfilling employees’ needs by using a fair reward system. 4) Creates Relations! prospects performance Pleasant and Supportive : Monetary rewards, promotional and recognition of outstanding are a few ways through wl isations motivate their employees towards organisations Tance. Motivation promotes meee pd amiable relationship between the foyer and the employees, boosts employees orl and minimises industrial conflicts. If mor employees are properly motivated, they would be less resistant to change and would support the organisational growth. 5) Helps in Employee Retention: Motivation plays an important role in retaining employees as it boosts their confidence and enhances their loyalty and commitment towards the organisation. It makes the organisation stable by decreasing the rate of turnover and absenteeism, The talent and knowledge of the employees can be used in the best possible manner for the mutual benefit of the organisation and the employees. This improves the image of the organisation and helps in attracting eligible and experienced people. 4.1.10. Managerial Applications of Motivation Theories There are numerous practical applications of motivation. The, organisation must consider both intrinsic and extrinsic features of the job when applying theories of motivation. Intrinsic factors are directly associated with the job content whereas extrinsic factors are more concerned about the organisational environment. Hence, at a workplace, motivational theories can be applied in the following manner: 1) Rewards: Rewards are a vital part of motivation. Rewards can be both tangible and intangible. The top performer or the salesforce of a company rewarded on monthly bonus is an example of tangible reward. Tangible rewards are not necessarily monetary rewards. Few organisations offer non-monetary rewards like free lunches and goodies to good performers. A pat on the back from the manager on timely completion of job can also be considered as tangible motivation. Maslow’s need theory emphasises on fulfilling individual needs, especially those of higher order. Since needs are complicated and ever changing, hence, individuals must sort out the needs that are important. Inappropriate means should not be adopted to meet the needs. It must be carefully considered that people differ in the context of their nature and personality, hence, remuneration system should be designed accordingly. As per Herzberg’s two factor theory, intrinsic motivational factors must be dered while framing reward policies. cor 2) Job Design: Experts suggest that not just rewards, but the job itself is also a cause of motivation. Job design is the process by which tasks are assigned to a job and its relation withMotiv jon and Leadership (Unit 4) other jobs is also determined, Job desi immense effect on. the ingwneit” Bas organisational goals. From the organisations point of view, the manner in which the tasks ml responsibilities are clustered, have an impact on the production and expenses. Highly challenging or dissatisfying job positions are hard to fill, The tumover ratio for boring and uninteresting job is much higher. The balance between job: factor (rewards, qualification and content) individual needs greatly affect motivation and job enrichment, and employee Hence, if jobs are designed carefully, it would be beneficial for both the icial employee and organisation and helps in achieving the organisational goals effectively. Poor job designs, alternatively, might decrease output, increase employee absenteeism, tumover, complaints, resignation, unionisation and various other problems. Herzberg considered that job design is a crucial aspect of motivation and since then, organisations around the globe are working extensively on job design. Employee Involvement —_ Programme: Numerous techniques such as participative management, empowerment, employee ownership and workplace democracy are part of employee involvement. This process engages the maximum potential of the employee and focuses on increasing their commitment and_ loyalty towards the organisational success. The basic concept is that in case the workers are involved in decisions that affect their work-life, the result is that their independence and control over their ‘work-life is enhanced, and ultimately they tend to become more satisfied with their jobs and it leads to the increase in output. Participation is different from employee —_involvement. Participation is a narrower concept as compared to employee involvement. Participative management, quality circles, employee stock ownership, etc., are few examples of employee involvement programmes. Numerous motivational theories are based on employee involvement. For example, Theory Y talks about ative management, whereas Theory X talks about a more conventional autocratic method of managing employees. As Per Herzberg's two factor theory, intrinsic Motivation is the outcome of employee involvement programmes which results in better Prospects of responsibility, work and growth. In the same way, when an employee has the right to 4) 5) 161 take and implement decisions, hiis _self- confidence and self-esteem get enhanced. Thus, employee involvement, just like ERG theory, emphasises on encouraging the need of achievement, Management by Objective (MBO): This is an organised and controlled approach through which management can stress on goal accomplishment and achieving maximum output from the Fesources available at hand. Employees are usually provided with strong input so that they can easily select their goals, decide the time to be taken to accomplish those goals, etc. MBO helps in tracking the process of goal accomplishment and giving feedback. Its main objective is to configure the organisational goals and subordinate objectives in such a manner that all the employees direct their effort towards accomplishment of common. organisational goals. Top — management implements techniques like GQM (Goal, Question and Metrics) to recognise and classify organisational goals. Employee Recognition —_ Programmes: Herzberg states that recognition plays a crucial role in motivating and satisfying employees. When an employee is appreciated in the presence of his colleagues, he is motivated to perform even better in the future. Recognition programmes focus on admitting the employee's performance. Certain organisations also get the employee's achievements printed in the organisation's newsletter or display it on the notice boards for motivating other employees as well. Titles like “employee of the week” or “employee of the month” are also given to the selected employee in some organisations. This not only motivates the performer but also the other employees towards excellent performance. For example, employee recognition rewards are given by Radiant Info to its outperforming employees in order to encourage them to maintain their performance. Encore, employce recognition programme at Wipro, targets to recognise excellent employees. This also encourages other employees to excel in their jobs. Employees with “superlative performance” get a place in the “Wipro Hall of Fame”. The best teams are also listed in the same. HCL recognises its top performers and their creativity with “value creator award”.162 MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) NTU. 4.1.11, Motivation Job Performance Motivation is very important for good performance because if employees are not motivated towards their work, then they will not give their best. Nevertheless, an employee's performance is not solely dependent on motivation, Hence, all the factors that influence employee's performance alongwith motivation must be analysed. An employee's performance is the factor that makes or ruins an organisation. Hence, the management needs to devise various methods to ‘motivate its employees. Money is the universal motivating factor. Apart from money, there are various other motivating factors that need to be taken into account: 1) Employee Differences: People have different mind-sets and notions and hence different reasons for getting motivated. This is the reason why management must possess knowledge about the needs and emotions of the employees and understand what motivates employees for better performance. Thus, in order to be a successful motivator, a manager must understand that all individuals are not the same, 2) Job: If the employees like their job and find it worth doing, they naturally get motivated. They feel a sense of responsibility towards the tasks and consider the job as worthwhile. Employees’ Performance improves as soon as they start taking responsibility of their actions and work hard to deliver results. and 3) Work Environment: The work environment Plays a very important role in attracting excellent Workforce “and retaining them. When strong working relations and various motivational factors are encouraged, employees wish to remain with the organisation for longer duration, 4) This can be done by motivating employees to achieve and sustain cquity in the workplace. Equity here implies to the notion of the employee about their importance in the organisation as compared to other employees. Employees’ performance bears a negative impact if they believe that they are not treated fairly, 5) Public Recognition: Employees like to be appraised and appreciated by the managers when they perform well. Certain companies, as a part of their best practices, follow public recognition on a regular basis. This motivates employees to improve their performance further, as appreciation is an effective motivator for every employee. mE 4.2.1, Introduction Leadership can be defined as the capability to inculcate confidence in employees to achieve the objectives of the organisation. It is a technique which outlines the group and organisational goals, assists in describing the groups or organisational culture and then stimulates behaviour towards the realisation of these goals. Effective leadership is based upon worthy character and unselfish service of an individual towards the organisation. In order to be an effective leader, the person must possess the ability to promote changes, motivate the members of the team and lead towards the accomplishment of the common goals. It is a process of forming a surrounding where others can self-actualise, while carrying-out their work Leadership means the traits of an individual that allows him to motivate others for attaining some specific objectives, Ais an interesting social fact that takes place in every group despite of its geography, culture, or citizenship. Effective management cannot take place ithout effective ‘eadership. Leaders are the individuals, who not only foresee the changes, but also seek to persuade the employees regarding the need for change. Thus, they assist and guide the employees throughout the process of change. According to Hollander, “Leadership is a process of influence ‘between a leader and those ‘who are followers”, Acrording fo Chester Barnard, “Leadership isthe ability ofa superior to influence the behavincs of ie subordinates and persuade them to follow « particular course of action". 4.2.2. Leadership Styles Different types of leaders and their leadership styles are shown in figure bellow: \ ® KOS (b) Democratic B G D (a) AutocraticMotivation and Leadership (Unit 4) (©) Free Rein 4.2.2.1. Autocratic Leadership Style Autocratic leader is also known as dictator. It could also be considered as one-man show. The role of the leader is restricted merely to dictating the instructions to his subordinates, In this leadership atyle, leader does not get involved with the members of the team. He decides the policies and procedures without discussing with his subordinates, He does not provide any information about future strategies but simply gives instructions regarding the steps that are to be followed. In this style of leadership, all decisions are taken by the leader only. Autocratic leadership may have a negative impact because followers are unaware, insecure and afraid of leader's power. Such a leader is known as a strict autocrat, who focuses on negative influences and gives instructions, which are supposed to be accepted by the subordinates. ‘These leaders are also termed as benevolent autocrat when they use motivational and positive leadership style and some are known as manipulative autocrats, who make the subordinates feel participative towards the decision-making process even if they have already taken the decision, This autocratic type of leadership style is quite common and often gives good results. However, itis subjected to the various limitations as well. Advantages of Autocratic Leadership Style Advantages of autocratic leadership style are as follows: 1) Quick Decision-Making: This style of leadership results in quick decision-making as single person is responsible for decision-making, Which makes it a hassle-free process. 2) Enhances Productivity: Employees are encouraged to work with more zeal and energy When they think that they are under constant supervision, This leads to enhanced productivity. 3) Reduces Stress: Under this style, leaders are absolutely responsible for consequences of th decisions so, managers feel relaxed and stress- free, Disadvantages of Autocratic Leadership Style Disadvantages of autocratic style are as follows: 1) Discourages Follower’s Development: This style of leadership does not focus on the development of the subordinates. This style does not support creativity and innovation. Many times work is hampered when leader is not present because employees do not have any right to take any decision. This style adversely affects the self-confidence of followers. 2) Increases Leader’s Workload: This style of leadership enhances leader's workload as the leader is solely responsible for every decision. This may lead to stress and health problems for the leader as well 3) Induces Fear and Anger: In this style, people are generally criticised rather than being praised which leads to an unhealthy environment of fear and anger. 4.2.2.2. Participative Leadership Style In this style of leadership, the authority rested with leader is decentralised. Leader takes every decision in coordination with the team members. This style of leadership is people-oriented and direct supervision of the staff is not required. This type of leadership style Keeps the employees well informed about the policies of the organisations and work is delegated to achieve better results. Instead of acting as a leader, he considers himself to be a member of the group. Leader clarifies his followers that praise or blame is merely part of the group. Unlike autocratic leader, who uses his authority to control others, participative leader controls others through internal forces present within the group. The democratic leadership, another name for participative leadership style results into various positive outcomes in terms of productivity, reliability, zeal, flexibility, individual development and freedom of speech. However, the participative leader conforms that he holds to take the decision if the staff is unable to do so. Advantages of Participative Leadership Style ‘Advantages of participative leadership style are as follow: 1) Enhanced Acceptability of Leader: The leader takes decisions with the consensus of the people and hence, his decisions are widely accepted. 2) Efficient Utilisation of Team Members’ Knowledge: Leader induces confidence by164 MBA First Semester (Management and Organi “involving subordinates in the decision-making and giving them opportunity to explore their talent and knowledge, 3) Fosters Commitment among Team Members: The loyalty of the members is enhanced as leader involves all the members in different activities which increase their morale. The leader patiently waits for inputs from the group and then he takes decision. 4) Iniproved Work Ethciency: In this type of leadership style, the leader shows trust and faith in employees. This increases and maintains the level of cooperation, team spirit, motivation and cohesiveness among the employees, which in turn results in improved work efficiency in terms of quantity as well as quality Disadvantages of Participative Leadership Style Disadvantages of participative leadership style are as follows: 1) Leads to False Impression about the Leader: Leader's attempt to involve the entire team in the decision-making process can be seen as an excuse for delaying or postponing the task. This leads to formation of false impression about the leader, as followers believe that leader is not able to deal with problems on his own. 2) Excessive Time Consumption: This type of leadership style is time-consuming, as it involves the long process of consulting everybody in the team, which leads to lengthening of the process, As a result, the opportunity of taking quick decision is lost. 3) Absence of Accountability: Due to lengthy Procedure and involvement of entire team in the decision-making, no one in the team considers the leader responsible for the task. Due to distribution Of the responsibilities, no single person is considered to be accountable for completion of the tasks and its consecutive outcome. 4) May Lead to Pseudo Participation: Many times managers show that they are following democratic leadership style just to influence their followers. But the reality is exhibited soon when the employees instantly observe that their ideas were just taken but not implemented by the leader. It means that leader is just following autocratic leadership style masked by participative leadership style, 4.2.2.3, Free Rein Leadership Style Free rein or Jaissez faire leadership style refers to a condition where leader does not lead but leaves the nal Behaviour) INTU.K major decisions on the group itself. Such a leader jg represented by the chairperson who is dependent on his subordinates. All the goals’ are decided by the group. The group members have to solve problems and motivate themselves. Leader's job is to keep ‘contact with outsiders and give information to his team. It can be said that free rein leadership is the inverse of autocratic leadership style. In this scenario, the manager does not enjoy the power of control as he shares the powers alongwith his work and responsibilities. It is also called permissive style of leadership as there is least interference by the leader and group works and takes decisions on its own. This type of leadership can produce wonderful results if the subordinates are highly skilled and dedicated employees. This style can be adopted successfully only when the employees are capable and competent enough to handle the situations and take corrective and positive decisions in favour of the company. Advantages of Free Rein Leadership Style Advantages of free rein leadership style are as follows: 1) No Restriction of Order: When employees are highly self-motivated, they tend to raise the level of the organisation. Unnecessary rules and regulation of the organisation may hamper this self-motivation of the employees. This unnecessary regulation is eradicated in the free rein leadership which leads to overall growth of the organisation, 2) Reduces Leader's. Workload: lll responsibilities are duly divided and every responsible subordinate is doing his job so the workload of the leader is reduced, Thus, the leader has ample time to look after essential issues of the organisation, 3). Provides Motivation to Team: Entire system of free rein leadership is based ‘on faith and trust. Leader trusts the subordinates and gives them complete responsibility, This motivates the employees to do better and raise the performance levels further. Disadvantages of Free Rei Disadvantages of free reis follows: 1) Increases Burden on Employees: Employees are burdened as the additional task and responsibilities which should be carried-out bY the leader, are bome by the employe? Furthermore, there is sense of insecurity amons the employees due to non-availability of th leader for motivation and guidance, in Leadership Style in leadership style are a