ETHICS and MORALITY MORAL STANDARDS VS NON-MORAL STANDARDS.

 Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies DOES ALL STANDARDS ARE MORAL STANDARDS?
morality, it also studies the rightness or
We all have our own standard of what is right
wrongness of a human conduct.
and wrong. What is right for you perhaps an insult to a
 Ethics also concerned with character.
certain person, culture, and society. We have differences
 It is derived from the Greek word Ethos which
in many ways specifically on principles, attitude and
means character or manners in plural.
perspective. Morality may refer to the standards that a
 Ethics is also called as Moral Philosophy because
person or group has about on what is right and wrong.
it evaluates moral concepts, values, principles
and standards. Accordingly, Moral standards are those
 Ethics is also considered as a normative study of concerned with or relating to human behavior especially
human actions. the distinction between good and bad (or right or
wrong) behavior.
While Morality speaks of a code or system of
behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL
behavior. When we decide on what you are going to do, STANDARDS AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS?
there are certain choices that we prefer to and in those
choices, it may be bad or good result. In weighing things Moral Standards involve the rules people have about the
when it comes to decision, you consider good result kinds of actions they believe are morally right and
rather than bad result. It defines your Morality. It is easy wrong. Some ethicist equates moral standards with
for you to understand morality because it is already moral values and principles.
inside you. Non-Moral Standards refers to rules that are unrelated
Clearly, Ethics and Morality necessarily carry the to moral or ethical considerations. Either these
concept of moral standards or rules with regards to standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by
behavior. Let us discuss what is rules and why rules are nature it lacks ethical sense. Basic examples of this are
important to social beings. fashion standards, rules in games and various house
rules.
Here in our country, there are many rules and
laws that we need to submit to because one of our soul Therefore, not all standards are moral standards
duties is to obey what rules are there to control our same goes with not all rules are moral rules.
behavior on doing what is against others. Rules direct us
on the right path of righteousness and give us the
wisdom that we need to care for others. Rules refers to These are the following characteristics of moral
explicit or understood regulations and principles standards:
governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere. a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant
These are the importance of rules: benefits. It may cause harm to others or may be
beneficial. Values are necessary to moral standards.
1. It protects social being by regulating behavior. Though you have a choice to do what is wrong, values
2. Helps to guarantee each person certain rights are the main component of moral standards.
and freedom.
3. Rules produce sense of justice among social b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
beings. Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic
4. Rules are essential for the healthy economic authority. They are not the only rules or principles in
system. society, but they take precedence over other
considerations, including aesthetic, prudential and even
legal ones.
c. Moral standards are not established by authority What is common to moral dilemmas and
figures. Moral standards are not invented, formed or dilemmas is conflict. In each dilemma, an agent regards
generative by authoritative bodies or persons such as himself as having moral reasons to do each of two
nations’ legislative bodies. actions, but doing both actions seems to be ethically
impossible. In moral dilemma, the agent thus seems
d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
condemned to moral failure, no matter what he does, he
Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to
will do something wrong, or fail to do something that he
moral standards. Basically, moral standards should be
ought to do.
universal.
The key features of moral dilemma are these:
e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral Standards does not evaluate standards on the a. The agent is required to do each of two (or
basis of the interests of a certain person or group, but more) actions
one that goes beyond personal interest to a universal b. The agent can do each of the actions, but the
standpoint. agent cannot do both (or all) actions.

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions 3 LEVELS OF DILEMMA

and vocabulary. These principles are proposed for use, to
1. Personal Dilemma- Are those experienced and
advise, and to influence action. Retroactively, this
resolved on the personal level.
feature is used to evaluate behavior.
2. Organizational Dilemma- Refer to ethical cases
encountered and resolved by social
organizations.
DILEMMA
3. Structural Dilemma- Refer to cases involving
Imagine you are in the middle of the ocean and network of institutions and operative theoretical
there is a sudden storm ravaging your boat and both paradigms
your mother and fiancé fell in to the ocean and you have
Does humans are only capable on being ethical?
only one life saver float. Whom you choose to save?
Your mother who takes care of you since birth or your Another basic tenant in ethics the belief that
bride-to-be whom you dearly love? If you are in this kind only humans’ beings can be truly ethical. Most
of scenario or the like, you are experiencing dilemma. philosophers hold that unlike animals, human beings
Wherein you have to choose between two negatives and possess some traits that make it possible for them to be
you need to choose lesser evil. moral. Why?

The term dilemma refers to a situation in which a. Only Human Beings are rational, autonomous and self –
a tough choice has to be made between two or more conscious
options, especially more or less equally undesirable
The qualities of rationality, autonomy, and self-
ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.
consciousness are believed to confer a full and equal
Moral dilemma are situations in which a difficult moral status to those that possess them as these beings
choice has to be made between two courses of action, are the only ones capable of achieving certain values and
either of which entails transgressing a moral principle. At goods.
a very least, a moral dilemma involves conflicts between
b. Only Human beings can act morally or immorally.
moral requirements.
Strictly speaking, an animal which devours
another animal cannot be said immoral. In the same
manner, no matter how good an animal’s action seems
to be. It cannot be technically moral if humans made the
same.
c. Only Human beings are part of Moral Community. It is commonly said that culture is all around us.
Practically, culture appears to be an actual part of our
The so-called moral community is not defined in
social life. For some Culture is a quality that some people
terms of intrinsic properties the beings or group has, but
have more than others. How cultured somebody
rather in terms of the essential social relations that
depends on some factors like status, class education,
exists between or among beings. Moreover, only us can
and taste in music or film, and speech habits. The term
communicate with each other in truly meaningful ways.
Culture is so complexed that it is not easy to define. In
one sense, culture is used to denote which is related to
arts and humanities. But in a broader sense, culture
FREEDOM as a Foundation of Morality. denotes the practices, beliefs, and perceptions of a given
The foundation of morality is freedom. We have society.
our own standard of what is right or what is wrong. We These are the other definitions of the term Culture:
freely choose what we think can help us. The
consequences of our action are visible but we are a. Culture is a cumulative deposit of knowledge,
blinded by our own principle and we are blinded by our experiences, beliefs, attitudes, meanings, concepts of
own pride because we knew to ourselves that we think universe, material objects that acquired by a group of
well than the others but we should be careful of our people in the course of generations through individual
freedom. Let us use our freedom in a best way possible. and group striving.

b. Culture consists of patterns, explicitly and implicitly.

Behavior acquired and transmitted symbols, constituting
Minimum requirement for Morality: Reason and distinctive achievement of human groups including their
Impartiality. embodiments in artifacts.
Professor James Rachel holds that moral c. Culture is the sum total of the learned behavior of a
judgement must be backed up by sound reasoning and group of people that are generally considered to be the
that morality requires the impartial consideration of all tradition of that people and are transmitted from
parties involved. generation to generation.
Reason as a requirement for morality entails that d. Culture in its broad sense is cultivated behavior. It is
human feelings may be important in ethical decisions, the totality of a person learned, accumulated,
but they ought to be guided by reasons. Sound experienced through social learning.
reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our feelings and
intuitions about moral cases are correct and defensible. e. Culture is a symbolic communication. Some of its
symbols include a group skills, knowledge, attitudes,
Impartiality on the other hand, involves idea that values and motives.
each individual’s interest and point of view are equally
important. It is a principle of justice holding that Defined broadly, culture therefore includes all
decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather the things individuals learn while growing up among
than on basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit particular group, attitudes, standards of morality, rules
to one person. of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, notions
about the proper way to live, beliefs about how females
and males should interact,, ideas about how the world
works and so forth. We call this cultural knowledge.

Our parents, teachers, some novels, films and

television are some of the transmitters of culture. Some
of them are indirectly affects our lives. They serve as
somehow what we are now. What we act, believe and
our attitude affects by our culture and even our
knowledge and even on how we speak.
Culture’s role in Moral Behavior Social Conditioning Theory

Based from the definitions of culture mentioned, What is the most common trap that almost all of
it is not hard to pinpoint the role of the culture in one’s us have fallen into? It is conforming to the ‘norms’ that
moral behavior. A culture is a way of life that actually have been created by the society around us. This is
includes moral values and behaviors. Generally, without known as social conditioning. Even if these norms are
even thinking about them they are passed along by outdated, false, misleading, or do not align with the
communications and imitation form one generation to present world – we conform to them nevertheless. This
the next. is because we grew up believing in them and seeing
them adapted by everyone around us.
Culture is learned as children grow up in society
and discover how their parents and others around them Those who opted to go against the societal
interpret the world. In our society, we learn to norms are even considered as a Social Reformer.
distinguish objects such as cars, windows, houses.
The feeling that the action is morally wrong, he/she is
Therefore, we can classify and perform actions and even
thus morally obliged to disobey his/her peer’s
evaluate them on what is morally good and bad.
insinuation. Are also called as Moral Obligation.
Moral Standards as Social Convention and the Social
Social conditioning is the process by which
Conditioning Theory
people of a certain society are trained to think, believe,
Among the popular notions which attempt to feels, want, and react in a way that is approved by the
give account for basic concepts in ethics, such as the society or the groups within it some submits that
existence of moral rules, the sense of moral obligation, morality is nothing but an effect of social conditioning.
and moral accountability, are the so called Social
As regards, Moral Consciousness is the feeling that we
Convention and Social Conditioning Theories. These
are obliged to act morally.
views are upshot on the fact that we can learn morality
culturally or through socialization This theory further claims that the demands of
conscience are also due to society, as a society expresses
Social Convention
disapproval of certain actions, people specifically
The things we regard s moral laws (moral children.
standards or rules), are nothing but just social
conventions. By conventions, it means those things
agreed upon by people, like through their authorities. Cultural Relativism
Convention also refers to the usual or customary ways
through which things are done within a group. Have you ever seen these or eaten food from
another country and think of it as weird and gross? This
To theorize that moral law is a social convention is an example of ethnocentrism! That means you use
is to say that it is something which human beings had your own culture as the center and evaluate other
just made up for themselves and might have been cultures based on it. You are judging, or making
different had they like. assumptions about the food of other countries based on
your own norms, values, or beliefs. Thinking “dried squid
Moral Progress
is smelly” or “people shouldn’t eat insects” are examples
• Changes in people’s morality have been deemed as of ethnocentrism in societies where people may not eat
improvements. dried squid or insects. To avoid judging the cultural
practices of groups that are different to yours, we can
• Progress means positive development or development
use the cultural relativism approach.
toward achieving a goal or reaching a higher.
Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture
• Moral Progress, therefore, means not just changing,
to our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange
but changing for the better.
or normal. It is perhaps the most famous form of Moral
Relativism.
 Moral Relativism is a theory in ethics which hold The bad consequeces of cultural relativism
that ethical judgements have their origins either in
a. We could no longer say that the customs of
individual or cultural standards.
other societies are morally inferior/superior to
Moral relativism, fundamentally believes that no our own.
act is good or bad objectively, and that there is no single b. We could decide whether actions are right or
universal objective standard through which we can wrong just by consulting the standards of our
evaluate the trough of Moral Judgement. Moral society.
Relativism submits that different moral principles apply c. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt
to different persons or group of individuals. d.

Moral Relativist View all moral norms as equally true and ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
moral.
Western Eastern Ethics
MORAL SUBJECTIVISM Focus Finding the truth Protocol and
Respect
o Holds that morality is decided by the Basis Rationality/Rational Religious
individual. Thought Teachings
o They believe that morals are subjective. Emphasis Logic, Cause and Respect
It can be based on personal tastes, Effect towards family
feelings and opinions. Roots/History Athens, Rome, and Religions
other civilizations
Approach Rational Holistic and
CULTURAL RELATIVISM Cultural
Conflict Good must triumph Good and Bad,
Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's over evil Light and Dark
beliefs, values, and practices should be understood all exist in
based on that person's own culture, rather than be equilibrium
judged against the criteria of another. Is the view that
ethical and social standards reflect the cultural context
6 BASIC FILIPINO VALUES
from which they are derived.
1. Pakikisama - is having and maintaining ‘good public
This theory then submits that there are no
relations.’ It characterizes both a value and a goal that
objective values; and ethics is merely a matter of societal
involves keeping good feelings in all personal
convention.
interactions and getting along with others, oftentimes,
a. Ethnocentrism – A theory in which a person at all costs but sometimes ‘pakikisama,’ may submit to,
views his/her culture as superior than others. overgenerous praise on one another, smiling even when
b. Xenocentrism - On the other hand, views that things go wrong and avoiding to say ‘no’.
his/her culture is inferior than others.
2. Hiya- is described as a feeling of lowliness, shame or
embarrassment, and inhibition or shyness which is
experienced as somewhat distressing. Integrally, ‘hiya’ is
“Different Culture have different moral codes.”
related to the concept of ‘face’ and a concern with how
Professor James Rachel introduced Cultural one appears in the eyes of others. This unique Filipino
Differences Argumuent. This states that there is no concept ‘hiya’ or ‘fear of losing face’ encompasses being
objective truth in morality. Right or wrong are only afraid to do bad things as it may damage one’s
matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to reputation in the sight of other people.
culture.
3. Amor Propio- like ‘hiya,’ the Filipino value of ‘amor MORAL AGENTS
propio’ is derived from the concept of ‘face.’ Although
Moral agents are those agents expected to meet
commonly translated as ‘self-respect’ or ‘self-esteem,’
the demands of morality. Not all agents are moral
‘amor propio’ has been “characterized as the high
agents. Young children and animals, being capable of
degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to
performing actions, may be agents in the way that
criticism and causes him to have an easily wounded
stones, plants and cars are not. But though they are
pride” (“Amor Propio,” n.d.). Concerning this Filipino
agents they are not automatically considered moral
value, some observe that “Filipinos learn to withstand a
agents. For a moral agent must also be capable of
‘loss of face’ in some situations, particularly when they
conforming to at least some of the demands of morality.
perceive themselves to be at fault, but it is devastating
This requirement can be interpreted in different ways.
to be publicly criticized, insulted, belittled, or humiliated,
On the weakest interpretation it will suffice if the agent
or to lose one’s self-respect” .
has the capacity to conform to some of the external
4. Utang na loob- is likewise a fundamental aspect of requirements of morality. So if certain agents can obey
upholding group harmony and relationships that moral laws such as ‘Murder is wrong’ or ‘Stealing is
demand the balancing of obligations and debts. This wrong’, then they are moral agents, even if they respond
involves the concept ‘reciprocity’ or returning the only to prudential reasons such as fear of punishment
received favor. The inability to repay the “utang na loob” and even if they are incapable of acting for the sake of
(debt of gratitude) usually makes a person “walang moral considerations.
utang na loob” or “walang-hiya.”
According to the strong version, the Kantian
5. Filipino Hospitality- ‘Filipino hospitality’ refers to the version, it is also essential that the agents should have
innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous and the capacity to rise above their feelings and passions and
entertaining to their guests. Indeed, generally speaking, act for the sake of the moral law. There is also a position
Filipinos are hospitable as they are internationally known in between which claims that it will suffice if the agent
to be warm, welcoming, and accommodating. can perform the relevant act out of altruistic impulses.
Other suggested conditions of moral agency are that
6. Respect to elders- Concerning ‘respect to elders,’ we,
agents should have: an enduring self with free will and
Filipinos, are not only respectful to elders, but also have
an inner life; understanding of the relevant facts as well
unique ways of expressing this respect to elders. These
as moral understanding; and moral sentiments, such as
include the use of ‘po’ and ‘opo’ when talking to elders
capacity for remorse and concern for others.
and ‘pagmamano’ or the putting of the elder’s hand to
one’s forehead. When excessive, nonetheless, respect to
elders makes one dependent or irrationally obedient to
CHARACTER VS PERSONALITY
parents or elders. This trait, however, makes Filipinos
prone to being abused or maltreated.  Personality shows what you are outside or what
you are to the world.
Other filipino traits:
 Character reveals what you are inside.
 Maniana Habbit – Mamaya na attitude.  Personality can be defined as a combination of
 Ningas Cogon – Sisimulan pero di mental behavior and traits or qualities like
tatapusin. thinking pattern, feeling and acting.
 Crab Mentality – Nanghihila pababa.  By Character, we mean an enduring and
 Filipino Time – Laging late. distinguishing mental and moral characteristics
 Kanya-Kanya – Madamot. in an individual. It is the only factor which
 Colonial Mentality – Mas gusto ang determines our reaction or response to the
cultura ng iba kesa sarili. given event or situation.

Universal Values tells us that values are generally shared

by cultures. This disproves that cultural relativism in
ethics is wrong.
Moral Character and Virtue THE CIRCULATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER

The English word “character” is derived from the In the process of moral development there is the
Greek charaktêr, which was originally used of a mark circular relation between acts that build character and
impressed upon a coin. Later and more generally, moral character itself. Not all acts help to build moral
“character” came to mean a distinctive mark by which character. A person actions determine his/her moral
one thing was distinguished from others, and then character but moral character itself generates acts that
primarily to mean the assemblage of qualities that help in developing either virtue or vice.
distinguish one individual from another. In modern
That shows that moral development should also
usage, this emphasis on distinctiveness or individuality
be understood in the sense of human flourishing. This
tends to merge “character” with “personality.” We might
human flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of
say, for example, when thinking of a person’s
moral and intellectual excellences or also called virtues.
idiosyncratic mannerisms, social gestures, or habits of
This proves to the theory of Rationalism.
dress, that “he has personality” or that “he’s quite a
character.” Virtuous traits of character ought to be stable
and enduring and are not mere products of fortune, but
The use of the word character in ethics has a
of learning, constant practice, and cultivation.
different linguistic history. So when we speak of a virtue
or an excellence of moral character, the highlights is not
on mere distinctiveness or individuality, but on the blend
of qualities that makes a person ethically admirable. At MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITION
the book II of the Nicomachean Ethics written by The moral character traits that constitute a
Aristotle, He tells us that there two distinct human person’s moral character are characteristically
excellences. understood as behavioral and affective dispositions.
a. Excellences of thought. (Knowledge and Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or
Wisdom) characteristics that objects can possess. This is the usual
b. Excellences of character. (Virtue) attitude or mood of a person.

Moral Character therefore, in philosophical Therefore, moral characters either vice or virtue
sense refers to having or lacking moral virtue. If anyone are considered as dispositions. Which means that the
lacks virtue, he/she may have any of the moral vices. It agents or the person is responsible for his/her moral
also refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as character. In other words, a good moral character is
integrity, courage, fortitude and honesty. practically a disposition to do virtuous acts and a bad
moral character is in effect of a disposition to do vicious
Most of the Greek moralists think that, if we are deeds.
rational, we aim at living well (eu zên) or happiness
(eudaimonia). Living well or happiness is our ultimate
end in that a conception of happiness serves to organize
our various subordinate ends, by indicating the relative
importance of our ends and by indicating how they
should fit together into some rational overall scheme,
and Aristotle says that happiness is “perfect” or
“complete” (teleios) and something distinctively human.
When we are living well, our life is worthy of imitation
and praise.
KHOLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas

Level 1- Pre-conventional morality Some ethicists believe that ethics is also a

matter of emotion. They hold that moral judgements at
- (Most nine-years-old and younger, some over nine), we
their best should also be emotional. Feelings are seen as
don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our
also necessary in ethical judgment as they are even
moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the
deemed by some as instinctive response to moral
consequences of following or breaking their rules.
dilemmas.
 Stage 1. Obedience and punishment orientation.
Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right Decisions
(Respect for power and Punishment)
 Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange (Looking Feelings and emotion can become obstacles or
out for No. 1) impediments to becoming ethical. This is the case
especially when feelings’ roles in ethics are
Level 2- Conventional Morality misinterpreted or exaggerated. Let us discuss the two
- At the conventional level (most adolescents and famous feeling-based theories in Ethics.
adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of Ethical Subjectivism- Holds that the truth or falsity of
valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but ethical propositions is dependent on the feelings,
not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of attitudes, or standards of a person or group of persons.
the group to which the person belongs.
 This theory contradicts the principle that there is
 Stage 3. Good Interpersonal relationship (Being objectivity in Morality.
a Good Boy or Nice Girl)
 This theory suggest that we are able to identify
 Stage 4. Maintaining the social order (Law and our moral principles by simply following our
Order Thinking) feelings.
Level 3- Post-Conventional Morality Emotivism- is not statement of fact but is mere
- Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, expressions of the emotion of the speaker, especially
and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and since they are usually feelings-based.
justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral
 Developed by the American Philosopher Charles
reasoning is as far as most people get.
L. Stevenson.
 Stage 5. Social contract and Individual Rights  This theory also states that moral judgements
(Justice through Democracy) express positive or negative feelings.
 Stage 6. Universal Principles (Deciding on basic  It fails to distinguish moral judgments from mere
moral principles by which you will live your life expressions of personal preferences.
and relate to everone fairly)
Cognitivism – This interprets the ethical
sentences as statements of fact, particularly as reports
of the speakers’ attitude.
Emotions – that is to say feelings and intuitions –
play a major role in most of the ethical decisions people Non-Cognitivism – This claims that ethical statements do
make. Most people do not realize how much their not convey authentic propositions.
emotions direct their moral choices. But experts think it
Logical positivism - This claims that any legitimate truth
is impossible to make any important moral judgments
must be empirically verifiable.
without emotions. Inner-directed negative emotions like
guilt, embarrassment, and shame often motivate people
to act ethically.
 Reason is the basis or motive for an action, THE IMPORTANCE OF WILL AND COURAGE
decision, or conviction. As a quality, it refers to the
Moral Courage means doing the right thing even
capacity for logical, rational, and analytic thought; for
at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment, loss of
consciously making sense of things, establishing and
job or security or social status, etc.
verifying facts, applying common sense and logic, and
justifying, and if necessary, changing practices, Will doesn’t refer to any particular desire, but
institutions, and beliefs based on existing or new existing rather the capacity to act decisively on one’s desire.
information. It also spells the difference of moral
judgments from mere expressions of personal
preference. In the case of moral judgments, they require DEVELOPING MORAL COURAGE
backing by reasons. Thus, reason commends what it
commends, regardless of our feelings, attitudes, a. Develop and practice self-discipline.
opinions, and desires. b. Do mental strength.
c. Draw inspiration from people of great courage.
Impartiality involves the idea that each d. Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage
individual’s interests and point of view are equally and will.
important. It is a principle of justice holding that e. Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage
decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather and will.
than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for improper
reasons. Impartiality in morality requires that we give
equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of
all concerned parties. The principle of impartiality
assumes that every person, generally speaking, is equally
important; that is, no one is seen intrinsically more
significant than anyone else.

7 STEPS MODEL FOR MAKING MORAL DECISIONS

a. Gather the facts- we answer the question ‘what

do we need to know?’ rather than ‘what do we
know?’
b. Determine the ethical issues- the moral issues
should be correctly stated in terms of competing
interests.
c. Identify the principles that have a bearing on the
case- biblical principles will be clearly weighted
the most heavily.
d. List the alternatives- list one or more available
possibilities.
e. Compare alternatives with principles
f. Assess the consequences- when two opposing
alternatives are offered, the consequences of
one are the mirror image of the other.
g. Make a decision- it answer the question ‘what
would you decide? Which principles are you
going to consider? Are there others that you
would include?’