Toward a More Perfect Union

in an Age of Diversity

Working on Common
Cross-cultural Communication Challenges
by Marcelle E. DuPraw and Marya Axner

 Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Difference

1. Different Communications Styles
2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict
3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks
4. Different Decision-Making Styles
5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure
6. Different Approaches to Knowing
 Respecting Our Differences and Working Together
 Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration

We all have an internal list of those we still don't understand, let alone appreciate. We
all have biases, even prejudices, toward specific groups. In our workshops we ask
people to gather in pairs and think about their hopes and fears in relating to people of
a group different from their own. Fears usually include being judged,
miscommunication, and patronizing or hurting others unintentionally; hopes are
usually the possibility of dialogue, learning something new, developing friendships,
and understanding different points of view. After doing this activity hundreds of
times, I'm always amazed how similar the lists are. At any moment that we're dealing
with people different from ourselves, the likelihood is that they carry a similar list of
hopes and fears in their back pocket.

-- From Waging Peace in Our Schools,

by Linda Lantieri and Janet Patti (Beacon Press, 1996)
We all communicate with others all the time -- in our homes, in our workplaces, in the
groups we belong to, and in the community. No matter how well we think we
understand each other, communication is hard. Just think, for example, how often we
hear things like, "He doesn't get it," or "She didn't really hear what I meant to say."
"Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences
how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities.
When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people
approach their work together.

Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put,
"culture" refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences
that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into,
such as gender, race, or national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part
of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a
change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture
this broadly, we realize we all belong to many cultures at once.

Our histories are a critical piece of our cultures. Historical experiences -- whether of
five years ago or of ten generations back -- shape who we are. Knowledge of our
history can help us understand ourselves and one another better. Exploring the ways in
which various groups within our society have related to each other is key to opening
channels for cross-cultural communication.

Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences

In a world as complex as ours, each of us is shaped by many factors, and culture is
one of the powerful forces that acts on us. Anthropologists Kevin Avruch and Peter
Black explain the importance of culture this way:

...One's own culture provides the "lens" through which we view the world; the
"logic"... by which we order it; the "grammar" ... by which it makes sense. 1
In other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see,
and how we express ourselves.

As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working
together, cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and
react in ways that can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. Oftentimes,
we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that
we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others'.
Six fundamental patterns of cultural differences -- ways in which cultures, as a whole,
tend to vary from one another -- are described below. The descriptions point out some
of the recurring causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties.2 As you enter
into multicultural dialogue or collaboration, keep these generalized differences in
mind. Next time you find yourself in a confusing situation, and you suspect that cross-
cultural differences are at play, try reviewing this list. Ask yourself how culture may
be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world from others' points of view.

1. Different Communication Styles

The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within,
cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across
cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even
in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from
"maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.

Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given

to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only
facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal
distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the
appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural
misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider
raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some black, Jewish and
Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting
conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with
greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American
ethnic or non-white racial groups.

2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict

Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as

something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but
people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact,
face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work
through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open
conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are
best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to
address the conflict.

3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks

 From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward
completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different
judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of
time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work
should go together.

When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with

respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the
collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more
value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more
emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-
Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand,
and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that
people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed
to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they
may pursue them differently.

4. Different Decision-Making Styles

The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to

culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is,
an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In
many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value
placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are
made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in
Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations
about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural
frame of reference.

5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure

In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the

reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information.
Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with
others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ
in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to
you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What
was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation
among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider
before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views,
experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
 6. Different Approaches to Knowing

Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to

epistemologies -- that is, the ways people come to know things. European
cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, such
as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know
things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of
knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures'
epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through
striving toward transcendence.3

Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more
attention to previously overlooked ways of knowing.4 Indeed, these different
approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or
finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library
research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions.
Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced challenges
like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.

Respecting Our Differences and Working Together

In addition to helping us to understand ourselves and our own cultural frames of
reference, knowledge of these six patterns of cultural difference can help us to
understand the people who are different from us. An appreciation of patterns of
cultural difference can assist us in processing what it means to be different in ways
that are respectful of others, not faultfinding or damaging.

Anthropologists Avruch and Black have noted that, when faced by an interaction that
we do not understand, people tend to interpret the others involved as "abnormal,"
"weird," or "wrong." 5 This tendency, if indulged, gives rise on the individual level to
prejudice. If this propensity is either consciously or unconsciously integrated into
organizational structures, then prejudice takes root in our institutions -- in the
structures, laws, policies, and procedures that shape our lives. Consequently, it is vital
that we learn to control the human tendency to translate "different from me" into "less
than me." We can learn to do this.

We can also learn to collaborate across cultural lines as individuals and as a society.
Awareness of cultural differences doesn't have to divide us from each other. It doesn't
have to paralyze us either, for fear of not saying the "right thing." In fact, becoming
more aware of our cultural differences, as well as exploring our similarities, can help
us communicate with each other more effectively. Recognizing where cultural
differences are at work is the first step toward understanding and respecting each
other.

Learning about different ways that people communicate can enrich our lives. People's
different communication styles reflect deeper philosophies and world views which are
the foundation of their culture. Understanding these deeper philosophies gives us a
broader picture of what the world has to offer us.

Learning about people's cultures has the potential to give us a mirror image of our
own. We have the opportunity to challenge our assumptions about the "right" way of
doing things, and consider a variety of approaches. We have a chance to learn new
ways to solve problems that we had previously given up on, accepting the difficulties
as "just the way things are."

Lastly, if we are open to learning about people from other cultures, we become less
lonely. Prejudice and stereotypes separate us from whole groups of people who could
be friends and partners in working for change. Many of us long for real contact.
Talking with people different from ourselves gives us hope and energizes us to take
on the challenge of improving our communities and worlds.

Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration

Cultural questions -- about who we are and how we identify ourselves -- are at the
heart of Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity, and will be at the heart
of your discussions. As you set to work on multicultural collaboration in your
community, keep in mind these additional guidelines:

 Learn from generalizations about other cultures, but don't use those
generalizations to stereotype, "write off," or oversimplify your ideas about
another person. The best use of a generalization is to add it to your storehouse
of knowledge so that you better understand and appreciate other interesting,
multi-faceted human beings.
 Practice, practice, practice. That's the first rule, because it's in the doing that we
actually get better at cross-cultural communication.
 Don't assume that there is one right way (yours!) to communicate. Keep
questioning your assumptions about the "right way" to communicate. For
example, think about your body language; postures that indicate receptivity in
one culture might indicate aggressiveness in another.
  Don't assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people
are on the wrong track. Search for ways to make the communication work,
rather than searching for who should receive the blame for the breakdown.
 Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other person's
shoes. Especially when another person's perceptions or ideas are very different
from your own, you might need to operate at the edge of your own comfort
zone.
 Respect others' choices about whether to engage in communication with you.
Honor their opinions about what is going on.
 Stop, suspend judgment, and try to look at the situation as an outsider.
 Be prepared for a discussion of the past. Use this as an opportunity to develop
an understanding from "the other's" point of view, rather than getting defensive
or impatient. Acknowledge historical events that have taken place. Be open to
learning more about them. Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and
oppression that have taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for
effective communication.
 Awareness of current power imbalances -- and an openness to hearing each
other's perceptions of those imbalances -- is also necessary for understanding
each other and working together.
 Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular
individual. We are all shaped by many, many factors -- our ethnic background,
our family, our education, our personalities -- and are more complicated than
any cultural norm could suggest. Check your interpretations if you are
uncertain what is meant.

FOOTNOTES

1. Avruch, Kevin and Peter Black, "Conflict Resolution in Intercultural Settings:

Problems and Prospects," in Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice:
Integration and Application, edited by Dennis Sandole and Hugo van der
Merwe. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993. (Return to referenced text)
2. This list and some of the explanatory text is drawn from DuPraw and Warfield
(1991), an informally published workshop manual co-authored by one of the
authors of this piece. (Return to referenced text)
 3. Nichols, Edwin J., a presentation made to the World Psychiatric Association
and Association of Psychiatrists in Nigeria, November 10, 1976. (Return
to referenced text)
4. For example, for research on women's approaches to knowledge, see
o Lorraine Code, What Can She Know?: Feminist Theory and the
Construction of Knowledge. Ithaca: Cornell, 1991
o M.F. Belenky, N.R. Goldberger, & J. M. Tarule, Women's Ways of
Knowing: The Development of the Self, Voice and Mind. New York:
Basic Books, 1986
o Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and
Women's Development. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA,
1982.

(Return to referenced text)

5. Avruch and Black, 1993. (Return to referenced text)

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Marcelle E. DuPraw is Program Director at the National Institute for Dispute

Resolution in Washington, DC. (See Resources for information about NIDR)

Marya Axner is a consultant in leadership development, cross-cultural

communication, and gender equity. She can be reached at (617) 776-7411.